Evaluation of Forest and Fruit Trees Used for

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Evaluation of Forest and Fruit Trees Used for Rehabilitation of Semiarid Alkali-Sodic Soils in India J. C. Dagar, G. Singh & N. T. Singh Available online: 30 Nov 2010

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Evaluation of Forest and Fruit Trees Used for Rehabilitation of Semiarid Alkali-Sodic Soils in India J. C. DAGAR G. SINGH N. T. SINGH Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal, India In India about 3.58 million ha are alkali soils. These soils are characterized by high pH, low organic carbon contents, excessive exchangeable sodium, low fertility, low in® ltration rate, and the presence of indurated CaCO 3 in the pro® le. These properties make the soils unsuitable for most vegetation. T o ® nd suitable forest and fruit tree species for these areas, long-term experiments were conducted on highly alkali soil ( pH >10). T hirty forest tree species, 15 strains of Prosopis, and 10 fruit tree species were planted at the Saraswati Range Forest site in the semiarid region of Haryana in India. T o identify suitable and cheap technology for forest tree establishment two methods of planting were used: (1) deep augers piercing the kankar pan, and (2) shallow augers not piercing the kankar pan. After seven years of planting, only 13 out of 30 species survived, and of the surviving species only Prosopis juli¯ ora, Tamarix articulata, and Acacia nilotica were found suitable for such soils. Eucalyptus tereticornis showed good survival and height but no meaningful biomass production was observed. Dalbergia sissoo, Pithecellobium dulce, Terminalia arjuna, Kigelia pinnata, Parkinsonia aculeata, and Cordia rothii showed higher than 70% survival but could not attain economically suitable biomass. Out of 15 strains of Prosopis after six years of growth P. juli¯ ora was the superior species in terms of growth and biomass production. Among the fruit tree species two methods of planting (i.e., auger hole and pit methods) were tested using 5 and 10 kg of gypsum in each auger hole and 10 and 20 kg of gypsum in each pit as soil amendments. After seven years Ziziphus mauritiana, Syzygium cuminii, Psidium guajava, Emblica o cinalis, and Carissa caranandus were the successful species for these soils showing good growth and also initiated fruit setting. At the establishment stage there was no signi® cant di erence in growth up to two years between the two methods, but later the growth was better in pits. T he establishment cost for pits was almost double that of the auger holes. T hese studies have helped in selection of most suitable forest and fruit tree species for rehabilitation of these di cult soils. Keywords auger hole, bioamelioration, biomass, forest site preparation, gypsum, kankar pan, soil amendments, water stagnation

Salt-a ected soils of India are broadly grouped as either saline or alkaline soils (Abrol and Bhumbla, 1978). The worldwide extent of saline and alkaline soils is reported to be 954.83 million ha (Szabolcs, 1989). In India the distribution of the salt-a ected soils is reported to be 9.08 million ha of which 3.58 million ha are alkali Received 18 July 2000; accepted 3 October 2000. Address correspondence to Dr. J. C. Dagar, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Zarifa Farm, Kachhwa Road, Karnal-132 001, India. E-mail: [email protected]

115


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J. C. Dagar et al.

soils (Indian Agriculture in Brief, 1994). The alkali soils contain excessive salts capable of producing alkaline hydrolysis products such as Na2 CO3 , NaHCO3 , and Na2 SiO3 and su cient exchangeable Na‡ to impart poor physical conditions to soils and thus adversely a ect the growth of most plants. These soils have high pH (saturation paste > 8:2 and often approaching 11), exchangeable sodium percentage …ESP† > 15, and varying electolytic conductivity (EC). The presence of CaCO3 concretions in 0.3± 0.7 m thick layers, known as kankar pan, at about 1 m depth causes physical impedance for root proliferation, therefore making it di cult for tree establishment. Sometimes many of these layers are present in the soil pro® le. Most of the alkali or sodic lands do not support a full vegetation cover, with the exception of some restricted natural ¯ ora comprising only a few highly salt-tolerant bushes such as Prosopis juli¯ ora (Sw.) DC, Salvadora perisca L., S. oleoides, Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd., Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew., C. sepiaria L., Ziziphus nummularia AubreÂv., Clerodendrum phlomidis L., and Maytenus emerginatus. Among herbaceous species Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf , Sporobolus marginatus Hochst., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Chloris virgata Sw., T rianthema triquetra Willd., Suaeda fruticosa Forssk., and Kochia indica Wight are prominent species, particularly during rainy season. During the last three decades, a sizeable area with sodic soils in the IndoGangetic plains has been reclaimed by applying gypsum and is now supporting successful crops of rice and wheat. This was possible because gypsum was available locally at 75% subsidized price. With the reduction of subsidy the pace of reclamation has slowed considerably. Moreover, a large proportion of the sodic lands does not belong to individual farmers, but is either government owned or is in the custody of the village Panchayats as community land. At times these lands are leased to farmers by the Panchayats for a short period. Hence the farmers will not apply costly amendments for reclamation. Therefore, due to the problem of common property rights, the reclamation of such lands for crop production by applying gypsum usually is not feasible. Raising suitable trees (both forest and fruit species) would appear to be a promising use of these soils. A special site preparation technique called the auger hole technique has been developed at the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, and has been applied for the establishment of tree species. As su cient information on suitability of many salt-tolerant tree species for sodic soils is not available, the present long-term experiments were established on highly alkali soil (pH > 10) with 30 tree species. These results will be applicable for large areas of alkali soils that are presently abandoned. The marginal lands currently are not contributing to the national output, and o er an opportunity for bringing economic returns. Further, farmers are interested in fruit trees for gaining greater pro® ts, but lack of appropriate technologies for di cult sites limits their utilization. It is generally considered that forest trees have comparatively higher tolerance for soil alkalinity than most horticultural species. Very little e ort has been made to standardize cultural techniques for raising fruit trees in such di cult areas. Therefore, the present long-term studies were undertaken to examine responses of 10 species of fruit trees in an alkali-salinity impacted area using two planting techniques, each having two di erent doses of amendments.

Materials and Methods Experimental Site The experiments were conducted at the Bichhian site in the Kurukshetra district of Haryana State about 20 km SW of Pehwa near Guhla, 30803 0 N and 76818 0 E, (Figure 1) at an elevation of 240 m. The site is a part of the Saraswati Reserve Forest being maintained by the Haryana State Forest Department. This experimental site has been long abandoned because of the severe alkalinity problem (Figure 2).


