Education Tech Research Dev (2008) 56:29–44 DOI 10.1007/s11423-007-9063-4 RESEARCH ARTICLE
Hypermedia design as learner scaffolding Amy M. Shapiro
Published online: 6 November 2007 Association for Educational Communications and Technology 2007
Abstract A number of available resources offer guidance about hypermedia design strategies, many of which rely on principles of user-centered design. Many recent efforts, however, have focused more on developing learner-centered hypermedia. Learner-centered hypermedia is designed to help learners achieve their educational goals, rather than offer mere usability. Unfortunately, this endeavor is hamstrung by a lack of empirical research on the topic. Research conducted in my laboratory and others has provided some insight, however. It is now understood that several system and user characteristics influence outcomes of hypermedia-assisted learning (HAL). Among the most relevant factors are learners’ levels of metacognition and prior knowledge, and the interaction between these factors and hypermedia structure. By capitalizing on this research, it is possible to create hypermedia that scaffolds learners in their quest to build knowledge and understanding. The present article draws from empirical findings to suggest hypermedia design strategies aimed at scaffolding learners engaged in HAL. These guidelines target learners’ knowledge and metacognitive ability to structure hypermedia that maximizes learning potential. Keywords
Hypermedia Learner centered Design Scaffolding
Introduction The research on hypermedia-based learning has made clear that a variety of internal and external factors can impede students in their quest to build new knowledge and understanding. Lack of prior knowledge, poor metacognitive skill, disorientation, poor system design, and many other factors can prevent learners from achieving their goals (see Shapiro and Niederhauser 2004, for a review of the issues). In recent years, a good deal of attention
A. M. Shapiro (&) Psychology Department, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, MA 02747-2300, USA e-mail:
[email protected]
123
30
A. M. Shapiro
has been paid to the use of learner scaffolding to support students in circumventing or overcoming such obstacles. The scaffolding metaphor was introduced by Wood et al. (1976), who used it to describe the support function of a human tutor. Since that time, the notion of scaffolding has been used to describe any number of learner support mechanisms, whether human, programmatic, or technological (see Pea 2004; Sherin et al. 2004, for a discussion of that history). Regardless the source, effective scaffolding provides learners with a support structure that aids them in attaining a higher level of achievement. The notion of using electronic environments as the foundation for a variety of scaffolding mechanisms has received a great deal of attention recently, resulting in a number of special edition journal publications and edited volumes on the topic (see Azevedo and Hadwin 2005; Hannafin et al. 1999; Pea 2004; Puntambekar and Hu¨bscher 2005). Different authors have described the precise function of a scaffolding variably. Wood et al. (1976) specified that scaffolding serves to (a) recruit interest, (b) reduce degrees of freedom, (c) aid learners in maintaining direction, (d) mark critical features, (e) control frustration and (f) demonstrate principles. Greenfield (1984) authored a similar list but also specified that a scaffolding serves as a tool that allows the learner to accomplish an otherwise unattainable goal. As Sherin et al. (2004) note, however, requiring a specific set of functions may be unnecessarily limiting, especially since the notion of scaffolding has been applied to such a wide variety of educational settings and media. As advocated by Quintana et al. (2004), scaffolding mechanisms should be developed to address identified sources of difficulty encountered by learners engaged in computermediated tasks. From this perspective, it is useful to conceptualize the function of a scaffold broadly, as a variety of obstacles varying in nature, may prove to be fruitful targets around which to design scaffolding. Fortunately, a large body of literature has identified many of the obstacles faced by students engaged in hypermedia-assisted learning (HAL) and suggests methods for overcoming them. While far from comprehensive, this literature has matured to the point where a number of empirically supported hypermedia design principles can be formulated. My overriding goal in this paper is to outline a number of such empirically based principles. With that goal in mind, I take a grounded design approach to the problem of scaffolding. Grounded design, as proposed by Hannafin and colleagues, is system design rooted in theory and empirical research (Hannafin et al. 1997, 1999). In that spirit, I will first provide a brief review of the empirical work on HAL relevant to hypermedia design and then propose a series of design principles derived from it. Another important aspect of my perspective is the notion that fundamental components of a hypermedia system (links, nodes, site maps, the global structure imposed on documents, etc.) can be engineered to function as scaffolding. I refer to this approach embedded scaffolding. By using support features that exist as a natural part of the hypermedia interface, users are less likely to notice the scaffolding’s presence. For example, by simply highlighting certain links or suggesting paths through the material, the hypermedia design can aid learners in maintaining focus on their learning goals and can control frustration by preventing disorientation in the information space. There are some important advantages to taking an embedded approach. Specifically, by programming these conventions to do ‘‘double duty’’ and provide scaffolding in addition to their normal functions, the scaffolding can meld seamlessly into the hypertext. Moreover, since advances in adaptive hypermedia technology have made such features malleable (Brusilovsky 2001; Brusilovsky and Pesin 1998; Jacobson 2006), embedding scaffolding into basic system design provides the opportunity to adapt scaffolding tools to the needs of
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
31
individual learners. Moreover, embedding the scaffolding in the hypermedia structure has the potential to make fading (i.e., the removal of scaffolding) less obvious. The issue of fading is one that has been understudied and remains a problem in the implementation of scaffolding (Puntambekar and Hu¨bscher 2005). In the next section I will summarize studies that identify interactions between cognitive variables and system characteristics that affect learning outcomes. Next I will propose embedded hypermedia design strategies based on that research.
