Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials - CiteSeerX

AZA Preprint: 1990/7C.

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola, A. Zarzo

Updated preprint version: October 1992 of Ref.: C. Brezinski, L. Gori and A. Ronveaux eds., Orthogonal Polynomials and Their Applications, Proc. III International Symposium on Orthogonal Polynomials and Their Applications (Erice, Italy, June 1990), IMACS Ann. Comput. Appl. Math. vol. 9 (1991) pp.223–229.

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials∗ J.S. Dehesa Depto. de F´ısica Moderna, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain. e-mail address: [email protected]

F. Dom´ınguez Adame Depto. F´ısica de Materiales, Universidad Complutense, E-28040 Madrid, Spain

E.R. Arriola Depto. de F´ısica Moderna, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain.

A. Zarzo Depto. de Matem´ atica Aplicada, E.T.S. de Ingenieros Industriales, Universidad Polit´ecnica de Madrid, E-28006 Madrid, Spain. e-mail address: [email protected]

Abstract. Firstly we argue that the quantum-mechanical study of natural systems (e.g. nuclei, atoms, molecules and solids) is a very rich source of orthogonal polynomials. Then, this is illustrated in the so-called Coulomb problem (i.e. the movement of a charged particle in a attractive or repulsive Coulomb potential) of which the hydrogen atom, the simplest realistic physical system, is a particular case. Connected with this problem there appear orthogonal polynomials associated to the names Laguerre, Gegenbauer, Hahn, Pollaczek and Dirac, in both non-relativistic and relativistic cases. Finally, the distribution of zeros of Laguerre and Pollaczek polynomials are chosen to be discussed in detail since they allow to determine the nodal structure of the wavefunctions of Coulomb physical states and the density of energy levels of the repulsive Coulomb problem, respectively.

1.

Quantum Mechanics and Orthogonal Polynomials

The quantum mechanical study of the internal structure of natural systems (e.g. nuclei, atoms, molecules, solids) is an almost inexhaustible source of different sets of orthogonal polynomials. To show that this statement is true, let us consider a natural system with a Hamiltonian operator H , which completely characterizes the system, given by H = K +V

(1)

where K and V are the total kinetic energy and potential energy operators, respectively. Then, the equation of motion of the system in the non-relativistic case is the Schr¨ odinger equation (H − E)Φ = 0 ∗

(2)

Updated preprint version October 1992 of Ref.: C. Brezinski, L. Gori and A. Ronveaux eds., Orthogonal Polynomials and Their Applications, Proc. III International Symposium on Orthogonal Polynomials and Their Applications (Erice, Italy, June 1990), IMACS Ann. Comput. Appl. Math. vol. 9 (1991) pp.223–229.

1

2

J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola and A. Zarzo

where E is the eigenvalue and Φ is the corresponding eigenvector, which represent the total energy and the wavefunction of the physical state of the system, respectively. Let us enumerate some of the ways in which different sets of orthogonal polynomials appear in solving the Schr¨odinger equation (2).

1.1.

Tridiagonalization of the Hamiltonian operator

Nowadays, one knows that the operator H is usually tridiagonalized by means of one of the three following methods: • (i) Conventional method. One obtains a matrix representation of the Hamiltonian and then tridiagonalizes the resulting fully matrix by means of Householder- or Givens-like algorithms [39]. • (ii) Lanczos method. Here, one uses a Lanczos-like algorithm [25, 32, 33, 38] which directly put the Hamiltonian in a tridiagonal form. • (iii) Tight-Binding Approach. Often, one directly finds a tridiagonal form for the Hamiltonian of a physical many-body system by means of the so-called tight-binding approximation [24, 28]. It is based on the assumption that each constituent of the system only intaracts with its two nearest-neighbors. This approximation works very well for numerous physical systems, specially solids. Any of these three methods alows to write the Hamiltonian operator H in the form 

HJ

a1

  b  0    =       



b0 a2 b1

0

b1 a3 .. .

0 b2 .. .

..

.

..

..

.

..

.

.

          ..  .  

..

