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Fresenius Environmental Bulletin

FEB - FRESENIUS ENVIRONMENTAL BULLETIN Founded jointly by F. Korte and F. Coulston Production by PSP - Vimy Str. 1e, 85354 Freising, Germany in cooperation with PRT-Parlar Research & Technology Vimy Str 1e, 85354 Freising Copyright© by PSP and PRT, Vimy Str. 1e, 85354 Freising, Germany All rights are reserved, especially the right to translate into foreign language or other processes - or convert to a machine language, especially for data processing equipment - without written permission of the publisher. The rights of reproduction by lecture, radio and television transmission, magnetic sound recording or similar means are also reserved. Printed in Germany-ISSN 1018-4619

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FEB-EDITORIAL BOARD CHIEF EDITOR: Prof. Dr. Dr. H. Parlar Parlar Research & Technology-PRT Vimy Str.1e 85354 Freising, Germany CO-EDITORS: Environmental Spectroscopy Prof. Dr. A. Piccolo 8QLYHUVLWDGL1DSROL³)UHGHULFR,,´ Dipto. Di Scienze Chemica Agrarie Via Universita 100, 80055 Portici, Italy Environmental Biology Prof. Dr. G. Schuurmann UFZ-Umweltzentrum Sektion Chemische Ökotoxikologie Leipzig-Halle GmbH, Permoserstr.15, 04318 04318 Leipzig, Germany Prof. Dr. I. Holoubek Recetox-Tocoen Kamenice126/3, 62500 Brno, Czech Republic Prof. Dr. M. Hakki Alma Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University Avsar Kampusu, 46100 Kahramanmaras, Turkey Environmental Analytical Chemistry Prof. Dr. M. Bahadir Lehrstuhl für Ökologische Chemie und Umweltanalytik TU Braunschweig Lehrstuhl für Ökologische Chemie Hagenring 30, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany Dr. D. Kotzias Via Germania29 21027 Barza(Va), Italy Advisory Board K. Bester, K. Fischer, R. Kallenborn DCG. Muir, R. Niessner,W.Vetter, A. Reichlmayr-Lais, D. Steinberg, J. P. Lay, J. Burhenne, L. O. Ruzo

MANAGING EDITOR: Dr. P. Parlar Parlar Research & Technology PRT, Vimy Str.1e 85354 Freising, Germany Environmental Management Dr. K. I. Nikolaou Env.Protection of Thessaloniki OMPEPT-54636 Thessaloniki Greece Environmental Toxicology Prof. Dr. H. Greim Senatkommision ± DFG / TUM 85350 Freising, Germany Environmental Proteomic Dr. A. Fanous Halal Control GmbH Kobaltstr. 2-4 D-65428 Rüsselsheim, Germany Environmental Education Prof. Dr. C. Bayat Esenyurt Üniversitesi 34510 Esenyurt, Istanbul, Turkey

Marketing Manager Cansu Ekici, B. of B.A. PRT-Research and Technology Vimy Str 1e 85354 Freising, Germany E-Mail: [email protected] [email protected] Phone: +49/8161887988

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Fresenius Environmental Bulletin is abstracted/indexed in: Biology & Environmental Sciences, BIOSIS, CAB International, Cambridge Scientific abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, Current Awareness, Current Contents/Agriculture, CSA Civil Engineering Abstracts, CSA Mechanical & Transportation Engineering, IBIDS database, Information Ventures, NISC, Research Alert, Science Citation Index (SCI), Scisearch, Selected Water Resources Abstracts

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PREFACE The present special issue of Fresenius Environmental Bulletin contains selected manuscripts that were initially presented at the 12th International Conference on Protection & Restoration of the Environment (PRE12) that took place on the Greek island of Skiathos, from June 29 to July 3, 2014. The Conference was organized by the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Thessaly as well as the Department of Planning and Regional Development, University of Thessaly, together with the Stevens Institute of Technology, USA. An international board of environmental scientists comprised its scientific community. This conference, which has been taking place for more than twenty years, is designed to encourage the exchange of ideas and knowledge between diverse groups of the scientific community concerned by current issues in the protection and restoration of the environment. Regarding the conference venue, Skiathos is a small Aegean Sea island, near the mountain of Pelion in mainland Thessaly, which boasts some of the most beautiful beaches in Greece. It is also well known for its rich cultural heritage and numerous touristic facilities. The finally selected papers fall under the most important aspects discussed in the congress in the general context of waste management, sustainable planning, protection and restoration of ecosystems and pollution monitoring. We would like to thank all authors for their worthy contributions to this special issue as well as Parlar Scientific Publications for its undeterred help throughout the handling of manuscripts. We are also thankful to the reviewers for their critical assessment of the submitted articles and we are grateful for the time and effort they sacrificed in order to ensure high standards of published work.

The guest editors Athanasios Kungolos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Vasileios Kanakoudis, University of Thessaly Theodoros Karakasidis, University of Thessaly Chrysi Laspidou, University of Thessaly Christina Emmanouil, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Vasiliki Manakou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

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CONTENTS ORIGINAL PAPERS Es/ZKEDEd>/DWd^^^^DEdK&,zZKWKtZWZK:d^/EdhZ/d/KEÊWZK>D^

1192

Alaeddin Bobat WKdEd/>&KZEZ'z&&//EzEKϮD/^^/KEZhd/KEzZ&hZ/^,DEdK&,Kh^/E'h/>/E'^dKd&KZϭϵϭϵ/E^Z/

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Dusan Ignjatovic, Natasa Cukovic Ignjatovic, Milica Jovanovic Popovic WW>/d/KEK&d,^tdDK>KEdKZZEd^K&d,DEK/d/dh/E>^Ͳ^DW>/E''Z/Ed

1234

Valasia Iakovoglou, Konstantinos Aslanidis, George N Zaimes Z>d/KE^,/W^dtE/ZKE͕^h>&hZ͕E/dZK'EEW,K^W,KZh^/E>tE^'ZKtEKE>ZKh^^K/> /ZZ/'dz^>/',d>z^>/EtdZ

1240

Styliani N Chorianopoulou, Sotirios Nikologiannis, Dionisios Gasparatos, Dimitris L Bouranis ^^KE>WddZE^K&h/E^z^dDK&^/DEdͲtdZͲDZKW,zd^

1247

Vlatko Kastratovic, Zeljko Jacimovic, Miljan Bigovic, Milica Kosovic,Dijana Durovic, Sladana Krivokapic d,ZD>E>z^/^K&Z^/E/^^KE^K>Z^/'EWZ/E/W>^ʹ^^dhz/Ed,^^>KE//KWE^WÊEs/ZKEDEd>Yh>/dz

1271

Vasiliki Kollarou, Antonia Athanasopoulou, George Kollaros, Konstantina Lantitsou ^dZd'/Es/ZKEDEd>^^^^DEdÊ/E^dZhDEd&KZ^h^d/E>^Wd/>W>EE/E' K&tdZhDh>d/KE^/E^

1281

Krunic Nikola, Josimovic Bosko, Milijic Sasa, Ristic Vladica KͲs>KWDEdEEs/ZKEDEd>^Wd/>W>EE/E'

1291

Konstantina I Lantitsou d,s>KWDEdK&^h^d/E>dKhZ/^D/E/dKZ^&KZd,/^>E^K&d,EKZd,ZE^WKZ^Z'/KE/E 'Z

1301

Dimitra Vagiona, George Doxopoulos WZsEd/KE^dZd'zW>EKEZE/E'd,t^d&ZDtKZEd/KE^^KE>sZ/d/KE^/EZ>d/KEdKEhdZ/Ed^͘^^dhzK&>@*UHHN7RXULVP2UJDQLVDWLRQDQG+RWHOLHUV¶ Association, 3. General Masterplan for Skiathos (2010) [36], 4. General Masterplan for Skopelos (2011) [37], 5. Plan for the Spatial and Residential Organisation of Open Towns for Alonnisos (2010) [38], 6. Study on the sustainable development of Skopelos (2006) [39], 7. Study on the sustainable development Alonnisos (2006) [40] 8. Regional Operational Programme for Thessaly (2011) [41], 9. Fieldwork, 10. Opendata (http://geodata.gov.gr/), 11. Communication with relevant authorities/organizations, 12. http://eepf.gr/el/blueflag [42]

The assessment values range from bad (---), mediocre (--) and neutral (0) to good (++) and very good (+++) and the qualitative assessment was performed by the authors, taking into consideration, wherever necessary, the consultation of an expert group. It is noted that: During the assessment of the indicators¶results, both the values of the indicators and a qualitative assessment of the current situation were taken into account. As regards the topics of water supply and energy, where there were no indicator values for the island of Skiathos, only a

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qualitative assessment was performed. The only assessment conducted regarding the geophysical attributes of the islands concerns the forests and the large percentage of forest coverage on the islands. No assessment could be made regarding the rest of the data and therefore WKHVLWXDWLRQZDVGHVFULEHGDV³QHXWUDO´ Indicators S04, S05, S07, E06, E07, E08, E09, E10, E11, E12 present some of the negative impacts on quality stemming from mass tourism on Skiathos, since there are visibly high levels of population density and crowding on the island.

