Experiences in Participatory Technology Deve

Sustainable Sloping Lands and Watershed Management Conference

How Can Research and Development Help Upland Farmers Improve their Farming Systems? Experiences in Participatory Technology Development K. P. Aryal1, B. R. Regmi2, P. K. Shrestha2 and B. B. Tamang2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Ultuna, Uppsala, Sweden

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Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development, Nepal

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Abstract The vast amount of marginal sloping land in Nepal poses the greatest challenge to research and development interventions in that country. These areas are typically difficult to access, marginal in agricultural production, and lack cash generating opportunities. Soil erosion and land degradation are serious concerns. In the last few years, various technologies have been found to be effective in conserving soil and water, enhancing soil fertility, and increasing crop production. However, inadequate consideration of farmers’ local knowledge and resources, and poor participation of farmers in the research process have resulted in low adoption of such technologies. As a result, researchers are now giving priority to the farmers in the whole process of technology generation. This paper is based on the experiences of a research project for participatory identification of integrated agricultural technological packages suitable for shifting and sloping land cultivation. The project was implemented in Tanahun and Gorkha districts in the western hills of Nepal. The project aimed to identify integrated agricultural technological packages suitable for shifting cultivation and sloping land areas. The Participatory Technology Development approach was used to generate appropriate technological packages for soil and water management that will enhance food production and on-farm cash income. The paper examines the various agricultural technological packages identified, tested and adopted by research farmers. Participatory contour hedgerows, intercropping of legumes with maize, mixed vegetable farming, strip cropping, forage and fodder production and other support mechanisms are some of the interventions. Various participatory methods were used to assess the interventions, along with soil depth measurement and soil sample analysis. Farmers tested these technologies and modified them according to their need and species adaptability. The results demonstrate that contour hedgerows can increase the nitrogen and organic matter content of soils, improve soil texture, and increase soil deposition. The technology is promising for biomass production, reduction of soil erosion, increased production and species diversity, and in terms of providing income to the farmers. Adoption and adaptation of the technology is taking place gradually in the research area and nearby. Some government line agencies are already planning to mainstream these technological interventions in their annual work plans. However, there is a need for support and commitment for technology dissemination from the government institutions and other stakeholders concerned. Keywords: shifting cultivation, marginal sloping land, participatory technology development, participatory approaches, contour hedgerows, adoption and adaptation, scaling up.

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1. Introduction The vast area of marginal sloping land available in Nepal poses the greatest challenge to research and development interventions. Marginal and sloping lands have been over-exploited and misused. leading to increased poverty, soil degradation and loss of natural resources (NARC, 2000). Shifting cultivation, locally known as khoria, is the predominant agricultural practice in many hill districts of Nepal. Regmi et al. (2003) show that this practice is prevalent in 20 districts of Nepal. These areas are typically remote, marginal in agricultural production, lacking in cash generating opportunities, and inhabited by resource-poor farming communities, mostly of indigenous ethnic origin. In traditional systems, farmers cultivate for two to four years until the land becomes infertile. As soon as the crop productivity decreases, farmers abandon the area and clear another patch of forest to grow their crops. The average length of the cropping-and-fallow-cycle (between two subsequent clearings) used to be 10-15 years as apposed to the present one to three years. A study by Sharma and Khatri (1995) pointed out that shifting cultivation reduces vegetative cover from the field and increases the rate of soil erosion. Increased population pressure and land tenure problems, combined with poor management of land and increased cropping intensity, have put pressure on these areas and resulted in degradation (Carson, 1992). The Chepang have resided in these areas for centuries and are regarded as the most marginalised and resource poor ethnic group in Nepal. A study by Balla et al. (2000) showed that about 47% of the total population in the Kali Khola and Andheri-Khahare watersheds area of Chitwan and Tanahun districts area are Chepang, with only 3% of the farmers enjoying a food surplus and more than 85% suffering from varying degrees of food deficiency. During the food scarcity period, those farmers depend largely on wild foods like gittha (Dioscorea bulbifera), bhyakur (D. daltoidea), chiuri (Bassia bytiracea), ban tarul (Dioscorea spp) and niuro (Thelopteris spp) (Balla et. al, 2000; Aryal, 2005). Another major problem is ownership of land, as most of these people do not have land registration certificates. Various technological options, commonly and collectively known as sloping agriculture land technology (SALT) have been researched internationally and proposed for such areas. In Nepal, the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and the National Agriculture Research Council (NARC) have been instrumental and active in testing various SALT options over the last few years and have found that these technologies are effective in conserving soil and water, enhancing soil fertility and increasing crop production. Contour hedgerows can increase the nitrogen and organic matter content of soils, improve soil texture, and increase soil deposition. The technology is promising for biomass production, while reducing soil erosion, increasing production and species diversity, and providing income to farmers.