Forest and Fruit T rees for Sodic Soils

117

FIGURE 1 Geographical location of the study area.

Past e orts to produce a viable forest cover by the Forest Department have failed because of lack of appropriate technologies. The area is surrounded by a network of canals and is relatively ¯ at located in a slight topographi c depression. The Climate The climate of the area is subtropical, semiarid, monsoonic with little or no water surplus, megathermic with an aridity index of 63.38 and a moisture index of ¡38:03 as calculated by Sehgal, Vernemmen, and Tavernier (1987) following Thornthwaite and Mather (1955). Mean annual rainfall of the area is 516 mm and annual potential evapotranspiratio n (PET) is 1407 mm, producing an annual water de® ciency of 891 mm. Months with mean summer temperature > 208C are eight. Mean annual temperature is 24.68C, the mean summer temperature is 32.48C, and the mean winter temperature is 15.18C. During the experimental period the actual annual rainfall ranged from 490 mm in 1993 to 1216 mm in 1995. The rainfall was 1007 mm in


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J. C. Dagar et al.

FIGURE 2 Original alkali ® eld at Saraswati Range Forest before plantation. 1994, 691 mm in 1996, 1214 mm in 1997, and during 1998 it was 863 mm. The climatic features of the area during study period showed that the majority of the rainfall occurred during July, August, and September. Experimental Details To evaluate forest and fruit tree species for their suitability for highly alkali soils, an area of about 8 ha was cleared of bushes, leveled and fenced with barbed wires to protect the plantation from damage by wildlife, such as blue bull, deer, and stray cattle. Before starting the experiment, three soil pro® les to 2.5 m depth were dug in 1990 at representative sites. Soil samples were collected at an intervals of 0.15 m, airdried and subsequently oven-dried. After grinding, the samples were passed through a 2-mm sieve and analyzed for pH, electrolytic conductivity, organic C, CaCO3 , ¡ ¡1 Ca2‡ , Mg2‡ , Na‡ , CO2¡ contents following standard methods 3 , HCO3 , and Cl as described by Jackson (1967). The initial soil properties are listed in Table 1. In one set of the experiments, the following 30 multipurpose tree species were planted. Species

English/trade name

Vernacular names

Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. A. leucophloea Willd. A. nilotica (L.) Delile ssp. indica (Benth.) Brenan Albizia lebbeck Benth. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Bambusa arundinacea Willd. Bombax ceiba L. ±

Australian wattle Gum arabic

Australian kikar Safed kikar, ronjh Desi kikari/babool

East India walnut Wild cinchona

Siris, kokko Kadamb

Margosa Bamboo Silk cotton tree

Neem Bans Semul

(continued)


Forest and Fruit T rees for Sodic Soils Species

English/trade name

Vernacular names

Butea monosperm a (Lamk.) Kuntze Cassia siamea Lamk.

Flame of the forest

Dhak, palas

Ironwood tree, Siamese senna Australian pine Hill toon Sebestan fruit tree Sissoo Red gum

Kasid

Casuarina eqisetifolia L. Cedrela serrata Royle Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. Ficus rumphii Blume Kigelia pinnata DC. L eucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) de Wit. Melia azedarach L. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Parkinsonia aculeata L. Pithecellobium dulce Benth. Pongamia pinnata Pierre Prosopis juli¯ ora DC. Sesbania sesban Merr. T amarindus indica L. T amarix articulata Vahl T ectona grandis L. f. T erminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. T hespesia populnea Soland. ex Correa

Ð

Common sausage tree White popinac, lead-tree Bead tree, Persian lilac Drumstick, horse-raddish Jerusalem-thorn Qumachil, madras-thorn, manila tamarind PongamÐ oil tree Mesquite Sesban, Egyptian rattle-pod Tamarind Ð

Teak Arjun Indian tulip, portia, umbrella tree

119

Casuarina Kullu neem, drawa Lasura, gondi Shisham Safeda Pilkhan Balam-khira Subabul Drek, bakain Sainjna, sajina, moringa Vilayati babul Jungle-jalebi Papri, karanj Kabuli/velayati kikar/babul Jainti, rawasan Imli Farash, farans Sagwan Arjun Paras-pipal

The main plot accommodated two methods of planting. Seedlings were planted in deep auger holes 0.25 m diameter and 1.2± 1.4 m deep, piercing the kankar pan of CaCO3 layer, and in shallow auger holes 0.25 m diameter and 0.60± 0.75 m deep, not piercing the kankar pan, made by tractor mounted augers. Two depths were tested to ® nd whether there were any species which could withstand such high pH soils and whether their roots were capable of piercing the kankar pan. Before planting the seedlings, the auger holes were re® lled with a uniform soil mixture (original soil ‡ 3 kg gypsum ‡ 8 kg farm yard manure (FYM) ‡20 g ZnSO4 ‡ 20 g hydrated benzene hexachloride powder for protection against termites). The seedlings were planted during the rainy season in August, 1992. After planting, four irrigation treatments were applied with buckets and later the channel method was followed for irrigation. Tree saplings were planted maintaining a distance of 4 m between rows and 2 m between plants. Each subplot accommodated 30 plants of each species. Each of the two treatments (deep and shallow auger holes) was replicated three times in a randomized block design. Up to two years of planting monthly irrigation was applied except during the rainy season. Thereafter two irrigations each of 4 cm water depth were applied during the summer and one irrigation was applied in the winter. Another experiment was initiated in April, 1993 at the same site by planting 15 strains of 10 species of Prosopis by raising 8-month-ol d saplings in deep auger holes (1.2± 1.4 m depth) with the same amendment mixture as described above. Three replications each of 20 plants of each strain were planted. The row-to-row distance was 4 m and plant-to-plant distance was 3 m. Another experiment was designed to evaluate the response of di erent fruit tree species to site preparation methods and amendments. The three times replicated experiment in double split design was initiated in August, 1992. Initially, saplings

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TABLE 1 Initial soil properties of soil pro® les of experimental site Ca2‡ ‡ Mg2‡