Laboratory findings that inform scaffolding strategies for HAL The construction-integration model of text-based learning (Kintsch 1988) proposes that learners create a mental representation of a text, called the text base, when they store the propositions contained in the text along with the relationships between them. When prior knowledge is integrated with the text base, resulting in the situation model, learning is more robust and a deeper level of understanding is achieved. A well established body of research has shown that a number of cognitive factors mediate the creation of situation models, and successful learning in general. Among the most important are prior knowledge (see Dochy et al. 1999; Shapiro 2004) and metacognition (e.g., Brown 1982; Oakhill and Yuill 1996; Palincsar and Brown 1984). While the lion’s share of research on these variables has been done on learning from traditional text, these factors are at least as relevant to HAL as they are to traditional text-based learning. The following sections provide a brief review of the evidence supporting the role of these variables in successful HAL.
The role of metacognition in HAL Increased metacognitive activity can augment HAL outcomes. Shapiro (1998a) reported some indirect evidence of this effect. In that study, subjects were asked to learn about a topic in American history using one of several hypermedia systems. One variable monitored in that study was subjects’ navigation behavior during the learning phase. Shapiro found evidence that some subjects were more principled than others in their navigation behavior. Specifically, some seemed to use ease of access as a criterion to guide link choice, more often avoiding inconvenient links even if they might have been more appropriate choices. A navigation strategy that remained independent of ease was correlated with increased performance on an essay posttest of conceptual understanding. One way to interpret these results is that subjects who displayed more metacognitive strategies enjoyed greater learning outcomes. Other researchers have encouraged or measured metacognition more directly and have found similar results (e.g., Azevedo et al. 2004a, b). For example, Azevedo et al. (2004b) engaged learners with a hypermedia system about the human circulatory system. They collected verbal protocols as learners worked through the material. After the learning phase, they measured the shift in learners’ mental models of the human circulatory system. They found that those whose verbal protocols revealed a high degree of metacognition (e.g., creating sub-goals, monitoring their understanding, etc.) during learning displayed a significantly larger shift in their mental models than those who were less metacognitive. Likewise, Azevedo et al. (2004a) found that learners using a hypermedia system that
123
32
A. M. Shapiro
adapted its level of scaffolding for each student used more metacognitive learning strategies and displayed enhanced learning outcomes. Still other investigators have experimented with using prompts or questions designed to encourage metacognition. Kauffman (2002, 2004) presented subjects with a hypermedia system designed to teach about educational measurement. Half the subjects were assigned to work with a system that presented automated self-monitoring prompts in the form of questions. The prompts appeared each time a user moved from one node to another. A control group moved through the system with no such questions or prompts interrupting their movement. A posttest of factual knowledge revealed no differences between groups but the experimental group performed significantly better on a problem-solving posttest, which is a more accurate measure of deep understanding. An investigation by Azevedo and Cromley (2004) has also shown that training learners to use a metacognitive approach (based on Winne’s [2001] self-regulated learning model) prior to HAL also enhances learning. In sum, it is well understood that learners who are more metacognitive about their comprehension and navigation during HAL enjoy greater learning outcomes than their less thoughtful counterparts. Students benefit when a hypermedia system encourages learners to exercise their metacognitive skills. Scaffolding learners through prompts or training is a successful approach to augmenting learning outcomes for those who are less skilled in this area.
The role of prior knowledge in HAL Prior knowledge will vary widely among users of any given hypermedia system. Because existing knowledge is perhaps the most important predictor of future learning, it is understandable that this variable has received considerable attention in the context of HAL. The results of that body of work provide mixed evidence about the sensitivity advanced learners have to hypermedia elements such global organization, overviews and site maps. The research is very clear, however, that low-knowledge learners are aided by tools or design features that provide guidance and structure the hypermedia system’s content. The interaction between organizational tools and prior knowledge was demonstrated by Shapiro (1998b), who recruited subjects who tested within the moderate to high range on a test of knowledge of animal families (e.g., adaptations of and similarities between members of a given family), and within the low range on a pretest of ecosystems (e.g., symbiosis, predator-prey relationships, etc.). She then presented them with a system designed to teach about a novel group of animals and ecosystems. While the pages were identical across conditions, half the subjects navigated the system with the aid of an interactive map that was structured hierarchically around the animal families. The other half used a hierarchical map that was structured around the ecosystems. The site maps have been recreated in Table 1. The map condition was fully crossed with a goal of learning about animal families or ecosystems. A posttest was administered that included items designed to probe participants’ understanding of animal families and ecosystems. Learners’ performances revealed that prior knowledge mediated the effectiveness of the map structure in helping learners meet their assigned goals. All subjects performed comparably on the animal families items, regardless of which map they used or to which goal they were assigned. In other words, possessing moderate to strong prior knowledge facilitated acquisition of new knowledge about that topic. In line with the findings of several other HAL studies (e.g., Potelle and
