Ethnobiological survey of traditional medicine practice ...

Topclass Journal of Herbal Medicine Vol. 2(6) pp. 111-120, 26 June, 2013 Available online at http://www.topclassglobaljournals.org ISSN 2315-8840 ©2013 Topclass Global Journals

Submitted 7/06/13

Accepted 19/06/13

Full Length Research Article

Ethnobiological survey of traditional medicine practice for Circulatory and nervous system related diseases in Oyo State, Nigeria *Borokini T.I, Clement M, Dickson N.J and Edagbo D.E Plant Genetic Resources Unit, National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (NACGRAB), Ibadan, Nigeria. ******************************************************************************************************************************* ABSTRACT A comprehensive survey of traditional medicinal practices was carried out between November 2008 and January 2012 in 16 different locations across Oyo State, with the aim of documenting the traditional medicinal practices. This article focuses on the traditional medicinal practices used for the treatment of human circulatory and nervous diseases. Semi-structured questionnaires and open-ended informal interviews were administered during series of repeated visits to a total of 31 respondents. A total of 43 traditional medicinal practices were described for the treatment of illnesses related to the human circulatory system; which include treatments for heart problems, hypertension, high blood pressure, anaemia, viral infection, sickle cell aneamia, blood infections as well as traditional preparations used as immune booster and blood tonic. However, 19 traditional medicinal practices were described for nervous system related illnesses in this study. The nervous illnesses documented in this study include stroke, paralysis, insomnia, nervous/mental disorders, psychosis and epilepsy. In addition, a total of 65 plants, 7 animals and 14 other ingredients were described as being used in the preparations of traditional remedies for the treatment of various diseases related to the human circulatory and nervous systems in Oyo State. The 65 plants spread across 41 plant families, with Rutaceae having the highest number (6) of species representatives, followed by Liliaceae (5) and Mimosaceae (4). Furthermore, Rauvolfia vomitoria is the most frequently used plant for the treatment of nervous infections, while Allium cepa, Allium sativum and Citrus aurantifolia were frequently used for blood (circulatory) related infections in Oyo State. It is expected that the documentation of medicinal plant knowledge will further promote bioprospecting and pharmacological research. Key words: Circulatory system, nervous infections, Ethnobiological survey, traditional medicinal practices, Oyo state, Nigeria. *******************************************************************************************************************************

INTRODUCTION Ethnobiology is the scientific and humanistic study of the complex set of relationships of the biota to present and past human societies (Stepp, 2005). Furthermore, Njoroge (2010) defined Ethnobiology as a branch of study that deals with

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Borokini et al, 2013b.....Topcls. J. Herb. Med. 2(6) p.112

documentation of traditional/indigenous uses of plants and animals as well as their associated preparations methods. Ethnobiology can be further parsed into two subdisciplines: ethnobotany and ethnozoology. Given the greater importance of plants than animals for most human societies, ethnobotanical studies form the vast majority of research within ethnobiology (Stepp, 2005). Ethnomedicine, on the other hand, refers to the study of traditional medicine practice which is concerned with the cultural interpretation of health, diseases and illness and also addresses the health-seeking process and healing practices. The practice of ethnomedicine is a complex multi-disciplinary system, comprising the use of plants, spirituality and the natural environment and has been the source of healing for people for millennia (Williams, 2006). A plant that possesses therapeutic properties or exerts beneficial pharmacological effects on the human or animal body is generally designated as a “medicinal plant”. It has also been recognized that these plants naturally synthesize and accumulate some secondary metabolites, like alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, minerals and vitamins, possess medicinal properties (Ahmad et al., 2009; 2010). A number of medicinal plants possess some special characteristics that make them special in those mountainous regions of the Himalayas and adjacent ranges (Khan et al., 2011). Medicinal plants constitute an important natural wealth of that region and ultimately at national level. They play a significant role in providing primary health care services to rural people (Shinwari and Gilani, 2003). They serve as healing agents as well as important raw materials for the manufacturing of traditional and modern medicine (Singh and Lal, 2008). Similarly a substantial amount of foreign exchange can be earned through exporting medicinal plants to other countries. In this way indigenous medicinal plants play significant role in the economy of a country. The knowledge of ethnobiology is orally passed from generation to generation, hence with continuous disruption of cultural set-ups and younger people showing disinterest in learning local languages, traditional knowledge is on the verge of disappearance. The importance of this body of knowledge is best explained by the African proverb, “When a knowledgeable old person dies, a whole library disappears” (Lalonde, 1993). The natural resources themselves for example, medicinal plants, which may contribute greatly to trade in natural products in this century, are at risk due to habitat destruction and unsustainable rates of exploitation among other factors (World Bank, 1992). Failure to recognize and understand the use of indigenous knowledge has contributed to environmental degradation, loss of biodiversity, innovation and inventions in most African countries (Almquist et al., 1993). The indigenous traditional knowledge of medicinal plants of various ethnic communities, where it has been