Na‡

CO2¡ HCO¡ Cl¡ 3 3

Soil depth (m)

pH 1:2

ECe dS m¡1

O.C. %

CaCO3 %

Pro® 0.00± 0.15± 0.30± 0.45± 0.60± 0.75± 0.90± 1.05± 1.20±

le 1 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35

10.6 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1

3.1 1.1 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

0.04 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03

traces traces 4.0 36.1 3.9 12.1 16.4 48.1 20.8

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

12.8 4.5 2.5 2.8 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.1

8.6 2.0 2.2 1.4 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.8

3.4 2.4 0.6 1.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4

27.0 11.0 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.2

Pro® 0.00± 0.15± 0.30± 0.60± 0.90± 1.20± 1.50± 1.80±

le 2 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.10

10.5 10.7 10.7 10.3 10.3 10.2 10.2 10.1

5.4 5.2 3.6 3.4 1.6 1.1 0.9 1.0

0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.02

traces traces 3.5 28.3 13.0 20.0 20.9 11.9

0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2

18.4 15.6 10.0 18.5 4.1 1.6 1.9 1.8

11.6 10.8 6.4 10.0 2.4 1.4 1.0 1.0

0.8 0.6 1.0 9.4 1.0 0.4 0.6 2.4

4.4 4.3 2.4 6.2 1.5 0.8 0.2 0.2

Pro® 0.00± 0.15± 0.30± 0.60± 0.90± 1.20±

le 3 0.15 0.30 0.60 0.90 1.20 1.50

10.4 10.6 10.5 10.4 10.3 10.0

2.2 2.7 2.0 1.0 0.8 0.5

0.10 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04

traces traces 4.4 5.6 33.5 4.0

0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1

9.7 10.5 7.5 2.1 1.5 0.8

3.6 6.2 1.8 1.0 0.8 0.8

1.0 1.4 5.2 1.2 0.4 0.8

3.1 3.5 3.7 0.8 0.4 0.2

cmol kg¡1

of the following 10 fruit tree species were planted having row-to-row distance of 4 m and plant-to-plant distance of 3 m. Species

English name

Vernacular name

Achras zapota L. Aegle marmelos Correa ex Roxb. Carissa carandas L. Emblica o cinalis Gaertn. Phoenix dactylifera L. Psidium guajava L. Punica granatum L. Syzygium cuminii (L.) Skeels T amarindus indica L. Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.

Sapota Bael-tree Karaunda Gooseberry, emblic myrobalan Date palm Guava Pomegranate Black/java-plum Tamarind Jujube

Cheeku Bel-pather Karaunda Amla, aonla Khajur Amrud Anar Jamun Imli Ber

After planting, four irrigations were applied with buckets and subsequently rings of 1 m diameter were connected with channels to facilitate channel irrigation. During ® rst three years, about 24 irrigations each consisting of 6 cm water depth was


121

applied. Thereafter about ® ve irrigations each of 6 cm water depth were applied each year (usually three in summer and two in winter). Prolonged ¯ ooding resulting from continuous rain during September, 1992, adversely a ected the establishment of Aegle marmelos, Punica grandatum and Achras zapota seedlings. These were further damaged by a frost during the following winter. A. zapota was completely wiped-out and subsequently replaced by Morus alba L. Each subplot accommodated 12 plants of each species planted in two rows. The treatments were as follows:


Site Preparation MethodsÐ

Main Plot

Pit-cum-auger hole method: After making 0:45 m 0:45 m 0:45 m pits manually and then piercing 1.6 to 1.8 m deep auger holes of 0.25 m diameter with tractor mounted augers. Pit method: Pits of 0:9 m 0:9 m 0:9 m were dug manually. Filling Mixture CompositionÐ For auger holes:

Subplot

1. Original soil (OS) ‡ 5 kg gypsum (G) ‡ 10 kg farm yard manure (FYM) ‡ 15 kg river silt (S). 2. OS ‡ 10 kg G ‡ 10 kg FYM ‡ 15 kg S: For pits:

1. OS ‡ 10 kg G ‡ 20 kg FYM ‡ 35 kg S. 2. OS ‡ 20 kg G ‡ 20 kg FYM ‡ 35 kg S. Sub-subplot Ten fruit tree species were grown with 12 trees of each species planted in two rows in each sub-subplot. Survival percentage, height and diameter at stump height of both forest and fruit trees were measured at six-month intervals. For root studies soil monoliths with three plants of each species from each treatment were excavated after two and seven years of growth but only data of seven-year-ol d plantation have been tabulated. Shoot and root biomass were also measured. The statistical analysis was done with computerized MSTAT-C program.

Results and Discussion Initial Soil Characteristics and Quality of Irrigation Water Examination of the three pro® les (Table 1) revealed that the soil was highly alkaline having pH …1 : 2† > 10 at all depths (1.35 m to 2.1 m). The EC in the surface 0.15 m varied from 2.2 to 5.4 dS m ¡1 while in lower depths it ranged from 0.5 to 5.2 dS m¡1 . The organic C ranged from 0.01 to 0.06% throughout the pro® le, except in one pro® le where in the surface 15 cm it was 0.1%. CaCO3 content was negligible to 0.3 m depth but in lower depths it ranged from 3.5% to 48.1%. Ca2‡ ‡ Mg2‡ contents were 0.1 to 0.3 cmole kg¡1 throughout the pro® le while Na‡ contents ¯ uctuated, ranging from 0.8 to 18.5 cmole kg¡1 . HCO¡ 3 contents ranged from 0.4 to 9.4 cmol a kg¡1 , and Cl¡ ranged from 0.2 to 27.0 cmola kg¡1 . The most peculiar feature of the soil pro® le was the presence of precipitated CaCO3 layers (kankar pans) at various depths, thus necessitating the need for deeper auger holes or pits for planting trees. The kankar pan thickness varied from a few cm close to the surface to 0.2± 0.3 m thick in deeper layers. The depth to groundwater was more than 30 m, and the water was alkaline (pH 8.3) and had high residual Na2 CO3 (0.573 g L¡1 ). The

122

J. C. Dagar et al.

¡ ¡1 Ca2‡ ‡ Mg2‡ ; CO2¡ 3 , and HCO3 contents were 0.8, 0.7, and 10.9 cmol kg , respec¡1 tively. The EC was 1.78 dS m .


