SOAP PREPARED FROM ENZYMATICALLY AND NON-. ENZYMATICALLY TREATED PALM-BASED MATERIALS. KOH SOO PENG. FSMB 2004 7 ...
UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
FORMULATION AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF TRASPARENT SOAP PREPARED FROM ENZYMATICALLY AND NONENZYMATICALLY TREATED PALM-BASED MATERIALS
KOH SOO PENG.
FSMB 2004 7
FORMULATION AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF TRANSPARENT SOAP PREPARED FROM ENZYMATICALLY AND NON-ENZYMATICALLY TREATED PALM-BASED MATERIALS
KOH SO0 PENG
MASTER OF SCIENCE UNIVERSITY PUTRA MALAYSIA MARCH 2004
FORMULATION AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF TRANSPARENT SOAP PREPARED FROM ENZYMATICALLY AND NON-ENZYMATICALLY TREATED PALM-BASED MATERIALS
BY
KOH SOO PENG
Thesis Submitted to the &hool of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science March 2004
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putm Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science FORMULATION AND STORAGE PROPERTIES OF TRANSPARENT SOAP PREPARED FROM ENZYMATICALLY AND NON-ENZYMATICALLY TREATED PALM-BASED MATERIALS
KOH SO0 PENG March 2004
Chairman:
Associate Professor Dr Lai Oi Ming, Ph-D.
Faculty:
Food Science and Biotechnology
The study on the physical and chemical properties of 28 samples of commercial transparent soap provided valuable information that could be used as a guideline in the preparation of palmbased transparent soap formulation. Most of the commercial transparent soaps had good transparency (above 0.8) with a moderate total f%Iy
matter of between 40% and 60%. They were mostly superfatted products and showed good foamability and hardness with a penetration value of less than 5 mm
Differences in titer, acid and iodine values affected the ability of different palm based fatty acid in accepting the amount of sodium salt into soap formulation and the hardness property. The proper combination of triethanolarnine, glycerol and sugar solution played an important role in determining the transparency, hardness, foamability and moisture content of the soap produced. Transparent soap bar made from blends of distilled palm stearin fatty acid with ricinoleic acid wvered a wide range of acceptability for triethanolamine (20-90%) with low amount of sugar
solution (less than 30%) and less than 70% of glycerol. However, in blends of distilled palm oil fatty acid-based soap with ricinoleic acid, the transparerrt soap region ranged between 40% and 80% triethanolamine, less than 40% of glycerol and between 20% to 50% of sugar solution Both blends of distilled palm htty acid-based transparent soap had transparency reading above 0.8 and penetration value of less than 8 nun with the majority of moisture content of soap fklling between 15% and 20%. In the region of low percentage of triethanolamine (OO/i-20%)with 80-100% of glycerol and sugar solution used, both distilled palm htty acids used in soap formulation produced soft and gummy opaque soap.
Lipase-catalysed acidolysis is a vital tool to tailor-make refined, bleached and deodorised palm oil (RBD palm oil) enriched with ricinoleic acid (RA). Lipozyme
IM60 lipase performed better (12.33% FWD4 hours) than Pseudomnas s p iipase (2.59% RN24 hours) as it was able to incorporate more ricinoleic acid into RBD
palm oil at a shorter time. The alteration in trigly-de
composition of acidolysed oil
had led to the changes in their slip melting point, iodine value, solid fat content, crystallisation and melting behaviour and also the viscosity of the acidolysed oil produced.
The differences in sodium salt content used in different fatEy raw material-based soap formulation had caused an effect on the transparency, tow fatty matter, penetration value, chloride content and foamability of soap d e . In general, the presence of ricinoleic acid in the blends of distilled palm oil fatty acid soap, blends of distilled palm stearin fatty acid soap and acidolysed oil-based soap assisted in improving the
soap transparency, especially when high mtenfs of sodium salt were used in the soap fmulatioa
pERwa&WN SULTAN MWL ~wW
W ~ R Aw y a
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master %ins FORMULAS1 DAN CIRL-CIRI PENYIMPANAN SABUN LUTSINAR DIHASILKAN SECARA BERENWM DAN BUKAN BERENZIM BAHAN MENTAH BERASASKAN MINYAK SAWIT Oleh
KOH so0 PENG Mac 2004
Pengerusi:
Profesor Madya Dr Lai Oi Ming, PhD.