transmitted orally for centuries is fast disappearing from the face of the earth due to the advent of modern technology and transformation of traditional culture. The collection of information about natural flora, classification, management and use of plants by the people holds importance among the ethno botanists. The local people and researchers face the challenging task of not only documenting knowledge on plants, but also applying the results of their studies to biodiversity conservation and community development (Ford, 1978). Therefore, this study was conducted to compile the traditional medicine practices used in Oyo State, Nigeria. The focus of this paper was to document the traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of diseases related to the nervous and circulatory systems of the human body. METHODOLOGY Study Area Oyo state was established in 1976 from the defunct Western Region, with the total estimated population of 6,617,720 people (National Bureau of Statistics, 2007) mainly Yoruba people. The land area is 28,454km 2, ranking 14th in the country. The landscape consists of old hard rocks and dome shaped hills, which rise gently from about 500 meters in the southern part and reaching a height of about 1,219 metre above sea level in the northern part. The indigenes are mainly Oyo, Ibadan, Oke-Ogun and Ibarapa peoples, and notable cities include Ibadan (the State capital), Oyo, Ogbomosho, Saki, Okeho, Iseyin, Kishi, Eruwa and many others. The state is divided into thirty-three Local Government areas. Greater parts of the state fall within Guinea savanna, while Ibadan is classified as a derived savannah. The southern fringes of the state are still being dominated by tracts of rainforests. Oyo state is located in Southwest region of Nigeria (Figures 1 and 2) between latitude 8˚00 N and longitude 4˚00 E. The main indigenous occupation of the people is farming, while arts and crafts are popular in Oyo town. The areas visited during this study include Saki (Saki West LGA), Sepeteri (Saki East LGA), Apata (Ido LGA), Oyo (Atiba LGA), Ikoyi (Orire LGA), Ayetoro (Kajola LGA), Karimu village, Abule Tapa (Iwajowa LGA), IdiAyunre, Buso-gboro (Oluyole), Iseyin (Iseyin LGA), Fiditi (Afijio LGA), Ebedi and Modeke (Oorelope LGA), Ayepe (Oriire LGA), Bode (Ibadan South East LGA) and Idere (Ibarapa Central LGA). Ethnobiological Survey The main data sources consisted of a series of semistructured and open-ended questionnaires as well as informal interviews administered on local herb sellers,


Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing Oyo State

Figure 2. Map of Oyo State, Nigeria

hunters, herbalists and other groups of people rich in traditional medicine knowledge. The administration of questionnaires and informal interviews were done for three years, between November 2008 and January 2012. This involved repeated visits to the selected respondents in the areas visited. The questionnaire administration and

interviews were done in their native language (Yoruba language), while the information gathered was sorted, the local names of plants mentioned were interpreted to their respective biological names using the publication by Gbile and Soladoye (2002) and other relevant previously published research papers.


Table 1: Demographic data of the respondents on the traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of diseases affecting human nervous and circulatory systems in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N 1

2

3

4

Demographic information Gender Male Female Age category (years) Below 30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Above 70 Highest level of education No formal Primary Secondary Diploma Degree Main Occupation Hunter Civil servant/retired Herb seller Herb collector Herbalist/Priest/Priestess