Performance of Multipurpose Tree Species The basic principle of the auger hole technique used in planting saplings of forest tree species is to establish the seedlings in good soil environment in the presence of gypsum and farm yard manure to help reduce the stress conditions of the salty environment caused by alkaline salts of Na‡ . Recent studies (Gupta, Singh, and Abori, 1985; Hira, 1998) have shown that solubility of gypsum when mixed in alkali soil increases many fold compared with that in water. Upon mixing in the soil the solid phase gypsum will continue to dissolve until the solution phase is saturated, or the ion activity product of Ca2‡ times SO2¡ equals the soluble product for 4 gypsum. Soluble Ca2‡ replaces Na‡ on the exchange phase (EX) according to 2 Na …EX† ‡ 2 Ca2‡ $ Ca …EX† ‡ 2 Na‡ . The soil ion exchange complex acts as a sink for Ca2‡ until the above reaction reaches an equilibrium. Hira (1998) concluded that the amount of gypsum dissolved in sodic soil is equal to the solubility product of gypsum in water times equilibrium constant for the soil ion exchange complex. As Ca2‡ released by gypsum dissolution is used up by replacing the exchangeable Na‡ , additional Ca2‡ is released from the solid phase until the equilibrium is reached. Thus in an alkali soil the solubility of gypsum per unit of applied water increases manifold. Consequently, when the irrigation was frequent the seedlings of most of the species in auger holes initially survived for one year. Exceptions were Cedrella serrata, Bombax ceiba, and T ectona grandis. These species could not withstand water stagnation. During the second year, the tropical species such as T hespesia populnea and Moringa oleifera did not do well possibly due to low temperature during winter. During the third year, due to frost in January, species such as L eucaena leucocephala, Bambusa arundinacea, Sesbania sesban, Acacia auriculiformis, Melia azedarach, and Ficus virens did not survive even in deep augured sites. Casuarina equisetifolia, well known for its salt-tolerance, could not resist frost and had only 30% survival in the fourth year in the deep auger holes and subsequently died completely after the sixth year. Similarly, Pongamia pinnata, which is also found in a tidal zone (Dagar, 1995) and is known for its high salt tolerance, did not survive on such high alkali soils. For two years while the roots were obtaining nutrition and were in association with the gypsum complex, the seedlings of most of the species survived and there was no signi® cant di erence in height and diameter between those planted in two depths of auger holes. When roots started penetrating beyond the auger hole area, however, there was a signi® cant reduction in height and diameter in almost all species in the shallow auger hole sites. More than half the species had less than 70% survival rates after ® ve years of growth. After seven years only 11 species showed 70% or greater survival rate (Table 2). Only three species, Prosopis juli¯ ora, Acacia nilotica, and T amarix articulata, were economically suitable by having some degree of growth and biomass (Table 3). The biomass production of seven-year-old T . articulata was 97.3 Mg ha¡1 in deep augers and 31.7 Mg ha¡1 in shallow augers. A. nilotica produced 69.8 Mg ha¡1 in deep augers and 39.1 Mg ha¡1 in shallow augers, and P. juli¯ ora yielded 51.3 Mg ha¡1 in deep and 22.1 Mg ha¡1 in shallow augers. Although Eucalyptus tereticornis grew to about 4 m height in deep augers it had trunk diameter of 6 mm and only 14.4 Mg ha¡1 biomass. Its performance in shallow augers was very poor. Many of the species, including Dalbergia sissoo, Pithecellobium dulce, T erminalia arjuna, Kigelia pinnata, Cordia rothii, Parkinsonia aculeata, and Anthocephalus cadamba showed some resistance to salt stress but could not gain signi® cant height and biomass in both auger depths and thus cannot be recommended for production in highly sodic soils. Tomar, Gupta, and Dagar (1998), in

123

NS ˆ Not signi® cant.

Main (Auger depth) Sub (Species) Main sub (Interaction)

0:05†

10.99 16.51 23.35

88.8 93.6 74.4 79.9 86.3 74.4 86.6 88.8 76.2 76.7 71.0 45.3 34.1 11.6 34.3 22.3 12.3 37.0 11.7 0.9 3.7

98.6 94.1 89.4 89.9 87.1 89.4 92.0 93.3 78.9 80.3 77.0 5.93 46.5 18.1 38.0 25.1 13.1 57.9 15.0 2.8 10.0

Prosopis juli¯ ora Acacia nilotica T amarix articulata Eucalyptus tereticornis Dalbergia sissoo Pithecellobium dulce T erminalis arjuna Kigelia pinnota Cordia rothi Parkinsonia aculeata Anthocephalus cadamba Acacia leucophloea T amarindus indica Casuarina equisetifolia Pongamia pinnata Albizia lebbek Cassia siamea Butea monosperma L eucaena leucocephala Bombax ceiba Bambusa arundinacea

LSD …P

Shallow auger

Deep auger

Species

Survival (%)

0.17 0.39 0.55

1.42 3.68 2.99 3.83 1.98 1.65 1.42 1.42 0.93 2.31 0.71 2.10 1.30 1.91 1.10 1.85 0.97 1.08 1.81 1.21 0.91

Deep auger 1.39 2.40 2.39 3.04 1.86 1.41 1.45 1.09 0.89 1.85 0.62 1.65 1.29 1.70 1.01 1.61 0.95 0.92 1.62 0.91 0.85

Shallow auger

Height (m)

After 5 years

1.25 20.9 2.95

6.8 8.3 5.2 4.5 3.5 3.6 3.9 4.5 3.5 3.1 3.6 2.5 2.7 3.1 2.3 2.4 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 2.3

Deep auger 3.9 5.6 3.4 4.2 3.2 2.9 3.7 3.9 3.0 2.7 2.7 2.3 2.3 2.6 2.1 2.3 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.0 1.9

Shallow auger

Diameter (cm)

9.43 14.22 20.11

97.4 81.7 89.4 89.9 86.3 86.7 92.0 93.3 78.9 80.3 71.0 59.3 26.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Deep auger 86.0 76.7 74.4 76.0 83.5 69.7 86.6 85.7 76.2 76.7 68.0 45.3 15.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Shallow auger

Survival (%)