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
33
Table 1 Content of the (a) animal families and (b) ecosystems site maps, recreated from Shapiro (1998a) (a) Animal families Reptiles
Herders
Fat-Tail Lizard
Helmet Horn
Rubber Belly Snake
Mountain Rabbuck
Desert Shark
Common Rabbuck
Fin Lizard Rodents
Birds
Night Stalker
Hawk Whistler
Foamy Mouse
Long-Plume Quail
Wind Catcher Terror Tail (b) Ecosystems site maps Forest
Desert
Terror Tail
Foamy Mouse
Night Stalker
Rubber Belly Snake
Hawk Whistler
Wind Catcher
Common Rabbuck
Long-Plume Quail Desert Shark Fin Lizard
Mountains Helmet Horn Mountain Rabbuck Fat-Tail Lizard
Rouet 2003; Shin et al. 1994), a solid knowledge foundation made learners less sensitive to organizing characteristics of the hypermedia system. The ecosystems items revealed a different pattern of results. Although all subjects performed relatively poorly on the ecosystems posttest, subjects who used the map that was structured around ecosystems outperformed others on the ecosystems posttest items, regardless of which goal they were assigned. In other words, these low-ecosystem knowledge subjects had difficulty meeting their learning goals unless the map imposed a structure on the system that was conducive to their goals. Having little prior knowledge of a domain, then, makes learners more sensitive to a hypermedia system’s organizational tools. This finding is compatible to that of Ausubel (1960) who observed the same effect in a study of learning from verbal material and that of McNamara et al. (1996) who found the same result in a study of text-based learning. While Shapiro (1998b) did not find any benefit of one particular structure over another for high knowledge learners, other studies have shown that this group can benefit from systems that promote the use of existing knowledge. Since a requirement of deep understanding is the integration of new information with existing knowledge structures (Kintsch 1988), it is logical that a system designed to encourage prior knowledge use would enhance learning. One way of doing so is to allow a high degree of learner control. It is likely that learner control is important because the act of deciding which parts of a system to explore next is likely to require use of prior knowledge. A number of published works support this
123
34
A. M. Shapiro
point (Balajthy 1990; Dillon and Gabbard 1998; Gall and Hannafin 1994; Large 1996; Tergan 1997). For example, Lee and Lee (1991) presented learners with hypermedia systems that varied the level of learner control over navigation. High-knowledge learners performed better when they had more control. Low knowledge learners performed better when they were given less control and more guidance about how to navigate through the material. In sum, there is some inconsistency in results for high knowledge learners. There is some evidence and theoretical justification, however, to conclude that high knowledge learners benefit more when given control over what they read and when they read it. It is fairly clear, though, that those with low prior knowledge are better served when given a more prescribed pathway and provided with tools that organize the global content. Gall and Hannafin (1994) explain the effect through schema theory, noting that ‘‘[i]ndividuals with extensive prior knowledge are better able to invoke schema-driven selections, wherein knowledge needs are accurately identified a priori and selections made accordingly. Those with limited prior knowledge, on the other hand, are unable to establish information needs in advance, making their selections less schema-driven.’’ The effect may also be understood within the context of Kintsch’s (1988) construction integration model. Specifically, beginning learners in a domain are in need of scaffolding to overcome the handicap of a poor knowledge base. Those with strong prior knowledge are best served when given the opportunity and motivation to apply their existing knowledge. Stated simply, novices are aided when given a structure upon which to build a knowledge-base in a new area while others benefit when encouraged to use what they already know. A robust literature supports this view of learning among experts and novices (Beck et al. 1991; Beyer 1990; Britton and Gulgoz 1991; Graesser et al. 2003; Louwerse 2002; Louwerse and Graesser 2004; McKeown et al. 1992; McNamara et al. 1996; McNamara and Kintsch 1996; McNamara 2001).
Design principles for scaffolding HAL As predicted by the construction-integration model (Kintsch 1988), learners’ prior knowledge and metacognitive skills are important mediators of HAL. As such, a successful hypermedia system will support users’ learning goals by providing the right structure for their expertise levels while encouraging metacognition. Doing so can maximize learning outcomes for each student. It is important to translate these conclusions into design guidelines that can be implemented in both formal and informal educational hypermedia systems. Simply put, when designers undertake the task of deciding which links to include, where to place them, and so forth, a series of empirically driven design practices should be available. Toward this end, Table 2 provides a number of suggested design strategies for scaffolding learners based on their existing knowledge and metacognitive skills. These strategies are discussed in the following sections.
