Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013

The European Union’s EDF Programme Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean

Framework Contract Beneficiaries 2013 Lot 6 – Environment

Specific Contract No. 2015-362261 Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

18/02/2016 National Environment Pollution Report - Djibouti

CONSORTIUM SAFEGE FWC-Lot6

This project is funded by the

A project implemented by

European Union

Consortium SAFEGE


Report Control Path Project title: Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region Specific Contract No: 2015-362261 Country: Eastern, Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean - IGAD Framework Contractor: Consortium SAFEGE Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Specific Contract Implementing Party: Safege Address: Gulledelle 92 – B-1200 Brussels Belgium Tel: +32-2-739.46.90 Fax: +32-2-742.38.91 E-mail: [email protected] Date of the Report: 30/11/2015 Reporting Period:

Authors of Report: Pierre Failler - Patrick Karani – Wondwosen Seide Specific Contract Implementing Party – Responsible Person: Barbara Becht Framework Contractor: SAFEGE Consortium Lot 6 The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the Contractor and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.

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Assessment of the Environment Pollution and its Impact on Economic Cooperation and Integration Initiatives of the IGAD Region

Djibouti Country Report

Djibouti, February 2016

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Executive summary Environmental Pollution is identified as one of the major environmental problems. Djibouti has been facing severe environmental degradation, desertification, drought, and water scarcity. Due to the hot weather, the population of Djibouti is very close to the looming of environmental problems. Djibouti is located on the Horn of Africa and by the Red Sea. It serves as a crucial important shipping route and transhipment hub of the region. Marine pollution is one of the major environmental challenges, there is a lack of solid and liquid waste treatment plants in the cities, and one can easily see a lot of garbage on the side road and different places with blocked storm water drainage and sewage. The most quoted pollution matter is often referring to the big lorry trucks accident pollution on the Ethio-Djiboutian borders, which has led to a spill over of oil and hazardous chemicals on the road, causing both point and non-point environmental pollution in many occasions. Besides that, the seawater intrusion into the ground water has caused severe water pollution such as contamination and salinity. Both outdoor and indoor air pollution are very rampant in the country. In Djibouti, the most anthropic pollution is observed in the coastal zone around the Djibouti capital. Outside of the capital there is no important phenomena of pollution. The increasing maritime traffic, storage, transit of petrol products to Ethiopia, shipment of livestock to Saudi Arabia and parts of the Middle East are the principal causes of pollution at the level of the port of Djibouti and coastal zones. Principal impacts of the pollution are observed in marine and coastal zone areas, because of the large number of vessels or ships and the high level of concentration of industrial activities and urbanization. These impacts are due to the urban and industrial activities of the international port of Djibouti. The degasification of the tanks transporting petrol and canalization of the underground of the port exacerbates the liquid wastes and becomes the main source of pollution contributing to the degradation of environment in the country. The principal problems encountered in the coastal and the marine areas concern the degradation of the national potential of fisheries, and some habitats like mangroves, coralline reef. The used oils, hydro carbon and heavy metals, are also important sources of pollution as the country is located on important itinerary of high level intensity of business traffic of hydrocarbons, gas and agro industrial products, relaying the Occident with Extreme Orient. Overall, the wastes that are not treated in CET (centre d'enfouissement technique de déchets solides) funded by the EU are incinerated close to the capital of Djibouti or abandoned in the environment without prior treatment. The STEP (station d'épuration des eaux usées), also funded by the EU provides treatment to domestic and industrial used waters of Djibouti. In the locality of surroundings close to the capital some people collect waste for reuse or recycling. Additional risk and impacts of the human health are observed due to the uncontrolled management of these waste disposal. Pollution have serious implications for economic growth and welfare in Djibouti, because of its impact on health, resource depletion, and natural calamities linked to climate change. There are two major groups of policy instruments for achieving pollution reduction: regulatory and market based economic instruments. Regulatory instruments prescribe emission standards or effluent limits. These require considerable information and involve significant administrative costs for implementation and monitoring. Market based instruments include environmental and carbon taxes, subsidies, and trading instruments. In comparison with the regulatory policies, market based instruments may be able to reduce the costs of achieving a given level of environmental protection through incentives. On the regulatory side, the country has taken measures to the management of environmental pollution, keeping pollution levels under control and creating a more sustainable economic growth, while managing its high rates of urbanization. However, the country is constrained by financial and technological resources in addition to human capability and institutional abilities to develop, implement, and reinforce environmental codes and legislation. 4


Geographical location The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is an eight-country trade bloc in Africa (see figure 1). It includes governments from the Horn of Africa, Nile Valley, and the African Great Lakes (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea). Its headquarters are in Djibouti City.

Figure 1: IGAD countries Source: IGAD

The Republic of Djibouti is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast (see Figure 2). The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east. Djibouti occupies a total area of just 23,200 km2.

Figure 2: Djibouti Source: CIA

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Table of contents Executive summary __________________________________________________________ 4 Geographical location _______________________________________________________ 5 Table of contents ___________________________________________________________ 6 Acronyms__________________________________________________________________ 8 Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 9 1

2

3

Method ______________________________________________________________ 10 1.1

Definition of the environmental pollution ____________________________________ 10

1.2

Environmental pollution assessment ________________________________________ 10

1.3

Economic impact of environmental pollution _________________________________ 11

1.4

Assessment of policies and strategies ________________________________________ 11

Country profile ________________________________________________________ 12 2.1

Geographical coverage ____________________________________________________ 12

2.2

Population and Demography _______________________________________________ 12

2.3

Climate and Environment _________________________________________________ 12

2.4

Economic _______________________________________________________________ 12

2.5

International cooperation _________________________________________________ 13

Assessment of environment pollution in Djibouti _____________________________ 14 3.1

Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 14

3.2

Key sources of environmental pollution ______________________________________ 14

3.3

Status of environment pollution by sector ____________________________________ 17

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5

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Land Pollution ________________________________________________________________ 17 Air pollution __________________________________________________________________ 18 Marine and Coastal Pollution ____________________________________________________ 19 Other pollutions_______________________________________________________________ 19 Summary ____________________________________________________________________ 20

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Djibouti ______ 21 4.1 Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration _____________________________________________________________ 21 4.1.1 4.1.2

Economic relationships between Djibouti and other IGAD countries______________________ 22 Economic relationships between Djibouti and Arab countries. __________________________ 22

4.2 Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region ___________________________________ 23 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4

Economic Impact of Air Pollution__________________________________________________ 24 Economic Impact of Land Pollution ________________________________________________ 25 Economic Impact of Water Pollution _______________________________________________ 26 Summary ____________________________________________________________________ 26

5 Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution _________________________________________________________________ 27 6


5.1

National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks __________________ 27

5.2

National and regional institutional frameworks _______________________________ 28

5.3 Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs _____________________________________________________________ 30

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Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control __________________________ 31

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References ____________________________________________________________ 33

Annex 1 __________________________________________________________________ 34

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Acronyms AU: BIRA: CERD: CO2: CRGE: DSRP: EU: EIA: EIA: EPA: ESIF: FDJ: GDP: GHG: IGAD: IFC: INDS: IUCN: NGOs: MEAs: MDG: MHUEAT: NBI: PANE: OECD: STEP: ToRs: WHO: USAID: UNFCCC: VOCs:

African Union Bureau for International Risk Assessments Centre d ‘Etude et de Recherche de Djibouti /Center for Studies and Research of Djibouti Dioxide of carbon Climate-Resilient Green Economy Document Stratégique de Réduction de la Pauvreté European union Environment International Agencies Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Protection Agency Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework Franc of Djibouti Gross domestic product Green House Gases Intergovernmental Authority on Development International Finance Corporation National Initiative for Social Development International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Non-Governmental Organizations Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs Millenium Development Goals Ministère de l'Habitat, de l'Urbanisme, de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement du Territoire Nile Basin Initiative Plan d’Action National pour l’Environnement Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Station of Water Recycling Terms of Reference World Health Organization United States Agency for International Development United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; Volatile Organic Compounds

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Introduction The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is one of the regional African economic blocks which is composed of 8 countries in the Horn of Africa, namely Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, Uganda and Eritrea. According to the IGAD Environmental and Natural Resources Strategy, April 2007, the IGAD region is faced with a number of environmental challenges. One of these challenges is environment pollution. According to the Terms of Reference of this mission, the first objective of the study is to assess the status of environmental pollution in five IGAD member states as a basis for the status of environment pollution at regional level, and the second is to establish the negative impact of environmental pollution on the economic cooperation and integration agenda and to develop strategic plan to monitor and reverse it. The present National Environment Pollution Assessment Report of Djibouti, is designed to highlight the key sources and status of environmental pollution at national level and by sectors, the link between environment pollution and economic development (impacts on the national economy and on economic cooperation and regional integration), the existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution (legal and institutional frameworks, the status of implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements/MEAs, and propose national measures to address environment pollution) including issues that are better addressed at national and regional levels.