0.48 0.46 0.65

3.98 3.66 3.24 4.13 1.99 1.70 1.51 1.43 1.04 2.36 0.72 2.24 1.30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Deep auger 2.59 2.31 2.56 3.41 1.87 1.62 1.45 1.10 0.92 1.89 0.68 1.77 1.29 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Shallow auger

Height (m)

After 7 years

TABLE 2 Survival, height and diameter at stump height of forest trees on highly alkali soil after 5 and 7 years of planting


0.36 1.11 NS

8.3 8.6 7.3 6.0 6.1 5.4 5.1 5.2 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.8 4.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Deep auger

5.3 6.4 5.4 5.1 5.3 4.2 4.8 5.0 3.2 3.3 3.7 4.7 3.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Shallow auger

Diameter (cm)

124

J. C. Dagar et al.

TABLE 3 Growth performance of di erent species/strains of Prosopis on highly alkali soil after 6 years of planting Diameter at


Species/strains P. velutina 0943 P. velutina 0464 P. juli¯ ora 197 P. chilensis P. juli¯ ora CSR P. velutina 0454 P. glandulosa 0933 P. alba 0465 P. glandulosa 0475 P. lavigata P. alba 0751 P. alba 0759 P. caldenia P. nigra P. cineraria LSD (P 0:05†

Mean height (m)

Stump height (cm)

Breast height (cm)

3.23 2.94 3.65 2.50 3.81 2.90 3.15 2.84 2.93 3.47 3.45 3.42 2.55 2.13 1.85 0.728

5.4 5.0 5.7 5.0 5.8 5.3 6.0 5.0 5.3 5.3 6.0 5.0 7.2 5.0 5.0 NS

2.1 1.9 2.3 2.0 2.4 2.3 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.0 2.2 NS


a long-term experiment, observed that Prosopis juli¯ ora, T amarix sp., Casuarina glauca, Acacia farnesiana, A. nilotica, A. tortilis, and Parkinsonia aculeata were the promising species for saline waterlogged soils. Many of these have shown tolerance to sodicity in this experiment also. Thus, Prosopis juli¯ ora, Acacia nilotica, and T amarix articulata seem to be the ideal vegetative cover for all salt a ected soils. Results of the trials of Prosopis species (Table 4) showed that all tested strains of Prosopis were tolerant to some degree to sodicity. P. alba is thornless but the growth performance of P. juli¯ ora was superior to that of all other species and strains when the three growth indices (mean height, diameter at stump, and at breast heights) are considered together. P. juli¯ ora was followed by P. lavigata, P. alba, and P. velutina. The di erences in trunk diameters of these species, however, were not signi® cant. Root Systems The roots were exposed for evaluation at two stages of growth, when the plants were two and seven years old. At the two-year-old stage, when the roots were still mostly con® ned to auger holes, the root length was greater in deep auger holes than those in shallow auger sites. Total shoot biomass, as well as root biomass, was also higher in deep auger holes indicating an increased plant development. At initial stage the shoot : root ratio was almost 1, but with time this ratio increased abruptly (Table 5) indicating that root development in the alkali soils was impeded. By comparing root development after seven years of growth in terms of root biomass and length, the three species T . articulata, P. juli¯ ora, and A. nilotica showed a better performance than the others. For other species most of the roots remained in auger holes, however, the T . articulata roots penetrated laterally piercing the hard kankar pan. P. juli¯ ora and A. nilotica experienced setbacks due to frost but T . articulata was not a ected by frost.

125


TABLE 4 Shoot and root biomas production by forest tree species grown in 2 auger hole depths on highly alkali soil at 7 years of growth Biomass (kg per plant) Shoot Deep auger


Species

Prosopis juli¯ ora 42.1 Acacia nilotica 68.3 T amarix 107 articulata Eucalyptus 13.3 tereticornis Dalbergia sissoo 1.62 Pithecellobium 3.65 dulce T erminalia arjuna 2.33 Kigelia pinnata 1.00 Cordia rothii 1.5 Parkinsonia 1.15 aculeata LDS …P

Root

Shallow Deep auger auger 20.5 40.8 34.1

13.2 14.9 32.0

Shoot/root ratio

Root length (m)

Shallow auger

Deep auger

Shallow auger

Deep auger

Shallow auger

5.92 6.69 11.3

3.20 4.58 2.72

3.47 6.09 3.02

2.31 2.54 7.15*

1.26 1.39 5.15*

5.47

5.81

1.88

2.29

2.91

2.16

1.85

1.35 2.46

0.69 3.21

0.56 2.08

2.35 1.13

2.42 1.18

1.36 2.66

0.65 2.05

1.63 0.46 0.65 0.94

1.31 1.423 1.81 0.82

1.06 0.69 0.73 0.52

1.78 0.70 0.83 1.40

1.54 0.67 0.89 1.81

2.71 1.46 1.66 2.08

1.06 1.32 0.86 1.85

0:05†

Main plot (auger depth) Sub plot (species) Interaction …main sub†

2.48

1.44

NS

17.26

6.99 9.88

2.48 3.51

0.66 0.94

22.30 31.54

* Complete root could not be extracted. NS ˆ not signi® cant.

TABLE 5 Average air-dried aerial biomass of di erent tree species after 7 years of growth on highly alkali soil Biomass (Mg ha¡1 † Species

Deep auger holes

Shallow auger holes

97.3 69.8 51.3 14.4 3.96 2.68 1.75 1.48 1.17 1.15

31.7 39.1 22.1 5.20 2.14 1.76 1.18 0.62 0.49 0.90

T amarix articulata Acacia nilotica Prosopis juli¯ ora Eucalyptus tereticornis Pithecellobium dulce T erminalia arjuna Dalbergia sissoo Cordia rothii Kigelia pinnata Parkinsonia aculeata LDS …P 0:05†. Between auger depths ˆ 1:17. Between species ˆ 5:94. Auger species ˆ 3:70.