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selected. The sustainability issues in each dimension should be highlighted and the specific sustainability criteria that can be used as a basis for the creation of policies should be identified. A well-defined indicators system that allows for the evaluation of tourist destinations from social, economic as well as environmental point of view is an important instrument that improves the decision-making abilities of local agents and facilitates tourism planning [18]. One of the problems noted in relation to the use of indicators in Greece, is related to the availability of data and the difficulties in their assessment. The best method would be to calculate all indicators for the same time period. This is unfeasible however, since the availability of the data is fragmented in certain cases and the latter do not always refer to the same period. In order to carry out a full study, there should be an integrated timeframe that will facilitate the necessary comparisons. More specifically, in the island area of the Sporades, the collection of data concerning the indicator values was particularly complex and unfeasible in many cases; consequently, the use of several indicators was barred and led to their rejection. Furthermore, the results and conclusions arising from a system of indicators may potentially not fully represent reality, due to unforeseen factors or because the wrong indicators were selected. Thus, for the final conclusions of any study, quantitative data alone do not suffice; a qualitative analysis of the area is also required, along with the activities practiced there. In the case of the Regional Unit of Sporades, an assessment system was set up, aiming to assess the current situation on the islands, both according to the indicator values, and also according to a qualitative assessment by area experts. 7KHH[SHUWV¶FRQWULEXWLRQZHUHWZRIROGRQWKH one hand, they highlighted the essential topics that should be covered by the indicators system and on the other, they assisted in the qualitative assessment. TKHUHVXOWVRIWKHLQGLFDWRUV¶DVVHVVPHQWZHUH then presented in a table, using a qualitative assessment scale from (---) to (+++), to depict the weaknesses and strengths of the islands. Based on this data, proposals were then elaborated concerning ways to LPSURYH DQG HQKDQFH WKH DUHD¶V WRXULVP development. The set of indicators presented here provides a useful start for a monitoring system that contributes to the evaluation of sustainability and eventually planning for sustainable development. Following the evolution of indicator scores in the future monitoring years may provide valuable indications about the social, economic as well as environmental performance of the touristic activities in the examined islands. In any case, the selection, creation and use of suitable indicators are deemed essential in order to depict the current situation and prepare a relevant

Indicator S09 concerning Skiathos differs from the relevant assessment for Alonnisos, since although the indicator values may be somewhat similar, nevertheless Skiathos also has two private health centres. Thus, the healthcare services provided on the island are very good. In Skiathos, an almost equal sharing of indicators that belong to the last four scales of qualitative assessment appears, with a minimum FRQWULEXWLRQRIWKH³EDG´VLWXDWLRQ,Q6NRSHORVWKH situation of the majority of indicators are FKDUDFWHUL]HG DV ³QHXWUDO´ ZKLOH WKH PLQRULW\ DV ³H[FHOOHQW´ OHW DVLGH ³EDG´ scaling). In Alonissos, the situation of the majority RI LQGLFDWRUV LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG DV ³JRRG´ ZKLOH WKH PLQRULW\ DV ³H[FHOOHQW´ DQG ³EDG´ (11.63%). According to the results of this study, some negative signs of mass tourism have already appeared in Skiathos. For example, the number of accommodation beds per resident as well as the number of tourists and holidaymakers per metre of beach coastline indicate the pressures imposed by tourism development. Skopelos is less affected by tourism development, but there are specific sectors, such as transport, energy, water and waste services that should be ameliorated and constantly monitored. Although, Alonissos is the least influenced island by tourism activities so far, special attention should be attributed to tourism planning and development, as the island plays host to the National Marine Park of Northern Sporades, a refuge for rare seabirds, dolphins and the Mediterranean monk seal, monachus monachus. Taking into consideration both the SWOT analysis and the indicators assessment, the following directions are proposed: i) improvement of accessibility of the islands, ii) improvement of DFFHVVLELOLW\RILVODQGV¶UHPRWHORFDWLRQVLQFrease of the number of bus runs, iii) amelioration of tourist infrastructure, iv) implementation of evaluation and monitoring system for hotels, v) improvement of water and solid waste services, vi) support of alternative forms of tourism, vii) collaboration of public and private sector in the marketing sector.

CONCLUSIONS The systematic use of indicators in modern research related to tourism development, proves that their contribution is of particular importance. On the one hand, they produce direct values and conclusions regarding the current situation in the area, country or development model, and on the other hand they produce indirect conclusions, through complex indicators and standards, regarding the future. At the same time, there is an obvious connection between sustainable development and the indicators and criteria on which the latter are 1307

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(2011) The evaluation of tourism destination competitiveness by TOPSIS & information entropy - A case in the Yangtze River Delta of China. Tourism Management 32, 443-451. [14] Blancas, F.J., Gonzalez, M., Lozano-Oyola, M. And Perez, F. (2010) The assessment of sustainable tourism: Application to Spanish coastal destinations. Ecological Indicators 10, 484±492. [15] Logar, I. (2010) Sustainable tourism management in Crikvenica, Croatia: An assessment of policy instruments. Tourism Management 31, 125±135. [16] Spilanis, I., Kizos, T., Koulouri, M., Kondyli, J., Vakoufaris, H., Gatsis, I. (2009) Monitoring sustainability in insular areas. Ecological Indicators 9, 179-187. [17] Lozano-Oyola, M., Blancas, F.J., Gonzalez, M., Caballero, R. (2012) Sustainable tourism indicators as planning tools in cultural destinations. Ecological Indicators 18, 659±675. [18] Blancas, F.J., Lozano-Oyola, M., Gonzalez, M., Guerrero, F.M. And Caballero R. (2011) How to use sustainability indicators for tourism planning: The case of rural tourism in Andalusia (Spain). Science of the Total Environment 412413, 28±45. [19] Castellani, V. And Sala, S. (2010) Sustainable performance index for tourism policy development. Tourism Management 31, 871± 880. [20] Kondyli, J. (2010) Measurement and evaluation of sustainable development: A composite indicator for the islands of the North Aegean region, Greece. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 30, 347±356. [21] Pattersona, T.M., Niccolucci, V. And Bastianoni, S. %H\RQG³PRUHLVEHWWHU´ Ecological footprint accounting for tourism and consumption in Val di Merse, Italy. Ecological Economics 62, 747-756. [22] Hunter C. And Shaw, J. (2007) The ecological footprint as a key indicator of sustainable tourism. Tourism Management 28, 46±57. [23] Blancas, F.J., Caballero, R., Gonzalez, M., Lozano-Oyola, M. And Perez, F. (2010) Goal programming synthetic indicators: An application for sustainable tourism in Andalusian coastal counties. Ecological Economics 69, 2158±2172. [24] Dwyer, L., Cvelbar, L.K., Edwards, D. And Mihalic, T. (2012) Fashioning a destination tourism future: The case of Slovenia. Tourism Management 33, 305-316. [25] Gibson, H.J, Kaplanidou, K. And Kang, S.J (2012) Small-scale event sport tourism: A case study in sustainable tourism. Sport Management Review 15, 160±170. [26] Erdogan, N. And Tosun, C. (2009) Environmental performance of tourism accom-

strategic plan.

REFERENCES [1] Latinopoulos, D. And Vagiona, D. (2013) Measuring the sustainability of tourism development in protected areas: an indicatorbased approach. International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development 7(3), 233-251. [2] Innes, J.E. And Booher, D.E. (2000) Indicators for sustainable communities: a strategy building on complexity theory and distributed intelligence. Planning Theory and Practice 1, 173±86. [3] Bell, S. And Morse, S. (2001) Breaking through the glass ceiling: who really cares about sustainability indicators? Local Environment 6, 291±309. [4] Bosh, P. (2002) The European Environment Agency focuses on EU-policy in its approach to sustainable development indicators. Statistical Journal of the United Nations ECE 19, 5-18. [5] Fasari, Y. And Prastacos, P. (2000) Sustainable tourism indicators. Case-study for the municipality of Hersonissos. International Scientific Conference on Tourism on islands and specific destinations, Chios, Greece. [6] Gudmundsson, H. (2003) Making concepts matter: sustainable mobility and indicators systems in transport policy. International Social Science Journal 55, 199±217. [7] Dhakal, S. And Imura, H. (2003) Policy-based indicators systems: emerging debates and lessons. Local Environment 8, 113±9. [8] Hezri, A.A. (2004) Sustainability indicator system and policy issues in Malaysia: a framework for utilisation and learning. Journal of Environmental Management 73, 357±71. [9] Terrados, J., Almonacid, G. And Hontoria, L. (2007) Regional energy planning through SWOT analysis and strategic planning tools: Impact on renewables development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11(7), 12751287. [10] Doxopoulos, G. (2013) Indicators of sustainable development: the Northern Sporades case study, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Spatial Planning and Development, Thessaloniki [11] Petrovic-Randelovica, M. And Miletic, D. (2012) (No) Competitiveness and Sustainable Development of Serbian Tourism. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 44, 78-87. [12] Cernat, L. And Gourdon, J. (2012) Paths to success: Benchmarking cross-country sustainable tourism. Tourism Management 33, 1044-1056. [13] Zhang, H., Gu, C.L., Gu, L.W. And Zhang, Y. 1308