.

which is usually called the Jacobi Hamiltonian of the system, which is a real and symmetric tridiagonal matrix [17]. Now one uses the following property of a Jacobi matrix: the characteristic polynomials of its principal submatrices, denoted by {Pn (x), n = 1, 2, . . .} , satisfy the three term recurrence relation Pn (x) = (x − an )Pn−1 (x) − b2n−1 Pn−2 (x) (3) P−1 (x) = 0 ; P0 (x) = 1 ; n = 1, 2, . . . In doing so, one has converted the problem of finding the energies and wavefunctions of the physical state of the system as solutions of the associated Schr¨ odinger equation into a mathematical

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials

3

question which entirely lies in the field of orthogonal polynomials. Indeed, the energies are given by the zeros {xm,n ; m = 1, 2, . . . , n} of a polynomial Pn (x) and the corresponding wavefunctions are vectors whose components are the same polynomials evaluated at the corresponding zero [39].

1.2.

Discretization of the Schr¨ odinger equation

From now on, for the sake of clarity in the presentation, we will restrict ourselves to consider the non-relativistic movement of a single particle of mass m in the one dimensional space. Then, the equation of motion (2) reduces as −

¯ 2 d2 Φ(x) h 2m dx2

+ [V (x) − E] Φ(x) = 0

(4)

where h ¯ is the universal Planck´s constant. Since d2 Φ(x) dx2

=

lim

²→∞

Φ(x + ²) − 2Φ(x) + Φ(x − ²) ²2

we find a recurrence relation of the type (3) with coefficients Ã

¯2 h + vn−1 an = − m

!

; bn =

¯2 h 2m

where {vn ; n = 0, 1, 2, . . .} corresponds to the discretized potential of the particle. There are other ways of discretizing the Schr¨odinger equation (4) giving rise to a three term recurrence relation of type (3) and consequently producing new sets of orthogonal polynomials (see e.g. [37].

1.3.

Schr¨ odinger´s equation for solvable potentials

Sometimes, for specific potentials V (x) , it is possible to show that the physically admissible (i.e. single-valued, finite and continuous everywhere) solutions Φ(x) of the Schr¨ odinger equation (4) are of the form [26, 27] Φn (x) = Pn (x) e−Qm (x)

(5)

where Pn (x) and Qm (x) are polynomials. The exponential part takes care of the singularities of the potential. Usually, {Pn (x) , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . } forms a set of orthogonal polynomials of an unknown nature in the general case. From (5) one notices that the nodes of the physical wavefunctions are given by the zeros of the orthogonal polynomials Pn (x) .

1.4.

Momentum Space

Equally well we may face the physical problem in momentum representation. Here we may also make considerations similar to those already done in position representation. Consequently,

4

J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola and A. Zarzo

new sets of orthogonal polynomials characterizing the energies and momentum wavefunctions are encountered. Summarizing, two different sets of orthogonal polynomials may be associated to any natural system in both position and momentum representation. One is related to the wavefunctions and another one is connected with the energies of the system. In general these sets of orthogonal polynomials are of unknown nature, certainly not the classical orthogonal polynomials except for simple systems (e.g. harmonic oscilator, hydrogen atom). In spite of that, sometimes many of their properties can be found from the equation of motion itself. In particular this is so for the nodal structure of the wavefunction and the density of energy levels either rigurously or in an approximate way [2, 3, 19, 21].

2.

The Coulomb Problem and Orthogonal Polynomials

Here we illustrate the general observations done in the previous section for a specific physical case. We have chosen the Coulomb problem, that is the study of the movement of a particle of mass m in the potential V (r) =

C r

where r = (x, y, z) and r = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 . C is a parameter with positive or negative sign, in which case we talk about repulsive or attractive Coulomb problem, respectively. The hydrogenic atoms are typical attractive Coulomb problems with C = −Ze2 , where −e is the charge of the electron and +Ze is the charge of the nucleus. Let us describe the different sets of orthogonal polynomials which appears in the solution of the Coulomb problems.

2.1.

