JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind
FOOD SUPERSTITION, FEEDING PRACTICES AND NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY OF PREGNANT WOMEN A.N. Maduforo and O.I.C. Nwosu Department of Nutrition and Dietetics Medical Service Subsector, PHCN Staff Clinic, Maitama, Abuja, Nigeria C.I. Ndiokwelu Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu and P.N. Obiakor-Okeke Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State University Owerri Imo State, Nigeria E-mail:
[email protected]
Abstract The survey assessed the food superstition, feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry of pregnant women attending ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, Nigeria. This survey was embarked upon to identify the superstitions held on food during pregnancy among pregnant women attending ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, to determine their acceptance of these superstitions and to assess their feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry. Structured and validated questionnaires were used to obtain information on the socio-economic characteristics, food superstitions and feeding practices of the subjects. Anthropometric indices of the subjects were also assessed using weighing scale, height measuring rod and tape. The data was analyzed using the SPSS version17 to determine the means with their standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages as well as drew charts. The result of the survey shows that the mean weight and height of the subjects were 77.47 ± 12.23kg and 1.66 ± 0.06m respectively. Their mean wrist circumference was 16.17 ± 0.99cm. Also, the mean frame size and mean expected weight were 10.30 ± 0.60 and 66.97 ± 7.91 respectively. Food superstitions were held on foods like fufu, beans, snail, cocoa drink, okro, dika nut, etc. Conclusively, this research has revealed that 29% acknowledged that there is still an existence of food superstition among pregnant women that attend ante-natal in UNTH Ituku/Ozalla and about 19% of them still practice it. The feeding pattern of this 19% was being affected by these superstitions. Their nutritional status is certainly determined by what they eat because "we are what we eat". However, about 42% had normal expected body weight while 58% of pregnant women were malnourished. Hence, I recommend that nutrition education be intensified in ante-natal clinics and different villages in Nigeria to help teach pregnant women on healthy food selection and importance of nutrition before, during and after pregnancy. Keywords: Food superstition, nutritional anthropometry, pregnant women Introduction Superstition is a belief or practice generally regarded as irrational and as resulting from ignorance or from fear of the unknown. It implies a belief in unseen and unknown forces that can be influenced by objects and rituals. Magic or sorcery, witchcraft, and the occult in general are often referred to as superstitions (John, 2009). In general, superstitious practices and beliefs are most common in situations involving a high degree of risk, chance, and uncertainty, and during times of personal or social stress or crisis, when events seem to be beyond human control. The question of what is or is not superstitious, however, is relative. One person’s beliefs can be another’s superstitions. All religious beliefs and practices may be considered superstition by unbelievers, while religious leaders often condemn unorthodox popular practices as a superstitious parody of true faith (John, 2009).
Taboo food and drink are food and beverages which people abstain from consuming for religious, cultural or hygienic reasons. Many food taboos forbid the meat of a particular animal, including mammals, rodents, reptiles, amphibians, bony fish, and crustaceans. Some taboos are specific to a particular part or excretion of an animal, while other taboos forgo the consumption of plants, fungi, or insects (John, 2009). All communities have their own cultural (traditional) pattern. The cultural pattern of a group is based on learned behaviour, acquired partly by deliberate instruction on the part of parents, but mostly subconsciously by incidental observation of the behaviour of relatives and other close members of the community (Ogbeide, 1974). Food taboos can be defined as rules, codified or otherwise, about which foods or combinations of foods
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may not be eaten and how animals are to be slaughtered. The origins of these prohibitions and commandments are varied. In some cases, these taboos are a result of health considerations or other practical reasons. In others, they are a result of human symbolic systems. Some foods may be prohibited during certain festivals (e.g., Lent), at certain times of life (e.g., pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g., priests), although the food is in general permissible (John, 2009) Traditional beliefs and attitudes influence women’s health. Even when women have access to appropriate healthcare, they often prefer home/community based care. Women’s overall health and nutritional status, pregnancy outcomes and other reproductive health problems are considered to be the major biological causes of maternal mortality; therefore, the overall nutritional status of a pregnant woman is principally determined by the feeding practices and care facilities available to her (Saba, 1996). Statement of the problem The problem of malnutrition among pregnant women poses a great challenge to nutritionist and the health sector as well as to the government. Malnutrition of the mother does not just affect the pregnant woman only but also has a devastating effect on the foetus (unborn child). Malnutrition has ranked as the major cause of maternal mortality and it is a major determinant of a successful pregnancy and a healthy well nourished baby. According to UNICEF (2009), each year, more than half a million women die from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth. Nearly 4 million newborns die within 28 days of birth. Millions more suffer from disability, disease, infection and injury. The lifetime risk of maternal death for a woman in a least developed country is more than 300 times greater than for a woman living in an industrialized country. Africa and Asia account for 95 percent of the world’s maternal deaths, with particularly high burdens in SubSaharan Africa (50 percent of the global total) and South Asia (35 percent). These statistics above showed while it is important that the major avoidable causes of maternal mortality and adverse pregnancy outcome are eliminated by looking into the feeding practices of women due to their traditional belief and taboos and also to determine its effect on their nutritional status. Methodology Study area The study was carried out in University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu. It is a tertiary health institution that offers services which include training of medical and paramedical students, graduates and practitioners, research and treatment and management for both in-patients and out-patients.