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[42] http://eepf.gr/el/blueflag

modations in the protected areas: Case of Goreme Historical National Park. International Journal of Hospitality Management 28, 406± 414. [27] Rio, D. And Nunes, L.M. (2012) Monitoring and evaluation tool for tourism destinations. Tourism Management Perspectives 4, 64±66. [28] Garcia-Melon, M., Gomez-Navarro, T. And Acuna-Dutra, S. (2012) A combined ANPdelphi approach to evaluate sustainable tourism. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 34, 41±50. [29] Choia, H.C. And Sirakaya, E. (2006) Sustainability indicators for managing community tourism. Tourism Management 27, 1274±1289. [30] Blake, A., Durbarry, R., Eugenio-Martin, J.L., Gooroochurn, N., Hay, B., Lennon, J., Sinclair, M.T., Sugiyarto, G. And Yeoman I. (2006) Integrating forecasting and CGE models: The case of tourism in Scotland. Tourism Management 27, 292±305. [31] Miller, G. (2001) The development of indicators for sustainable tourism: results of a Delphi surveyof tourism researchers. Tourism Management 22, 351-362. [32] Balezentis, T., Krisciukaitiene, I., Balezentis, A., Garland, R. (2012) Rural tourism development in Lithuania (2003±2010) ² A quantitative analysis. Tourism Management Perspectives 2±3, 1±6. [33] Becken, S. (2008) Developing indicators for managing tourism in the face of peak oil. Tourism Management 29, 695±705. [34] Christopoulou, O. And Petrakos, G. (2012) Tourism Carrying Capacity in the Northern Sporades islands. In 1st Environmental Conference of Thessaly: PRD University of Thessaly, Skiathos, 633-640. [35] Hellenic Statistical Authority, http://www.statis tics.gr [36] Valasa, V.M. (2010) General Masterplan for Skiathos, Region of Thessaly [37] Georgoula, A. And Provoliki, E.E. (2011) General Masterplan for Skopelos, Region of Thessaly [38] Georgoula, A. And Provoliki, E.E. (2010) Plan for the Spatial and Residential Organisation of Open Towns for Alonnisos, Region of Thessaly [39] /HPRQLV Ȃ (2006) Study on the sustainable development of Skopelos prepared by the Network of Islands for Sustainability, available at: www.itia.ntua.gr/dafni [40] 6WHUJLRXOL Ȃ (2006) Study on the sustainable development of Alonissos prepared by the Network of Islands for Sustainability, available at: www.itia.ntua.gr/dafni [41] Regional Operational Programme for Thessaly ǹ¶ 3KDVH 6WUDWHJLF 3ODQQLQJ 'HYHlopment Programming Sector

Received: Accepted:

11.01.2016 12.09.2016

CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Dimitra Vagiona Department of Spatial Planning and Development, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece, e-mail: [email protected]

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A PREVENTION STRATEGY PLAN CONCERNING THE WASTE FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE IN CYPRUS Antonis A Zorpas1,*, Irene Voukkali2, Pantelitsa Loizia2 1 Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Science, Environmental Conservation and Management EnviTech Ltd, (Institute of Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development, Department of Research and Development), Cyprus

2

entails environmental footprints which are rarely sustainable. (ii) Socio-economic reasons: Production of waste appears to be the result of wasting natural resources and these resources are both limited and unequally distributed. (iii) Financial reasons: Reducing the quantities of waste produced means it should be possible to reduce the budget required for the collection, transportation and treatment of waste products, (iv) Legal reasons: The European framework directive on waste requires national WP programmes to be drawn up. According to the Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) [1]WP is considered to be very personal issue, which often goes undetectable (e.g. when shopping) or out of the sight of others (at home), so that there is no descriptive social norm to support it. WP is performed in the privacy of our own home and is personal as it is driven by deeply held beliefs and attitudes rather than social norms. WP strategies available to national authorities fall into three broad categories: (a) information, (b) promotion and (c) regulation. Informational strategies aimed at changing behaviour and informing decisions, include: public awareness campaigns, information on WP techniques, training programmes for competent authorities, ecolabelling, WPinformation on products. Promotional strategies, incentivising behaviouralchange and providing financial and logistical support for beneficial initiative, include:support for voluntary agreements, promotion of Eco design, development and promotion of environmentalmanagement systems, support for reuse and repair infrastructure, clean consumption incentives, promotion of research and development fordeveloping less wasteful products and technologies. Regulatory strategies, enforcing limits on wastegeneration, expanding environmental obligations and imposing environmental criteria onpublic contracts, include:extended producer responsibility policies, green public procurement policies, waste taxes and quotas, these strategies are complementary and can beintegrated with other relevant existing policies[2]. One of the key challenges mentioned in the renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategyfrom 2006 is to improve management and

ABSTRACT Waste prevention (WP) is a cross-cutting area of policymaking and it has direct relevance to a considerable number of already established policy areas, both in the field of the environment (e.g. environmental management systems) as well as specific primarily non environmental areas (such as e.g. innovation policy), which have good potential to decrease the amount and/or the adverse impacts of generated waste, both at EU and Member State levels. The EU Waste Framework Directive, places WP, rather than recycling, as a top priority, and requires Member States to develop WP plans by the end of 2013.WP encompasses a range of policy options and has a broad range of benefits. Targeting at-source waste production, it reduces the amount and toxicity of waste before recycling, composting, energy recovery and landfilling become options and includes measures to reduce the adverse impacts of the generated waste on the environment and human health. The proposedCyprus prevention strategy plancovers the state of the art, the compositional analysis, the WP activities, the WP actions, the WP target and indicators, the methodology for determining the WP as indicated in the proposed paper.

KEYWORDS: prevention, waste management, strategic plan, public awareness, waste reduction, measuring WP.

INTRODUCTION WP means avoiding and reducing the waste we generate, and reusing items instead of throwing them away [1]. The link between economic growth and waste generation is beginning to weaken in the EU [2]. plays a key role in strategic sustainable waste management and is seen as a beneficial waste management option which should be integral to any waste strategy.There are various reasons to be concerned about : (i) Environmental reasons: Municipal waste is merely the final evidence of consumption which

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According to Waste Framework Directive(WFD) article 3, [3] WP are the measures taken before a substance, material or product has become waste, that reduce the quantity of waste, the adverse impacts of the generated waste on environmental and human health or the content of harmful substances. So WP has two distinct aspects: (i) quantitative prevention, i.e. reducing the quantity of waste being produced, and (ii) qualitative prevention, which reduces the impact of waste through prevention/reduction of the hazardous substances in the various products, that will inevitably, become waste at some stage of their life cycle. The long-term goal is for the EU to become a recycling society that seeks to avoid waste and uses waste as a resource. Also, the revised WFD[3] requires that Member States establish, by the end of 2013, national WP programmes (to be evaluated at least every sixth year and revised as appropriate). On article 29(5) the Commission is called to create a system for sharing information on best practice regarding WP and to develop guidelines in order to assist the Member States in the preparation of their WP programmes [3]. Also, the target of the EU Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) [13] is the progressive reduction of biodegradable municipal waste going to landfill, to 35% of the 1995 disposal level by 2020. Prevention of this waste stream obviously contributes to the achievement of this target The Waste Strategy for Cyprus suggests that local authorities and policy makers should now put more emphasis on WP and re-use in order to achieve a reduction of disposal costs, CO2 emissions and a decrease in the demand for natural resources. This WP Strategy Plan supports the overarching Waste Management Strategy for Cyprus from 2014-2020.