RESULTS The result is a compendium of traditional medicine practice in Oyo state compiled over a period of three years, with focus on diseases affecting the circulatory and nervous systems of the human body. Respondents’ identity Table 1 indicated that a total of 31 people were interviewed for traditional medicine practice in Oyo state, 13 of which were males while the remaining 18 were females. All the herb sellers interviewed were women and in addition, majority (21) of the respondents was within the age range of 40 and 50 (Table 1). The occupations of the respondents include a Government civil service retiree, 16 herb sellers, 10 herbalists, 2 herb collectors and a hunter (Table 1). Only 1 of the respondents was a University graduate, majority (18) were illiterates, while the rest were primary school leavers or drop-outs and secondary school leavers (Table 1). Furthermore all, except the retired civil servant, claimed that they inherited their vocation from their parents, and possibly their ethnomedicinal knowledge as well. It should be noted

Frequency (n=31)

Percentage

13 18

41.9 58.1

0 0 21 5 2 3

0 0 67.7 16.1 6.5 9.7

18 10 2 0 1 1 2 16 2 10

58.1 32.3 6.4 0 3.2 3.2 6.4 51.6 6.4 32.3

that all the respondents were Yoruba speaking people of Oyo state. Ethnobiological survey A total of 43 traditional medicinal practices were described for the treatment of illnesses related to the human circulatory system, while 19 traditional medicinal practices were described for nervous system related illnesses in this study (Table 2). The circulatory system illnesses include heart problems, hypertension, high blood pressure, anaemia, viral infection, sickle cell aneamia, blood infections, as well as traditional preparations used as immune booster and blood tonic (Table 2). The nervous illnesses documented in this study include stroke, paralysis, insomnia, nervous/mental disorders, psychosis and epilepsy (Table 2). In addition, a total of 65 plants (Table 3), 7 animals (Table 4) and 14 other ingredients (Table 5) were described as being used in the preparations of traditional remedies for the treatment of various diseases related to the human circulatory and nervous systems in Oyo State. The 65 plants spread across 41 plant families, with Rutaceae having the highest number (6) of species


Table 2. Ethnobiological survey of Circulatory and nervous systems related diseases in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N

Disease

1

Heart problem

2

Hypertension and high blood pressure

3

Blood tonic

4

Anaemia

5

Immune booster

Plants, parts used, preparation and dosage Grind same quantity of Allium sativum rhizomes and Allium cepa bulbs and mix with one litre of honey. Take one spoon three times daily to treat heart problems Slice Allium sativum rhizomes inside a bottle of pure honey and soak it for three days. Take one spoon morning and night after meal to treat heart problems Eat Allium sativum rhizomes raw or grinded and mixed with water and drink to treat heart problems Eat Allium cepa bulb raw to treat heart problem Boil Icacina trichantha leaves and squeeze in cold water. Take a cupful once every morning before breakfast to treat heart problems Boil fresh Persea americana leaves with water for twenty minutes, drink a glass cup every morning and eat plenty of Citrullus lanatus to manage high blood pressure and hypertension Boil Canna indica leaves and Psidium guajava leaves together with water. Take a glass cup three times daily. Squeeze and drink Ficus exasperata leaves to treat hypertension and high blood pressure Squeeze and drink Tridax procumbens leaves to treat hypertension and high blood pressure Collect many seeds of Persia americana, dry in the sun, grind to powdery form and take it with pap. Take it with pap, one spoonful daily for two weeks without sugar and milk to treat hypertension Collect and air-dry Viscum album growing on Cola nitida tree, pulverize into powdery form. Put a spoonful in hot water and drink to treat high blood pressure and hypertension Crush Carica papaya leaves and add little water and native chalk and leave for twenty-four hours and take the extract to treat hypertension. Vernonia amygdalina leaf prepared as soup or leaf juice taken in the morning and evening to treat hypertension Collect and grind ten Allium cepa bulbs and Allium sativum rhizomes each and mix with three litres of honey. Take three tablespoons full three times daily to manage high blood pressure Squeeze Parquetina nigrescens leaves and add two spoons of honey. Take once a day as blood tonic Boil Theobroma cacao pod chaff with little potash for twenty minutes. Take one glass cup three times daily as blood booster Squeeze Alchornia laxiflora leaves with a bottle of malt drink or milk and drink twice a week as blood tonic Soak Psidium guajava leaves in salt water for one hour, rinse and squeeze it with fresh water. Take a glass cup twice daily for one week to increase blood level. Squeeze Telfairia occidentale leaf and mix the extract with one tin of milk is taken all at once as blood tonic. Prepare one cup of Ananas comosus fruit juice, add mashed five Musa nana fruits, one raw domestic fowl egg and mix well, then add half cup of honey and mix thoroughly. Take three spoons of the mixture every night as blood tonic. Collect and squeeze plenty leaves of Cucurbita maxima and Solanum aethiopicum, take a glass cup of the juice twice daily for seven days to build the blood. Collect Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds, Solanum aethiopicum leaves (or unripe peeled and sliced Carica papaya fruit with seeds removed), and cook them together till the cooked materials are soft. Eat it for at least five days to build the blood. Squeeze Parquetina nigrescens leaf, add a tin of concentrated milk and drink all at once to treat anaemia Boil Ficus capensis leaves and drink to treat anaemia Eat Musa nana fruit to treat anaemia Grind fifty pieces of Allium sativum rhizomes and soak it with a bottle of Citrus aurantifolia fruit juice for a day. Take one spoon three times daily after meal to boost the immune system Collect and mix the fruit juices of three Citrus aurantifolia, two Citrus paradisi, three Citrus sinensis and six Citrus tangerina and add half a litre of water and drink as natural antibiotics.