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Adoption of SALT by hill farmers, however, has been limited (Shrestha and Watson, 1994; Tang Ya, 1999). The identified technologies are found to be less attractive to farmers because the whole research process was managed and controlled by researchers (Maskey, 2001). Inadequate consideration of local knowledge and resources, and poor farmer participation in the research process are regarded as the main reasons for the low adoption rate of these technologies in fields (Carson, 1992). In reviewing past experiences, lessons have been learnt on how to tackle the issue of farmer adoption, and new methodologies and approaches have been developed. Based on these experiences, a participatory technology development approach shows promise in the area of addressing the adoption and adaptation challenges faced by past initiatives. It has also been realised that the increasing problems of soil fertility loss and soil erosion in sloping and shifting land areas need to be addressed quickly by exploring potential options jointly with farmers. Considering these field realities, Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD), with financial support from the Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP, funded by the UK Department for International Development) implemented a three-year pilot project in two Nepali villages: Thumka, in Gorkha district, and Kholagaun in Tanahun district. The main purpose of the project was to increase the sustainability of agricultural production by promoting integrated technological packages for enhanced food production and on-farm cash income. Participatory contour hedgerow development, using a wide range of hedgerow and fruit species, was promoted in the area along with intercropping of legumes with maize, mixed vegetable farming, strip cropping, and forage and fodder integration with livestock. The project was developed based on the assumption that if farmers are involved in the technology development process, technologies will have a greater chance of adoption and diffusion. Therefore, the project adopted a practical process of Participatory Technology Development (PTD), where farmers bring their knowledge and practical abilities to test technologies as ‘insiders’, and interact with researchers and extension workers - the ‘outsiders’. In this way, farmers and the outside facilitators are able to identify, develop, test and apply new technologies and practices.

2. Methods 2.1 Site description The study site was located in two mid-hills districts, Gorkha and Tanahun. The study focused mainly on the Chepang communities and was confined to the villages of Kholagaun and Thumka, in Tanahun and Gorkha respectively. Agriculture is the principle occupation and shifting cultivation the predominant farming system practised by this group. The sites have a sub-tropical type of climate with altitude ranging from 500 m-1700 masl. The topography of the site largely determines the technologies used in their agriculture, which is based primarily on the production of staple crops: maize,

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black gram, soybean, beans, etc. The traditional farming system and cultivation on steep slopes have accelerated the rate of erosion and degradation. A baseline survey by Regmi et al. (2002) showed that the literacy rate and income status of households was very low. Most of the people are poor and experience food deficiency for about six months per year. The area is difficult to access, marginal in agricultural production, and lacks cash generating opportunities. It was also observed that the nutritional status of family members is very low, and most of the children suffer from malnutrition. People depend upon wild foods for their survival. 2.2 Participatory technology development The project adopted a PTD process, which involves farmers from the beginning, when they are asked to identify their problems. It is a process-led approach that encourages active involvement of community people at all stages of technology development. The project worked towards developing a process and methodology in which technology options would address a common constraint across a range of livelihood and biophysical circumstances which could be identified and evaluated. The process includes four stages: i) problem identification, ii) knowledge analysis and sharing, iii) farmer experimentation, and iv) participatory monitoring and evaluation (figure 1). Focus group discussions, interviews, observations, and review of process documentation were used to gather information. Soil sample analysis and soil deposition measurements were also conducted to calculate changes over the time period.

Figure 1: Participatory technology development process

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3. Results and discussion 3.1 PTD: a process-led approach The PTD process adopted in the study provided important and useful learning to the researchers, scientists, farmers and other concerned stakeholders. The experiences suggest that the documentation of farmers’ traditional knowledge not only ensures incorporation of farmers’ knowledge and perspectives in the technology development process, but also enhances farmers’ empowerment and participation

An important lesson learnt in the PTD

in the process. The initial results also showed that

process is that planning and working with

the farmer experimentation in the PTD process was

farmers needs to happen rapidly and with

more effective than conventional on-farm research in

commitment. Farmers must not feel that a

disseminating new information and technologies to

programme is ‘all talk and no action’.

other farmers in the community. 3.2 Knowledge analysis Sharing farmers’ and scientists’ knowledge with the farming community, and taking researcher farmers to research and demonstration sites, helps farmers to visualise the positive and negative aspects of their practices and to conceptualise new interventions. It also motivates them to undertake their own research. Shrestha (2003) observed that the farmer’s knowledge of soil loss and rainfall is very similar to that of the researchers (figure 2). This acknowledgement and scientific validation of local knowledge encouraged farmers to become more effectively involved in the programme; involving the farming community in various stages of project process ensured continued support in the smooth running of research activities.