Data collection Structured and validated questionnaire was used to collect data. The questionnaire was designed to elicit information on personal, socio-economic status, food taboos, beliefs and feeding practices of the women. The literate women were given the questionnaire to fill while the illiterate ones were interviewed from the questionnaires and the answers recorded. During the data collection, I visited the ante-natal clinic of UNTH Ituku/Ozalla on their ante-natal days to meet with the pregnant women and randomly collect samples. Anthropometric measurement Weights of the pregnant women were obtained using portable body weight measurement scale (kg). Height measurement was obtained using measurement tape in centimetres (cm). Weight The actual weight was determined with a bathroom weighing scale. The weighing scale was checked and adjusted if need be to the zero mark before the subjects mounted the scale and their weight was recorded. Height Heights were measured with a vertical measuring rod calibrated in centimetres (cm). The subject stood erect looking straight on a levelled surface with heels together and toes apart, without shoes. The moving head piece of the measuring rod was lowered to rest flat on the top of head and the reading was taken to the nearest centimetre. Wrist circumference The wrist circumference was measured using a cloth tape wrapped around the bony part of the wrist (anatomical point) and the reading was taken to the nearest centimetre. Frame size The frame size was determined using the measure height and wrist circumference. Basically, frame size is categorized into three; 1. Small frame: when the calculated frame size value is greater than 11.0 (FS>11.0) for females 2. Medium frame: when the calculate FS value is between 10.1 – 11.0 (FS = 10.1 – 11.0) for females 3. Large frame: when the calculated FS value is less than 10.1 (FS3 How often they take snacks (eg: meat pie) Daily 1 – 2 times a week 3 – 4 times a week Rarely Meal(s) they usually skipped Breakfast Lunch
28
28
18 21 9 52
18 21 9 52
6 2
6 2
Dinner
1
1
None
91
91
Total Reasons for skipping meals Limited fund Fear of vomiting Insufficient time to prepare meals Lifestyle Tiredness Do not want my child to be too big
100
100
0 2 0 6 0 1
0 2 0 6 0 1
No response
91
91
How often they eat fruits and vegetables Daily
53
53
1 – 2 times a week
12
12
3 – 4 times a week Rarely
25 10
25 10
Daily
79
79
1 – 2 times per week 3 – 4 times per week
9 6
9 6
Rarely
6
6
Those that considered they should change their food habit Yes
29
29
No
71
71
How often they take their routine drugs
Table 4, showed the feeding pattern of the respondents, 53% takes fruits and vegetables daily, 9% skip meals and 6% rarely take their supplements.