avoid overexploitation of natural resources. It set as target to avoid the generation of waste and to enhance efficient use of natural resources. The Sixth Environment Action Programme (2002±2012) VHWV RXW WKH (8¶V NH\ HQYLURQPHQWDO REMHFWLYHV One of the overall goals is to decouple resource use and waste generation from the rate of the economic growth. The programme mentions an overall reduction in the volumes of waste generated through WP initiatives and a significant reduction in the quantity of waste going to disposal. It further encourages reuse and aims to reduce the level of hazard, giving preference to recovery and especially recycling, making waste disposal as safe as possible, and ensuring that waste for disposal is treated as close as possible to its source [2]. WP is a cross-cutting area of policymaking and has direct relevance to a considerable number of already established policy areas, both in the field of the environment (e.g. environmental management systems) as well as specific primarily non environmental areas (such as e.g. innovation policy), which have good potential to decrease the amount and/or the adverse impacts of generated waste, both at EU and Member State levels. In Europe, WP has been a key part of waste management policy. In 2008, it was integrated in the EUlegislation [3]and stated that prevention is the first priority of waste management, being at the top of the waste hierarchy, with a requirement from European member states to produce WP plans. In the UK, the Government has funded a large research program in WP. It includes a review of evidence analysing the behavioural opportunities and barriers in household WP, associated with the effectiveness of various policy measures [4]. The impact of WP campaigns[5], and methods to monitor and evaluate WP through mass reduction and behavioural studies [6], were also developed. Current decoupling indicators of WP were reviewed[7]. This unprecedented government led research initiative has demonstrated the key issues of WP from a behavioural perspective. It is, however, quite critical also to assess the environmental significance of WP as this can reinforce evidence for policy development. In the United States, the US EPA has undertaken a program to support local authorities and waste management organisations to quantitatively assess the consequences of WP on global warming potential (G) reduction with the Waste Reduction Model but does not include other environmental impact categories [8]. Some countries, such as Taiwan [9], South Australia [10] and New Zealand [11] KDYH DGRSWHG WKH WDUJHW RI µµ]HUR ZDVWH¶¶ DV D form of strategic WP. Unfortunately, zero waste, usually has strong relation with recycling as well as most of the times means that wastes can be discharged to landfill (control or uncontrolled) [12].

MATERIALS AND METHODS Figure 1 presents the steps that were followed to prepare the Cyprus prevention strategy plan. The Cyprus prevention strategy plan (in a Governmental Level) covers the state of the art analysis (evaluating the existing waste management system, identification of the main waste producers, waste compositional analysis), followed by the priorities setting per waste producers and main waste stream. Then the National Prevention program was developed covering the WP activities, the WP actions, the WP target and indicators, the methodology to determine the WP. Before the approval of the prosed program a public participation was established discussing several issues.

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FIGURE 1 Steps for the development of the WPStrategy Waste amount (t) 700.000 600.000 500.000 400.000 300.000 200.000 100.000 0 2012

2010

1312

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

FIGURE 2 Waste generation in Cyprus from 2001-2012

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Plastics furnishings WEEE Household Constraction papers products wooden wear Food and drinks quarrying and mine Agricultural-Forest-Fishery 0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

t

FIGURE 3 Waste production per economical sector 2010 [15] TABLE 1 Cyprus average waste compositional analysis [16] Quantity in tonnes

% w/w

Organics Paper package Printing paper Other paper Plastics package Other plastics Metals package Metals Other Glass package Other glass Wood Residual Others ± Inert

237.554 78.995 3.060 32.812 67.841 11.124 13.823 4.514 21.544 406 19.080 68.497 26.614

40.55% 13.48% 0.52% 5.60% 11.58% 1.90% 2.36% 0.77% 3.68% 0.07% 3.26% 11.69% 4.54%

Total

585.864

100.00%

19.6 13.48 2.36 0.77 3.75 3.26 11.69 4.54

> Agricultural-Forest-Fishery > Food and Drinks > Wooden > Wear > Paper products > WEEE (mostly electronic devises) > Furnishing > Plastics. The overall compositional analysis of solid wastes in Cyprus is presented in Table 1[16]. In decreasing order the analysis consists of 40.55% organics (which are products that can be composted), 19.60 %Papers (including package paper, printing papers), 13.48% plastics (mainly packaging materials), 11.69% residuals, 4.54% inert waste, 3.75% glass, 3.26% wood and 3.13% metals (ferrous and non-ferrous). The implemented solid waste management plan (ISWMP) in Cyprus includes the door by door collection from houses or organizations. Recyclable materials (such as, papers, PMD, plastics, glass, batteries, including WEEE mostly electronic

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The annual per capita production of waste in Cyprus is estimated at 468 Kg for residential areas and 670 Kg for touristic areas, while the total waste amount was estimated at the end of 2012 up to 630000t (Fig 2). The MSW are disposed in landfills, five of which are known to be operating currently in Nicosia, Limassol, Larnaka, Paphos, and Paralimni (the last one closed at the end of 2011). Only 75% of the population of Cyprus is served by those landfills. The other 25% (mainly in residential rural areas) dispose of their waste illegally. Figure 3 presents the waste production per economical sector [14, 15, 16]. In decreasing series from the most pollute to the less polluted sector we have: Constriction > Household > Query and Mine 1313

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The WP activities and the proposed WP actions are presented in the Table 2, along with the WP target and indicators per selected group. At the first stage the main waste producers and the main waste streams were identified. The proposed prevention activities have been chosen to be established in selected groups (Public Authorities, Local Authorities, Educational Centre, Agricultural sector, Tourist Activities, Shopping centres / Malls, Construction sector). The prevention activities focus on a public awareness program using social media, newspaper, radio spots, tv spots, mails to selected groups, door by door information, live links, seminars, conferences, advertising in of WP through video walls (which may be establish in football fields) as well as through telephone lines. Also, the activities promote home composting, on which yard and green waste can be composted easily (those wastes in some regions especially the touristic areas comprise 25% of the total waste). The promotional and the establishing of the30 Green Points all around Cyprus will help to collect several waste streams like electrical equipment in a good condition, cooking oils, inert waste, specific demolition waste (like doors, windows etc), furniture etc. Such wastes as electrical equipment can be forwarded to repair stores and get back to the market. Food waste can be collected separately and can be forwarded to biogas production units.

devises) are collected by Green Dot Cyprus (GDC) [17]. GDC is responsible for the first collective compliance system in the Island. GDC covers the gap between the Packaging and Packaging Waste Law (L.32(I)/2002) (according to demand of EU directive 95/62/EC) [18] and the responsibilities of the enterprises that are considered as packaging managers and that must secure the recovery and recycling of their packaging. Also, more than 30 Green Points have been assigned and will be established by the end of 2015(latest 2016) around Cyprus. At the Green Points citizens could deposit specific waste stream like WEEE (refrigerators, ZDVKLQJ PDFKLQHV HWF IXUQLWXUH¶V HWF. Several composted units exist but the organic wastes that are forward for composting are considered to be limited (less than 5% of the total organic waste). Until the end of 2013, 115 illegal landfillsexisted, 113 of them have been closed (the other 2 will be closed by the end of 2015). One waste management plant (WMP) exists which has the ability to treat the wastes that are produced from 2 Districts (Famagusta and Larnaka) whita capacity up to 150000 t/y. One more WMP will be established by the end of 2016 for the District of Limassol and Paphos, with capacity to beapproximately 200000 t/y. The ISWMP includes implementation of payas-you-throw principles and zero-waste management approach in smaller Municipalities [16]

TABLE 2 WP activities and targets per selected groups Waste stream Green waste (General Target 50% after the 6 year) Food waste (General Target 50% after the 6 year) Textiles ± clothes Demolition waste ± Contraction materials Hazardous house hold Plastic Package Toys WEEE Papers cardboard and other paper (main target directly 25%. and 50 % before the first 5 years) Plastic Bottles (500 ml)

Economic sector selected group Local authorities Houses Tourist sector Agricultural Educational Centre Houses Tourist sector

Over all Constructions

Houses Over all Houses

±

Target of re-use prevention 50% 50% 50% 100% 100% 50% 50%

Time Limit to reach the target Directly In 5 Years > 6 years (25%) (50%) (50%) (50%) (50%) (100%) (50%) (50%)

50%

(25%)

(40%)

70%

(5%)

(70%)

(5%)

(15%)

(5%) (10%)

25%

Educational Centre Local Authorities Houses

10% 50% 10% 50% 50% 50%

(25%) (25%) (25%)

(10%) (50%) (10%) (50%) (50%) (50%)

Educational Centre

100%

(50%)

(70%)

(50%)

(25%)

(100%)

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concerns over environmental protection related to tourism and travel. It has been estimated that most environmental impacts created by the hotel industry can be attributed to site planning and facility management, excessive consumption of local and imported non-durable goods, energy, and water, and emissions into the air, water, and soil [19]. These observations have led many interested parties, including academic researchers, to study and criticize the general policies and daily professional practices of the tourism, travel, and hotel industries, their mode of organization, the services they consume and provide, and the resulting environmental impacts. At the same time, the hotel industry has faced increasing pressure to pay appropriate attention to environmental issues. A clean environment is a basic component of quality service and is thus important for the development of travel, tourism, and hotel industries. Sustainable prosperity of travel, tourism, and hotel businesses also calls for the inclusion of environmental protection components in every phase of their business venture, from the preparation and application of site plans and business programs and policies to daily routine practices. The International Hotel Environmental Initiative [21] indicated that solid waste generation is considered one of the most adverse environmental impacts created by several and especially small hotels. Collectively, they produce a vast amount of waste, much of which goes to landfill. Many hotels consider their environmental responsibilities as a secondary objective [19] and take very little action to reduce their environmental impacts [22].The several streams of solid waste generated by the hotels include: plastic, paper, glass, wood, organic (kitchen), old durables, electric and electronic equipment, green waste, clinical waste, hazardous, sands (from the filters of pools), dust, metals, packaging and waste packaging, batteries, solid waste from biological treatment, hazardous from funnels and especially from the kitchens funnels. Due to the absence of a specific waste measuring mechanism, the hotels were not able to provide the exact volume of waste produced per department. As a recommendation, hotels should first incorporate a measuring mechanism in order to obtain the total volume of waste produced. As food waste accounts almost 20% and green waste 19% [19] of the total waste production the proposed general target set out is to reduce food waste up to 50% the first years of the implementation of the proposed plan. The implantation of composting could be a solution to reduce those wastes from landfilling.