Laguerre polynomials Lαn (x)

The equation of motion of this problem is the Schr¨ odinger equation µ

1 2 C − ∇ +E + 2m r

¶

Φ(r) = 0

(6)

in the non-relativistic case, and the Klein-Gordon equation ·

¸

C −∇ + m − (E + )2 Ψ(r) = 0 r 2

2

(7)

in the relativistic case, where the spin degree of freedom has been omitted. In spherical polar coordinates, the solutions of both equations are [34] of the form R(r) Ylm (θ, φ) , where the angular functions Ylm (θ, φ) are the well known spherical harmonics and the radial part is given as solution of the differential equation d2 R 2 dR + dρ2 ρ dρ

·

+

¸

λ 1 a(a + 1) − − R = 0 ρ 4 ρ2

5

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials

being √ ρ = 2 2mE r ; λ = n + l + 1 ; a = l in the non-relativistic case, and p

ρ = 2 m2 − E 2 r ; λ = n − l + a r 1 1 0 a ≡ l = (l + )2 − C 2 − 2 2 in the relativistic case with spin zero. The positive integer numbers n and l are called principal and orbital quantum numbers. It can be shown [34] that the radial wavefunction is R(ρ) = ρa e−ρ/2 L2a+1 λ−a−1 (ρ)

(8)

Then, the nodal structure of the Coulomb wavefunction is fully determined by the distribution of zeros of Laguerre polynomials in both relativistic and vanishing-spin-relativistic cases. For a hydrogenic atom, which is essentially a particle of spin 1/2 in an attractive Coulomb potential, one should use in the relativistic formulation, not the Klein-Gordon equation (7) but the Dirac equation [34]. Then the corresponding radial wavefunctions do not involve any longer a single Laguerre polynomial but a combination of two Laguerre polynomials (see also [6], which receive the name of Dirac polynomials.

2.2.

Gegenbauer polynomials G(α) n (r)

These polynomials characterize the momentum wavefunctions of the Coulomb problem in a similar way as the Laguerre polynomials do so in the position representation as we have just described [8].

2.3.

Hahn polynomials

The Schr¨odinger´s equation of the Coulomb problem (6) has an exact solution in both spherical and parabolic coordinates [8]. For the discrete spectrum, the wavefunction in both coordinate systems are connected one to another by Clebsh-Gordan coefficients [35, 36]. These coefficients can be expressed in terms of the Hahn polynomials given by [4, 29] "

Qn (x; α; β, N ) =

3 F2

−n , n + α + β + 1 , −x α + 1 , −N ; 1

which are orthogonal over a finite point set in the following sense N X x=0

Qn (x; α; β, N )Qm (x; α; β, N ) "

x+α x

#"

N −x+β N −x

#

= 0 ; m 6= n ≤ N

#

6

J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola and A. Zarzo

In the case of the continuous spectrum, a similar relationship between the spherical and parabolic wavefunctions exist. But here the corresponding transformation coefficients involve the continuous Hahn polynomials [5, 35] Pn ≡ Pn (x; a, b, c, d) given by [4] (a + c)n (a + d)n n! " # −n , n + a + b + c + d − 1 , a − ix 3 F2 a + c, a + d ; 1

Pn (x) = (i)n

which are orthogonal with respect to an absolutely continuous complex measure.

2.4.

Pollaczek polynomials: Pnλ (x; a, b)

The radial Coulomb Hamiltonian can be transformed directly into a tridiagonal matrix by using a L2 −discretisation basis [10, 11, 40]. The orthogonal polynomials associated to this tridiagonal matrix are the Pollaczek polynomials [14] Pn (x) = Pnλ (x; a, b) . For a ≥ b and λ > 0 , the polynomials are orthogonal in [−1, 1] with respect to an absolutely continuous measure and satisfy the recurrence relation µ

Pn (x) =

¶

b Pn−1 (x) − n+λ+a−1 n(n + 2λ − 1) Pn−2 (x) 4(n + λ + a)(n + λ + a − 1) x+

(9) P−1 (x) = 0 ; P0 (x) = 1 ; n = 1, 2, . . . It happens that Pollaczek polynomials involved in the repulsive Coulomb problem do not have discrete spectral points, while those associated to the attractive Coulomb problem present an infinite number of discrete spectral points [7]. Also, it turns out that the level energies E of the repulsive Coulomb problem are the zeros of the polynomial Pnλ (x; 2C, −2C) with λ = l+1 ; x =

E− E+

λ2 8 λ2 8

Moreover, one can show that the energy spectrum of the Coulomb systems may be determined from the spectrum of zeros of Pollaczek polynomials in both non-relativistic and spin-zerorelativistic cases. Then, one realizes that both the nodal structure of the physical wavefunctions in position and momentum representations and the density of energy levels of Coulomb systems are fully characterized by mean of the spectral properties of the above four systems of orthogonal polynomials. However, not so much is known about them. In particular, for Hahn polynomials and Pollaczek polynomials only the works of Levit [31] and Bank and Ismail [7] are known to the knowledge of the authors.