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1

Method

1.1 Definition of the environmental pollution Following Marie-Louise Larsson of the Stockholm Institute for Scandinavian Law 1957-2009, the major cause of pollution and other environmental damage is the increased population in the world, and it is clear that most human activities have effects, which are negative and harmful, on the environment. In the 1960s, issues concerning oil casualties and the use of pesticides were on the agenda. During the 1970s, the major cause of concern was point sources, i.e. emissions from large industrial plants, and chemicals. During the 1980s, diffuse emissions from numerous small activities, came into focus. Transport, agriculture, industries, and trade in products for consumption were major components of the discussion. Further issues attended were the ozone layer and climate together with waste management. The protection of biological diversity, natural resources, and remedying contaminated land are being addressed by the relevant institutions. This change of direction could be due to the findings of the 1987 Brundtland Report (1) and progress in ecological economics. Before the publication of this report, the discussion focalized on an issue-by-issue approach and environmental threats were thought of as rather distinct. Other definitions of pollution tends to be broader and include almost every component of ecology and human value in order to gain flexibility. The term pollution, or pollution damage, is often used interchangeably with the term environmental damage, but could have a broader conceptual meaning (2). However, pollution could be defined under a range of approaches, as any alteration of the existing environment; as the right of the territorial sovereign; as damage; as interference with other uses of the environment; or as exceeding the assimilative capacity of the environment (3). A distinction should also be made between the terms contamination, i.e. the mere presence of a foreign - possibly harmless substance, and pollution, which poses or causes harm. Damage to the environment is defined in the instruments of environmental law, and includes all adverse effects on man, his artefacts and the environment. Compensable damage is defined in schemes of restitution and liability, and embraces only economic losses, or rather harm expressed in economic terms. With all these distinctions in mind, we can now turn to definitions as they are enunciated in various instruments. (4) In the 1972 Stockholm Declaration and the 1992 Rio Declaration (5), the principles only refer to “pollution” to be prevented in order to protect the environment, but no an explicit definition is given. The OECD has suggested the following as a general definition of pollution: “the introduction by humankind, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment resulting in deleterious effects of such a nature as to endanger human health, harm living resources and eco-systems, impair amenities or interfere with other legitimate uses of the environment.” 1.2 Environmental pollution assessment The assessment of key environmental pollution sources in the country has been made by using the field interviews with key informants from the relevant ministries like Environment, Water, Transport, and the likes. The lack of well documented level of pollution and up-to-date recording of existing pollution types made the assessment work difficult. However, the information or data gap was filled by having a follow up interviews with some of the key informants and consulting key government documents and grey literatures.

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1.3 Economic impact of environmental pollution The assessment of the impacts of environmental pollution has been carried out by first of all making a typology of impacts and a review of studies that cover them. This was done at the national level by estimating the Growth Domestic Product (GDP) lost. As information was not enough detailed at sectorial and country levels, estimates were used, based on the existing literature, data and information collected during the country visits. 1.4 Assessment of policies and strategies The method used in preparing this national report is based on a desk-top study, interviews and discussions with selected institutions in Djibouti. On reviewing of the literature using desk-top, a number of key documents on environmental pollution in Djibouti were examined and assessed with the view of understanding national and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks. The interviews and discussions helped with verifying and validating information obtained from internet and also getting input from authorized institutions in managing and protecting the environment.

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2

Country profile

2.1 Geographical coverage Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Rainfall is sparse, and most of the territory has a semi-arid or arid environment. Djibouti's major settlements include the capital Djibouti City, the port towns of Tadjoura and Obock, and the southern cities of Ali Sabieh and Dikhil. It is the 151st largest country in the world by land area, covering a total of 23,200 km2, of which 23,180 km2 is land and 20 km2 is water. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with a coverage of about 6,947 km2 was established to protect specific areas for marine life and biodiversity conservation. Djibouti occupies a strategic geographic location at the intersection of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden and serves as an important shipping port for goods entering and leaving the east African highlands and trans-shipments between Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. (CIA, 2015). 2.2 Population and Demography As of 1 January 2015, the population of Djibouti was estimated to be 918,643 people. This is an increase of 2.24 % (20,100 people) compared to population of 898,543 in the year before. In 2014 the natural increase was positive, as the number of births exceeded the number of deaths by 15,311. Due to external migration, the population increased by 4,789. The sex ratio of the total population was 1001 (1,001 males per 1,000 females) which is lower than global sex ratio. The global sex ratio in the world was approximately 1,016 males to 1,000 females as of 2014 (Country Meters 2015). In 2050 the population is estimated to be 1,244,000 (Population Pyramid 2015). 2.3 Climate and Environment There is not much seasonal variation in Djibouti's climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with winter rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 32 to 41 °C (90 to 106 °F), except at high elevations. The greatest range in climate occurs in eastern Djibouti, where temperatures sometimes surpass 41 °C (106 °F) in July on the littoral plains and fall below freezing point during December in the highlands. In this region, relative humidity ranges from about 40% in the mid-afternoon to 85% at night, changing somewhat according to the season. Annual precipitation amounts vary greatly from one year to another. In general, rain falls more frequently and extensively in the mountains. Sudden and brutal storms are also known to occur. Rainwater serves as an additional water supply for livestock and plants alongside seasonal watercourses. The climate of the interior shows notable differences from the coastline. Especially when one rises, the temperature is pleasant, it is so in Arta, Randa and Day (where temperatures of 10 ° have been recorded). Natural hazards include earthquakes, drought, and occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean, which bring heavy rains, and flash floods. Natural resources include geothermal energy. Inadequate supplies of potable water, limited arable land and desertification are current issues. Djibouti is a party to international agreements on biodiversity, climate change, desertification, and endangered species, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, ship pollution, and wetlands (Wikipedia 2015). 2.4 Economic With a growth rate of 5.9% in 2014, the economy of Djibouti continued the acceleration observed in 2013 and is expected to maintain this rhythm in 2015. Djibouti's economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location as a deep-water port on the Red Sea. The fiscal deficit started to decline in 2014 and is expected to further decline in 2015/16 but Djibouti’s level of debt remains 12


critical. The economy of Djibouti lacks diversification, and although growth has been steady since 2006, it has not made possible a significant reduction of poverty (African economic outlook 2015). 2.5 International cooperation Admitted to the United Nations on 20 September 1977, Djibouti belongs to Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and all the non-regional specialized agencies except the IAEA. It is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the African Development Bank (AfDB), G-77, the Arab League, the ACP Group, the Arab Monetary Fund, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD), and the African Union (AU). Djibouti is part of the Nonaligned Movement. In 1981, treaties of friendship and cooperation were signed with Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, and the Sudan. In environmental cooperation, Djibouti is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