WP by Public Authorities. Public Authorities¶ ZDVWHV mainly include papers, PMD, WEEE, furniture, cartridge, batteries. 30 Municipalities and 349 Communities are based in Cyprus (Free part of the island). Local Authorities are the main waste producers according to the statistical services, as the total amount of houses are 309300 houses[14]. The main waste streams that these houses produces are green waste, food waste (both account around 50% of the total wastes v/v) papers, plastics, glass, PMD, toys, clothes, hazardous, WEEE etc. The main proposed prevention activities include public awareness, exchanges items, second hand equipment, and repair stores, home composting etc. WP by educational organisations. Cyprus has 887 kindergarten, primary, secondary schools, gymnasiums and lyceums, 3 public Universities, 5 private Universities, colleges and other institute [16]. All of them count more than of 150000 students. The main waste streams from this sector are papers, food waste, plastic cups, plastic bottles, WEEE, batteries, cartridges, green wastes. However, plastic bottles are considered to be a serious and unsolved environmental problem from this sector, as approximately every student buyone bottle of 500 ml of water during the hours of the lessons, producing more or less 150000 pcs per day (equal to 30000 Kg/d of plastics). The main target is to reduce plastic bottles by 50% the first year of implementation of the Strategy Plan. To achieve this target, public awareness activity must be taken into consideration and refilling water containers must be used. WP by the hospitality industry. Hospitality industries (one very significant player in the waste production) often pay little attention to their environmental responsibilities. Solid waste is a key concern in the hospitality industry. Typically, a hotel guest can produce 1 kg of waste per day that accumulates to thousands of tonnes of waste annually. Cyprus has the ability to guest almost 2 million tourists per season (season last from April to October every year). Many hotel operators have very little interest in reducing, minimizing and/or recycling waste, believing that such activities are too expensive and time-consuming [19]. The most widely tourism development model used in the region is based on seaside summer holidays and attainment of quantitative goals [20]. Tourism provides substantial contribution to local economies by creating employment and investment opportunities, but rapid growth has been the main cause for many adverse social, environmental and economic impacts. Hotels constitute a key element of the organized chain of activity in the travel and tourism industry, and occupy a crucial place in

Measuring WP. Several methods have been used to measure WP, which can be summarised as following: (a) Direct quantification of source reduction, referred on reported measurements of 1315

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6FRWODQG¶V WP Programme has taken a hybrid approach to monitoring and evaluating its programme [27]. Each initiative has a specific monitoring and evaluation stream including attitudinal surveys, web statistics, composition analysis and participation surveys.

changes in waste stream quantities, either by volume or weight. This method includes direct monitoring programs through case studies, audits and/or waste sorting studies. (b) Source reduction cost analysis, which generally incorporates two financial factors: the cost of undertaking the source reduction effort and the savings in purchasing and disposal costs, combined to calculate the realised total costs of the effort. The basic steps include the identification of the source reduction and the direct cost of implementing the source reduction as well as the costs to be measured (such as purchasing, disposal, labour and other relevant factors) before and after implementation of the source reduction. (c) Another measurement technique is the use of indicators (determined on either an economic, resource, or waste basis) to establish both the baseline potential for WP programs and to measure the effectiveness of the program after implementation. Such indicators could include per capita waste generation, per employee waste generation, or tons of waste per wage dollars. (d) Resource productivity ratios are simple measurements of a product or service divided by the resources required to produce the product or service. Each ratio is a measure of the efficiency with which resources are used. For example, product sales divided by raw material costs provide a measure of whether improvements in raw material use are effective. If raw materials are conserved, the ratio of sales to raw materials will be increased. (e) Side management is used for designing approaches to evaluate WP, reliance on existing methods and approaches to the evaluation of WP, as well as the results and costs of evaluations undertaken elsewhere would seem logical[23, 24].The proposed strategy prevention plan includes also the methodology to measure the WP according to Zorpas and Lasaridi proposed method [1]. Although it appears that there are no accepted or standard methodologies for monitoring and evaluating household WP[25], it is clear from analysing the evidence that some consensus appears WREHHPHUJLQJWRZDUGVD³K\EULGDSSURDFK´ [1]. A collective review of the evidence reveals a typical approach comprising: (i) A baseline survey (and or interviews / focus groups); (ii) Householder monitoring ± comprising either self-weighing or observation analysis; (iii) Local authority (or delivery organisation) monitoring ± comprising waste composition analysis, waste audits or tracking waste arising via collection data (this is less frequently done); (iv) A follow up survey (sometimes) qualitative feedback (interviews / focus groups); (v) Depending upon the timeframe and resources, interim surveys are also conducted. Using a suite of well-planned monitoring DSSURDFKHV LV UHFRPPHQGHG E\ :5$3¶V FXUUHQW monitoring and evaluation guidance [26] and it is further reinforced by the literature. Waste Aware

CONCLUSIONS The proposed prevention plan is its early stages and needs time to mature. However, through this prevention plan several priorities were given in order to reach specific targets. These priorities aim to manage waste in line with the waste hierarchy and reduce the carbon impact of waste as well as to develop a range of measures to encourage WP and reuse, supporting greater resource efficiency. Also, through this plan emphasis is given to develop voluntary approaches to cutting waste, increase recycling, and improve the overall quality of recyclable material, working closely with business sectors and the waste and material resources industry and to consult on the case for higher packaging recovery targets for some key materials.

REFERENCES [1] Zorpas, A., Lasaridi, K. (2013). Measuring Waste Prevention. Waste Management, 33, 1047-1056. [2] Guidelines on Waste Prevention Program, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/preventi on/pdf/Waste%20Prevention_Handbook.pdf access on 1 April 2014 [3] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union, 2008. Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives. Official Journal 312, 3±30. [4] Cox, J., Giorgi, S., Sharp, V., Strange, K., Wilson, D.C., Blakey, N. (2010) Household waste prevention ± A review of evidence. Waste Management Research 28, 193±219. [5] Sharp, V., Giorgi, S., Wilson, D.C. (2010) Delivery and impact of household waste prevention intervention campaigns (at the local level). Waste Management Research 28, 256± 268. [6] Sharp, V., Giorgi, S., Wilson, D.C. (2010) Methods to monitor and evaluate household waste prevention. Waste Management Research 28, 269±280. [7] Fell, D., Cox, J., Wilson, D.C. (2010) Future waste growth, modelling and decoupling. Waste Management & Research 28, 281.

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General requirements, objectives and the philosophy of MESST.WIT Transactions on Ecology and Environment, 115, 85- 94. [21] IHEI, (2002).Hotels care: Community action and responsibility for the environment. London, UK: International Hotel Environmental Initiative. [22] Radwan, R.I.H., Jones, E., Minoli, D. 2010. Managing solid waste in small hotels, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(2), 175-190. [23] Springer, T., (1994). Source Reduction Measurement Methods for Cities and Counties, California Integrated Waste Management Board, Sacramento, CA. [24] MWPNY, (2000), Measuring Waste Prevention inNew York City (With Foreword to theWaste Prevention Report Series) New York City Department of Sanitation Bureau of Waste Prevention, Reuse and Recycling, 44 Beaver Street, New York, New York 10004 [25] Waste Watch, (2006), Project REDUCE Monitoring & Evaluation - Developing tools to measure waste prevention. [26] WRAP, (2006), Improving the Performance of Waste Diversion Schemes, A Good Practice Guide to Monitoring and Evaluation [27] Sharp, V., Giorgi, S., Wilson, D.C., (2010). Methods to monitor and evaluate household waste prevention. Waste Management Research 28, 269±280.