7

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials

3.

Zeros of Laguerre Polynomials and Nodes of Coulomb Wavefunctions

Here we study the distribution of zeros of Laguerre polynomials by means of its moments around the origin n 1X xr n i=1 i,n

µr ≡ µr (n, α) =

(10)

where {xi,n ; i = 1, 2, . . . , n} are the zeros of the polynomial Lαn (x) . Then, we use the resulting expressions to analyze how the nodal distribution of the Coulomb wavefunctions gets modified by non-spin relativistic effects. To calculate the moments (10) we use the differential equation satisfied by Laguerre polynomials [1] x [Lαn (x)]

00

+ (α + 1 − x) [Lαn (x)] 0 + n [Lαn (x)] = 0

(11)

and the following THEOREM [12, 13, 15]: Let Pn (x) be a polynomial satisfying the second order differential equation g2 (x, n)Pn 00 (x) + g1 (x, n)Pn 0 (x)+ g0 (x, n)Pn (x) = 0

(12)

where gi (x, n) =

ci X (i) aj xj ; i = 0, 1, 2.

(13)

j=0

Then it is fulfilled that r+c 2 −3 X

(2)

am+3−r Jm+2 =

m=−1

−

c1 n X (1) a µr+j−1 ; ∀r = 1, 2, . . . 2 j=0 j

where the J−symbol denotes the spectral sum rules Jk =

X l1 6=l2

xkl1 ,n xl1 ,n − xl2 ,n

  0      1 n(n − 1) 2  n(n − 1)µ1     k 

n(n − 2 )µk−1 +

n2 2

=

Pk−2 t=1

µk−1+t µt

if if if if

k k k k

=0 =1 =2 >2

(14)

8

J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola and A. Zarzo

Notice that (14) is the basic relation which allows us to calculate recurrently the spectral mo(i) ments µr of any polynomial Pn (x) in terms of the coefficients aj which characterize the differential equation (12) with polynomial coefficients (13) satisfied by Pn (x) . The application of this theorem to equation (11) gives in a recurrent way the moments of the distribution of zeros of the Laguerre polynomials Lαn (x) as µ1 = n + α µ2 = (n + α)(2n + α − 1) µr+1 = (2n + α − r)µr + n

(15) r−1 X

µr−t µt

t=1

r = 2, 3, . . . In particular, for r = 3, 4 one has µ3 = (n + α)(5n2 + 5nα − 6n + α2 − 3α + 2) h

µ4 = (n + α) (5n2 + 5nα − 6n + α2 − 3α + 2) (2n + α − 3) + 2n(n + α)(2n + α − 1)] For large n values it is possible to solve the associated inverse moment problem. One finds that the distribution of zeros ρn (x) is given by (i) If x− ≤ x ≤ x+ : ρn (x) =

i1/2 1 h 2 −x + 2(2n + α − 1)x − (α − 1)2 2πα

where x± are the roots of the radicand. (ii) ρn ≡ 0 otherwise. This result may also be found by random-matrix techniques [9]. In the asymptotic limit (i.e. n → ∞ ) one easily obtains ∗

ρ (x) =

 1 4 1/2    2π ( x − 1)    0

if 0 < x < 4 x≥4

where ρ∗ (x) = limn → ∞ ρn (x/n) Other asymptotic properties of zeros of Laguerre polynomials have been recently reviewed [22, 23]. The application of these results to the Schr¨ odinger and Klein-Gordon equations of the Coulomb problem, allow to study in an explicit way how the nodal structure of Coulomb wavefunctions gets modified due to the relativistic effects associated to the Einstenian mass variation with the velocity of the particle. In particular, equation (15) gives that µr (R) < µr (N − R) ; r = 1, 2, . . .

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials

9

which shows that the relativistic values µr (R) of the nodal moments are smaller than the nonrelativistic ones µr (N − R) . From here, one concludes that relativity pushes down the centroide and decreases the spread of the nodal distribution as well as it makes more concentrated around the centroid such distribution. These and other properties are described in detail elsewhere [2, 20, 21].