Fakulti:
Sains Makanan dan Bioteknologi
Kajian terhadap ciri-ciri fuiko dan kimia bagi 28 saxupel sabun l u t s k r kornersial
membekalkan maklumat berguna dalam pyediaan fbrmulasi sabun lutsinar berasaskan minyak sawit. Kebanyakan sabun lutsinar komersial mempunyai tahap lutsinar melebihi 0.8 dengan kandungan asid le& 60%.
yang sederham di mtara 40-
Kebanyakan sabun lutinar di pasaran adalah produk 'superfatted' d m
mempunyai kebuihan yang baik dan kekmsan dengan nilai penembusan kurang daripadadaripada5mm.
Perbezaan dalam nilai titer, Nlai asid dan nilai iodin mempengaruhi keupayaan asid lemak berasaskan minyak sawit yang berlainan terhadap penerimaan kuantiti garam natrium dalam fomulasi sabun dan ciri kekemsan. Kombinasi yang bersesuaian di
penentuan kelutsinaran, kekerasan, kebuihan dan kandungan kelembapan sabun y a w
dihasilkan. Ketulan sabun lutsinar d perbuat daripada campuran h a i l s ulingan asid v
lemak minyak stearin boleh menerima 20-90% triethanolamine, larutan gula kurang daripada 30% clan gliserol kurang daripada 70% Uanakala,bagi sabun lutsiniu yang
diperbuat daripada campuran h a d sulingan asid lemak minyak sawit, 40-800! triethanolamine dengan gliserol hvrang daripada 40% dan larutan gula di antara 20% hingga 50% adalah dherima dalam f m u l a s i sabm Keduadua jenis sabun lutsinar
yang diperbuat daripada c a m p m had sulingao asid lemak berlainan mempunyai
tahap kelutsinaran melebihi 0.8 dan nilai peoembusan kurang daripada 8 mm xxta kandungau kelembapan antara 15% dan 20%. Dalam lingkungan 0-20% triethanolamine dan k e s e l d a n julat peratusan bagi gfiserol dan larutan gula dalam formulasi sabun, keduadua jenis basil sulingan asid lemak minyak sawit mengbasi1ka.n sabun lutcahaya yang lembut clan berperekat.
Asidolisis menggunakan lipase menrpakan tehik peuting &lam pembuatan RBD
minyak sawit yang kaya dengan asid ricinoleic (RA). Lipase Lipozyme IM60 mmpunyai prestasi yang lebih baik (1233% M 4 jam) Manding lipase Pseudornonas sp. (2.59'?/0RA/X jam) kerana ia benrpaya mmasuldcan asid ricinoleik
daiarn RBD minyak sawit dalam m a s yang lebih singkat. Perubahan dalam komposisi trigliserida menyebabkan perubahan nalam takat lebur slip, nilai iodin,
kandungan lemak pepejal, kelakuan pembekuan dan peleburan sxta viskositi bagi minyak sawit yaa telah diubahsuai m e l u asidolisis.
Perbezaan dalam kandungan garam natrium bagi bahm mentah yang berlainan dalam fonnulasi sabun mempunyai kesan tahadap ke1ufsim-q kandungan asid lemak, nilai penembusan, kandungan klorin dan kebuihan sabun lutsinar yang'dihasikan. S a r a amnya, kehadiran asid ricinoleik dalam sabun lutsinar yang dipecbuat
d+da
catnpuran h a d sulingan asid lemak minyak sawit, campumn h a d sulingm
asid lemak minyak stearin dan ruinyak sawit yang telah diasidolisis munpu
mempert>aiki kelutsinaran sabrm, terutamrmya bagi kandungan garam natrium yang tinggi dalam formulasi sabun.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my most sincere appreciation to my main supervisor, Prof Madya
Dr Lai Oi Ming of Department of Biotechnology, Facufty Food Science and Biotechnology, members of supervisory committee, ProE Hasanah Mohd. Ghazali (Department of Biotechoology, University Putra Malaysia), Dr Ainie Kuntom
(Chemistry and Technology Division, Malaysian-Palm Oil Board) and Dr Chong Chiew Let (Chemistry and T e c b l o g y Division, Malaysian Palm Oil B o d ) , far their willingness to share their expertise, knowledge and constant encouragement tlmiughout the course of my study. The suggestions and insighdul comments on the contents of my thesis are gxatehlly acknowledged.