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3

Assessment of environment pollution in Djibouti

3.1 Introduction In Djibouti, environmental problems are the major constraints to sustainable development. Djibouti is endowed with natural resources with marine and terrestrial biodiversity. It has also endangered flora and fauna such as corals, mangrove forests or breeding whale sharks. The country is suitable for renewable energy resources like solar, wind and sea power generation. However, the country has been facing wide range of natural and man-made environmental challenges that are causing economic, social and environmental impacts. It is estimated that around 35% of its economy is vulnerable to natural hazards 1. The country has been facing annual and seasonal droughts, desertification, severe water scarcity, frequent and intense flash floods, active volcanic activity and recurrent earthquakes of high magnitudes. The majority of its population lives in environmentally high-risk urban settings. 3.2 Key sources of environmental pollution Djibouti is semi-desert country. Drought and desertification are the key environmental problems. The environment is at the critical edge where by environmental pollution has been compounded especially with the looming of climate variability and climate change. Given the fact that Djibouti is an arid coastal state, it is highly susceptible for sea level rise and flash floods, which have been affecting the coastal population in many occasions, for example, in 1927, 1989, 1994, and 2004. The minor amount of annual rainfall has been disrupted, the temperature has been very hot making a daily life unbearable, the small amount of forest coverage has been deforested immensely due to the use of wood for fuel, particularly those who live in rural parts of the country (Plan d‘Action National pour l'Environnement, PANE, 20012010). Similarly, the bushes and herbs that served as a feed for the shoots have been shrinking at alarming rate. Pastoralism in the country is at the brink of climate impacts, which makes the sector very fragile. The seawater intrusion into the ground water has caused severe water pollution such as salinity. Given the fact that the Djibouti's economy is mainly based on service sector, which accounts for over two thirds of the country's GDP (African Development Bank, 1999) the environmental problems may affect the smooth services and activities in the country. According to the Environmental Code, air, water, soil, marine and noise pollution are the main sources of pollution (Environmental Code The Republic of Djibouti, 1992).

1

http://beahrselp.berkeley.edu/blog/djibouti-environmental-issues-as-major-constraints-to-sustainable-development/

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Land degradation

• loss of soil fertility • gullying • less vegetation cover • high run off

Deforestation

•loss of biodiversity •drying up of surface water •growndwater depletion •flash floods

Overgrazing

•exposed to wind erosion of soil •the land and silt over heat •sun baked, cracking of soil •sand storms.

Figure 3: Drivers and impacts of Desertification Source: Own elaboration

The environmental pollution in Djibouti is also related to marine transport associated with oil spills, chemical imports to Ethiopia and livestock transportation to Middle and Saudi Arabia. Solid waste is prevalent in Djibouti and plastic paper and old tyres block storm drainages. To some extent industrial discharge of wastewater, air pollution and noise contribute to pollution as well. Djibouti is active in regional cooperation and economic integration considering geographical location in the horn of Africa and trade with Ethiopia as a landlocked country. However, there is still much more required from regional institutions to support control and management of environmental pollution at regional level. Water shortage is a common problem in Djibouti. The small amount of fresh water has been polluted. There is no major river or lakes in the country. Most of the surface water is not perennial in nature. As a result, the country always faces a severe water shortage and water balance deficit. Even if it has a groundwater resource, it has not been exploited to address the country’s water supply and sanitation problems. Djibouti has one of the hottest climates in IGAD with a semi-arid climate. It has very high temperatures from May to September, with no or meagre rainfall annually. From November to March on the coast and April to October inland. 2 The UNICEF study in 2004, showed that in many parts of the country the physical-chemical quality of water is irrevocably below the WHO standards because of bacteriological pollution. 3” The majority of the people are using open traditional dug wells in the beds of oueds/seasonal Rivers. The same study noted that there are few or no routine water quality monitoring and surveillance system.

2150mm

/ year see http://www.slideshare.net/samcepeda3/djibouti-2?qid=6d297e40-1248-498a-b1f550d875bea4f2&v=default&b=&from_search=3 3http://www.unicef.org/djibouti/FUNDING_PROPOSAL_FOR_WATER_AND_SANITATION_EMERGENCY_RESPONSE_TO

_DROUGHT_IN_DJIBOUTI.pdf

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Photo 1: Man collecting water in a hole dug in the oued (seasonal river) Source: UNICEF Djibouti 4

One important point mentioned by our informants in the field was the use of oil drums for water collection, storage and use. This may have health problem given the fact that the containers are initially made for oil storage and the use of them for water might expose the local people for different health problems. In addition to that the drums usually rust, which has a hazardous impact on the wellbeing of the community.

Photo 2: Oil drums used for water storage along the main road in Lac Assal Source: UNICEF Djibouti

4http://www.unicef.org/djibouti/FUNDING_PROPOSAL_FOR_WATER_AND_SANITATION_EMERGENCY_RESPONSE_TO

_DROUGHT_IN_DJIBOUTI.pdf

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3.3 Status of environment pollution by sector As compared to other IGAD member countries, there is less study on the environmental pollution in Djibouti regarding the nature, extent and duration of the impacts on economic, social, environmental and natural resources. The lack of information and well managed database on the issues of environmental pollution, is the main constraint to assess the status environmental pollution in the country. 3.3.1 3.3.1.1

Land Pollution Chemicals spill over

Djibouti and Ethiopia have a century old strong bilateral relations. Both countries share common ethnic groups, cultures, tradition and linguistic. They have been connected through roads and railway for over a century. The first rail line in Africa goes from Addis Ababa to Djibouti. The Ethiopian economy is almost exclusively dependent on Djibouti to access to the sea. After the secession of Eritrea in 1991, Ethiopia has become the largest land locked country in Africa with the population of 90 million. A significant portion of import and export items have been transported back and forth, from the Djibouti port to Ethiopia on a daily basis. As our informant in the Ministry of Environment indicated big lorry trucks have been experiencing accidents on the road, which led to spill-over of hazardous chemicals on the road, which has caused both point and non-point environmental pollutions in many occasions. It was found out that the most recurrent responses from the Djiboutian informants were road-related pollution. This shows the seriousness of the matter and this calls for regional approaches to address the truck/car accident pollution on the Ethio-Djiboutian borders. Even if the informants repeatedly indicated the incident of pollution, there have not been any studies on the types and seriousness of pollutants emitted by these accidents. Pollution of the port is as a result of chemical leakages from being imported to Ethiopia. Box 1: Oil pipes problems in Djibouti in 2014. The Djibouti Ports and Free Zones Authority is demanding compensation of USD 615 million from three oil firms for pollution. The abandoned oil pipes underground by Total, Mobil and Shell, and Mobil has since been sold to Kobil, while Shell has been sold to Oil Libya) that continue to cause environmental pollution in the country. Some 600,000 square meters of land that has been contaminated by 7,000 tonnes of oil from the nine abandoned pipelines underground and the magnitude of the damage is equal to the total surface area of the port. As a result of this pollution, it was not able to use the dry yard along the port for construction. It is also a serious safety issue. It is difficult to convert the contaminated land to a business district. When you dig one meter deep, you will find oil and it is difficult for us to do any construction on the ground. Every day we are pumping oil from the polluted ground. Source: Capital Ethiopia 5

3.3.1.2

Solid waste

The waste management system in Djibouti was very poor and has improved in recent year thanks to the implementation of a centre for solid wastes (CET; centre d'enfouissement technique de déchets solides) funded by the EU and of a centre for water treatment (STEP, station d'épuration des eaux usées), also funded by the EU that provides treatment to domestic and industrial used waters of Djibouti. The CET, managed by the Office of roads of Djibouti (OVD) was implemented on December 7, 2013. It has a total exploitable volume of 300,000 to 500,000 m³ for a period of operation estimated at between 5 5 The story has been cut short and some information are missed to fit this report. The full news can be accessed from this websit. http://capitalethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4804:djibouti-demands-compensation-foroil-leak-cleanup-&catid=54:news&Itemid=27