126

J. C. Dagar et al.


Biomass Production Based on plants excavated for examination of their root and shoot biomass (Table 5) and survival rate of species (Table 2), biomass of the 7-year-old plantation was assessed (Table 3). Aerial air-dried biomass of T amarix articulata was maximum in deep auger holes (97.3 Mg ha¡1 ) followed by Acacia nilotica (69.8 Mg ha¡1 ), Prosopis juli¯ ora (51.3 Mg ha¡1 ), and Eucalyptus tereticornis (14.4 Mg ha¡1 ). In the site having shallow auger holes, the presence of kankar pan prohibited the development of the root system thereby a ecting the growth of plants. Therefore, the biomass on sites with shallow auger holes was signi® cantly lower. The biomass of P. juli¯ ora was low as compared to the earlier reported biomass of 112.2 Mg ha¡1 in 2 m 2 m space and 55.2 Mg ha¡1 in 3 m 3 m space, however, the biomass production was also reported as low as 36.1 Mg ha¡1 in 4 m 4 m space (Singh, Singh, and Tomar 1993) on highly alkali soil. The biomass of other species ranged from 1.15 Mg ha¡1 to 3.96 Mg ha¡1 in deep auger holes and 0.49 Mg ha¡1 to 2.14 Mg ha¡1 in shallow auger holes. These species apparently are not suitable for a orestation on high pH soils. The success of P. juli¯ ora and A. nilotica was also reported for saline waterlogged soils by Tomar and colleagues (1998), who observed biomass production of these trees to be 98 and 67 Mg ha¡1 , respectively. Soil Amelioration Changes in soil properties (Table 6) showed that T amarix articulata ameliorated the soil by inducing the maximum reduction of ESP and pH values in seven years. It was followed by Prosopis juli¯ ora and Acacia nilotica. Increase in organic C in the surface 0.15 m layer under T . articulata was 0.23%, under P. juli¯ ora 0.26%, and under A. nilotica 0.10%. In the depths between 0.15± 0.30 m the increase was comparatively low. Reduction in BSP was 50 in T . articulata, 33 in P. juli¯ ora, and 20 in A. nilotica in the surface 0.15 m. In lower depths, the reduction ranged from 14 to 30 for these species. As the site was protected by fencing, the natural grass community dominated by Sporobolus marginatus also played a role in soil amelioration that was almost similar in all plantations at least for ® rst three years of the study. Later the grasses started vanishing beneath the tree canopies of T amarix, Prosopis and Acacia. The grasses persisted with other tree species, however, that had no signi® cant canopies. From these results we draw an inference that highly alkali soils with pH > 10 may be successfully rehabilitated with T amarix articulata, Prosopis juli¯ ora, and Acacia nilotica for economic fuelwood production, forage production (from local grasses) and soil amelioration. Growing Fruit Trees Since most of the fruit trees evaluated in this study were considered sensitive to salt stress, limited e ort had been made in the past to standardize techniques for producing fruits on salt-a ected lands. Ten species, previously found salt tolerant, were planted in the ® eld as described above. Achras japota showed a high tolerance to sodicity but it could not withstand waterlogging and was eliminated within two years due to water stagnation during the rainy season. It was replaced by Morus alba after two years. Results showed that, after two years of planting, the survival rate, height, and girth of all species remained una ected owing to site preparation methods and amendment levels. Irrespective of planting techniques and amendment use, Syzygium cuminii, Psidium guajava, Ziziphus mauritania, and Punica granatum had the best performance in terms of survival, height, and girth. Phoenix dactylifera performed poorly at the establishment stage in the highly alkali soils. Similarly Aegle marmelos did not perform well. Pomegranate was damaged by 45 days of water stagnation caused by ¯ ood water entry into the experimental area during 1995 monsoon season.

127

2

10.5 10.6 10.5 NS

1

10.4 10.5 10.4 NS

9.7 10.1 9.2 0.35

1

10.1 10.3 9.9 0.13

2

After 7 years

3.15 3.20 3.05 NS

1

2 1.20 1.35 1.13 NS

Initial

0.67 0.88 0.36 0.32

1 1.02 1.23 0.50 0.16

2

After 7 years

EC2 (dS m¡4 )

0.04 0.04 0.05 NS

1

2 0.02 0.02 0.03 NS

Initial

0.30 0.14 0.28 0.14

1

0.14 0.08 0.09 NS

2

After 7 years

Organic C (%)

87 91 85 NS

1

2 93 93 92 NS

Initial

54 71 35 4.71

1

69 79 62 NS

2

After 7 years

ESP

ESP ˆ Exchangeable sodium percentage. NS ˆ not signi® cant. 1 ˆ soil depth from 0.0 m to 0.15 m; 2 ˆ soil depth from 0.15 m to 0.30 m.

Prosopis juli¯ ora Acacia nilotica T amarix articulata LSD (P 0:05)

Species

Initial

pH (1:2)

TABLE 6 Change in soil properties under three most successful forest tree species after seven years of plantation



128

J. C. Dagar et al.

FIGURE 3 Five-year-old plantation of guava (Psidium guajava) on high alkali soil.

FIGURE 4 Five-year-old plantation of jamun (Syzygium cuminii) on high alkali soil.



129

FIGURE 5 Five-year-old plantation of ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) on high alkali soil. Prolonged water stagnation during monsoon seasons of 1994 and 1995, produced 50% and 42% mortality in Aegle marmelos, 25% and 75% in Punica granatum, 10% in Achras japota (the following year all A. japota plants died due to frost damage), 10% in Carissa carandus, 10% each year in Emblica o cinalis, and 12% and 16% mortality in Phoenix dactylifera, respectively. Ziziphus mauritiana, T amarindus indica, and Psidium guajava showed only 2 to 5% mortality during 1994, and these were replaced by fresh seedlings. Syzygium cuminii did not experience any mortality due to water stagnation and ¯ ooding. After seven years of growth, Z. mauritiana, S. cuminii, C. carandus, and P. guajava have shown best growth performance and have started bearing fruit. E. o cinalis showed 76% survival in auger holes and 84% in pits and started bearing fruit in large numbers. P. dactylifera has initiated ¯ owering. For T . indica there has been almost complete survival, but every year, due to frost, the tips of branches have died back up to 0.2 to 0.4 m. The following season branches recovered, but the plant appeared not suitable for semiarid regions that experience frost. In general, tree survival rates and growth performance (height and girth) were better in sites established with the pit method than the auger hole method. When the dose of gypsum amendment was increased, positive plant response increased but statistically the e ect of amendment was not signi® cant on survival and height of plants. The diameter at stump height (DSH) was signi® cantly higher in sites established by the pit method and when the dose of amendments (gypsum, organic materials, inorganic fertilizers) was higher than by other methods (Table 7). Although most of the successful species have started bearing fruits, no data on fruit production has been included as it would take some time in the future to get full results on this aspect. Studies on average biomass production showed that total biomass was higher in pits and increased with increased gypsum amendments (Table 8). The maximum production was observed for P. dactylifera followed by E. o cinalis and S. cuminii in pits. In auger holes the root-penetratio n was deep and the percent biomass in deeper horizons (1.2 m to 2.1 m) was greater than that in pits.