My sincere thanks also go to the staffs in Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) and my lovely fiends in Enzyme Lab at Department of Biotechnology for their technical assistance and suppa Many thanks go to Miss Lee Yirn Leng for her invaluable guidance, encouragement and patience in sharing my excitements and frustrations of
research. And lastly, Iam gratehl fix the support of my M l y and their endless love, understanding and encoumgements throughout the M o dof completing this project
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 1 8 March ~ 2004 to conduct the final examination of Koh Soo Peng on her Master of Science thesis entitled "Formulation and Storage Properties of Transparent Soap Prepared from Enzymatically and NonEnzymatically Treated Palm-Based Materials" in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows: Suhaila Mohamed, Ph.D. Professor Faculty ofFood Science and Biotechnology Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Lai Oi Ming, Ph.D. Associate Professor Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Hasanah Mohd. Ghazali, Ph.D. Professor Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Ainie Kuntom, Ph.D. Malaysian Palm Oil Board (Member)
Chong Chiew Let, Ph.D. Malaysia Palm Oil Board (Member)
ProfessorKIeputy 6ean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:
1 7 JUN 71104
This thesis submitted to the Sellate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as llfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows:
Lai Oi Ming, Ph.D. Associate Professor Faculty Food Science and Biotechnology University Putra Malaysia (Chairwoman) Hasanah Mohd Ghazali, Ph.D. Professor Faculty Food Science and Biotechnology University Putra Malaysia (Member) Ainie Kuntom, PID. Malaysia Palm Oil Board (Member) Chong Chiew Let, Ph-D. Malaysia Palm Oil Board (Member)
AMI IDERIS, Ph.D. Prokr/Dean, School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:
0 9 JUL 2004
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. 1 also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other d e g e at University Putra Malaysia or other institutions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ABSTRAK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS APPROVAL DECLARATION LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
2
LITERATURE REVIEW History of Transparent Soap The Structure of Transparent Soap Basic Raw Materials Utilized in Transparent !hap Formulation Tallow Rosin Castor Oil and Ricinoleic Acid Lauric Oil Superfatt'i Agents Salt Contents Alcohol Glycerin Sugar or Polyols Triethmlamine Alkali Solution Perfiuning and Dyest&% Foaming Agents Citric Acid Water Other Ingredients Factors Influencing Transparent Soap Making Balancing of the Fat Stocks Selection of Non-soap Additives The Rate of Cooling Phase Change due to Mechanical Treatment Purity of the Ingredients Shock or Physical strain Transparency Measurement Lipase Enzymatic Interesterification Application of Lipase-catalysed Interesterification Immobilization of Lipase xii
3
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIESOF COMMERCLAL 39 TRANSPARENT SOAP FOUND IN MALAYSIA Introduction Materials and Metfiods
Materials Methods Transparency Measurement Penetration Value Total Fatty Matter Moisture Content Foambility Free Caustic or Free Acid Content Results and Dkcussioa Transparency Measutement Penetrrltiou Value Total Fatty Matter Moisture Content Foambility Free Caustic or Free Acid Content summary 4
PALM-BASED TRANSPARENT SOAP FORMULATION Introduction MatePials and Methods Materials Methods Physical and Chemical Analysis on Fatty Stocks Used Acid Value Titer Value Iodine Value Preparationof Palm-basedTranspareat Soap P r e p d o n of Sodium Salt ( N m o n Process) Prepation of Soap Bar using Casting Method Physical and Chemical Analysis on Transparent Soap Bar Diffecential Scanning Calorimetry Transparency Measurement
FoamabWy Penebation value Srnface Tensiometer Free Acid Coatent Weight loss Results and Discusion Distilled Palm Oil Fatty Acid as Fatty Stock in Soap Formula Differential Scanning Calorimeby Transparency Measurement Foamability Penetration Value SlrrFace Teasion Free Acid Content Changes in Soap Property after Storage
39 41 41
42 42 44 44 46 46 47
48 48
50 50 53 55 57 59
Distilled Palm Stearin Fatty Acid as Fatty Stock in Soap Formula Differential Scanning Calorimetry Transparency Measurement Foamability Penetration Value Surface Tension Free Acid Content Changes in Soap Property after Storage summary 5
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT INGREDIENTS AND PROCESSING TEMPERATURE ON PALM-BASED SOAP FORMULATION