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and 6 years. The opening of the CET has allow the closure of the main wild discharge of Djibouti City. The landfill centre is built in respect of international standards in environmental matters in order to avoid contamination of the soil and groundwater of the municipality of Douda. The liquid waste cleanup component has been implemented at the same period. The main achievements are the new sewage station (STEP) which can produce at full capacity almost 3,700 m³ of water of high quality, and two pumping stations (slaughterhouse-200 l/s)and Haramous - 240 l/s) and discharge lines that will discharge upstream from the city to the STEP. The STEP is managed by the Office National of water and sanitation (ONEAD). The treatment of wastewater by the STEP (approximately 2700 m3 per day to date) has immediate consequence the protection of the maritime area and biodiversity in the town of Douda, and the protection of the groundwater in the city. Indeed, usually evacuated wastewater in a wild way to the beaches, swamps and mangroves of Douda, will be processed by the Station. The STEP allows also the agricultural development on the outskirts of the city, through the recycling of the sanitized wastewater for irrigation of crops, including through the 3 Mi euro project funded by the Global Alliance against climate change (AMCC) and which the financing agreement was signed in November 2013 (project being implemented by the EU in Djibouti delegation). This project will improve the coping skills of the communities of the area surrounding the Douda sewage through support for agricultural activities subject to water stress as well as access to treated water and its sustainable use for agro-silvopastoral and ecological purposes. A small portion of the treated water is intended to maintain the ecosystem of the region, including coastal mangrove areas. 3.3.1.3

Industry

Industrial pollution in Djibouti is very minimal. The amount of pollution from manufacturing industries contributes very little to pollution. According to the document from the Ministry of Environment of Djibouti, Plan d‘Action National pour l'Environnement, PANE, 2001-20010, the Republic of Djibouti is characterized by low industrial development (around 3% GNP). Hence, industrial pollution is insignificant and the various registered industrial pollution have not reached a stage of chronic and critical at the moment (PANE: 66). The same document states “there is no precise study on the types of liquid effluents and solid waste from the main industries in the territory” (ibdi.) It should be noted that there is a momentum of expanding industries in the country. The heavy involvement of Chinese and Turkey investors in the industry sector may be indicative to set remedies for industrial pollution before it is too late. Besides, in advance environmental pollution measures should be in place in order to address the lack of treatment of wastes for some of the existing industries; such as, mineral-water bottling facility, dairy, food processing plants, small plants producing beverages, furniture, etc.   3.3.2

Air pollution

Air pollution  affects the health and wellbeing of people. According to WHO (2012:2) “air pollution can lead to decreased lung function and respiratory ailments along with increasing the risk of diseases such as strokes, heart diseases, and cancer”. The air pollutants involved are particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, volatile compounds, persistent organic pollutants. Outdoor pollution is mainly caused by factories, dirty coal and fossil fuel smoke stacks, while indoor pollution is the result of the household stoves of coal, wood or biomass types. Djibouti has become increasingly urbanized and this has usually led to increasing open-airpollution. This is mainly related to old cars and use of petrol generated electricity in Djibouti city. However, at the country level, outdoor air pollution is not a serious issue. This is mainly related to old cars and use of petrol generated electricity in Djibouti city. However, at the country level, outdoor air pollution is not a serious issue. 18


Air pollution  affects the health and wellbeing of people. According to WHO (2012:2) “air pollution can lead to decreased lung function and respiratory ailments along with increasing the risk of diseases such as strokes, heart diseases, and cancer”. Even if the different official documents from the Ministry of Environment have showed that the outdoor air pollution is at its minimal in the country, given the fact that Djibouti city’s expansion, an increase of urban vehicles and the growing of industry, the outside air pollution will be a concern of the country very soon. The fuel wood also has been causing indoor air pollution that leads to different smock related sickness in the rural areas. For example, gaseous effluents such as black smoke have been mentioned as one of the pollutants in the country. There is however no measures for the pollutant content of these releases (PANE: 66) 6.   3.3.3

Marine and Coastal Pollution

Djibouti is a strategic geographic location on the Red Sea. It serves as an important shipping route and trans-shipment hub in the IGAD region. It is also a regional hub for the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, and in wider context the three continents of Europe, Africa and Asia. The country’s economy is heavily dependent on shipping routes and ports. In spite of its benefit, this international maritime exchange site has been affected by marine pollution. Based on the literatures and field interviews the main marine pollution in Djibouti are: chemicals, oil, biological and solid waste (like non-biodegradable plastic). Informants also noted that there are various incidents of maritime pollution such as accidental spills from ships carrying hazardous substances, oil, gas etc. This has caused the wastage of significant amount of oil, the death of birds, decreasing of fisheries, loss of sea biodiversity, and much more loses. In Djibouti, it has been indicated that there are no recent detailed studies regarding the impacts of the maritime pollution. The informants reiterated the seriousness of marine pollution. Given the fact that Ethiopia is one of the major users of the port of Djibouti, the marine pollution is, indirectly, a concern of Ethiopia. Hence, this shared problems need to be addressed collaboratively.   3.3.4

Other pollutions

Experts from the Ministry of Water and Energy noted that the country's energy and power sector are dominated by electrical power generation. These rampant fuel generators have been causing air and noise pollutions. It is not unusual to hear the noise of diesel generators in most parts of the city (this has been greatly avoided with Djibouti getting power from Ethiopia). Renewable energy sources are at their infancy. However, there are ongoing attempts to have a solar power. The experts at the Ministry of Water and Energy also said that there are cross border projects with Ethiopia such as the construction of two pipelines (gas butane and refined pipelines) from which is scheduled to be completed in 2018. These kind of mega projects need to consider the environmental and social impact assessments which, in turn, can be used as a recipe for regional cooperation and integration. As informants from the Ministry of Agriculture noted, Djibouti serves as a transit of cattle and sheep from the neighbouring countries-Ethiopia and Somalia. Millions of cattle and sheep are transported, especially during Haji Amura, exported to Saudi Arabia from Djibouti. These livestock have been causing non-point pollution. More to the point, there are no studies made on the impact of manure on the environment. It is also stated that slaughterhouses have been discharging liquid and solid wastes without any treatment. It Following and environmental audit of hydrocarbon stores in Djibouti on 2012, the quality of the atmospheric air is remarkably affected due to emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from atmospheric storage tanks and evaporation losses from the Djibouti port. The negative impacts on the air quality are equally probable in the case of a leakage or major spill. In normal operation, VOC emissions are mainly due to storage and handling of volatile hydrocarbons (Class I flammable) and volatile organic chemicals. VOC emissions from hydrocarbons of Class II (fuel oils) are negligible because of the nature of products.

6

19


is indicated that some of the discharges have been polluting the Red Sea such as causing bad smells. Other sources of pollution in the country are dust and sand storms, which are more recurrent in these days. 3.3.5

Summary

Environmental Pollution is identified as one of the major environmental problems. Djibouti has been facing severe environmental degradation, desertification, drought, and water scarcity. Due to the hot weather the people of Djibouti are very close to the looming of environmental problems. Djibouti is located on the Horn of Africa and on the Red Sea. It serves as a crucial important shipping route and trans-shipment hub of the region. Marine pollution is one of the major pollutants. There is lack of solid and liquid waste treatment plants in the cities. One can easily see a lot of garbage on the roadside and in different places. The most often quoted pollution is that the big lorry trucks accident pollution on the Ethio-Djiboutian borders, which has led to a spill-over of hazardous chemical on the road, which has caused both point and non-point environmental pollutions at many occasions. Besides that, the seawater intrusion into the ground water has caused severe water pollution such as salinity. Both outdoor and indoor pollutions are very rampant in the country. Table 1: Synthesis table of environment pollution in Djibouti Type of pollution Land

Key Sources

Chemical spillover and municipal waste

Water

Coastal, marine, groundwater pollutions

Air

Emissions of pollutant particles such as CO2 and others from indoor and outdoor sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts and others