Scaffolding for low knowledge learners Domain novices need more guidance during HAL because they are unable to use an existing body of knowledge as a foundation for new information. Moreover, their lack of knowledge can make it difficult to stay oriented in the information. The result can be a feeling of being ‘‘lost’’ in the system (Nielsen 1989, 1990). The feeling of disorientation is
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
35
Table 2 Scaffolding design strategies Scaffolding purpose
Design suggestion
Enhance learning for students with low prior knowledge
• Organize a hypertext with hierarchies or other well-defined structures • Provide site maps • Structure the hypertext in a manner that is compatible with a learner’s goals • Attach notations to links that explicate the relationships they represent • Highlight or otherwise encourage use of particularly important links (sparingly)
Enhance learning for students with high prior knowledge
• Promote use of existing knowledge • Provide minimum cues to cohesion • Allow maximum learner control
Enhance metacognition
• Provide metacognitive prompts • Avoid using differential link placement or style
Help students meet specific learning goals
• Structure the hypertext in a manner that is compatible with a learner’s goals • Highlight or encourage the use of links that are relevant to learners’ goals
detrimental to learning because the user is motivated to spend valuable cognitive resources navigating the system that could otherwise be used for learning. Organizing a system with hierarchies or other well-defined structures is useful to novices because such structures provide learners with information about how ideas are related in the system. Not only does this help novices understand the hypermedia content, but it is also effective in helping learners stay oriented. A substantial body of evidence points to the benefit of this design practice for domain novices (Foltz 1996; Lee and Lee 1991; Shapiro 1998b, 2000; Steinberg, 1989). One way to impose structure on information or otherwise illustrate relationships between documents is to provide site maps (see Shapiro 2005). Allowing learners to see the global structure of a hypermedia system is useful in that it provides a bird’s eye view of the ‘‘landscape’’. Giving learners a view of the ‘‘big picture’’ provides perspective on the domain in general and can aid in the creation of global cohesion (McNamara and Shapiro 2005). The global organization of a hypermedia system and the structure of a site map should be arranged with the learning goal in mind. Any given aspect of the material may be more central to the learners’ goals than others, but when a system is rich in content it may be difficult for novices to locate or even recognize the relevant pieces of information. For example, a hypermedia system about the early American colonies may present information about various themes, from the principle of religious freedom to the European economic system, Native American culture, and more. A student may come to that material with goal of concentrating on one such topic over the others. Sifting through all of the content to find the information relevant to a specific goal and making sense of it in the process can be overwhelming for learners. Site maps can be very useful for helping novices manage a specific learning goal. Because learners may revisit a system with varying goals at different times, adaptive or flexible structures can be particularly useful.
123
36
A. M. Shapiro
Another effective strategy may be to attach notations to links that explicate the relationships they represent (Shapiro 1998a). If learners are to develop a solid understanding of the information presented by a text or hypermedia system, they must understand the relationships between ideas distributed across the content. Otherwise stated, they must create global cohesion for the material (Kintsch 1988; McNamara and Shapiro 2005). Because learners new to a domain often lack sufficient background to make such connections on their own, link notations (e.g., You’ve just been reading about mammals. This link to the reptiles page is provided here because reptiles are another member of the biological kingdom animalia.) are an effective way to help learners achieve that level of understanding. Moreover, many domains are ill-structured and do not lend themselves to strictly hierarchical representations or other simple map structures (e.g., literary theory). Notations may be particularly useful for scaffolding novice learners in ill-structured domains. Link labels can also aid novices in making principled navigation choices. Most links offer no more than a word or two as hints about the destination document. Because novices lack sufficient knowledge to successfully infer document content from such sparse information, link labels (e.g., This link will take you to a document that will tell you why objects expand when heated) can help them to make sound, principled choices about which link to follow next. In other words, they can provide the necessary foundation for invoking a more metacognitive navigation strategy. Finally, learners can benefit by having particularly important links or documents flagged for them. A novice learner is often unable to judge which principles, topics, or facts are more important than others in a domain. Highlighting such information can help learners understand the nature and content of a discipline. Important links may be identified by programming them to flash or appear in a unique color. Placing them in multiple places on a page or in locations that make them convenient to use may encourage their use. Important documents can be labeled with an identifying icon at the top of the page or with a unique background color. Such strategies should be used sparingly, as providing too many highlighted items will tempt learners to jump from flag to flag, foregoing the exercise of considering content in planning their travels through the material. In other words, overuse of such flags may lead to a reduction in metacognitive practice. Figure 1 reproduces a page that appears on the web site of the San Diego Zoo (http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/index.html). It was clearly designed with novices (children) in mind and illustrates the principles discussed in this section. It is an excellent example of a web site designed to support domain novices. Because learners may come to the site with varying goals or interests, the center of the page offers learners three ways to access the site, structured either by animal families, ecosystems, or geographic regions. By providing three avenues through which to enter the site, the hypermedia designers have provided learners with three ways of organizing and understanding the global content. The bottom of the page provides an example of link notation use. Each of the links contained on that section of the page is embedded in a brief explanation of the destination page’s content. It is easy to imagine how isolated link labels such as conservation status, scientific names, or carnivore, herbivore, insectivore would offer little guidance to a domain novice. The explanations offer the information needed to determine the appropriateness of each link to the learners’ goals. This web site illustrates how the tools embedded in a site can support learners in their comprehension efforts and navigation choices. In sum, research on text cohesion (e.g., Britton and Gulgoz 1991; McNamara 2001) suggests that HAL novices should benefit when maximum cohesiveness between nodes is provided. Research on HAL bears out that prediction. As such, documents that are most
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
37
Fig. 1 Example of a well-designed hypertext segment for use by novices. This page appears in the ‘‘Animals & Plants’’ section of the San Diego Zoo web site. It can be accessed at http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/index.html
strongly related should be linked, some mechanism should be used to make their relationships apparent, and the hypermedia structure or site maps should support learners’ goals.