Introduction Materials and Methods Materials Methods. Preparation of Palm-based Transparent Soap Physical and Chemical Analysis on Transparent Soap Bar Experimmtal Design Results and Discussion Effect of Different Jngredients on Soap Tmnsparency Tmqarmcy Measurement and Penetration Value Effect of Sodium Salt on Palm Olein Polyols-based Transparent Soap Transparency Measurement and Penetration Value Foamability Effect of Different Sugar Type on Soap Transparency Transparency Measurement, Penetration Value and Foamability Effect of Different PmassingTenpmtme on Soap Transparency TransparMeasurement, Penetration Value and Foamability Effect of Trietfianolamine, Glycezol and Sugar Solution on Palm Oil P~Iy~l~-based Transparent Soap Transparetlcy Measurement Penelration Value Foamability surmnar~ 6
105 105 106 106 106 106 107 107 107 107 108 110 111 113 113 1 13 116 117 117 119 122 122 125
TERNARY DIAGRAM ON PALM-BASEDTRANSPARENT SOAP 127 Introddon Uaterialsand Methods Materials Methods Prepamtion of Palm-based Transpamt Soap Physical and Chemical Analysis on Transparent Soap Bar Results and Discussion Distilled Palm Stearin Fatty Acid as Fatty Raw Material Transparency Measurement Penetration Value Moisture Content Foamability and Free Acid Content Distilled Palm Oil Fatty Acid as Fatty Raw Material
127 128 128 128 128 1 29 129 129 129 13 1 133 135 135
Transparency Measurement Penetration Value Moisture Content Foamability and Free Acid Content summary
ACLDOLYSlS OF RBD PALM OIL WITH RICINOLEIC ACU) Introduction Materials and Methods Materials
Methods Immobilidon of Lipase Preparation of Lipasscatalysed acidolysis of RBD Palm Oil with Ricinoleic Acid Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Lipase-catalysed RBD Palm Oil and Ricinoleic Acid Blends Determination of Hydrolytic Activity Removal of Free Fatty Acid Determination of Fatty Acid Composition using Gas b-graphy Detetmination of Triglyceride Composition using High P e r f o n n a ~Liquid '~ Chromatography Determination of Melting and Cooling Profile using Differential Scanningcaiorimebry
Determination of Kinematic Viscosity using U-tubeViscometer Solid Fat Content Slip Melting Point Apparent Density in Air of Oils IodineValue SaponificationValue Results and Discussim Changes in Hydrolytic Activity Changes in the Fatty Acid Composition in Acidolysed RBD Palm Oil Changes in Triglyceride Profile 'Ihennograms of Acidolysed RBD Palm Oil Changes m Iodine Value Changes m Solid Fat Conteat and Slip Melting Point of Acidolysed RBD Palm Oil Changes in ViSCOSity of Acidolysed RBD Palm Oil summary EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FATTY STOCKS ON THE TRANSPARENCY OF PALM-BASED SOAP FORMULATION Introduction Materials and Methods Materials Methods Preparation of Palm-based Transparent Soap Preparation of Sodium Salt (Neutralization Process) Preparation of Sodium Salt (Saponification Process)
Preparation of Soap Bar using Casting Method Physical and Chemical Analysis on Fatty Acids and Oils Saponification Value Physical and Chemical Analysis on Transparent Soap Bar Chlorides Content Results and Discussion Transparency Measurement Total Fatty Matter Penetration Value Foamability Moisture Content Chlorides Content Free Acid and Free Caustic Content Change in Soap Property after Storage Summary 9
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion Recommendations
APPENDICES BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR
xvi
LIST OF TABLES
page
Table
Average Free acid and free caustic content of commercial transparent soap. Average Foamability and free acid content of blends soap made of distilled palm stearin htty acid with ricinoleic acid in ternary diagram Average Foamability and fiee acid content of blends soap made of distilled palm oil htty acid with ricinoleic acid in ternary diagram Percentage of fiee htty acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by both Lipozyrne IM60 and Pseudomoms sp. lipases under various incubation timesa. Percentage of fiee fhtty acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase at different ratio of RBD palm oil and ricinoleic acida. Percentage of free htty acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase at different incubation temperaturea. Percentage of ricinoleic acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by both Lipozyme IM60 and Pseudomo~ssp. lipases under various incubation timesa. Percentage of ricinoleic acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase at different ratio of RBD palm oil and ricinoleic acida. Percentage of ricinoleic acid of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase at different incubation temperaturea. Mehing properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM6O lipase with different reaction times. Melting properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by P.retrdomonas sp. lipase xvii
with d i f f m t reaction times.