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Table 5: The Incompatible lifestyles of The Pregnant Women Parameter Frequency Those on weight reducing diet Yes 7
Percentages 7
No
93
93
Total
100
100
Their smoking history Current smoker Ex – smoker Never smoked Those that take coffee often
1 0 99
1 0 99
Yes
1
1
No How often they take alcohol take alcohol Daily
99
99
3
3
1 – 2 times a week
3
3
3 – 4 times a week
0
0
Rarely
27
27
Not at all Quantity of alcohol per day 1 bottle per day 2 bottle sper day 3 bottles per day Above 3 bottles per day
67
67
11 0 1 0
11 0 1 0
1 glass per day No response Type of alcohol taken Beer
21 67
21 67
8
8
Kaikai
0
0
Palmwine Others
14 11
14 11
No response
67
67
Daily
79
79
1 – 2 times per week 3 – 4 times per week
9 6
9 6
Rarely
6
6
0 1
0 1
How often they take their routine drugs
Do you suffer from any chronic disease Diabetes mellitus Hypertension
Anaemia 0 0 Arthritis 3 3 None 96 96 In table 5, the incompatible lifestyles with pregnancy among the respondents as well as different diseases they suffer from were revealed. Seven percent (7%) are on weight reducing diet, 1% smokes and 67% do not take alcohol at all. Table 6: Anthropometric Parameters of the Pregnant Women Parameter Mean±SD
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Range
JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind
Weight (Kg)
77.47±12.23
60.00 – 120.00
Height (M)
1.66±0.06
1.51–1.84
Wrist Circumference (cm)
16.17±0.99
14.00 –19.00
Expected Weight (Kg)
66.97±7.91
49.00 –86.00
Frame Size
10.30±0.60
8.17 –11.77
As presented in table 6, the mean weight and height of the subjects were 77.47 ± 12.23kg and1.66± 0.06m respectively. Their mean wrist circumference was 16.17 ± 0.99cm. Also, the mean frame size and mean expected weight were 10.30 ± 0.60 and 66.97 ± 7.91 respectively.
Existence, acceptance and practice of foods superstition by pregnant women Most women (71%) said there are not food superstitions during pregnancy. However, some women (29%) admitted the existence of food superstition in pregnancy in the various communities. The food superstitions here was in line with a similar research published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition on the topic “Nutritional Hazards of Food Taboos and Preferences in Mid-West Nigeria” by Ogbeide (1994) which revealed the following food taboos in: Meat – are not to be eaten by children because it makes them acquire excessive food habits which they cannot afford unless they steal. Eggs – not to be eaten by children because it makes them steal. Liver – not to be eaten by children because it causes abscess of the liver. Milk – not to be eaten by children because it makes them to develop bad habit. Coconut Milk – not to be eaten by children because it renders them unintelligent. Snail – not to be eaten by pregnant women because it causes excessive salivation in the newborn baby. Porcupine – not to be eaten by pregnant women because it causes delay in labour. Oil – not to be eaten by newly delivered mothers because it causes jaundice in babies.
Also it important to report that 42% of the women were within normal expected body weight while 3% were underweight and 55% overweight Discussion Socio-economic characteristics of the subjects The age of the women ranged from 15 to 50 years. The highest number 58 (58%) of the pregnant women were within the age range of 21 - 30 years, It is also important to note that although the incidence of teenage pregnancy among the respondents was very low; about 1% of the women are teenagers, which belong to the age range of 15 - 20 years. Contrary to a similar study carried out in Ganye L.G.A. in Adamawa state where the incidence of adolescent pregnancy was very high. The result of the study in Ganye showed that prevalence of adolescent pregnancy in Ganye was 51%. The research revealed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy in each of the tribe sampled which showed 84.61% for Hausa, 63.15% for Fulani, 43.54% for Chambas and 33.33% for others (Maduforo & Ojebode, 2011). This however, is of a great concern in that nourishing a growing foetus adds to a teenage girl's nutrition burden, especially if her growth is still incomplete. Simply being young increases the risks of pregnancy complications independent of important socio-economic factors (Klein et al., 2005).
It is important to note therefore that the customs that prohibit consumption of certain nutritionally valuable foods may not have an important overall nutritional impact, particularly if only one or two food items are affected. Some societies, however, forbid such as wide range of foods to women during pregnancy that it is difficult for them to obtain a balanced diet.
Another important factor to note here was that the highest number 58 (58%) attended tertiary institution and 33% attended secondary school, still amongst these groups food superstitions were being practiced. A common saying that says "Knowledge is power" was being demonstrated which revealed that although these women attended school but they lack the correct nutrition knowledge and wisdom which the inability to apply the knowledge in everyday life this however is a very serious threat to adequate nutrition. Poverty and shortage of nutritious foods are of the most important factors related to malnutrition. Everyone needs nutrition education to fight malnutrition (Okoli, 2009).