130

J. C. Dagar et al.

TABLE 7 E ect of site preparation techniques and amendments on fruit species after 7 years of growth on highly alkali soil Site preparation techniques Auger hole 5 kg gypsum Survival (%)


Species Syzygium cumini Ziziphus mauritiana Psidium guajava Emblica o cinalis Carissa carandus T amarindus indica Phoenix dactylifera Morus alba LSD …P

Pit 10 kg gypsum

Height DSH Survival (m) (cm) (%)

10 kg gypsum

Height DSH Survival (m) (cm) (%)

20 kg gypsum

Height DSH (m) (cm)

Survival Height DSH (%) (m) (cm)

100

2.76

9.8

100

2.90

10.7

98

3.17

11.7

100

3.98

12.6

96

3.38

5.9

96

3.46

6.2

98

3.52

7.1

100

2.70

7.4

100

2.70

8.5

98

2.72

8.7

100

3.20

10.1

98

3.52

10.7

68

3.23

7.7

84

3.51

8.3

86

3.58

8.5

88

3.70

9.3

78

1.16

5.6

78

1.58

5.5

86

1.71

5.4

88

1.72

5.6

98

2.73

6.7

98

2.82

6.7

98

2.79

6.9

100

2.90

7.1

34

1.77

12.1

34

1.85

12.8

36

2.13

13.4

38

2.51

15.7

82

1.86

3.8

82

1.95

4.6

86

2.10

4.7

88

2.4

4.8

0:05†

Between planting techniques (A) Between amendment doses (B) Between species (C) Interactions A B Interactions A C Interactions B C Interactions A B C

Survival (%)

Height (m)

DSH (cm)

2.94 NS 5.57 NS NS NS NS

0.35 NS 0.28 NS NS NS NS

1.05 0.56 0.81 NS 1.15 1.15 NS

Replaced Achras zapota after 2 years and observations are of 5 years of age. NS ˆ not signi® cant.

In pits the maximum root biomass occurred between 0.6± 0.9 m and 0.9± 1.2 m depths (Table 9). In upper layers the root biomass in pits was higher than in auger holes. In auger holes, generally, the roots were distributed in the limited auger holes space, while in pits roots occupied the excavated space extensively in all directions. Planting Cost The major expenditure in raising the fruit plantations was the site preparation. This involved land development, pit and auger hole digging, preparation of the ® lling mixture, and re® lling the pits and augerholes. Planting cost per hectare using the pit method (Rs. 42214) was almost double that of the pit-cum-auger hole method (Rs. 20396), calculated on 1992 prices (Table 10). For the pit planting method, the major expenditure (about 34.5% of total) was incurred during the pit-digging operation. Due to the presence of the thick and cemented CaCO3 layers in the pro® le, one person could hardly excavate two pits a day, whereas all the 720 auger holes were made within two days by using tractor-mounte d mechanical augers. In addition, the volume of soil mixture to be prepared and the time expended re® lling the pits was much more than that for the auger holes, with the result that labor costs of the pit method were almost four times higher than that for the auger hole method. The cost for plantation of forest tree species was slightly less as compared to the pit-cumauger hole method for fruit tree establishment. The expenditure of the forest tree establishment was Rs. 15645 ha¡1 . Although the number of plants per hectare was

TABLE 8 Average biomas (kg per tree) of 7-year-old fruit trees when grown by auger and pit methods using di erent doses of amendments in alkali soil


Auger (5 kg gypsum)

Auger (10 kg gypsum)

Species

Stump

Twigs

Roots

Total

Stump

Twigs

Roots

Total

Emblica o cinalis Psidium guajava Syzygium cuminii Ziziphus mauritiana Carissa carandas T amarindus indica Phoenix dactylifera Morus alba

5.00 2.35 5.40 4.60 0.875 3.65 3.20 1.50

5.35 2.41 4.25 5.20 2.15 3.71 1.25 0.85

3.50 2.20 2.50 2.56 0.87 3.525 3.51 2.15

13.85 6.96 12.15 12.36 3.895 10.89 18.96 4.50

8.10 3.51 6.30 4.75 1.10 3.51 2.815 1.77

2.65 2.41 4.83 6.75 2.875 3.815 12.5 1.525

3.62 2.35 2.80 3.80 1.43 3.67 3.75 2.50

14.42 8.27 13.93 15.30 5.405 11.00 19.07 5.795

Pits (10 kg gypsum) Species

Stump

Twigs

Roots

Total

Stump

Twigs

Roots

Total

5.61 4.00 7.20 5.12 1.65 3.82 3.51 1.85

4.90 2.35 4.90 7.55 3.475 4.05 15.25 2.15

4.34 2.17 3.40 4.15 1.75 3.51 4.80 2.51

14.85 8.72 15.5 16.82 6.875 11.38 23.56 6.51

15.2 6.50 10.75 5.45 1.78 4.12 3.65 2.10

5.40 3.20 7.40 8.80 4.68 4.65 17.88 2.865

4.50 2.84 4.10 4.50 2.40 4.25 5.20 3.12

25.1 12.54 22.25 18.75 8.86 13.03 26.73 8.085

Emblica o cinalis Psidium guajava Syzygium cuminii Ziziphus mauritiana Carissa carandas T amarindus indica Phoenix dactylifera Morus alba LSD …P

Pits (20 kg gypsum)

0:05†

Stump weight

Twigs weight

Root weight

Total weight

0.291 0.440 0.223 0.063 0.314 0.314 0.445

0.338 0.324 0.320 0.458 0.452 0.452 0.639

0.257 0.179 0.318 NS 0.450 NS NS

0.561 0.456 0.719 0.645 1.017 1.017 1.438

Between planting techniques (A) Between amendment doses (B) Between species (C) Interactions A B Interactions A C Interactions B C Interactions A B C