186
Cooling properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by Pseudornonas sp. lipase with different reaction times. 193 Cooling properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase
with different reaction times.
193
Melting properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase with diffaent incubation temperature194 Cooling properties of acidolysed oil catalysed Lipozyme IM60liiase with different incubation temperature. 194 Melting properties of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase with different ratio of RBD palm oil and ricinoleic acid 1% Cooling properties of acidolysed oil catalysed Lipozyme IM60 lipase with different ratio of RBD palm oil and ricinoleic acid. 1%
Percentage of iodine value of acidolysed oil catalysed by both Lipozyme IM60 and Pseudomo~aassp. lipases under various incubation timesa. 198 Percentage of iodine value of acidolysed oil catalysed by Lipozyme IM60 lipase at different ratio of RBD palm oil and ricinoleic acida. 199 Pacentage of iodine value of acidolysed oil cataly& M60 lipase at different incubation temperaturea.
by Lipozyme 199
Physical and chemicals properties of different fatty raw materials for Palm-based transparent soap making. 215 Transparency measurement of different sodium salt content under various fatty stock-based soap formulationa. 217
Total htty matter of different sodium salt coatent under various fatty stock-based soap formulationa. 220
xviii
24
Penetration value of different sodium salt content under various fatty stock-based soap fonnulationa. 222
25
Foamability of di&ent sodium salt content under various fatty stock-based soap formulationa-
224
26
Moisture conteat of different sodium salt content under various fatty stock-based soap formulationa. 226
27
Chloride content of different sodium salt content under various fatty 228 stock-based soap fomulationa.
28
Percentage of fke acid and oustic of different sodium salt content 229 under various f&y stock-based soap formulation.
29
Transparency measurement of diffkrat sodium salt content under various Wty stock-based soap formulation after 1month storagea. 231
30
Penetration value of different sodium salt content under various fatty stock-based soap fixmulation after 1month storagea-
232
LIST OF FIGURES Figure
Page
Transparent soap.
43
Transparency measurement of commercial transmnt soap.
49
Penetration value (PV) of commercial transparent soap.
51
Total htty matter of commercial transparent soap.
52
Moisture content of commercial transparent soap-
54
Foamability of commercial transparent soap.
56
Apparatus for titer value measurement
65
Melting points of different ratio oftriethanobmine(T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil ktty acid-based soap (a)7T: t G:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f) 2T:6G:4S. 72 Heat flow of different ratio of triethanolamine (T),glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil &tty acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f)2T:6G:4S. 74 Transparency measurement of different d o of triethanolamine (T), glyaml (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil fatty acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f) 2T:6G:4S. 75 Degree of transparency at different sodium salt content on distilled palm 77 oil fatty acid-based soap.