Design for high knowledge learners More advanced learners in a domain may also benefit from design strategies provided to maximize their HAL. As Kintsch’s (1988) construction-integration model of text-based learning explains, robust learning occurs when new information is integrated in memory with prior knowledge. The same appears to be true for hypermedia-based learning. Some of the results described in the section on prior knowledge research suggest that high knowledge learners are best served when given motivation and opportunity to engage their existing knowledge (Lee and Lee 1991). For this reason, high knowledge learners may best
123
38
A. M. Shapiro
be served by hypermedia systems that supply little indication about the global structure of the hypermedia content and allow maximum learner control over navigation. Broadly speaking, the aim is to promote principled movement between nodes, integration of ideas across the system, and integration of prior knowledge. As such, site maps may be offered as a resource for finding particular pieces of information, but not as organizational tools. In other words, it is recommended that site maps be offered by request, but not as a ‘‘home’’ screen. With few exceptions (to be discussed below), no suggestion should be made by the system for link choice or pathways through the system. Whether these design strategies may be accurately called scaffolding is arguable, depending upon the definition of scaffolding invoked. Greenfield’s (1984) definition would preclude that label, for example, as no specific tools are offered and they do not boost the learner to a level that would necessarily be otherwise unobtainable. When viewed more broadly, these design features may be considered scaffolding because their purpose is to aid a class of learners to achieve their fullest potential. As noted by Sherin and colleagues (2004), there is little utility to a debate about the application of the term. Whether they are correctly referred to as scaffolding or not, these suggestions are aimed at increasing the application of prior knowledge to the task at hand. The goal is to help learners create global cohesion across the hypermedia system, identify when they lack necessary information, judge which documents to explore next, and so forth. The ability to engage in these activities is a hallmark of metacognitive skill. While advanced learners necessarily possess a fair amount of domain knowledge, metacognitive ability may vary widely between them. For both novices and advanced learners in a domain, then, scaffolding may be targeted more directly at promoting those skills. Specific suggestions for encouraging metacognition are offered below.
Scaffolding for learners with poor metacognitive skills As discussed previously, it is well understood that good metacognitive skills lead to enhanced learning outcomes. Interventions such as the metacognitive training program tested by Azevedo and Cromley (2004) have proven successful at improving learning outcomes. It is not always feasible, however, to engage hypermedia learners in a training program, particularly in informal learning environments. There are a number of design strategies that may encourage metacognitive practice, however, which may be incorporated into a hypermedia system. A number of design strategies may encourage learners to think about their navigation choices and the relationships between documents. Before discussing those, it is important to note the tension between the strategies used to scaffold metacognition and domain knowledge. In scaffolding for knowledge, the key is to provide explicit pointers to relationships between ideas, thus allowing novices to understand the content and reduce the cognitive load associated with navigating unfamiliar territory. The nature of metacognition, in contrast, requires learners to think critically, question, and engage in selfmonitoring. By using the strategies provided in the section on scaffolding for novices, students may be discouraged from invoking metacognitive strategies. As such, it is important to engage design strategies for all learners that encourage metacognition, while simultaneously providing the guidance and cues to coherence required by novices. Toward this end, the metacognitive prompts provided by Kauffman (2002, 2004) can be effective. Learners may be encouraged to think more critically about the hypermedia content and their navigation choices by providing pop-up windows that question learners’
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
39
understanding, ask them to make predictions about the system content, or ask how they view the relationships between documents. It should be noted that this strategy is not an embedded scaffolding tool (as it will be recognized by learners as an added learning aid; it will not appear to be a natural part of the system (most hypermedia systems don’t spontaneously produce pop-up window that query the user). Nonetheless, pop-ups can be a good design choice for novices because prompts can be incorporated into a system without reducing the support structures (e.g., site maps or notations) that benefit those who are new to a field. Shapiro (1998a) has also demonstrated that link placement choices can alter how thoughtfully users approach the material presented by a hypermedia system. Because novices lack a body of knowledge to help them make principled navigation choices, they often are tempted to make an expedient link choice rather than a principled one. Although that strategy can be used to a learner’s advantage by encouraging the use of particularly important links, it also discourages thoughtful navigation. Default navigation choices, then, can be a problem because the act of deciding where to go next is an exercise that promotes learning. For this reason, unless a link is particularly important and there is some reason to promote its use above others, making links differentially accessible may be unwise. Instead, learners should be encouraged to think about their choices by making each link equally accessible and appealing. It should be acknowledged that the HAL literature provides little advice about achieving a balance between encouraging thoughtful navigation and providing direction. That question is an important topic for future research, especially in the case of domain novices. In sum, it is important to scaffold learning by promoting metacognitive practice among learners. For novices, however, this type of scaffolding must be done in a way that allows for other scaffolding techniques based on low prior knowledge. A number of strategies are available to encourage metacognitive behavior that can be used in conjunction with strategies that scaffold domain novices.