TABLE 9 Percent of total root biomass distributed at di erent depths in soil in 5year-old fruit tree species 0± 3.0 m

0.3± 0.6 m

0.6± 0.9 m

0.9± 1.2 m

1.2± 1.5 m

Species

A

P

A

P

A

A

A

Ziziphus mauritiana Syzygium cuminii Phoenix dactylifera Psidium guajava Emblica o cinalis T amarindus indica Carissa carandus

0.8 2.8

2.2

9.5 2.3

26.1

4.3 32.9

5.5

0.7 1.3

2.2

2.6 5.6

34.1

13.4 62.0

24.9

0

0.8 3.1

1.1 14.3 3.2

60.8

15.8 21.8

79.1

0

1.7 2.5

2.6 12.7 2.8

41.0

4.0 31.9

6.0

0.5 1.3

1.8

7.1 2.6

31.4

3.5 45.8

0.6 3.9

0.9 13.6 1.1

33.3

2.1 26.4

2.9 1.3

3.3

90.2

7.5

8.5 4.6

P

P

0

P

1.5± 1.8 m

A

A

P

A

P

8.5 30.1

0 33.1

0

53.2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

11.9 36.1

0

49.6

0

0

0

4.9

14.4 15.1

0

71.6

0

0

0

6.8

15.6 13.4

7.2 22.7

0 52.4

0

0

0

0

18.5

20.2 21.7

P

1.8± 2.1 m 2.1± 2.4 m

0

63.2

0

0

A ˆ auger hole, Pˆ pit.

131

132

J. C. Dagar et al.

TABLE 10 Tentative planting cost (rupees per ha) for raising forest and fruit tree plantations by auger hole and pit methods (based on 1992 prices)


Sr. no.

Item of expenditure

1. Land development Removing bushes, cultivation/ploughing, levelling, bunding 2. Marking pits/auger hole sites 3. Making pits/auger holes Augers 1.8 m deep @ Rs. 2 per auger Pit size 0:9 m 0:9 m 0:9 m @ 2 pits/person/day Augers 1.8 m deep after making pits of 0:45 m 0:45 m 0:45 m @ Rs. 4/augerhole 4. Preparation of ® lling mixture and its re® lling Pits @ one person/4 pits/day Augerholes @ one person/15 augerholes 5. Purchase of inputs Gypsum @ Rs. 600 per ton Farm yard manure @ Rs. 50 per ton Silt @ Rs. 80 per ton Urea, superphosphate, dermicite etc. 6. Purchase of saplings @ Rs. 2 per saplings @ Rs. 8 per fruit saplings 7. Irrigation Four irrigations with buckets @ one person/208 plants/day 8. Transformation and other miscellaneous charges Total expenditure

Forest tree plantation by auger hole method (@ 1250 trees ha¡1 †

Fruit trees (833 trees ha¡1 )

Pit method

Pit-cumauger hole method

2500

2500

2500

150

100

100

2500

14,560 3332

2905 2250 500 Ð 500

7280

1925

5000 830 2320 400

2500 415 1000 400

6664

6664

840

560

560

1000

2000

1000

15,645

42,214

20,396

2500

greater for the forest species, the cost on inputs and plant material was lower as compared to the fruit trees.

Conclusions We concluded that in highly sodic soils of semiarid regions the forest tree species T amarix articulata, Prosopis juli¯ ora, and Acacia nilotica can be raised successfully using the auger hole planting technique that pierces the kankar pan in upper 2 m soil layer. T . articulata roots penetrate the hard kankar pan. It also tolerates frost and appears an ideal species for rehabilitation of highly alkali soils of semiarid regions. Among the Prosopis spp. evaluated, P. juli¯ ora appears to be the most useful and can yield a higher biomass than the others. For increased economic returns, fruit tree species, such as Psidium guajava, Ziziphus mauritiana, Emblica o cinalis, Syzygium cuminii, and Carissa carandus may be raised successfully by using the pit-cum-auger hole planting technique coupled with higher doses of amendments and fertilizers. Though the growth performance in pits of 0:9 m 0:9 m 0:9 m size was slightly better, the cost of the pit method is almost double compared to the pit-cum-auger hole method. The results of ® eld study suggested that at least ® ve di erent fruit species can be established in alkali lands with high soil pH values if appropriate


133

site preparation techniques and better management practices are employed. Due to inadequate drainage conditions species such as Punica granatum and Aegle marmelos could not be grown successfully. Achras zapota, highly sensitive to frost, should not be planted in areas prone to freezing temperatures. T amarindus indica is also not suitable for areas experiencing freezing temperatures. Further studies are needed for extended periods before making ® nal recommendations for growing fruit trees in alkali soils having very high pH values, such as those evaluated in this study.


References Abrol, I. P., and D. R. Bhumbla. 1978. Some comments on terminology relating to salta ected soils, pp. 6.19± 6.27, in Proceedings, dryland-saline seep control dates, January 24± 27, 1978. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Dagar, J. C. 1995. Ecological contribution towards the halophytic vegetation in India. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences 21:197± 220. Gupta, R. K., C. P. Singh, and I. P. Abori. 1985. Dissolution of gypsum in alkali soils. Soil Science 140:382± 386. Hira, G. S. 1998. Water requirements during reclamation of alkali soils, pp. 175± 184 in Tyagi, N. K. and P. S. Minhas, eds., Agricultural salinity in India. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India. Indian Agriculture in Brief. 1994. Indian agriculture in brief, 24th ed. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. Jackson, M. L. 1967. Soil chemical analysis. Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. Sehgal, J. L., C. Vernemmen, and R. Tavernier. 1987. Agro-climatic environments and moisture regimes in NW IndiaÐ their application in soils and crop growth. Research Bulletin No. 17. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. Nagpur, India. Singh, G., N. T. Singh, and O. S. Tomar. 1993. Agroforestry in salt a ected soils. Research Bulletin No. 17. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India. Szabolcs, I. 1989. Salt a ected soils. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Thornthwaite, C. W., and J. R. Mather. 1955. The water balance. Climatology 8(1):1± 104. Tomar, O. S., R. K. Gupta, and J. C. Daggar. 1998. A orestation techniques and evaluation of di erent tree species for waterlogged saline soils in semiarid tropics. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation 12:301± 316.