Among the 29% that admitted it, 65.52% accepted these superstitions and practiced it. It quite unveiling that among those that accepted and practices these superstitions 68% of them were educated at least they have attended tertiary institution while the rest 32% attended secondary school. This is quite important to note that being educated in a particular discipline do not guarantee that one has a good nutritional knowledge. Acquiring knowledge is required that one gets it from the right source, i.e. somebody who is trained in that area. In table 2, different foods, meats and drinks that are held in superstition for various reasons were listed. The
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result shown revealed that fufu (akpu), beans, beverages (cocoa drinks) and malt were attached with a superstition that they believed it results to overweight child. Most of these foods such as fufu, beverages and even malt are good sources of carbohydrate and energy in the south-eastern part of Nigeria where this research was carried out. Pregnancy imposes greater need for energy in the body hence, when all these easy sources of energy foods are forbidden, the women would find little to select food from and hence, monotonous feeding will set in. Furthermore, cocoa drunks/beverages like milo were believed to result to overweight baby while it is an important fast food for breakfast in Nigeria. It contains energy and protein and never results to overweight baby except if consumed excessively.
Also, there is a superstition, snail, beans, bush meat (Grass cutter), and pork that are good sources of protein especially beans that is easily affordable. Also, bush meat has very high biological value protein and it is common in Enugu that their consumption could ameliorate the problem of protein deficiency and even other nutrients present in meats and beans. Donkey meat and snake were forbidden but they are not easily available so even when there were no superstitions attached, a pregnant woman might not even see it. However, the beliefs placed on them are not scientifically proven. Three leave yam (Dioscorea dumetorum) (Una) had been forbidden without any reason. However its consumption had not been proven detrimental both to the mother or child. Okro, dika nut and snail also had superstitions attached to them. They believed that this causes the child to salivate excessively. This is completely a wrong superstition because okro is a good source of micronutrient; dika nut is common soup thickeners that contain micronutrients as well as protein. Cold water was also said to cause pneumonia for the child, this as well is wrong information. Pneumonia is cause by bacteria and not water born disease. It is important for a pregnant woman to drink enough water of any type to replenish fluid loss. Honey was said to make the baby have soft head and spots on the skin, however, the complexion off a child of any mark is not as a result of what the mother ate but genetically determined. Bitter kola, coffee, smoking and alcohol were other things that were found to be forbidden for pregnant women. According to Odebunmi et al. (2009) bitter kola (Garcinia cola) is also known as African wonder nut. It comes from Garcinia cola trees, which belongs to the family Clusiaceae and grows in coastal rainforests in the South Western and South Eastern parts of Nigeria. Traditionally, these nuts were chewed as a masticatory substance, to stimulate the flow of saliva (Leakey, 2001) but are now widely consumed as snack
in West and Central Africa. The kernels of the nuts are widely traded and eaten as a stimulant (Leakey, 2001; Omode et al., 1995). Bitter kola is also rich in caffeine and threobromine and is also believed to be an aphrodisiac. Unlike other kola nuts however, bitter kola is believed to clean the digestive system, without side effects such as abdominal problems, even when a lot of nuts are eaten (Onochie and Stanfield, 1960). In folk medicine, bitter kola is dried, ground and mixed with honey to make a traditional cough mixture. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause irreversible mental and physical retardation of the Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Of the leading causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only one that is totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon generally urges all pregnant women to refrain from drinking alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2004). Also coffee has high content of caffeine. Caffeine crosses the placenta, and the developing foetus has a limited ability to metabolize it. Research studies have not proved that caffeine (even in high doses) causes birth defects in human infants (as it does in animals), but some evidence suggests that heavy use increases the risk of foetal death (Bech, 2005). (In these studies, heavy caffeine use is defined as the equivalent of eight or more cups of coffee a day). All things considered, it is most sensible to limit caffeine consumption to the equivalent of a cup of coffee or two 12 ounce cola beverage a day. Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco at any time exert harmful effects, and pregnancy dramatically magnifies the hazards of these practices. Smoking restricts the blood supply to the growing fetus and thus limits oxygen and nutrient delivery and waste removal. A mother who smokes is more likely to have a complicated birth and a low-birth weight infant. Indeed, of all preventable causes of low birth weight in the United States, smoking is at the top of the list. Although, most infants born to cigarette smokers are low birth weight, some are not, suggesting that the effect of smoking on birth weight also depends in part, on genes involved in the metabolism of smoking toxins (Wang, 2002). In addition to contribution to low birth weight, smoking interferes with lung growth and increases the risk of respiratory infections and childhood asthma (Difranza et al., 2004). It can also cause death in an otherwise healthy fetus or newborn. A positive relationship exists between Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and both cigarette smoking during pregnancy and postnatal exposure to passive smoke (Difranza et al., 2004). Smoking during pregnancy may even harm the intellectual and behavioural development of the child later in life. According to Ellie and Sharon, (2008), the
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following complications are associated with smoking during pregnancy; Foetal growth retardation Low birth weight Complications at birth (prolonged final stage of labour) Misallocation of the placenta Premature separation of the placenta Vaginal bleeding Spontaneous abortion Foetal death Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Middle ear diseases Cardiac and respiratory diseases. Infants of mothers who chew tobacco also have low birth weights and high rates of foetal deaths. Any woman who smokes cigarette or chews tobacco and is considering pregnancy or who is already pregnant should try to quit. Feeding pattern of the women Table 4; showed that 63% of the women eat 3 meals per day which is the highest while most of the women do not skip any meal, 91% of them, however, the meal they most frequently skip is breakfast (6%) and lunch (2%), while supper showed to be 1%. Nutritional status is the outcome of food consumed, absorbed and utilized by the body. Hence, weight-loss dieting, even for short periods, is hazardous during pregnancy. Lowcarbohydrate diets or fasts that cause ketosis deprive the fetal brain of needed glucose and may impair cognitive development. Regardless of pre-pregnancy weight, pregnant women should never intentionally loose weight (Ellie & Sharon, 2008). Another important parameter in table 4 is their intake of fruits and vegetables, which is the richest way of meeting the needs of micro-nutrients like vitamins and minerals. Only 53% actively engage in daily consumption of fruits and vegetables while 10% rarely consume it. Another way of meeting these needs is by taking their vitamin supplements daily. But however, about 6% rarely engage in the act while 79% rightly take their supplements daily. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause irreversible mental and physical retardation of the Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Of the leading causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only one that is totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon generally urges all pregnant women to refrain from drinking alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2004).
The incompatible lifestyles of the pregnant women Table 5 showed that about 7% were on weight reducing
diet, 1% smoked, 1% took coffee often and 33% took alcohol. Krummel (2007) posits that weight-loss dieting during pregnancy is never advisable. Overweight women should try to achieve a healthy body weight before becoming pregnant, avoid excessive weight gain during pregnancy, and postpone weight loss until after childbirth. Weight loss is best achieved by eating moderate amounts of nutrient-dense foods and exercising to loose body fat. Smoking cigarettes and chewing tobacco at any time exert harmful effects, and pregnancy dramatically magnifies the hazards of these practices. Smoking restricts the blood supply to the growing fetus and thus limits oxygen and nutrient delivery and waste removal. A mother who smokes is more likely to have a complicated birth and a low-birth weight infant. The Federal Ministry of Health warns that smokers are liable to die young yet a percentage of the women smoked which may be harmful to the foetus, 99% never smoked. Caffeine crosses the placenta, and the developing foetus has a limited ability to metabolize it. Research studies have not proved that caffeine (even in high doses) causes birth defects in human infants (as it does in animals), but some evidence suggests that heavy use increases the risk of foetal death (Bech, 2005). (In these studies, heavy caffeine use is defined as the equivalent of eight or more cups of coffee a day). All things considered, it is most sensible to limit caffeine consumption to the equivalent of a cup of coffee or two 12 ounce cola beverage a day. Only a percentage of the pregnant women take coffee while 99% don’t take coffee at all. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause irreversible mental and physical retardation of the Fetus-Fatal alcohol Syndrome (FAS). Among the leading causes of mental retardation, FAS is the only one that is totally preventable. To that end, the surgeon generally urges all pregnant women to refrain from drinking alcohol (United States Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 2004). Table 5 also reveals that up to 6% of the women drink alcohol within the week, of these, 3% drinks daily, 3% drinks 1 - 2 times in a week. About 67% of the women do not drink alcohol at all. The quantity of alcohol taken mostly by the pregnant women was seen to be a glass per day (21%), seconded by a bottle per day (11%). According to table 5 palmwine (14%) was the most favourite of the women while beer (11%) was the least. Pregnant women who suffered from chronic diseases were very few. Some women develop hypertension during the second half of pregnancy. Most often, the rise in blood pressure is mild and does not affect the pregnancy adversely. Blood pressure usually returns to normal during the first few weeks after childbirth. This transient hypertension of pregnancy differs from the life-threatening hypertensive diseases of pregnancy – preeclampsia and eclampsia (Ellie & Sharon, 2008). Only a percentage of
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the women had hypertension. However, 3% of the women had arthritis. Majority (96%) had none of the chronic diseases. Nutritional status of the pregnant women figure 9 showed that 42% of the women were within the range of expected body weight while 55% were overweight and 3% were underweight. This statistics is abnormal and needs an urgent intervention. Surkan, (2004) stated that without adequate nutrition during pregnancy, foetal growth and infant health are compromised. In general, consequences of malnutrition during pregnancy include fetal growth retardation, congenital malformations (birth defects), spontaneous abortion and stillbirth, preterm birth and low infant birth weight. Preterm birth and low infant birth weight, in turn, predict the risk of stillbirth in a subsequent pregnancy. Ellie and Sharon, (2008) says that malnutrition, coupled with low birth weight, is a factor in more than half of all deaths of children under four years of age worldwide. Obese women have an especially high risk of medical complications such as hypertension, gestational diabetes, and postpartum infections. Compared with other women, obese women are also more likely to have other complications of labour and delivery (Young et al., 2002). Overweight women have the lowest rate of low-birthweight infants. However, overweight women are more likely to born post-term and to weigh more than 9 pounds. Large newborns increase the likelihood of a difficulty labour and delivery, birth trauma, and cesarean section. Consequently, these infants have a greater risk of poor health and death than infants of normal weight (Ellie & Sharon, 2008). Obesity may double the risk for neural tube defects. Folates role has been examined, but a more likely explanation seems to be poor glycaemic control (King, 2006). In addition, both overweight and obese women have a greater risk of giving birth to infants with heart defects and other abnormalities (Watkins, 2003). An underweight woman has a high risk of having a lowbirthweight infant, especially if she is malnourished or unable to gain sufficient weight during pregnancy. In addition, the rates of preterm births and infant deaths are higher for underweight women. An underweight woman improves her chances of having a healthy infant by gaining sufficient weight prior to conception or by gaining extra pounds during pregnancy (Ellie & Sharon, 2008).
29% them still practice it. The feeding pattern of this 65.52% was being affected by these superstitions. Their nutritional status is certainly determined by what they eat because "we are what we eat". However, about 42% had normal expected body weight while 58% of pregnant women were malnourished. Recommendation The findings of this research work have necessitate that we salvage the incidence of maternal and preterm death, I therefore recommend the following to be carried out in ante-natal clinic UNTH Ituku/Ozalla and as well as other localities that practice similar food superstitions; Nutrition intervention such as nutrition education in different villages, health centres and women organizations to be given mainly on the area of food superstitions against pregnant women. A healthy eating pattern to be taught to these women when they are pregnant and the importance of consumption of fruits and vegetables to supply micronutrients and fibre to the body. Husbands should be educated on the importance of their wives' food and nutrition during pregnancy. Government should also provide employment to the vast population of women that are unemployed in the area. These women should be educated to engage in subsistence farming which will help alleviate the level of poverty and hunger in the area. These women should also be educated to eat more of unrefined food instead of the refined foods that predispose them to overweight and obesity. Women should be educated on the importance of healthy weight prior to pregnancy.
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Conclusion Conclusively, this research has revealed that 29% acknowledged that there is still an existence of food superstition among pregnant women that attend antenatal in UNTH Ituku/Ozalla how much more those that do not come for ante-natal and about 65.52% of the
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