Foamability of different ratio of triethanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil fa^ acid-based soap (a) 7T:IG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and ( f )2T:6G:4S. 78
13 Penetration value of different d o of triethanolarnine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil Edtty acid-based soap (a) 7T: 1G:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f) 2T:6G:4S. 80 14
Surface tension of differeat ratio of triethanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil fatry acid-based soap (a)7T: 1G:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f) 2T:6G:4S. 82
15
Free acid content of different ratio of triethanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil f&y acid-based soap (a)7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3C%4S(d) 4T:4G4S (e) 3T:5a4S and (f)2T:6G4S. 84
16 Percentage weight lost of different ratio of trietbanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil Edtty acid-based soap after 4 months storage (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S 86 (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:SG:4S and (92T:6G:4S. 17 Transparency measureanent of diffeaent ratio of trietbanolamine(T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm oil fatty acid-based soap after 4 months storage (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S 87 (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:SG:4S and ( f ) 2T:6G:4S. 18 Melting points of differeat ratio of triethanolamine(T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin f&y acid-based soap (a) 7T: lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:SG:4S 89 and (f) 2T:6G:4S 19 Heat flow of different d o of briethanolamine Q, giycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin f&y acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S @) 6T2Q4S (c) 5T:3C%4S(d) 4T:4Q4S (e) 3T:5G4S and (02T:6G..4Sa 91 20
Transparency measurementof different ratio of triethauolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin Edtty acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G..4S (d)4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f) 2T:6G:4S 92
21
Degree of transparency at different sodium salt content on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. 94
22
Foamability of different ratio of triethanolamine (T). glycerol (G) and sugar xxi
solution (S) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap (a) 7T:l G:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e)3T:5&4S and (f)2T:6G:4S. 94 23
Penetration value of different ratio of triedxinolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution(S) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap (a) 7T: I G:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:SG:4S and (f)2T:6G:4S. 97
24
S u d k e tension of different ratio of triethanolamine(T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (8) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S @) 6T:2G4S (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4C%4S (e) 3T:5G:4S 98 and ( f ) 2T:6G:4S
25
Free acid content of different ratio of triethanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap (a) 7T:lG:4S (b) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S 100 and ( f ) 2T:6G:4S.
26
Percentage weight lost of differeat ratio of triethanolamine (T), glycerol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap after 4 months storage (a) 7T:lG:4S @) 6T:2G:4S (c) 5T:3G:4S 101 (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T5G4S and ( f ) 2T:6G:4S
27
Transparemy measurement of differentratio of triethanolamine (T), giyceaol (G) and sugar solution (S) on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap aRer 4 months storage (a) 7T:lG:4S @) 6T:2G:4S 103 (c) 5T:3G:4S (d) 4T:4G:4S (e) 3T:5G:4S and (f)2T:6G:4S
28
Transparency measurement of different formulation of distilled palm stearin W y acid-based soap. 109
29
Penetration value of different hrmulation of distilled palm steaiin fatty acid-based soap. 109
30
Transparency measurement and penetration value of different percentage of sodim salt content on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap containing palm olein polyols. 112
31
Average Foamability of different percentage of sodium salt content on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap containing palm olein polyols. 1 14
xxii
(a) Tmspacency measurement (b) penelmlion value(c) average foamability o f different types of sugar on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. (a) Transparency measurement (b) penetration d u e (c) average foamability o f different processing temperatures on distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. Transparency measurement o f (a) GLY:TEA (b) TEA:SUG (c) SUGGLY series of distilled palm stearin f acid-based soap.
Penetration value of (a) GLY:TEA @) TEASUG (c) SUG:GLY series of distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. Average foamability of (a) GLY:TEA @) TEASUG (c) SUG:GLY series of distilled palm stearin f;lrttv acid-based soap. Ternary diagram on transparency measurement o f distilled palm stearin htty acid-based soap.
Ternary diagram on penetration value of distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. Ternary diagram on moisture conteat of distilled palm stearin fatty acid-based soap. Ternary diagram on transparency measurement of distilled palm oil f&ty acid-based soap.
Ternary diagram on penetration value of distilled palm oil fatty acid-based soap. Ternary diagram on moisture content of distilled palm oil fatty acid-based soap.
Triglycerides profile of EU3D palm oi1:ricinoleic acid mixtures after