Impacts

Moderate

Causing point and nonpoint pollution of the land and affecting human health and the environment. Causing the marine ecosystems, affecting coastal towns, and pollute groundwater through salinization Causing health problems X like respiratory illness and others

Source: own elaboration

20

Severe X

Very Critical

X


4

Link between environment pollution and economic development in Djibouti

4.1

Current economic cooperation between the country and the other IGAD countries and regional integration Djibouti maintains close ties with the governments of Somalia, Ethiopia, France and the United States. Apart of being a member States of the IGAD and homing its headquarters, it is likewise an active participant in African Union and Arab League affairs. Since the 2000s, Djiboutian authorities have also strengthened relations with China which is now one of the major trade partner and one of the most important foreign investor in the country. At the IGAD level, the economic cooperation, in terms of trade, is mainly with Ethiopia and to a lower extent with Somalia (see figure 3) that have a land border with Djibouti. 40000

thousand USD

35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 2003

2004

2005 Kenya

2006 Sudan

2007

2008

Uganda

Somalia

2009 Ethiopia

2010

2011

2012

2013

2011

2012

2013

Eritrea

50000 45000

thousand USD

40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 2003

2004

2005 Kenya

2006 Sudan

2007

2008

Uganda

Somalia

2009 Ethiopia

2010 Eritrea

Figure 4: Imports (top) and exports (bottom) of IGAD trade partners of Djibouti Source: Merchandise trade matrix (2015)

In 2013 Djibouti exported $72.5M, making it the 193rd largest exporter in the world. During the last five years the exports of Djibouti have decreased at an annualized rate of -22.3%, from $255M in 2008 to $72.5M in 2013. The most recent exports are led by Wood Charcoal which represent 23.2% of the total exports of Djibouti, followed by Sheep and Goats, which account for 22.9% (African Economic Outlook, 2105). Its top imports are Palm Oil ($258M), Ammonia ($122M), Wheat ($114M), Delivery Trucks ($105M) and Other Vegetables ($91.7M).

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4.1.1

Economic relationships between Djibouti and other IGAD countries

Relations between Djibouti and Ethiopia are generally good. Both countries share ownership of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railroad which has been upgraded recently. It is expected trains to be running on the new US$4bn Ethiopia-Djibouti railway project, a central plank in plans to strengthen economic links between the two countries, in early 2016 (it will cut the good travel time from two days to 10 hours).The railroad is tied to the Port of Djibouti, which provides port facilities and trade ties to landlocked Ethiopia. The border between the two countries is based on the Franco-Ethiopian convention of 20 March 1897 7. Since 1991 8, the two countries have signed over 39 protocols agreements. Ethiopia is highly reliant on Djibouti's ports and so improved access will support trade growth. The economic interest and associated Railroad investment will improve international investor confidence in Djibouti and also supports the expectation of strong bilateral relations between neighbouring Ethiopia and Djibouti. Djibouti's geostrategic position and improved infrastructure will continue to be a significant attraction for foreign investment, confirming the forecast for robust economic growth over the next years (6% of GDP growth from the IFM forecasts). The Corridor that connects Djibouti, Ethiopia, South Sudan and Sudan will still be active despite the new railways. In the second semester 2015, Ministers of Transport from the Djibouti Corridor states have agreed to the establishment of the Djibouti Corridor Authority (DCA) to improve the coordination, efficiency and management of corridor activities. This acknowledge the important role played by transport in the regional economy, specifically promoting trade and regional competitiveness and addressing most of the major impediments to freight transportation and movement of people between and through adjoining countries. In that context, DCA should not only enhance collaboration among IGAD and COMESA Member States but also collaboration between the public and private sectors (notably within the Transit Trade and Transit Facilities in the COMESA Treaty that underscored the importance of trade facilitation 9). As the headquarters of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development regional body, Djibouti has been an active participant in the Somalian peace process 10. Despite the efforts, the economic cooperation is far less active than in the beginning of the 90s where Somalia was the main trade export partner of Djibouti. The informal trade with Somalia still continues but much of which involves the smuggling of khat. 4.1.2

Economic relationships between Djibouti and Arab countries.

The continuing desire of Djibouti to strengthen links with Arab countries can be illustrated by the proposed construction project of the Bridge of the Horn, a bridge between the coasts of Djibouti and Yemen across the Bab-el-Mandeb, the strait between the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. It is, in a more immediate effect, marked by agreement with the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED) to finance the first phase of construction of a new 75 MW power plant in the Djaban As area, on the outskirts of Djibouti

A protocol signed by France and Ethiopia on 16 January 1954, stated that the demarcation of the boundary between the colony of Djibouti and Ethiopia as considered final, which became effective 28 February of that year. With the independence of Djibouti, there have been no significant issues over this border. 7

Djibouti President Hassan Gouled Aptidon paid an official visit to Ethiopia in October 1991, when a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation was signed between the two countries.

8

9 This is part of the COMESA Regional Support Mechanism (RISM) that intends to support the implementation of transit transport facilitation instruments and other regional integration instruments.

It hosted the Arta conference in 2000, as well as the 2008-2009 talks between the Transitional Federal Government and the Alliance for the Reliberation of Somalia, which led to the formation of a coalition government. In 2011, Djibouti joined the African Union Mission to Somalia. Following the establishment of the Federal Government of Somalia in 2012, a Djibouti delegation also attended the inauguration ceremony of Somalia's new president.

10

22


City 11. Economic ties between Djibouti and Turkey also look set to become stronger following a visit to Djibouti in December 2015 of the Turkey's economy minister and the signature of a Memorandum of Understanding to establish a special economic zone for Turkish businesses and industries in Djibouti (with unknown environmental consequences). 4.2

Impact of current environment pollution on domestic economy and economic cooperation and regional integration in the region Djibouti’s economy is a service-oriented economy, centered on the port, railway, the civil service, and the foreign military presence. Earnings from services, including the provisions of ports services, exceed receipts from merchandise exports. Although the trade account is heavily in deficit, the service and income accounts are consistently in surplus. International aid plays also a significant part in Djibouti’s economy. Re-export have traditionally constituted a high proportion of exports, representing around 80 % of total exports. In that context, pollution is one of the many environmental challenges facing Djibouti today. The impact of pollution is more severe in Djibouti City, leading to ill health, death and disabilities of many of people annually (PRSP, 2007). Despite having an emergency plan against oil pollution, Djibouti doesn’t have the resources and technologies to combat the various sources of pollution (see table below). As a result of the health risks and the potential impact of climate change, there have been already efforts to reduce pollution, mainly through support from the EU and other Technical cooperation partners (water treatment, etc.). Table 2 : Importance of the domestic sources of pollution Indicator

Air Quality

Water Resources Water and Sanitation

Sub-indicator

Definition

Household Air Quality

Percentage of the population using solid fuels as primary cooking fuel.

87

89

Air Pollution - Average Exposure to PM2.5

Population weighted exposure to PM2.5 (three- year average)

100

1

93.17

100

Air Pollution - PM2.5 Exceedance

Proportion of the population whose exposure is above WHO thresholds (10, 15, 25, 35 micrograms/m3) Wastewater treatment level weighted by connection to wastewater treatment rate.

0

145

Access to drinking water

48.67

96

Access to sanitation

17.56

121

Wastewater Treatment

Score

World Rank

Source: Yale University (2015) 12

The following table highlights the main economic effects and estimates potential GDP loss regarding the main sources of air, land and water pollution in the country.

The project is expected to cost more than US$62m, with most of the funding coming from the KFAED and the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development.