Figure 2: Comparison of farmers’ and scientific records on rainfall and soil loss Source: Shrestha, 2003

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The knowledge elicitation strategy and the knowledge analysis process used ensured a systematic acquisition of farmers’ knowledge, while exploring causal links between knowledge and practice, explaining the rationale of current farming practices, and identifying gaps in knowledge and articulation among both farmers and scientists. 3.3 Application of PTD to develop contour hedgerow technologies 3.3.1 Starting from farmers’ traditional practices Traditionally farmers make contour bunds from logs, bamboo or rocks to prevent soil erosion. Furthermore they leave selected trees on the fields during slashing, and protect them during the controlled burning, both for soil conservation and to enhance the regrowth of fallow vegetation after the end of the cropping phase. An example of this is shown in figure 3. This traditional practice formed a good basis to build on for developing modified sloping agriculture land technologies using hedgerows. Figure 3: Traditional practice of contour bunding Sketch by B.B. Tamang

3.3.2 Farmers’ perceptions of the new technology Farmers find the contour hedgerow technology promising since it provides fodder for their livestock, reduces soil erosion, restores soil fertility, and diversifies and increases production. Other farmers in the same villages and nearby areas have already started to adopt the technology on their farms. Many wish to bring more land under this technology, but since much of the land is not registered, they find the investment risk too high. 3.3.3 Impact of the participatory approach on hedgerow design The participatory designing of the hedgerows, through trial and error with a variety of species selected by the farmers, strongly influenced the appearance of the hedgerows, including their sizes and shapes and the distances between the rows. Four designs were tried:

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✓✓ Design 1: bhatmase + coffee + ipil-ipil + banana ✓✓ Design 2: bhatmase + kimbu + tejpat ✓✓ Design 3: bhatmase + ipil-ipil + citrus + pineapple ✓✓ Design 4: bhatmase + kimbu + banana (figure 4)

Figure 4: One of the farmers’ hedgerow designs

Figure 5 shows pictures from the NARC/ICIMOD research and from a farmers’ research site in the vicinity. The latter technique is much more readily adopted by other farmers, even without intervention from the project, because it better fulfils the need of the farmers for food crops and horticultural products and has a flexible design. More importantly, the technology developed by the farmers is much better adapted to the local environment, especially the steep slopes, as was proven when the science-based model was partly destroyed by a landslide.

A

B

Figure 5: Comparison between SALT developed at the research station (A) and hedgerow technology developed in a participatory way (B) with farmers in their own fields

3.4 Scientific evaluation of the participatory hedgerows 3.4.1 Increased nitrogen content in the soil The nitrogen content in the soils increased significantly. Analysis showed that it was higher in the shifting cultivation practice with rotational fallows (0.22, 0.24, 0.27) in the Kholagaun area of Tanahun, than in the shortened fallow with almost permanent cultivation system (0.15, 0.16, 0.19) at the Thumka research site in Gorkha (figure 6).

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Figure 6: Comparison of nitrogen content (%) of the soils in Kholagaun (Tanahun) and Thumka (Gorkha)

3.4.2 Increase in organic matter Analysis of organic matter (OM) and comparison with the baseline data showed that the OM content in the soil increased substantially every year (figure 7). The OM content was higher in the Kholagaun research site than in Thumka.

Figure 7: Comparison of organic matter (OM) content of the soils in Kholagaun (Tanahun) and Thumka (Gorkha)

3.4.3 Soil deposition Soil deposition measurement clearly showed the positive impact of hedgerow technology in minimising soil loss. This soil deposition trend was encouraging and increased gradually at both sites (figure 8).

Figure 8: Soil deposition trends in Kholagaun (Tanahun) and Thumka (Gorkha)

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3.4.4 Fodder production Fodder production from hedgerow species in the area was significant (figure 9a-c). Researcher farmers kept records of the extracted biomass and results showed that biomass production was very encouraging in the area. Most of the interviewed farmers expressed their satisfaction with the amount of fodder they were able to collect. Production varied according to farmer.

A

Biomass production kg/100 m2, Gorkha

B

Biomass production kg/100 m2, Tanahun

C

Average biomass production kg/100 m2

Figure 9: Fodder production trend in research sites (2001-2004) A) Gorkha B) Tanahun C) comparison.

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3.4.5 Other visible impacts Hedgerow species preferences Farmers preferred species that were liked by livestock, can survive well, are fast growing, and have high biomass production (figure 10). Results showed the majority of farmers preferred mulberry, desmodium, napier/NB 21 and ipil-ipil. Sun hemp and Tephrosia were less popular with farmers as they were

No. of respondents

less liked by livestock.