Table 2. Contd.

6

Viral infections

7

Sickle cell anaemia

8

Blood infection

9

Stroke/paralysis

10

Insomnia

11

Nervous mental psychosis

disorder/ disorder/

Sphenocentrum jollyanum fruits, Khaya grandifoliola stem, Xylopia aethiopica fruits, Plumbago zeylanica roots, Mondia whiteii roots, Tetrapleura tetraptera stem, Aframomum melegueta seeds and potash are all grinded and dried. A spoonful of the powdery extract is taken with hot pap by adults, half table spoon for children to treat viral infections Grind bark of Securidaca longepedunculata and Mondia whiteii, root bark of Uvaria afzelii, Allium ascalonicum bulb, potash and Parkia biglobosa seeds, dry and sieve. A spoonful is taken with hot pap to treat viral infections Pound Garcinia kola fruits, Aframomum melegueta seeds, Allium cepa bulb, Parkia biglobosa seeds, Piper guineense fruits and Mondia whiteii root bark till very smooth, sun-dry for seven days and store in a bottle. A spoonful is taken with hot pap to treat viral infections Peel the root bark of Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, wash very well and boil for fifteen minutes. Give a glass cup to the patient four times daily to treat sickle cell anaemia Soak Garcinia kola root in water for a day and drink a glass cup full to treat sickle cell anaemia Grind Cajanus cajan seeds and mix with pap to be taken once daily to treat sickle cell anaemia Cut Citrus aurantifolia fruit into half, likewise cut Citrus sinensis fruit into half, squeeze a half portion of each of the fruits in a container, add egg yolk and mix together, then add honey and mix. Administer the mixture to the child in three tablespoons twice daily to treat sickle cell anaemia Get 160 ml of Citrus limon fruit juice, unripe Ananas comosus fruit juice and Citrus aurantifolia fruit juice mixed together. Take three spoons three times daily after meal to cleanse the blood Blend Xylopia quintasii seed, Tetrapleura tetraptera fruit, Allium ascalonicum bulb and a piece of alum and boil it with Citrus aurantifolia fruit juice for thirty minutes. Take a glass cup three times daily after meal to purify the blood Squeeze or boil and drink Urtica dioica leaves to cleanse the blood of all infections Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf juice removes toxin from the body when bathing with it Get many Tetrapleura tetraptera fruits, pound in mortar and pestle, mix with water, sieve and pour in a bottle. Take two small cups morning and night to purify the blood and clear all blood infections Get many Persea americana seeds, dry and grind and mix with honey. Adult take two table spoon full morning and night to treat „black‟ blood Collect Blighia sapida flowers, Boerhavia diffusa leaves, Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves are all mixed with native soap. Bathe with it to treat „black‟ blood Mix water from a snail with black local soap and use it to wash the legs to treat stroke Leaves of Hyptis suaveolens, Allium ascalonicum and Symphonia globulifera are all pounded with Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxum) and black local soap, used to wash the legs before going to bed to treat stroke Boil honey with plenty Allium sativum rhizomes for thirty minutes and store. Take half cup dose twice daily after meal to treat paralysis. Dry and grind Viscum album into powder. Make herbal tea from it, adding half a tablespoon of quantity to boiling water and drink a tea cup full three times daily to treat stroke Mix same quantity of honey with Aloe vera gel. Take three spoons at night to treat insomnia Squeeze and drink Rauvolfia vomitoria leaf juice for insomnia Mix Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf juice with honey and drink to treat nervous disorder Drink a cup of Rauvolfia vomitoria leaf juice extract for insanity and in the evening to induce sleep Boil and drink Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf to treat mental disorder and restlessness A concoction is made with leaves, stem and root of Alternanthera sessilis, leaves and whole plant of Dracaena arborea, leaves, bark and root of Costus afer, leaves and root of Picralima nitida, seeds, bark and root of Dialium guineensis, seeds of Acacia nilotica, leaves, roots and stem of Celosia trigyna, leaves of Asparagus africanus, leaves and stem of Allium cepa, leaves and roots of Cassytha filiformis. The concoction is drunk in the morning and at night or can be taken in powdery form with pap once daily to treat psychotic ailments Cut two hundred and one leaves of Allium sativum, Piper guineense and Uraria picta into pieces and dry them, then the powdered form including the hair of the patient is mixed with the blood of cock and native soap, and using new sponge, the preparation is used in bathing in a flowing river for seven days to treat psychotic patient Cut the bark, stem and seed of Garcinia kola into pieces and mixed with the blood of cat, dog and duck, little of the mixture is taken and the rest used in washing the head of a psychotic patient everyday till the patient gets better