11

12

Voir : http://epi.yale.edu/epi/country-profile/djibouti

23


Table 3 : Main economic effects of air, land and water pollution Type of pollution Land

Water

Air

Key Sources

Impacts

Chemical spillover Causing point and municipal and non point waste pollution of the land and affecting human health and the environment. Coastal, marine, Causing the groundwater marine pollutions ecosystems, affecting coastal towns, and pollute groundwater through salinization Emissions of Causing health pollutant particles problems like such as CO2 and respiratory others from indoor illness and and outdoor others sources such as vehicles, fuel wood, charcoals dusts and others

Economic Impacts

Main economic impacts – human health effects from polluted water sources through agricultural and industrial development (Kirui and Mirzabaev, 2014). Estimated GPD loss of 0.02 percent.

Main economic impacts – damage and lost productivity regarding marine ecosystems and human health through polluted drinking water sources. Estimated loss of GDP in the region of 0.1 percent.

Main economic effects – human health costs and lost labour productivity. Estimated GDP loss of 0.01 percent.

Source: Own elaboration

4.2.1

Economic Impact of Air Pollution

The important role of industrialization in the development process of developing countries cannot be overemphasized. There is need for structural transformation from small-scale agriculture to industrialization in order for developing countries to experience inclusive and pro-poor growth. However, industrialization requires massive use of energy resources which could lead to pollution and environmental degradation 13. Developing countries in their quest for economic development and poverty reduction are expected to put economic growth, energy for all and industrialization at the fore front of their goals before giving consideration to environmental issues. Therefore, compelling developing countries like those in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia to pursue environmental goals, particularly reduction in CO2 emissions, will require substantial economic, technological and financial support from developed countries and the international community to compensate for the economic losses associated with reducing pollution. In that regard, Djibouti has committed to reducing its GHG emissions by 40% by the year 2030, representing close to 2 Mt of CO2e, compared to projections for that year according to the

China, for instance, would not have achieved the impressive economic growth and development it has recorded in recent years if she had cared about pollution at the initial stage of development. Other developed economies like the OECD are also focusing on environmental sustainability after achieving considerable growth and improvement in the living standard of their citizens. The Chinese economic model is energy intensive, with strong focus on investment and industrialization, and is being adopted by a number of developing countries. 13

24


business as usual scenario (INDC, 2015) 14. This can be attained through a combination of mitigation measures and the development of sustainable economic sectors like renewable energies. To fulfil that level of ambition, Djibouti will need to invest more than US $3.8 billion, in collaboration with the international community. An additional US $1.6 billion, conditional on new funding sources like the Green Climate Fund, along with international support, would enable the country to reduce its emissions by a further 20% by 2030. The total effort, under both the unconditional and conditional scenarios, would essentially entail maintaining the country’s emissions at roughly their level in 2010 (see figure below).

metric tons of carbon per capita

0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05

2010

2007

2004

2001

1998

1995

1992

1989

1986

1983

1980

1977

1974

1971

1968

1965

1962

1959

1956

1953

1950

0

Figure 5: Per capita Co2 emissions

Source: African Development Group (2015) 15

Djibouti’s determination to pursue oil companies convicted of pollution damage (back to 1997) is another proof of the country’s high concern and consideration to environmental pollution. This may lead to negative effect on international investor confidence, but the country’s geostrategic position will still be a significant attraction for foreign investment. It is therefore important that regulations are fully implemented. 4.2.2

Economic Impact of Land Pollution

From a more industrial perspective, Djibouti depends mainly on port services and to a lower extent to natural resources for revenue and foreign exchange. The exploitation port facilities result in environmental pollution and degradation. However, for Djibouti to maintain its current economic growth path and sustain its drive for poverty reduction, port exploration will continue to be a dominant economic activity. The recent extension of the port (3 terminals) to make Djibouti the hub of the horn of Africa testify of the willingness to continue the current expansion. Consequently there is a high risk of further industrial pollution. In that context, the inevitability of pollution has been demonstrated by the Environmental Kuznet Curve (EKC). The EKC is a hypothesized relationship between indicators of environmental degradation and income per capita. According to the theory, environmental pollution and degradation increase in the early stages of economic growth, get to a peak point, and reverse in such a way that the environment improves at high income levels. This is based on the fact that developing countries desire industrialization and 14

For details see: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Djibouti/1/INDC-Djibouti_ENG.pdf

15

http://djibouti.opendataforafrica.org/apps/gallery

25


economic growth and tend to consume more cheap energy. There is also need for developing countries to build roads and rail tracks and develop massive infrastructure to promote economic growth. Such activities that are required at the take-off stage of economic development are substantially energyintensive. 4.2.3

Economic Impact of Water Pollution

Sanitation is a major problem in the capital city, which accounts for 80 percent of the fixed-residence households in the country: one of the main causes is the inadequate human and material resources of Technical Services (sewerage). Irregular garbage collection and the shortage of garbage containers are such that garbage piles up more or less everywhere in the neighbourhoods in the capital city. The fact that over 60 percent of the waste collected daily is placed in the dump directly, without sorting or prior treatment, is a further reflection of these difficulties. Nevertheless, in the absence of specific studies on the linkages between domestic pollution and economic growth in Djibouti one can only say that it reduces the capacity of the people to conduct normal economic activities that can be estimate as a few points of the GDP 16 (for instance, according to the World Bank 17 incapacity to perform ordinary work due malaria reduces GDP growth by approximately 1.3% per year in some African countries). 4.2.4

Summary

Overall, pollution can have serious implications for economic growth and welfare in Djibouti because of its impact on health, resource depletion, and natural calamities linked to climate change. There are two major groups of policy instruments for achieving pollution reduction: regulatory and market based economic instruments. Regulatory instruments prescribe emission standards or effluent limits. These require considerable information and involve significant administrative costs for implementation and monitoring. Market based instruments include taxes, subsidies, and trading instruments. In comparison with the regulatory policies, market based instruments may be able to reduce the costs of achieving a given level of environmental protection through incentives. The regulatory framework is presented in the next chapter.

Air pollution causes damages the immune system, endocrine and reproductive systems; high levels of particle pollution are associated with higher incidents of heart problems; the toxic chemicals released into the air settle into plants and water sources and the poison then travels up the food chain with higher incidents. Water polluted by chemicals such as heavy metals, lead, pesticides and hydrocarbon can cause hormonal and reproductive problems, damage to the nervous system, liver and kidney damage and cancer (US Environmental Protection Agency: Health Effects of Air Pollution, 2015). .

16

Water pollution affects marine life which is one of our food sources. Remember the stories of contaminated shellfish and how those who ate them died? 17

http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/health/brief/malaria

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5

Assessment of existing national policies and strategies to address environment pollution

In Djibouti, the environment is considered a national heritage in the context of the world heritage. Djibouti embraces environmental preservation and protection as of interest to the local, national, regional and international levels and ensures the needs of present and future generations. Djibouti Environmental Framework Law (Cadre de l'Environnement,) LOI No. 6/AN00/4èmeL The Environmental Framework Law (No 106/AN00/4èmeL) promulgated in the Government of Djibouti on 29th October 2000, covers 68 articles related to protection of the environment. The Environmental Law stipulates that every citizen of Djibouti has a right to a healthy environment as defined by the Codes (Act No. 51 / AN / 09 / 6th L on the Environment Code). Therefore, the National Environmental Policies, Strategies, Legislation, Regulation, Codes and Acts set down basic ground rules and principles of national policy in the area of protection and management of the environment to ensure sustainable development, and that, in accordance with institutional frameworks and multilateral agreements in the environment. 5.1 National and regional policies, strategies and legal frameworks The Djibouti Constitution of September 15, 1992 supplemented by Vision 2035, provides legal frameworks relevant to environmental protection, preservation, conservation, and management. A number of legal frameworks, Codes and Policies have been developed. These include and are not limited to: •

the prevention and suppression of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and aircraft and the fight against pollution;

•

the prevention and combating of pollution from incineration operations;

•

the suppression of prohibited oil discharges for ships flying Djibouti flag outside territorial waters;

•

ratifying the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change;

•

ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity;

•

ratifying the Convention Fight against Desertification;