[8] USEPA (2006) Solid waste management and greenhouse gases: a lifecycle assessment of emissions and sinks. Washington DC, USA. [9] Young, C.Y., Ni, S.P., Fan, K.S. (2010). Working towards a zero waste environment in Taiwan. Waste Management & Research 28, 236. [10] Zero Waste South Australia (2007) South $XVWUDOLD¶V:DVWH6WUDWHJ\±2010. Benefit Cost Assessment. Volume 1: Summary Report. Melbourne, Australia [11] Ministry for the environment, (2007). Targets in the New Zealand Waste Strategy 2006: Review of Progress. New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand. [12] Gentil, C.E., Gallo, D., Christensen H.T. (2011).Environmental evaluation of municipal waste prevention.Waste Management 31, 2371±2379 [13] Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste. Official Journal L 182 , 16/07/1999 P. 0001 - 0019. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 1999/31/EC [14] Cyprus Statistical Services, 2011 [15] Eurostat, (2010) Municipal waste generated, 1000 tonnes, 1995-2008 (update 11/03/ 2010). Environmental Data Centre on Waste [WWW Document].URL http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/por tal/waste/documents/Municipal_%20waste_%2 0generated_ 1000t_%20update_%20website180112.mht. [16] Waste prevention Strategy for the period 20142020 caring on from Environmental Technology Ltd (2013), www.envitech.org [17] Zorpas, A.A, Lasaridi, K., Abeliotis, K., Voukkali, I., Loizia, P., Fitiri, L., Chroni, C., Bikaki, N. 2014.Waste prevention campaign regarding the Waste Framework Directive. Fresen. Environ. Bull., 23 (11a), 2876-288 [18] European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste Official Journal L 365 , 31/12/1994 P. 0010 - 0023 [19] Zorpas, A., Voukkali, I., Loizia, P. (2015). The impact of tourist sector in waste management plans. Desalination and Water Treatment, In Press. [20] Zorpas, A.A., Tsartas, P., Aristidis, G., Theocharous, O. (2008). Mediterranean standard for sustainable tourism (MESST) -

Received: Accepted:

CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Antonis Zorpas Cyprus Open University, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Environmental Conservation and Management, Lab of Chemical Engineering and ENginering Sustainability P.O.Box 12794, 2252, Latsia, Nicosia, Cyprus Email:[email protected], [email protected]

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ZOOPLANKTON POPULATION SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN RELATION TO NUTRIENTS. CASE STUDY OF LAKE KASTORIA, WESTERN MACEDONIA, GREECE. Niki Matzafleri, Aris Psilovikos*, Antonios Sentas Department of Ichthyology & Aquatic Environment, University of Thessaly, Fytoko st. N. Ionia Magnisias, 38446, Greece

part of Greece (40oǯȃ Ƞǯ( )LJXUH ,WV watershed is approximately 281 km2. The lake covers a surface area of 27.9 km2, has an average depth of 4.4 m and a maximum depth of 9.1 m. The water retention time fluctuates between 1.6 and more than 2 years, due to hydraulic adjustments of its outflow to Gioli torrent, in order to keep a constant water level. Lake Kastoria is a eutrophic, occasionally with signs of hypereutrophication, urban lake that has received sewage for decades. The lake is of polymictic stratification type of mediumhigh altitude, medium depth and suffers from persisting cyanobacterial blooms. The eutrophication process in shallow lakes can greatly change the community structure of aquatic organisms. It is known that eutrophication affects the specific composition of zooplankton through physical and chemical alterations of the environment [1]. Such changes may promote alterations in the quality and quantity of available food for the zooplankton population. The community structure of zooplankton depends on the trophic status of the lake and individual species may reflect the level of eutrophication [2]. In freshwater systems, total zooplankton abundance and diversity vary according to limnological features and trophic state [3, 4]. Furthermore, the status of eutrophication, particularly in temperate regions, is associated with the composition of the zooplankton community [5]. Zooplankton is still not included as biological quality indicator for aquatic ecosystems, according to the implementation of EU Water Framework Directive [6]. Several studies though, have shown its necessity as an indicator of alterations in the trophic dynamics and the ecological state of lakes related to changes in nutrient loading and climate [7]. In order the trophic status of Lake Kastoria to be evaluated, its seasonal patterns of nutrients, chlorophyll-a and zooplankton were examined from January to December 2011. The improvement of the ecological status of a degraded aquatic ecosystem, requires measures that contain monitoring. Such measures, have been taken into account by the international legislation [6].

ABSTRACT In order to evaluate the trophic status of Lake Kastoria, seasonal pattern of nutrients, chlorophyll-a and zooplankton have been examined from January to December 2011. Lake Kastoria is a polymictic lake, characterized by both urban and agricultural activities. It has an area of 27.9 Km2 and is located in the northwestern part of Greece. Forests and seminatural areas are characterized as dominant land use W\SH LQ WKH ODNH¶V ZDWHUVKHG (281 km2) followed by agriculture areas (39%). Urban land FRYHUVRIWKHODNH¶VZDWHUVKHG7KHODNH¶VZDWHU retention time varies due to hydraulic adjustments of its outflow to Gioli torrent. Water samples were collected monthly from 5 sampling sites. The average of the measured values in all sampling sites, was estimated and the seasonal variation is demonstrated. The sequence of dominant zooplankton species groups in Lake Kastoria was Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladocera. Correlation between zooplankton species and nutrient level was established. The chlorophyll-a, an indicator of phytoplankton biomass, reached its maximum during the summer period. The values of total P and total N were also in high values in early spring and early autumn. Concerning chlorophyll-a and TSI indexes values, the trophic status of Lake Kastoria varied from eutrophic to hypertrophic depending on the season. The present study was to investigate the composition and abundance of species of zooplankton in the coastal zone of Lake Kastoria. The diversity of zooplanktonic organisms in lake ecosystem worldwide is a "key" factor of the biological and ecological status of the lake, as links the functioning of the ecosystem, the complexity of the food web and ecosystem stability. KEYWORDS: Lake Kastoria, trophic status, zooplankton, chlorophyll-a, physicochemical parameters

INTRODUCTION Lake Kastoria is located in the northwestern 1318

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measured. For the purpose of classification, priority is given to Chl-a, because this formula (Equation 3) is the most accurate of the three formulas at predicting algal biomass. According to Carlson [14], Total P formula (Equation 2) is more appropriate than Chl-a (Equation 3) at predicting the trophic state during the summer months and SD formula (Equation 1) should only be used if there are no better methods available.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Water samples for chemical analysis were collected from 5 sites (Figure 1) inshore along with in situ measurements of physicochemical parameters. Water temperature (T), Electrical Conductivity of water (ECw) and pH values were measured by probes and transparency using the Secchi Disc (SD). Chemical analysis of nutrients were carried out following APHA 2000 [8] standard methods. For the determination of chlorophyll-a, water samples were filtered through a Whatman GF/A glass fibre filter shortly after collection. Pigment extraction was made in 90% acetone and concentrations of the parameters were determined spectophotometrically [8].

RESULTS The surface water temperatures (T) varied from 3.0 (in December) to 28.3oC (in August) and due to the shallow depth of Lake Kastoria, there was no thermal stratification (Figure 2). Dissolved oxygen (DO) in the surface of the lake fluctuated between 4.2 and 14.2 mg L-1. The minimum values appear through the warm period of the year with an exception in July, when the measured value was the maximum of the year (14.2 mg/l), probably due to high photosynthetic activity (Figure 2). The pH was alkaline throughout the sampling period (7.9±9.1) and the lower values appear mainly during wet periods (Figure 2). The seasonal variation of Secchi Disk (SD), ranged from 0.75 m in September to 4.05 m in December (Figure 2). The highest values may be related to the low phytoplankton biomass, while there was low seasonal variability throughout the year. Factors which favor the turbid water state in Lake Kastoria are the algal biomass and the stirringup of the sediment due to wind and severe rainfall episodes. Concentration of Total P varied throughout the year, with the highest values recorded in summer (Figure 2). In autumn, Total P values were decreased and in winter the lowest values were recorded on the surface. Total P is probably influenced by inflows, algal dynamics and internal loading. During the periods of high water level due to the increased inflows, large amounts of phosphorus are entering into the lake. During the warm period, dissolved oxygen and pH conditions in the sediment ± water interface, enhance the internal loading process, enriching the water column with phosphorus from the bottom. This fact in relation to the low water level, results in high concentrations of Total P [15]. According to studies about European eutrophic lakes gradual reduction of Total P, during autumn and winter, is succeeding the high values of summer period [16]. The higher value of Total P (297.2 ȝg L1 ) was recorded in July and the minimum (6.8 ȝg L1 ) in December.