Table 2. Contd.

12

Epilepsy

The person should eat Musa nana (omimi) early every morning and use his fresh salty early morning urine as water to treat epilepsy Fry Allium sativum rhizome with butter and eat first thing in the morning to treat epilepsy Get intestines of a big frog, stew and prepare soup and eat to treat epilepsy Boil and drink Jatropha curcas leaf. Adult to take a full cup twice daily, children to take half a cup twice daily to treat epilepsy Chew Allium sativum rhizomes to treat epilepsy Fruit juice from twelve fruits of Bixa orellana taken twice daily for five days to treat epilepsy Jatropha curcas root decoction is taken orally twice daily to treat epilepsy

representatives, followed by Liliaceae (5) and Mimosaceae (4). From Table 2, it could be observed that Rauvolfia vomitoria is the most frequently used plant for the treatment of nervous infections, while A. cepa, A. sativum and C. aurantifolia were frequently used for blood (circulatory) related infections in Oyo State. Furthermore, the plant parts used varied considerably from rhizomes, leaves, fruits, bulbs, seeds, pod chaff, tree bark to roots. The most frequently used plant part in this study was the leaf, followed by the fruit juice and bark; while honey and salt was most frequently used non-plant ingredient used in these herbal preparations (Table 2). It is interesting to note that animals were also used in this study, as well as remains (urine) of the patient (Table 2). The mode of administration of the herbal treatments varied greatly, ranging from oral administration (drinking, licking, chewing and eating), topical application, inhalation, bathing, insertion, rinsing and washing, applied in drops (ear), incision and rubbing among others (Table 2). Similarly, the method of preparation varied widely, which include infusion, decoction, maceration, squeezing, burning/charring, mixing with oil, boiling (in water), soaking, mixing with native soap, grinding/pounding, preparation as food or pepper soup, drying and pulverization into powder and many other variant methods (Table 2). However oral administration and squeezing the plant parts appear to be the most widely used method for herbal medicine administration preparations (Table 2). DISCUSSION Nervous disorders, for example, insanity, is very common in Southwest Nigeria, with many lunatics roaming across the streets, with little or no medical attention. Likewise, insomnia, hypertension, high blood pressure and stroke are some of the common ailments that plague the older people in the society. Hypertension for example, has been described as a silent killer and the most prevalent cardiovascular disease in the world, affecting between 10-15% of the adult African population (Kadiri et al.,