Scaffolding to support specific learning goals It is important to design hypermedia that helps learners achieve their learning goals. This is particularly true of novices. For this reason, a hypermedia system should be structured in a manner that is compatible with a learners’ goals. As illustrated in Fig. 1, many domains can be structured in a multiple ways, to highlight any number of themes or perspectives on the information. As demonstrated in Shapiro’s (1998b) study of novices learning about ecosystems, structuring a hypermedia system around a theme that is out of step with learners’ interests can mitigate their ability to achieve their goals. In a related study, Shapiro (2000) was able to demonstrate that the ‘‘cognitive maps’’ or mental representations learners create for a hypermedia system’s global content is dependent upon the view they are given of the material. As such, domain novices are disadvantaged from meeting specific learning goals if the site maps or other organizing features are incompatible with those goals. Another strategy for supporting learning goals is to highlight or encourage the use of links that are relevant to the learning goal. This point was demonstrated by Shapiro (1999), who asked participants to solve novel problems after reading a hypermedia system. Solving these problems required that learners understand the relationship between pieces of information supplied on two separate, linked documents. Chi-square analyses of learners’ navigation behavior and posttest performance revealed that learners were more likely to
123
40
A. M. Shapiro
answer these questions correctly if they had used the link connecting the relevant documents. Thus, when it is particularly important for learners to understand the relationship between ideas on separate documents, some method should be used to alert learners to the importance of moving directly between those documents or considering the relationship between facts they contain. As such, scaffolding learners in their effort to meet specific learning goals may be accomplished by highlighting particularly important links. As stated earlier, this must be done in a way that does not discourage metacognition. How to achieve that balance will be an important area for future research. Others have advocated the same approach. Indeed, Jacobson and colleagues have shown that directing learners in this way can benefit them in a number of ways, including the promotion of more ‘‘expert-like’’ problem-solving strategies (Jacobson and Archodidou 2000; Jacobson et al. 1996; Jacobson and Spiro 1995). Clark and Mayer have suggested that ‘‘important instructional events’’ be made the default navigation option (2003, p. 236). Schnackenberg and Sullivan (2000) also report strong evidence that steering learners toward particular links can be effective for promoting practice and strengthening learning. This type of guidance is particularly important for domain novices, who are less likely to recognize the relationships between documents on their own. While highlighting important relationships may be less crucial for intermediate or advanced learners, even experts can miss important relationships. Of course, this practice should be used sparingly, as an abundance of such default links will dilute their effectiveness and may inhibit metacognitive practice. For advanced learners, overuse of this strategy can also discourage prior knowledge use, as discussed in the section on design for learners with high prior knowledge. In sum, having their learning goals supported by system design may benefit all learners, regardless of expertise level. Effective means of scaffolding learners in their quest to meet specific learning goals may be achieved through site maps, global system structure, or design conventions associated with link style and placement.
Conclusions The flexibility and control hypermedia offers learners are both strengths and weaknesses of the technology. Although these characteristics offer learners the ability to explore and gain new insight about a wide variety of topics, they can also overwhelm learners with a wealth of information and an abundance of links. This is particularly true for learners who may be new to a domain or unskilled at learning independently. As such, it is important for hypermedia designers to be mindful of learners’ needs within the context of their abilities. The suggestions presented here are meant to provide a research-based foundation for educational hypermedia design. They are intended to inform developers about potentially profitable design considerations for educational hypermedia. This information may also be of use to teachers who are in a position to choose hypermedia resources for their students. The suggestions offered in Table 2 are meant to encourage the use of embedded scaffolding. Just as a concerned parent will slip a bit of spinach into a child’s pasta sauce to provide some needed nutrition, embedded scaffolds provide learning support that is largely invisible to the user. As such, the majority of the suggestions offered here take advantage of features intrinsic to a hypermedia system. The identity of which links and nodes to include, the structure of a site map, the arrangement of nodes on a page, standardization of fonts or color, and so forth all require conscious decisions to be made by the designer. The principles offered here leverage those design parameters for the benefit of the learner. As
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
41
such, the basic strategy is rooted in learner-centered design. Stated simply, as long as decisions about such matters are required, the choices should be made based on learners’ needs rather than pure aesthetics, usability, or other considerations. A major attribute of the principles outlined here is that they adhere to the principle of grounded design, as advocated by Hannafin and colleagues (Hannafin et al. 1997, 1999). By basing design principles on the experience of learners working toward real learning goals within the context of carefully controlled experiments, designers may be better informed about the ramifications of their choices for students. Too much of the literature on hypermedia design has neglected empirical data in favor of ‘‘common sense’’ or usability (see Shapiro and Niederhauser 2004, for a discussion of this issue). A number of researchers and practitioners, however, have advocated strongly for increased reliance on the use of empirical data as a foundation for educational system design. The opening lines of Clark and Mayer’s (2003) book on e-learning, for example, reveals the authors’ frustration with the field’s inattention to empirical evidence as well as the importance they place on a data-based approach to the design of learning technologies. They write: This is a book about what works in e-learning. It answers questions about what features in e-learning help people learn. Unlike many other books on multimedia