•

the Accession to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the Montreal Protocol and amendments to the Montreal Protocol;

•

the Framework Law on the Environment;

•

approving the National Action Plan for the Environment from 2001 to 2010;

•

on the ratification of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal;

•

on the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change;

•

on the ratification of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity;

•

approving the economic and social policy of the Republic of Djibouti;

•

on the ratification of the Convention on Wetlands / Ramsar Convention;

•

Fisheries Code;

•

on the ratification of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; 27


•

ratifying the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides subject to international Business;

•

on the establishment of the Protected Areas Land and Marine;

•

on the definition of the Study of Environmental Impact Assessment procedures;

•

approving the Strategy and National Action Plan for the Conservation of Biodiversity;

•

regulating the transport of dangerous goods Considering Decree No. 2004-0065 / PR / MHUEAT of 22 April 2004 on the protection of biodiversity;

•

regulating the import of substances that deplete the ozone layer;

However, environmental legal frameworks in Djibouti without appropriate legislation are ineffective as, in turn, they are legislation without enforcement or implementation. For instance, economic and financial pressures tend to dominate other development concerns. Despite, the fact that the above environmental frameworks are established, there continues to be environmental degradation. For example, there is no waste management and plastic bags control, petrol and oil spills are frequent, waste water management and treatment are inadequate, and old motor tyres, old vehicles and scrap metals are just lying around. In most cases, legislation on environmental issues has been in existence for a long time in Djibouti since it is major port hub for Europe and Middle East. For example, laws exist in most parts for the prevention of water pollution, the protection of cultural heritage and for minimum compensation. This may be as a response to major disasters in the Red sea, or result from government environmental policy, public pressure or the general increased international awareness of the environmental dangers that now exist in Djibouti. Djibouti EIA established in year 2000, prescribes manner for specific development activities. When carrying out an EIA it is thus essential to be fully aware of the statutory requirements and the legal responsibilities of the concerned institutions. These are best given as an annex to the terms of reference. The legal requirements of the country must be satisfied. The statutory requirement to carry out an EIA for specific projects, require expert staff to carry out the study, as well as officials to review the EIA and approve the project. Laws designating what projects require EIA, ideally, limit the statutory requirements to prevent EIA merely becoming a hurdle in the approval process. Most legislation lists projects for which EIA is a discretionary requirement. The discretionary authority is usually the same body that approves an EIA. This arrangement allows limited resources to be allocated most effectively. However, it is essential that the discretionary authority is publicly accountable. The function of environmental legislation can vary. It is not easy to give a precise definition of when an EIA is needed. Therefore the statutory requirement for an EIA is not particularly well suited to law. On the other hand many of the most important environmental hazards are easily addressed by law. For example, it is straightforward to set legal limits for pollution, flow levels, compensation and others. But, in Djibouti, the problem is one of enforcement or implementation. Enforcement problems can be partially addressed by changing institutional structures and capacity building. 5.2 National and regional institutional frameworks Environmental, water and land issues involve many disciplines and many government bodies. Data is therefore collected and collated from a wide range of technical ministries, other government authorities and parastatals. The interests of some bodies is not initially to be relevant to maritime or water and land transport. However, they hold important information about the project and surrounding area on such topics 28


as water, land, health, ecology and demography. In order to address some of these problems in Djibouti, some institutional frameworks were established as follows: •

The Ministry of Housing, Town Planning, Environment and Spatial Planning;

•

The National Commission for Sustainable Development;

•

The appointing of the Prime Minister to provide oversight and inter-ministerial coordination role; and

•

The appointing of the members of the Government and fixing their institutional authorities to reinforce implementation of environmental legislations.

The link between different ministries and departments within ministries are often complex and the hierarchy for decision making unclear. There is a tendency for each ministry to protect "its project" and not consult or seek information from other government bodies unless instructed to comply. This is directly contrary to the needs of an EIA. Even if formal structures exist there may be a lack of coordination between different organizations. Informal links may have been established in practice in order to overcome rigid bureaucratic structures. These issues must be understood and not oversimplified in the case of Djibouti. There may be conflict between government organizations, particularly between the institution promoting the development for revenue collection and that given the mandate for environmental protection, conservation and management. The institutions have different agendas and approaches. In this case institutional framework supporting EIA process must be interactive and sympathetic to the differing views; not biased towards a particular organization. The Center for Research and Development (CERD) is undertaking empirical and applied research to inform policy and decision making in Djibouti. To quote the Director of the research center Dr. Jalludin Mohamed (interviewed on the 22nd of September 2015) states that “One of the main conflicts arising from water and transport projects is between those responsible for oil and those for water”. In some institutions, there are several issues with differing concerns, such as oil, livestock, use of plastic paper and water, plus several parastatal organizations and special authorities or commissions, some perhaps directly under the Office of the Prime Minister. The institutional aspects are complex; for example in Djibouti, several ministries and institutions have responsibility for various aspects of environmental, management, protection, water, air and soil conservation work. There is need to undertake both empirical and applied research through accredited institutions to provide relevant information, reliable and accurate data to inform both policy and decision making. Increasingly, at the national level, new institutions are being created, or existing institutions reorganized, to address environmental issues. The Ministry of the Environment in Djibouti, was created with a mandate to prepare legislation, set standards and provide a "policing" role. In addition, an Environmental Protection Agency may also be created to coordinate environmental assessment activities and to monitor follow up actions. As well as specific environmental agencies, new units or departments concerned with environmental issues are being created in technical ministries. Such units may have narrow duties related to the responsibilities of the institution. For example, several units could be concerned with various aspects of monitoring water and air pollutions levels and setting acceptable quality standards. The responsibilities of all the relevant institutions needs to be clearly understood. Institutional weakness is one of the reasons for environmental mismanagement. The multiplicity of institutions create duplication and may also limit effective enforcement of environmental control measures. The institutional frameworks must cover such issues in depth and highlight contradictions, weak or impractical legislation and institutional conflicts. To overcome such problems capacity development should include institutional strengthening and capacity building. 29


5.3

Status of implementation the policies, strategies, legal frameworks as well as the international MEAs It is necessary to consider how existing organizations will need to be changed or new laws promulgated in order to ensure environmentally sustainable development in Djibouti. The implementation of mitigating measures or monitoring often have an impact on the work of one or several institutions. Therefore, is important to provide relevant and accurate structure and role of new units within an institution or the restructuring of existing units, so that the proposed measures can be implemented effectively. The local capacity building is inevitable to Djibouti. Definition of such local capacity needs involve several national and local government authorities, NGOs or other participatory groups such as Water Users Associations, livestock and farmers associations, academic and research institutions such as Center for Studies and Research (CERD). It is crucial that local and not just central government institutional capacity is strengthened. This will help to overcome the feeling that environmental issues are imposed from a remote central authority and are a diversion from more important development activities. It will also build into project planning the importance of environmental management. There are numerous Bilateral and Multi-Lateral agencies in Djibouti promoting environmental safety, health and management guidelines. These include: International Finance Corporation (IFC), World Bank Group, Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines (April 30, 2007) and African Development Bank. A comprehensive plan is in place for sewage and solid waste disposal. The solid waste area will be fenced off and the solid waste regularly removed to a permitted waste disposal site. There is also a routine burning of solid waste on site. Solid waste management at the Maintenance and Housing site is practiced. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included four types of mammals, six species of birds, nine species of fish, and two species of plants. Threatened species include the spotted eagle, several species of sharks, the green turtle, the spotted hyena, and Grevy's zebra. External financial support is required to justify obligations of the donor organization. Most donors now require legal and institutional frameworks including EIA for projects relating to transport, manufacturing and industrialization. Overall, the Government of Djibouti has several environmental codes necessary to address environmental pollution. However, pollution is persistent and continuous. The institutional arrangements lack effective coordination to reinforce implementation of the environmental codes. Regional pollution is perceived in the context of maritime shipment in association with oil spills, dumping of hazardous waste and transport of livestock to the Middle East, in particular Saudi Arabia, It is important for the country to build capacity to pursue legislation and implementation of the environmental codes.