1999). Also, WHO (2011) noted that the African region has the highest prevalence of hypertension estimated at 46% of adults aged 25 and above. Therefore, this paper is expected to increase the public awareness to the use of traditional remedies for the treatment of such diseases at relatively reduced costs or no costs in some cases, and at the same time, document these herbal remedies for future generations. Of all the 65 plants used in this survey A. sativum has the highest number of usage, especially in the treatment of hypertension, heart problems and stroke. Previous literatures indicate that A. sativum helps to lower hypertension, serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels (Jain et al., 1993; Stevinson et al., 2000; Banerjee and Maulik, 2002). In addition, the use of Cajanus cajan in the treatment of viral infections has been reported by Nwodo et al., (2011) among several other authors; likewise the use of Rauvolfia vomitoria in the treatment of insanity because of its therapeutic properties to induce sleep has been reported in series of other ethnomedicinal surveys (Elisabetsky and Costa-Campos, 2006; Harish et al.., 2010). Moreso, the use of Garcinia kola and Zanthoxyllum zanthoxyloides for the treatment of sickle cell anaemia has been reported by Elekwa et al. (2003, 2005). The use of Telfaria occidentalis and Parquetina nigrescens as blood tonic and to treat anaemia has gained wide acceptance and popularity among Nigerians, with increasing sales and use of T. occidentalis as household vegetable for soup and for blood tonic. The diffusion of this medicinal knowledge among the people could be due to the recent revival of medicinal plants in Nigeria, and this presents some hope for the preservation of the traditional medicinal knowledge from generation to generation. And indeed research has proved that T. occidentalis possesses haematological effects (Okoli and Mgbeogu, 1983; Alada, 2000; Okochi et al., 2003; Dina et al., 2006; Kayode and Kayode, 2010). In conclusion, this study has demonstrated the therapeutic properties of plants that can be used for the treatment of various diseases which can be prepared and used directly. Furthermore, the study has shown the importance of preserving indigenous knowledge, cultural


Table 3. List of plants used for the treatment of infections related to nervous and circulatory system in Oyo State, Nigeria

yh 1 2 3

Plant Name Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Wild ex. Del. Aframomum melegueta (Rosc.) K. Schum. Alchornea laxiflora (Benth.) Pax & K. Hoffm

Family

Local /Common name

Part used

Mimosaceae

Booni, Acacia

Seed

Zingiberaceae

Atare, alligator pepper

Fruit

Euphorbiaceae

Ijan, pepe, three-veined bead string

Leaf

4

Allium ascalonicum L. Backer

Liliaceae

5 6 7

Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliaceae Amaranthaceae

Dagunro, sessile joyweed

Leaf

Bromeliaceae Liliaceae Bixaceae Sapindaceae Nyctinaginaceae

Ope-oyinbo, pineapple Aluki, Asparagus Osunbuke, aje, Arnatto Isin, Akee apple Etiponla, hogweed

Fruit Leaf Seed, bark, leaf Flower Leaf

Crassulaceae

Abamoda, resurrection plant

Leaf juice

15 16

Allium cepa L. Allium sativum L. Aloe vera Linn. Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R.Br.ex DC Ananas comosus (Linn.) Merrill. Asparagus africanus Lam. Bixa orellana Linn. Blighia sapida Konig. Boerhavia diffusa L. Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Canna indica Linn.

Alubosa elewe, Leafed onion, Shallot, wild onion Alubosa, onions Ayuu, garlic Eti-erin, Aloe vera

Papilionaceae Cannaceae

Otili, pigeonpea Ido, Indian shot

17

Carica papaya Linn.

Caricaceae

Ibepe, pawpaw

18 19

Cassytha filiformis L. Celosia trigyna C.C Townsend

Lauraceae Amaranthaceae

20

Chenopodium ambrosioides L.

Chenopodiaceae

Omoniginigini, Devil‟s gut Ajefawo, Celosia Ewe imi, arunpale, wormseed, Mexican tea

Leaf, root, seed Leaf Seed, sap, leaf, leaf extract, fruit Root Leaf

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f Citrus paradisi Macfad Citrus tangerina Tanaka Citrus sinensis Costus afer Ker Gawl Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Dialium guineensis Willd. Dracaena arborea (Willd.) Link Ficus capensis Thunb. Ficus exasperata Vahl.

33

Garcinia kola Heckel

Guttiferae

Orogbo, Bitter kola

34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit Icacina trichantha Oliv. Jatropha curcas L. Khaya grandifoliola C. DC. Mondia whitei L. Musa nana J. de Loureiro Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br.