FIGURE 1 Map of study area [9] Zooplankton samples were collected with a standard plankton net (Hydrobios, Kiel, Germany) with a diameter of 25 cm and a mesh size of 55 ȝm, through vertical and horizontal hauls. Sampling was performed every month in five stations. The samples were preserved in 4% formalin after sampling. The samples were divided into subsamples (1 cc) with a pipette and were measured using an electronic microscope. Species were identified according to [10, 11, 12, 13]. The trophic classification of the lake was estimated by the Trophic State Index (TSI) using &DUOVRQ¶VHTXDWLRQVIRU7UDQVSDUHQF\6HFFKL'LVN± SD), Total Phosphorus (TP) and chlorophyll-a (Chla) [14] as follows (Equations 1,2 and 3):

TSI SD 60 14.41 lnSD

(1)

TSI chl a 9.81 ln chl a 30.6

(2) (3)

TSI TP 14.42 ln TP 4.15


The three index variables, are correlated to each other by linear regression models. Any of the three variables can therefore be theoretically used to classify a waterbody. This is particularly useful in urban lake monitoring programs, where SD is often the only variable that can be inexpensively 1319

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FIGURE 2 Temporal fluctuation of water physicochemical parameters in Lake Kastoria Total N diminished during summer due to increased photosynthetic function (Figure 2). Total N values in the wet period were high, probably due to the nitrogen inputs from the inflows and varied between 84.7 and 220.0 ȝg L-1. During summer

lower Total N concentrations were recorded, ranging from 19.1 to 99 ȝg L-1 as result of biological utilization. Electrical Conductivity (ECw) values fluctuated between 251.6 and 345.6 ȝS/cm, being 1320

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lower during the winter period (Figure 2). The seasonal pattern of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) is presented in Figure 2. The average concentrations of Chl-a ranged between 1.3 and 77.44 ȝg/l reflecting the eutrophic state of the lake [17,18]. The highest concentrations were recorded between late summer and early autumn, when phytoplankton grows favored by the abundance of nutrients, high temperatures and long sun duration. The application of TSI, using the formula of Total Phosphorus (Equation 2) revealed values between 25.8 and 87.9, which classify Lake Kastoria as hypereutrophic. Using the other two formulas of SD (Equation 1) and Chl-a (Equation 3), TSI values ranged between 39.9 to 64.1 and 38.3 to 68.6 respectively, which classify Lake Kastoria as eutrophic. It can be concluded that according to TSI Index values, Lake Kastoria is a eutrophic lake with trends of hypereutrophication (Figure 3).


TABLE1 Zooplankton species found in Lake Kastoria during the present study. ROTIFERA CLADOCERA Anuraeopsis fissa Daphnia cucullata Flinia Daphnia galleata longiseta Polyarthra Daphnia sp. mongolianum Daphnia mongolianum Ceriodaphnia sp. Ceriodaphnia Ceriodaphnia sp. pulchella Polyarthra Bosmina vulgaris longirostris Pompolyx sulcata Bosmina coregoni Trichocerca Diaphanosoma sp. brachyurum Trichocerca similis Trichocerca cylidrica Trichocerca elongata Trichocerca rattus Trichocerca pusilla Notholca squamula Asplancha sp. Asplancha priodonta Ascomorpha saltans Euclanis sp. Euclanis dilatata Lepadella sp. Kellicotia longispina Hexarthra mira Keratella sp. Keratella cochlearis Keratella quadrata Lecane sp. Lecane luna Lecane lunaris Brachionus sp. Brachionus calicyflorus Brachionus forficula Brachionus angularis Brachionus diversicornis

FIGURE 3 Seasonal fluctuation of TSI indexes in Lake Kastoria. Zooplankton samplings in Lake Kastoria revealed 45 invertebrate species, which comprised three groups. A total of 33 Rotifera, 8 Cladocera and 4 Copepoda species, were identified in the study area (Table 1). Based on the number of the species values, Rotifera was the dominant group in the lake (56% of the total species), followed by Copepoda (29%) and Cladocera (15%) (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4 Zooplakton community composition in Lake Kastoria. 1321

COPEPODA Nauplii Copipodites Cyclops vicinus Thermocyclops crassus

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Seasonally, total zooplankton biomass decreased after the summer period, remained low during winter and increased at the beginning of spring. The first peak of abundance in April, was the result of the increased number of Rotifera (Figure 5). Rotifera started to grow at the end of spring and the population reached an abundance of 458 ind/l in April. Regarding seasonal fluctuations, Rotifera seemed to increase its abundance in spring and early summer with most maximum values occurring during summer, in June (694.8 ind/l) and August (705.6 ind/l). Copepoda abundance ranged from 3.6 to 516.8 ind/l in January and June, respectively. Copepoda increased in spring due to their reproduction period. Cladocera exhibited low values during winter, spring and autumn and reached a maximum of 270.6 ind L-1 in July. The most abundant Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda species were Keratella spp., Bosmina longirostris and Copepodites sp., respectively. The composition of the Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepoda groups is shown in Figures 6A, 6B and 6C. Our results showed that temperature was among the main factors correlated with the abundance and variation of the zooplankton community in Lake Kastoria. Water temperature is considered a crucial factor influencing many aspects of the biology and ecology of zooplanktonic organisms [19]. The influence of temperature on several Rotifera species has been well demonstrated [20,21,22,23]. Quantitative responses of the biota to the increased nutrient loading are adequate in a nutrient-limited environment but differ in a wide range in the case of other limitations [24].

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FIGURE 5 Seasonal fluctuation of zooplankton community in Lake Kastoria. The SDEV are given on the bars

FIGURE 6A Community of Rotifera

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Lake Kastoria is a eutrophic system with signals of hypertrophication (during the periods of algal blooms). Low SD transparency recorded during the summer, indicates the absence of the ³&OHDU 3KDVH´ WKXV HQKDQFLQJ HXWURSKLFDWLRQ >@. Previous studies have also highlighted turbid eutrophic conditions in Lake Kastoria, related to high algal biomass [26]. According to the results of this study, chlorophyll-a and total phosphorus concentrations were elevated underlining the anthropogenic impacted environment. Lake Kastoria is considered eutrophic according to [18] and [19], with a trend of hypereutrophication in August, when the maximum annual concentration of chlorophyll±a reached 77.4 ȝg L-1, just above the threshold value of 75 ȝg L-1. Lake Kastoria is heavily impacted by nutrient pollution and anthropogenic disturbance and, as a consequence, has suffered increased filamentous and toxic cyanobacteria blooms in the last few years [27,28]. The low abundance of Cladocera in lake

FIGURE 6B Community of Cladocera

FIGURE 6C Community of Copepoda 1322

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[4] Jeppesen, E., Jensen, J. and Sondergaard, M. (2002) Response of phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish to re-oligotrophication: An 11-year study of 23 Danish Lakes, Aquatic Ecosystems Health and Management, 5, 31-43. [5] Sendecz, S. (1984) A study of the zooplankton community of Billing Reservoir-Sao Paolo. Hydrobiologia, 113, 121-127. [6] European Community Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 (2000) Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy. In: Official Journal of the European Communities, L 327, 1±72. [7] Jeppesen, E., Nöges, P., Davidson, T., Haberman, J. and Nöges T. (2011) Zooplankton as indicators in lakes: a scientific ± based plea for including zooplankton in the ecological quality assessment of lakes according to the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) Hydrobiologia, 676 (1), 279-297. [8] APHA±AWWA±WPCF. (2000) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed., Washington DC, American Public Health Association, 2000. [9] Psilovikos, A. (2012) Documentation Research of monitoring and management of Lake Kastoria. Research Program, funded by ANKO, Research Committee of University of Thessaly. [10] Rylov, V. (1963) Fauna of U.S.S.R Crustacea. Freshwater Cyclopoida Zoological Institute Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Smithsonian Institution and National Science Foundation, Washinghton DC. [11] Ruttner-Kolisko, A. (1974) Plankton Rotifers. Biology Taxonomy (English translation of Die Binnengewasser Vol XXVI Part I: Rotatoria). (6FKZHLU]HUEDUW¶VFKH 9HUODJVEXFKKDQGOXQJ Stuttgart. [12] Alonso, M. (1996) Crustacea Brachiopoda. Serie Fauna Iberica, Museo National de Ciencias Naturales CSIC, Vol7, Madrid. [13] Benzie, J. (2005) Cladocera: the genus Daphnia (including Daphniopsis), p 1-368. In Guides to the Identification of the Microinvertebrates of the Continental Waters of the World. Dumont (Ed.), Vol.21, Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. [14] Carlson, R.E. (1977) A trophic state index for lakes. Limnology and oceanography, 22, 2, 361369. [15] Bengtsson, L. (1975) Phosphorous release from a highly eutrophic lake sediment, Verh. Int. Limnology, 19, 1107-1116. [16] Sondergaard, M., Jensen, J. and Jeppesen, E. (2003) Role of sediment and internal loading of phosphorus in shallow lakes, Hydrobiologia, 506-509, 135-145. [17] Vollenweider, R. (1968) Scientific Fundamentals of the Eutrophication of lakes and flowing

Kastoria probably explains the absence of grazing over phytoplankton [26]. Under these conditions, smaller sized zooplankton species (Rotifera) are able to be fed with bacteria and algae and thus become dominant. In addition, high values of chlorophyll-a concentration was correlated with high Rotifera densities. The small numbers of large Cladocera species in the zooplankton samples, could be an indication of fish predation pressure [29]. It should be considered that the majority of the Greek lakes are characterized by fisheries that are dominated mainly by carp and other small fishes [30]. These can affect the spatial distribution of large Cladocera species. It is accepted that in lakes, where littoral zone is dominated by small fishes, the density of crustacean zooplankton within the macrophyte beds are similar or even lower than the one found in scarce vegetated areas or open water [31]. In addition, in [32] it is highlighted the increasing occurrence of cyanobacteria blooms in Greek lakes and is noted that cyanobacteria are resistant to grazing. This could explain the dominance of small-sized zooplankton species over the larger grazers. This result is not a surprising one, as in eutrophic ecosystems small ± sized zooplankton species tend to dominate [33,34]. Lake Kastoria is a shallow lake, highly influenced from seasonal fluctuations and the amount of nutrients. According to their interactions the ecosystem of the lake changes, necessitating the monitoring of all the physicochemical and biological parameters, especially in summer and early autumn, when the lake appears to suffer from eutrophication. The study of all interactions within the food web, especially the correlations between the abundance of a) phytoplankton, b) zooplankton species, c) macrophytes, which provide refuge to zooplankton and d) juveniles and fishes which constitute the predators, would suggest appropriate measures and practices for the sustainable management of macrophytes and fisheries, in order to improve the trophic status of the lake.