30


6

Proposed actions for Environment Pollution Control

As a commerce and trade entry point to Eastern Africa, Djibouti experiences high rates of industrialization, urbanization, and migration to urban areas. Population influx is mainly from rural people, political migrants, foreign workers and stowaways. The country is unable to cope with these insurgences due to lack of capacity and resources. While, the pressure on the environment is increasing with consequences on contributing greatly to the rise in air pollution, land degradation, water contamination. The continuous lack of awareness and resources in the country have contributed to the relatively rampant solid waste, low air quality and weak control systems. The major sources of pollution in the area are dust storms, sandstorms, greenhouse gas emission, and other gases from various industries. The main air pollutants involved are particulate matter, sulfuric dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, volatile organic compounds, persistent organic pollutants, carbon monoxide and heavy metals. Due to its unbearable hot weathers, environmental consciousness is high among the Djibouti people. Among the major environmental problems such as drought, desertification, water scarcity in the country, environmental pollution has not given much attention. Much of the environmental problems are related to climate variability and climate change. Hence, there is a need to have detailed studies on the nature, type and seriousness of environmental pollution in Djibouti and its effects at the cross border and IGAD region level. Given the fact that Djibouti is located at the Horn of Africa, the environmental pollution in Djibouti will have ripples effects in the neighbouring countries, particularly on Ethiopia and Somalia and the Gulf Region. This necessitates to do pollution studies and bring research and academic organizations as a part of the pollution control and sustainable development in the country and in the IGAD region. Besides, the lack of awareness about pollution and the limited human and financial resources in the region has contributed to the poor prevention and control of pollution in the country.   The following policy recommendation may take into consideration: •

Environmental pollution should need to get higher political attention. As stands now, there seems to be a side-lined issue in Djibouti.

•

There is a need to update some of environmental documents, and also need to develop a new ones;

•

There is a need to make the ‘staff and the public’ pollution conscious. Public awareness of environmental pollution needs to be designed and implemented. Capacity development of environmental officers in the area of pollution needs to be strengthened;

•

There is a need to develop cross-border environmental pollution measurement and monitoring between Djibouti and Ethiopia.

It is vital for the Republic of Djibouti to reduce its pollution without significantly affecting the country’s economic and social development. For the atmospheric pollution, in the case of the unconditional scenario, the level of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) per Gross Domestic Product (GDP) point will decrease from 2.5 in 2000 to 0.8 in 2030. In addition, the planned mitigation measures will support priority economic sectors like renewable energies and energy efficiency. On its own scale, Djibouti is making significant contributions to reducing global emissions and pollution. As for environmental preservation, it will constitute one of the major priorities of the Intended National Determination Contribution (INDC). The objective in this area is to introduce an integrated approach that makes it possible to take into consideration all aspects of the issue (the urban, rural, and mining environments, atmospheric pollution, etc.). In this connection, revision of the PANE adopted in 2001 should permit better federation and coordination of the efforts made in this regard. Specific actions will be undertaken in the context of combating the harmful effects of climate change as well as conserving biodiversity. 31


From the policy side, Djibouti has taken steps in recent years to curb the rise of air pollution, environmental degradation, solid waste management, waste water treatment, oil spill, and water quality among others. The objective is to develop targets to address environmental pollution in several key economic and natural resource areas. These areas include: Transport, Industry and Mining, Energy, Waste, Vegetation Fires, Indoor Air pollution Urban Planning and Management, Livestock and Agriculture management. More precisely: •

The first action is to set the Policy Session, and identify the main environmental pollution issues in the country and develop policy recommendations to address the issues.

•

The second action is to promote an economic approach to the adoption of good air quality, clean fuels, no plastic bags and vehicles in the country, so as to ensure better air quality and clean environment.

•

The third action is to develop and implement Master Plan to cope with high rates of urbanization and sustain provision of basic services and utilities.

•

The fourth action is to contain high urban population in correlation with land capacity and environmental management.

•

The fifth action is to reinforce implementation of established environmental codes including EIA, Air Pollution Act, Waste Water Treatment, Water Quality Act, Maritime and Biodiversity management.

In summary, Djibouti is concerned, and has reason to be concerned, about the state of environmental pollution, oil spillage, land degradation and air quality in the region. The country has taken measures to manage and control environmental pollution, keep pollution levels under control and create a more sustainable economic growth, while managing its high rates of urbanization. However, the country is constrained by financial and technological resources in addition to human capability and institutional abilities to develop, implement, and reinforce environmental codes and legislation. There is need for research and development to generate relevant data and information on pollution. The country should support initiatives for capacity development at national level and seek regional cooperation and integration to strengthen national institutions and human capacity development.

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7

References

Audit environnemental du dépôt d’hydrocarbures de la société « horizon terminals limited » de doraleh, Djibouti 12 mars 2012 unité de gestion du projet énergie Djibouti Ville, Djibouti. Brundtland (1987), Our Common Future, the World Commission on Environment and Development. Environmental Code, The Republic of Djibouti, 1992 Litman, T. (2010). Evaluating transportation economic development impacts. www.vtpi.org/econdev.pdf Management on invasive Prosopis to alleviate poverty and for food security in Djibouti: Introducing recent developments. An output from a FAO Technical Cooperation Programme (FAO TCP/DJI/3303 (A)). FAO, Djibouti NM Pasiecznik and SK Choge. 2013 Mapping, Assessment & Management of Trans-boundary Water Resources in the IGAD Sub-Region Project, Environment Component, Volume III (2011), Intergovernmental Authority on Development, Sahara and Sahel Observatory and African Development Bank. OECD, Recommendation for the Implementation of a Regime of Equal Right of Access and Non Discrimination in Relation to Trans frontier Pollution, C (77)28(Final), adopted May 17, 1977 (hereinafter OECD 1977 Recommendation), see Annex (c). See also in OECD, OECD and the Environment, 1986; and in D B Magraw (ed), International Law and Pollution, 1991 (hereinafter Magraw 1991), p 3 and p 22 note 3. Plan d'Action National pour l'Environnement, PANE, 2001-20010 Plan de Gestion Intégrée de la Zone Côtière de Djibouti. Juin 2005 Reddy, V.R and Behera, B. (2006). Impact of water pollution on rural communities: an economic analysis. Ecological Economics, 58(3): 520-537 Redgwell C, Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, Quantifying Environmental Harm, Marine Policy, March 1992, p 90 et sea, discussing pollution as damage. Springer L, towards a meaningful concept of pollution in international law, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol 26 1977, p 531 et seq (hereinafter Springer 1977). The Declaration of the UN Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED), 31 ILM 876 (1992). The National Initiative for Social Development (INDS) 2011-2015 World Health Organization, Topic: A, Air Pollution, 2012.

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Annex 1 List of persons interviewed in Djibouti No. 1.

Name Houssein Rirache Robleh Idris Ismael Nuor Mohamed Gona Abdallah Hassan Moussa Rayaleh Ahmed Mohamed Ali

Organization Ministry of Environment Ministry of Environment Ministry of Environment Ministry of Environment Ministry of Agriculture

6

Dr. Jalludin Mohamed

7

Dr. Abdourahman Daher

8

Captain Mohamed Moussa Abar

Ministre de I’Enseignement et de la Recherche, CERD Ministre de I’Enseignement et de la Recherche, CERD Ports and Free Zone Authority

2. 3 4 5

Position Director

Email [email protected]

Phone no. 77844848

Head of Pollution Department Land-use planning fellow Researcher

[email protected]

77887292

[email protected]

77639545

Director of Agriculture and Forest General Director

[email protected]

77810698

[email protected]

21352795

Director de L’Institut des Sciences de la vie

[email protected]

77821484

Commandant de Port

[email protected]

77810874

34