training, the answers we present are not based on opinion; they are based on empirical research. In writing this book, we were guided by two fundamental assumptions: the design of e-learning courses should be based on a cognitive theory of how people learn and on scientifically valid research studies (Clark and Mayer 2003, p. 1). Other researchers have also stressed the importance of a more scientific approach to design. Sherin et al. (2004) have advocated use of scaffolding analysis in the development of learner support mechanisms. The framework they describe involves comparing learning outcomes of students working in a learning environment (which may or may not be electronic), with a comparison group working in the same environment that has been equipped with the scaffolding mechanism of interest. They propose that learning outcomes between these groups should be compared directly on measures of characteristics identified as important in a hypothetical, idealized outcome. That is, a control group is compared directly to an experimental group, which differs from the control group by a single variable. In other words, Sherin et al. (2004) are proposing that empirical studies of a proposed scaffold’s effectiveness should be conducted before implementation. The principles presented here are far from complete, as a number of issues have not been addressed. Specifically, as noted earlier, a tension exists between implementation of the strategies for scaffolding prior knowledge and metacognition. The latter requires increased guidance and cues to structure while the former requires reduction of those mechanisms. The HAL research offers no clear approach to balancing those concerns. Understanding the how to achieve that balance and developing mechanisms for doing so will be an important and fruitful area for future research. Once that work is complete, work may begin on the development and testing of adaptive hypermedia systems that can tailor both information and scaffolding mechanisms to learners, based on their existing knowledge and goals. Moreover, such adaptive mechanisms should be explored as a means of meeting students’ evolving needs as their knowledge base or metacognitive skills grow. Furthermore, the term metacognition has been used broadly to refer to the general ability to approach HAL in a principled, thoughtful, and introspective way. The large literature on metacognition, however, makes clear that it is a multifaceted activity that includes evaluating the adequacy of information being presented, using strategies that are
123
42
A. M. Shapiro
appropriate for the task, and allocating the proper amount of cognitive resources for the given task (Schraw et al. 1995). It is likely that each of these components may be differentially targeted through a system design approach. Some researchers (e.g., Kauffman 2002, 2004) have undertaken work meant to isolate specific aspects of metacognition with respect to HAL. More such fine-grained work will be necessary if the field is to arrive at a rich understanding of this important construct in HAL. Moreover, factors such as motivation, interest, reading ability, reasoning skill and others are yet to be adequately addressed in the HAL literature and each is a potential target for scaffolding within the context of system design. As inquiry into these topics progresses, greater understanding of how to use system design for the benefit of learners should emerge. Acknowledgments I wish to thank the editors of this special edition for organizing the HAL scaffolding symposium at the 2005 American Educational Research Association. Their leadership led to the conceptualization of this work and their insightful editing improved its quality.
References Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51, 267–272. Azevedo, R., & Cromley, J. (2004). Does training on self-regulated learning facilitate students’ learning with hypermedia? Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 523–535. Azevedo, R., Cromley, J. G., & Seibert, D. (2004a). Does adaptive scaffolding facilitate students’ ability to regulate their learning with hypermedia? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 344–370. Azevedo, R., Guthrie, J. T., & Seibert, D. (2004b). The role of self-regulated learning in fostering students’ conceptual understanding of complex systems with hypermedia. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 30(1), 87–111. Azevedo, R., & Hadwin, A. (2005). Scaffolding self-regulated learning and metacognition-implications for the design of computer-based scaffolds. Instructional Science, 33, 367–379. Balajthy, E. (1990). Hypertext, hypermedia, and metacognition: Research and instructional implications for disabled readers. Journal of Reading, Writing, and Learning Disabilities International, 6(2), 183–202. Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Sinatra, G. M., & Loxterman, J. A. (1991). Revising social studies text from a text-processing perspective: Evidence of improved comprehensibility. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 251–276. Beyer, R. (1990). Psychologische Untersuchungen zur Gestaltung von Instruktionstexten [Psychological studies concerning the construction of instructional texts]. Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftliche Reihe, 39, 69–75. (Scientific journal published by Humboldt University, Berlin). Britton, B. K., & Gulgoz, S. (1991). Using Kintsch’s computational model to improve instructional text: Effects of repairing inference calls on recall and cognitive structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 329–345. Brown, A. (1982). Learning how to learn from reading. In J. A. Langer & M. T. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader meets author: Bridging the gap (pp. 26–54). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Brusilovsky, P. (2001). Adaptive Hypermedia. User Modeling and User Adapted Interaction, 6(2–3), 87–110. Brusilovsky, P., & Pesin, L. (1998). Adaptive navigation support in educational hypermedia: An evaluation of the ISIS-tutor. Journal of computing and Information Technology, 6(1), 27–38. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. (2003). E-Learning and the science of instruction. San Francisco, CA: Wiley. Dillon, A., & Gabbard, R. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control, and style. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 322–349. Dochy, F., Segers, M., & Buehl, M. M. (1999). The relation between assessment practices and outcomes of studies: The case of research on prior knowledge. Review of Educational Research, 69, 145–186. Foltz, P. W. (1996). Comprehension, coherence, and strategies in hypertext and linear text. In J. J. Levonen, A. P. Dillon, & R. J. Spiro (Eds.), Hypertext and cognition (pp. 100–136). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gall, J., & Hannafin, M. (1994). A framework for the study of hypertext. Instructional Science, 22(3), 207–232.