REFERENCES [1] Talberg, P., Horppila, J., Vaisanen A. and Nurminen, L. (1999) Seasonal succession of phytoplankton and zooplankton along a trophic gradient in eutrophic lake ± Implications for food web management. Hydrobiologia, 412, 8194. [2] Rogozin, A. (2000) Specific structural Features of zooplankton in Lakes differing in Trophic status: Species Populations. Russ, J Ecology, 38, 405-410. [3] Pace, M. (1986) An empirical analysis of zooplankton community size structure across lake trophic gradients, Limnology. Oceanography, 31, 405-410. 1323

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[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

Volume 26 ± No. 2/2017, pages 1318-1324

waters with particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus as factors in Eutrophication, OECD, Paris. OECD. (1982) Eutrophication of Waters Monitoring, Assessment and control, OECD, Paris. Wetzel, R. and Likens, G., (2000) Limnological analyses. 3rd edition: Springer ± Verlag New York. Hoffman, W. (1977) The influence of abiotic environmental factors on population dynamics in planktonic rotifers, Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 8, 77-83. Devetter, M. (1998) Influence of environmental factors on the rotifer assemblage in an artificial lake. Hydrobiologia, 387/388, 171-178. Devetter, M. (2011) Seasonal development of planktonic rotifers in Slapy Reservoir (Czech Republic) Biologia, 66(4), 662-668. Akbulut, N., Akbulut, A. and Park, Y. (2008) Relationship between zooplankton (Rotifera) distribution and physicochemical variables in Uluabat Lake (Turkey) Fresen. Environ. Bull., 17(8), 947-955. Huttula, J. and Nöges, J. (1998) Present state and future fate of Lake Vortsjary, In: FinnishEstonian Report: The Finnish Environment, Tampere, Finland. Matzafleri, N., Margoni, S. and Psilovikos, A. (2009) Assessment of Water Quality Monitoring Data in Lake Kastoria, Western Macedonia, Greece. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics, (CEMEPE), Mykonos 2009, Grafima ed., II, 725 ± 730. Moustaka-Gouni, M., Vardaka, E., Michaloudi, E., Kormas, K., Tryfon, E., Mihalatou, H., Gkelis, S. and Lanaras, T. (2006) Plankton food web structure in a eutrophic polymictic lake with a history of toxic cyanobacterial blooms. Limnology and Oceanography, 51, (1), 715± 727. Giannou S. and Antonopoulos V. (2007) Evaporation and energy budget in Lake Vegoritis, Greece. Journal of Hydrology, 345, 212-223. Moustaka-Gouni M., Vardaka E. and Tryfon E. (2007) Phytoplankton species succession in ashallow Mediteranean lake (L. Kastoria Greece): steady-state dominance of Limnothrix, redekei, Microcystis aeruginosa and Cylindrospermosis raciborskii, Hydrobiologia, 575, 129-140. Jeppesen, E., Jensen, J., Sondergaard, M. and Lauridsen, T. (1999) Trophic dynamics in turbid and clear water lakes with special emphasis on the role of zooplankton for water clarity. Hydrobiologia, 408(409), 217-231. Kagalou, I. and Leonardos, I. (2009) Typology,


[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

classification and management issues of Greek lakes: implication of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 150, 469-484. ǿglesias, C., Goyenola, G., Mazzeo, N., Meerhoff, M., Rodo, E. and Jeppesen, E. (2007) Horizontal dynamics of zooplankton in eutrophical Lake Blanca (Uruguay) hosting multiple zooplankton predators plant refuges. Hydrobiologia, 584, 174-189. Vardaka, E., Moustaka-Gouni, M., Cook, C. and Lanaras, T. (2005) Cyanobacteria blooms and water quality in Greek water bodies, Journal of Applied Physiology, 17, 391-401. Michaloudi, E. (2000) Search of the hydrological parameters in Lake Kastoria, Choice of the best method for restoration of its ecological balance. Research Committee, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Stefanidis, K. and Papastergiadou, E. (2010) Influence of hydrophyte abundance on the spatial distribution of zooplankton in selected lakes in Greece. Hydrobiologia, 656, 55-65.

Received: Accepted:

11.01.2016 12.09.2016

CORRESPONDING AUTHOR Aris Psilovikos Department of Ichthyology & Aquatic Environment, University of Thessaly, Fytoko st. N. Ionia Magnisias, 38446, Greece e-mail: [email protected]

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AUTHOR INDEX A Aslanidis, K.

1234

Athanasopoulou, A.

1271

B Bigovic, M. Bobat, A. Bouranis, D.L.

1247 1192 1240

Budaiova, Z. Burdova, E.K.

1225 1225

C Chorianopoulou, S.N.

1240

D Doxopoulos, G.

1301

Durovic, D.

1247

E Efthimiou, G.S.

1263

Estokova, A.

1225

G Gasparatos, D.

1240

I Iakovoglou, V. Ignjatovic, D.

1210, 1234 1201

Ignjatovic, N.C. Ioannou, K.

1201 1210

J Jacimovic, Z.

1247

Josimovic, B.

1281

K Kastratovic, V. Kollaros, G. Kollarou, V. Kosovic, M.

1247 1271 1271 1247

Koutalakis, P. Krivokapic, S. Krunic, N.

1210 1247 1281

L Lantitsou, K. Lantitsou, K.I.

1271 1254, 1291

Loizia, P.

1310

M Matzafleri, N.

1318

Milijic, S.

1281

N Nikologiannis, S.

1240

P Panagiotakis, G.D. Psilovikos, A.

1254 1318

Popovic, M.J.

1201

R Ristic, V.

1281

S Sentas, A.

1318

Singovszka, E.

1216

V Vagiona, D. Vilcekova, S.

1301 1225

Voukkali, I

1310

1325

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Z Zaimes, G.N. Zelenakova, M.

1210, 1234 1216

1326

Zorpas, A.A. Zvijakova, L.

1310 1216

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SUBJECT INDEX

A applications

1192

B Bioclimatic design

1254

bioconcentration

1247

C calcareous soil Ceratophyllum demersum chlorophyll-a climate change

1240 1247 1318 1234

CO2 emission cold/warm season grasses container effect Cu

1201 1240 1234 1247

D dbh

1263

E eco-development elevation gradient energy efficiency

1291 1234 1201

environment Environmental Impact Assessment environmental impact assessment (EIA)

F Fe

1240

flood mitigation measures

1216

G Greenhouse

1254

H historic buildings hydrologic modeling

1201 1210

hydropower projects

1192

I indicators

1301

indoor environment

1225

L Lake Kastoria

1318

Lemna minor

1247

M measuring WP.

1310

monitoring

1225

N Nea Madytos Northern Sporades

1263 1301

nutrition status index

1240

O office

1225

P particulate matter Passive solar systems Phragmites australis physicochemical parameters Plants PM0.5 - PM10

1225 1254 1247 1318 1271 1225

prevention problems Protected area protected areas protection of water accumulation basins public awareness

1310 1192 1263 1210 1281 1310

R refurbishment regeneration

1201 1234

risk analysis risk index

1216 1216

1327

1271, 1291 1192 1216

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Residential building stock Riparian Forest

1201 1263

runoff

1210

S S seedling growth. seedling production Skadar Lake Space design spatial planning spatial planning (regional, urban)

1240 1234 1234 1247 1271 1281 1291

strategic environmental assessment strategic plan streamflow structure sustainable tourism development SWOT analysis

1281 1310 1210 1263 1301 1301

T the Republic of Serbia. Thermal analysis torrents total PM

1281 1254 1210 1225

Trombe wall trophic status Turkey

1254 1318 1192

U Urban green space

1271

V Volvi lake

1263

W waste management

1310

waste reduction

1310

Z zooplankton

1318

1328

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