4.

Zeros of Pollaczek Polynomials and Energy of Coulomb Systems

Here the distribution of zeros of Pollaczek polynomials is studied by means of its moments around the origin defined by equation (10), where now {xi,n ; i = 1, 2, . . . , n} denote the zeros of the polynomial Pnλ (x; a, b) . To calculate these moments we use the three-term recurrence relation (9) satisfied by these polynomials and the following theorem [16, 18]: Let Pn (x) be a polynomial satifying the recurrence relation given by (3). Then, the spectral moments µr defined in (10) are as µ0m =

1X 0 Fm (r10 , r1 , r20 , r2 , . . . , rj , rj+1 ) n (m) n−t X

r0

r0

2r

j+1 2r2 1 2 ai 1 b2r i ai+1 bi+1 . . . bi+j ; m = 1, 2, . . . , n.

i=1

P

0 The (m) symbol denotes a sum over all the partitions (r10 , r1 , r20 , r2 , . . . , rj , rj+1 ) of the number m restricted as follows

(i)

j+1 X

ri0 + 2

ri = m

i=1

i=1

(ii)

j X

If rs = 0 , 1 < s < j , then rk = rk0 , ∀k > s

and

j =

 m    2

if m is even

   m−1

if m is odd

2

The factorial coefficients Fm are given by 0 Fm (r10 , r1 , r20 , r2 , . . . , rj , rj+1 ) =

m

j+1 Y i=1

(ri−1 + ri0 + ri − 1)! 0 (ri−1 − 1)! ri0 ! ri !

The first three moments supplied by this theorem are µ1 =

n 1X ai n i=1

10

J.S. Dehesa, F. Dom´ınguez Adame, E.R. Arriola and A. Zarzo

µ2 = µ3 =

1 n 1 n

( n X i=1 ( n X

a2i a3i

+2 +3

i=1

n−1 X i=1 n−1 X

)

b2i )

b2i (ai

+ ai+1 )

i=1

The application of this theorem to the Pollaczek polynomials Pnλ (x; a, b) produces all the moments of its distribution of zeros. In particular, one has µ1 = µ2 = µ3 =

b Ψ0 (n) n 1 2 n + 2a − 1 [b Ψ1 (n) + aΨ0 (n)] + n 2(n + λ + a − 1) ½ ¾ b 3 3 2b2 Ψ2 (n) + aΨ1 (n) + Ψ0 (n) + n 2 2 £ ¤ 3 3 n(2a + 1) + (λ + a − 1)2 − 4 4(n + λ + a − 1)2

where the functions Ψk (n) given by Ψk (n) =

X (−1)k+1 n−1 (j + k + a)−(k+1) k! j=0

are tabulated. Since lim

n→∞

Ψk (n) n

= 0

one can show that the asymptotical (i.e. n → ∞ ) values for the moments are Ã

µ2k+1 = 0 ; µ2k = 2

−2k

2k k

!

; k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

These moments corespond to the inverse semicircular distribution ∗

ρ (x) =

 1 2 −1/2    π (1 − x )

if | x |< 1

   0

otherwise

which says that the asymptotical distribution of zeros of the Pollaczek polynomials is a regular distribution in the scaled variable x/n . From these results a number of properties about the level energies of the physical states of the Coulomb problem may be obtained but this will be shown elsewhere.

5.

Conclusions

We have argued that quantum mechanics of natural systems is an inexhaustible source of sets of orthogonal polynomials. This has been illustrated in a simple case: the Coulomb problem, where

Hydrogen atom and orthogonal polynomials

11

at least five different sets of orthogonal polynomials ( Laguerre, Gegenbauer, Hahn, Pollaczek, Dirac ) are shown to play an important role. Other orthogonal polynomials are also connected to these problem, e.g. the Hermite polynomials appears when one express the wave functionof the atoms in terms of the harmonic oscillator wave functions [30]. Finally, the distribution of zeros of the Laguerre and Pollaczek polynomials have been obtained by means of its moments around the origin in a detailed way.The resulting quantities for the Laguerre polynomials were used to analyze the influence of some relativistic effects (those non related to the spin of the particle) to the nodal structure of the Coulomb wavefunctions.

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