123
Hypermedia design as scaffolding
43
Graesser, A. C., McNamara, D. S., & Louwerse, M. M. (2003). What do readers need to learn in order to process coherence relations in narrative, expository text. In A. P. Sweet & C. E. Snow (Eds.), Rethinking reading comprehension (pp. 82–98). New York: Guilford Publications. Greenfield, P. (1984). A theory of the teacher in the learning activities of everyday life. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 117–138). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hannafin, M. J., Hannafin, K. M., Land, S M., & Oliver, K. (1997). Grounded practice and the design of constructivist learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(3), 101– 117. Hannafin, M. J., Land, S. M., & Oliver, K. (1999). Open learning environments: Foundation, methods, and models. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 115–140). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Jacobson, M. J. (2006). From non-adaptive to adaptive educational hypermedia: Theory, research, and design issues. In S. Chen & G. Magoulas (Eds.), Advances in Web-based education: Personalized learning environments. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Jacobson, M. J., & Archodidou, A. (2000). The design of hypermedia tools for learning: Fostering conceptual change and transfer of complex scientific knowledge. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(2), 149–199. Jacobson, M. J., Maouri, C., Mishra, P., & Kolar, C. (1996). Learning with hypertext learning environments: Theory, design, and research. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(3/4), 239–281. Jacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the transfer of complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12(5), 301–333. Kauffman, D. (2002, April). Self-regulated learning in web-based environments: Instructional tools designed to facilitate cognitive strategy use, metacognitive processing, and motivational beliefs. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Kauffman, D. (2004). Self-regulated learning in web-based environments: Instructional tools designed to facilitate self-regulated learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 30, 139–162. Kintsch, W. (1988). The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction integration model. Psychological Review, 95, 163–182. Large, A. (1996). Hypertext instructional programs and learner control: A research review. Education for Information, 14(2), 95–106. Lee, S., & Lee, Y. H. K. (1991). Effects of learner control versus program control strategies on computeraided learning of chemistry problems: For acquisition or review? Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 491–489. Louwerse, M. M. (2002). Computational retrieval of themes. In M. M. Louwerse & W. van Peer (Eds.), Thematics: Interdisciplinary studies (pp. 189–212). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. Louwerse, M. M., & Graesser, A. C. (2004). Coherence in discourse. In P. Strazny (Ed.), Encyclopedia of linguistics. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., Sinatra, G. M., & Loxterman, J. A. (1992). The contribution of prior knowledge and coherent text to comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 79–93. McNamara, D. S. (2001). Reading both high-coherence and low coherence texts: Effects of text sequence and prior knowledge. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55, 51–62. McNamara, D. S., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Learning from texts: Effects of prior knowledge and text coherence. Discourse Processes, 22, 247–288. McNamara, D. S., Kintsch, E., Songer, N. B., & Kintsch, W. (1996). Are good texts always better? Interactions of text coherence, background knowledge, and levels of understanding in learning from text Cognition & Instruction, 14(1), 1–43. McNamara, D. S., & Shapiro, A. M. (2005). Strategies for helping learners create coherence from text and hypertext. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 33(1), 1–29. Nielsen, J. (1989). The matters that really matter for hypertext usability. Proceedings of the Second Annual ACM Conference on Hypertext (pp. 239–248). Pittsburgh, PA. Nielsen, J. (1990). The art of navigating through hypertext. Communications of the ACM, 33, 296–310. Oakhill, J., & Yuill, N. (1996). Higher order factors in comprehension disability: Processes, remediation. In C. Cornaldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and intervention (pp. 69–92). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 117–175.
123
44
A. M. Shapiro
Pea, R. D. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 423–451. Potelle, H., & Rouet, J.-F. (2003). Effects of content representation and readers’ prior knowledge on the comprehension of hypertext. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 58, 327–345. Puntambekar, S., & Hu¨bscher, R. (2005). Tools for scaffolding students in a complex learning environment: What have we gained and what have we missed? Educational Psychologist, 40(1), 1–12. Quintana, C., Reiser, B., Davis, E., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R., Kyza, E., Edelson, D., & Soloway, E. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13, 337–386. Schnackenberg, H. L., & Sullivan, H. J. (2000). Learner control over full and lean computer based instruction under differing ability levels. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48, 19–35. Schraw, G., Dunkle, M. E., Bendixen, L. D., & Roedel, T. D. (1995). Does a general monitoring skill exist? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 433–444. Shapiro, A. M. (1998a). Promoting active learning: The role of system structure in learning from hypertext. Human-Computer Interaction, 13, 1–35. Shapiro, A. M. (1998b). The relationship between prior knowledge and interactive organizers during hypermedia-aided learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20(2), 143–163. Shapiro, A. M. (1999). The relevance of hierarchies to learning biology from hypertext. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8(2), 215–243. Shapiro, A. M. (2000). The effect of interactive overviews on the development of conceptual structure in novices learning from electronic texts. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9, 57–78. Shapiro, A. M. (2004). Prior knowledge must be included as a subject variable in learning outcomes research. American Educational Research Journal, 41(1), 159–189. Shapiro, A. M. (2005). Site map principle. In R. Mayer (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 313–324). London, UK: Cambridge University Press. Shapiro, A. M., & Niederhauser, D. S. (2004). Learning from hypertext: Research issues and findings. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 605–620). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sherin, B., Reiser, B., & Edelson, D. (2004). Scaffolding analysis: Extending the scaffolding metaphor to learning artifacts. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13, 387–421. Shin, E., Schallert, D., & Savenye, W. (1994). Effects of learner control, advisement, and prior knowledge on young students’ learning in a hypertext environment. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 42(1), 33–46. Steinberg, E. (1989). Cognition and learner control: A literature review, 1977–1988. Journal of ComputerBased Instruction, 16(4), 117–121. Tergan, S. (1997). Multiple views, contexts, and symbol systems in learning with hypertext/hypermedia: A critical review of research. Educational Technology, 37(4), 5–18. Winne, P. (2001). Self-regulated learning viewed from models of information processing. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 153–189). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 17, 89–100.
Amy M. Shapiro is a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. Her research interests include the cognition of learning and memory, especially computermediated learning and the relationship between information structure and memory structure.
123