Labiatae Icacinaceae Euphorbiaceae Meliaceae Periplocaceae Musaceae Mimosaceae

Jogbo, pignut Gbegbe, false yam Lapalapa funfun, physic nut Oganwo, large-leaf mahogany Isirigun, Mondia Ogede wewe, omimi, banana Irugba, locust beans

21 22

Bulb Bulb Rhizome Leaf, leaf gel

Leaf

Cucurbitaceae

Bara, water melon

Fruit

Rutaceae

Osan wewe, Lime fruit

Fruit, leaf

Rutaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Zingiberaceae Cucurbitaceae Caesalpiniaceae Dracaenaceae Moraceae Moraceae

Lemon Grape Tangerine Osan, sweet orange Ireke-omode, Twisted ginger Elegede, pumpkin Awin, black tamarind Ope kannakanna, Tree dracaena Opoto, Fig tree Ewe-ipin, sandpaper tree

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Root, bark, stem, rhizome Leaf, root Root Whole plant Leaf Leaf Root, bark, stem bark, root bark, seeds Leaf Leaf Leaf, seed, root Bark Bark, root, leaf Fruit, sap Fruit/seed


Table 3. Contd.

41 42 43 44 45 46

Parquetina nigrescens (Afzel.) Bullock Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. Persea americana Mill Picralima nitida (Stapf.) Th. & H. Dur. Piper guineense Schum & Thonn. Plumbago zeylanica L.

Asclepiadaceae Mimosaceae Lauraceae Apocynaceae Piperaceae Plumbaginaceae

Ogbo, African Parquetina Apara, African oil bean Pia, Avocado pear Abere, Picralima Iyere, black pepper Nabiri, Inabiri, Ceylon leadwort

47

Psidium guajava L.

Myrtaceae

Gurofa, Guava

48

Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.

Apocynaceae

49 50 51 52 53

Securidaca longepedunculata Fres. Solanum aethiopicum L. Sphenocentrum jollyanum Pierre Symphonia globulifera L. f. Telfairia occidentalis Hook.f. Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schum & Thonn) Taub Theobroma cacao Linn. Tridax procumbens Linn. Urtica dioica L. Uvaria afzelii Sc. Elliot Vernonia amygdalina Del. Viscum album L. Vitellaria paradoxa (Gaertn. f.) Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich Xylopia quintasii Pierre ex Engl. & Diels Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides L. Sarg. Uraria picta (Jacquin) Desvaux ex Candolle

Polygalaceae Solanaceae Menispermaceae Clusiaceae Cucurbitaceae

Asofeyeje,olora igbo, ira igbo, serpentwood Ipeta, Violet tree Efo gbagba, African egg plant Akerejupon Ogolo, Agbengbedi, hog gum Aworoko, Fluted pumpkin

Mimosaceae

Aidan

Bark, fruit

Sterculiaceae Asteraceae Urticaceae Annonaceae Asteraceae Loranthaceae Sapotaceae Annonaceae Annonaceae Rutaceae Papilionaceae

Koko, Cocoa Igbalode, Tridax daisy Fuya fuya, stinging nettle Gbogbonise, cluster pear Ewuro, bitter leaf Afomo, mistletoe Elemi, Shea butter tree Eru, Ethiopian pepper Eru awonka Ata-ile, Fagara Alupayida

Pod chaff Leaf Leaf Root, root bark Leaf Whole plant Shea butter, fruit Seed, fruit, bark Fruits, seed, leaf Root, root bark Leaf

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Table 4. List of animals used for the treatment of infections related to nervous and circulatory system in Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Biological name Canis lupus Rana temporaria Felis cattus Anas platyrhynchos Archatina archatina Gallus sp Gallus sp.

Local/common name Aja, Dog Konko, Frog Ologbo, cat Pepeye, Duck/white duck Snail Akuko, cock Adiye, domestic fowl (hen)

Part used Bones, intestines Intestines Blood Gizzard, blood, intestines Whole body, fluid Intestine, blood Eggs

Table 5. List of other ingredients (non-plants materials) used for the treatment of infections related to nervous and circulatory system in Oyo State, Nigeria

Honey Salt Malt drink Potash Early morning urine of patient Black local soap Special kind of shea butter (ori amo)

Native chalk Tin milk Alum Prepared pap Native soap Sulphur (imi ojo) Cobweb from local kitchen

Leaf Seed Leaf, seed Seed, root, bark Fruit, bark Root Stem, leaf, flower Leaf, bark, root Bark, root Leaf Fruit, root Leaf Leaf


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