Highly preferred Preferred Medium Not preferred

mulberry

flemengia

desmodium

napier/NB 21

ipil-ipil

sun hemp

tephrosia

Species

Figure 10: Hedgerow species preferred by farmers on research sites

Crop diversity The baseline report indicated that farmers did not have much diversity in crops and that choice was also limited. Only maize-based production systems and associated local varieties were found in the area. After the intervention there was an increase in crop choices as many new and locally adopted and preferred varieties were introduced to the area (figure 11). The results clearly show that the diversity in vegetables, fodder and forage species was higher after the project interventions. Changes in land-use pattern Some changes in land-use patterns were observed in both research sites. Slash-and-burn systems were the major land-use systems in the areas with a maize-fallow (two to three years)–maize+black gram-fallow-maize system in the case of Tanahun, and maize+cowpea-fallow-maize+cowpea in the case of Gorkha. Due to the intervention, new cropping patterns and species emerged. The shifting cultivation system was completely stopped due to new technological options. Intercropping of vegetables with maize became popular in the Gorkha research site. 296


Figure 11: Increase of crops and species diversity in project area 2001-2004

Income status and health improvements Introduction of new crops, improved breeds of goats and other income generation programmes provided income to the farming households. The choice of crops increased, thus making farm work busier with possible sales of products on nearby markets. Vegetable and mushroom production not only increased incomes, but also dietary diversity and so health status. 3.5 Policy advocacy initiatives Any policies related to shifting cultivation and land management affect the livelihoods of shifting cultivators. One of the major problems in the villages described is that the shifting cultivation is not recognised as a form of land use in the country and so land cannot be registered. However, this project raised the issues of land tenure and the rights of shifting cultivators with a wider audience, increasing awareness of shifting cultivation issues among stakeholders. ICIMOD, with support from the International Fund for Agriculture Development, initiated work to establish a platform for the exchange of ideas, and to develop detailed policy recommendations to support the work of the government. 3.6 Adoption and adaptation trends The findings revealed that the following factors play an important role in facilitating the adoption and adaptation of the introduced technologies:

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✓✓ economic benefits, ✓✓ technology generation process; ✓✓ visibility of farmers’ experiments; ✓✓ village resources; ✓✓ flexibility for farmers; ✓✓ involvement of different stakeholders; ✓✓ land-tenure security. Furthermore, farmers were more interested in species that provide multiple benefits and have direct impact in both the short and long term (figure 12).

A

B

Figure 12: Adoption and adaptation trends: (A) Adoption trends of hedgerow species combinations and (B) adaptation trends of technological interventions Note: WHT tech = water harvesting tank; Inter MLV = intercropping with maize, legume and vegetable; Strip Crop = strip cropping; FFP = fodder and forage production and SNBS = slash and no-burn system.

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3.7 Scaling up modalities There are certain conditions under which technologies are acceptable to farmers. Direct and visible benefits, continued technical support and monitoring, integration of various components with cash generating options, awareness raising through strengthening and mobilising farmers and farmers’ groups, government support to the community, and training on technology are some of the fundamentals for creating a favourable environment for farmers to adopt a technology. 3.7.1 Modalities and pathways for scaling up project outputs All the actors must contribute to technology dissemination. The project made use of well presented extension materials (leaflets posters and other materials) to disseminate research outputs to the target beneficiaries. These materials were designed through consultation with farmers, and involved stakeholders,

Key actors

so that they were understandable and applicable. The

• Research farmers

extension materials were distributed to all the concerned

• Local community members

stakeholders. Rural radio networks were also used as a

• Research and academic institutions

means of disseminating good practices.

• Community-based organisations • Government line agencies

The project outputs and relevant achievements were presented in stakeholder workshops along with mechanisms for scaling up and dissemination. Clear roles and responsibilities for each partner are to for successful scaling up. To this end, the following modalities were developed: ✓✓ Modality 1: Mainstreaming: Scaling up through the local development planning process. ✓✓ Modality 2: Integration: Scaling up through ‘integration’ within the conventional extension programmes of local government line agencies. ✓✓ Modality 3: Contextualisation: Scaling-up through networking and collaboration with existing special projects implemented by both public and private sectors (for district, regional and national levels).

4. Lessons learnt 1. PTD creates trust among stakeholders. It helps to build farmers’ confidence, tapping their potential for innovation and initiative; 2. Planning and working with farmers needs to happen rapidly and with commitment; 3. Exposure visits encourage farmers to design trials (‘seeing is believing’); 4. Farmers are reluctant to adopt practices when they have a fear that their land could be lost as they do not have land registration certificates.

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5. Recommendations At local level: 1. PTD should be the focus of interventions as it builds trust among the farmers; 2. Good practices or technologies identified in projects can be scaled up in villages and nearby; 3. Some ‘leader’ farmers could be identified as potential local researchers and these should take a lead role in technology dissemination; 4. Community nurseries should be strengthened. At national level: 1. PTD should be the focus of intervention in the future; 2. Government should be responsible for institutionalising the technologies developed and mainstreaming these within line agencies; 3. Strong networks and linkages among different stakeholders are needed to share experience and information and to promote collaborative learning and actions; 4. Documentation and sharing of technologies will offer more options for marginalised communities and provide a basis for influencing policy makers; 5. Increased security of land tenure for shifting cultivators is needed, and their knowledge and skills should be acknowledged; 6. Shifting cultivation systems should be put under a specified land-use classification system and be managed by the concerned department. International level: 1. Good practices or technologies identified in the projects can be scaled up; 2. Lessons learnt from the project will provide forward thinking for researchers and other concerned stakeholders while activities are ongoing; 3. Coordination and networking should be encouraged between organisations/institutions working in similar fields.

6. Conclusions The PTD approach has proven to be very effective in addressing the ecological and socio-economic problems of Chepang households in the research sites. Farmer involvement was ensured during the entire process: local people were directly involved in testing and developing different SALT and other technological options suitable for the area. The results demonstrate that contour hedgerows can increase the nitrogen and OM content of soils, improve soil texture, and increase soil deposition. It was also observed that the technology is promising in terms of biomass production, increases species diversity, and provides direct benefits to farm300


ing households. Farmers have shown their interest in these interventions and made it clear that the technology is promising for them since it reduces erosion, restores soil fertility, increases production and diversifies production. It was observed that many research and non-research farmers adopted the technology and had already begun scaling it up within their own farms. The level of awareness on the issue of land tenure has increased and government officials have realised the issue is directly linked with the livelihoods of local people. The outcomes of the project demonstrate that modified contour hedgerow technology and other integrated agricultural technological options have great potential for replication and can make a significant contribution to conserving soil and water on sloping and shifting land areas. However, there is a need for strong support and commitment from government institutions and concerned stakeholders in technology dissemination.

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References Aryal, K.P. 2005. Wild and uncultivated food crops: option for livelihood support for Chepang families in Nepal. Paper accepted by the 15th IFOAM Organic World Congress, Shaping Sustainable System Adelaide, South Australia, 20-23 September 2005. Balla, M.K., Awasthi, K.D., Shrestha, P.K., Sherchan, D.P. and Poudel, D. 2000. Degraded Lands in Mid-hills of Central Nepal: A GIS appraisal in quantifying and planning for sustainable rehabilitation. LI-BIRD, Pokhara, Nepal. Carson B. 1992 The land, the farmer and the future: a soil fertility management strategy for Nepal. ICIMOD Occasional paper no. 21. ICIMOD, Kathmandu. Maskey, R.B. 2001. Options for Sustainable Land Management in the Mid-Hills of Nepal: Experiences of Testing and Demonstration of Contour Hedgerow Intercropping Technology. Proceedings of an International Symposium, May 2001, Kathmandu. NARC. 2000. Annual Report (FY 2056/2057; 1999/2000). Regmi, B., Aryal R, and Subedi, A. 2003. Dynamics of Shifting Cultivation Systems and Practices in Nepal. Unpublished technical paper. Regmi, B.R, Aryal, K.P., Shrestha, P.K. and Tamang, B.B. 2002. Baseline survey report of the shifting and slopping land cultivation project. Working paper submitted to HARP. Sharma, C. and Khatri, J. 1995. Slash-and-Burn Agriculture in Makalu and Yaphu VDCs of Makalu Barun National Park Conservation Area Project. MBCPA, DNPWC -report 27. Shrestha, P.K. 2003. Incorporating Local Knowledge in Participatory Development of Soil and Water Management Interventions in the Middle Hills of Nepal. PhD Thesis submitted to School of Agriculture and Forest Sciences, University of Wales,. Shrestha P.K and Watson, H.R. 1994. Sloping agriculture land technology (SALT); A regenerative option for sustainable mountain farming. ICIMOD, Occasional Paper 23. Tang Ya. 1999. Factors Influencing Farmers’ Adoption of Soil Conservation Programmes in the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region. Paper presented at workshop on Issues and Options in the Design of Soil and Water Conservation Projects. Llandudno, UK, February 1999.

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