African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance (AJPHERD), Volume 19(2), June 2013, pp. 394-418.
Investigation into breath meditation: Phenomenological, neurophysiologic, psychotherapeutic and sport psychological implications STEPHEN EDWARDS, PATRICIA SHERWOOD, NIRA NAIDOO, CATHERINE GEILS, KIRSTEN VAN HEERDEN, JABULANI THWALA, DALE DAVIDSON AND DAVID EDWARDS 3 Antigua, 32 Chartwell Drive, Umhlanga Rocks, 4319, South Africa. Email:
[email protected] (Received: 14 February 2013; Revision Accepted: 15 April 2013)
Abstract This integral heuristic phenomenological investigation records participants’ experiences of a single session of breath meditation with special reference to psychotherapy and sport psychology. There were 8 participants, 4 men and 4 women, with mean age of 45 years and age range from 31 to 62 years. Various breathing patterns and related consciousness transformations were revealed in all experiential breath meditation descriptions and their associated neurophysiologic signatures, which indicated predominantly alpha wave and sensory motor region activity. Psychotherapeutic and sport psychological findings indicated that breath work facilitates many healing ingredients, with many athletes viewing breathing exercises as the most useful tool learned. Integrated findings strongly endorse the value of breath work. Further research and practice in the area is recommended.
Keywords: Breath meditation, phenomenology, neurophysiology, psychotherapy, sport psychology. How to cite this article: Edwards, S., Sherwood, P., Naidoo, N., Geils, C., Van Heerden, K., Thwala, J., Davidson, D. & Edwards, D. (2013). Investigation into breath meditation: Phenomenological, neurophysiologic, psychotherapeutic and sport psychological implications. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 19(2), 394-418.
Introduction The perennial ideal of health is a dynamic integrity of various interacting components and contexts (Graham, 1990; Wilber, 2000). The original definition of the World Health Organization that health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity is still in use (WHO, 1946). This definition, which served as preamble to the WHO constitution, reflected the prevailing biomedical orientation towards eradication of diseases. In recent years, alternative, complementary, holistic approaches have brought relatively more focus on health and wellness dimensions such as breath-control, mindfulness, energy healing, spirituality,
Investigation into breath meditation 395 ecology, morality and the impress of environmental factors such as poverty to name a few (Edwards, 2012; Murphy, 1992; Murphy & Rhea, 1978; Pert, 1997; Reid, 1998). Breath meditation has been fundamental in both traditional and contemporary contexts as explicated below. Historical Context For many centuries, African ancestral consciousness, yoga, chi-gung and other traditions have all advocated the healing effects of various breath based meditation and/or contemplation practices (Iyengar, 2005; Mutwa, 2003; Reid, 1998). For example, Patangali’s eight limbs of yoga deal with developmental stages of yoking body, mind and soul to the Absolute. The fourth yogic limb, pranayama, advocates specific forms of breath control, involving various inhalation and exhalation ratio patterns, for different, physical health effects (Iyengar, 2001). Various studies have provided supportive evidence for the associated mental and spiritual health effects (Edwards, 2012; Reid, 1998). Other healing traditions have variously extolled a form of breath-energy called Ra and Ka (Ancient Egypt), N/um (San), Umoya (Zulu), Elima (Congolese), Ruach Ha Kodesh (Hebrew), Nafas Ruh (Moslem), Baraka (Sufi), Spiritus Sanctus (Latin for Holy Spirit), Pneuma (Greek), Chi (Chinese), Mana (Figian), Ni (Sioux), Manitu (Alonquin), Chindi (Navajo) (Edwards & Sherwood, 2008). Over time, prana or breath-energy or sexual-spiritual or spiritual-sexual energy has also been given many other names such as prima material, orgone, bioplasma, etc (Khalsa, Newberg, Radha, Wilber & Selby, 2009). As healing energy ranges through everyday sexuality to what Jung (1957, p.46) has referred to as the ‘breath-body’ or ‘spirit body,’ imagery for consciousness, whose evolution becomes particularly accelerated in the second half of life (James, 1890; Jung, 1957). Healing traditions converge in recognition of Breath as focussed form of all the energies of heaven and earth as they become moulded in man through the perennial presence of ancestors in all their cumulative hereditary and evolutionary power. Contemporary indigenous Zulu healing is based on ancestral consciousness. Ancestors (amadlozi) are experienced as spirit (umoya) permeating the breath/soul (umphefumulo) of the Zulu divine-healer (isangoma). During his initial isangoma apprenticeship, Credo Mutwa (2003) graphically describes his maternal grandfather’s teaching as follows: He taught me the art of breathing properly. He taught me the secret art of joining my mind to that of the great gods in the unseen world. He taught me how to sit still – very, very still – and eliminate all the thought from my mind and call upon the hidden powers of my soul. In short my grandfather taught me the Zulu version of what is called in English,
396 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. “meditation.” How to breathe softly and gently like a whisper until you feel something like a hot coiled snake ascending up your spine and bursting through the top of your head – a fearsome thing that is known as umbilini. This umbilini, my grandfather told me, is the source of the sangoma’s powers. A sangoma must be able to summon this umbilini at will through the beating of the drum and through meditation, very very deep meditation (p.13). Umbilini, also known as kundalini, in Asian yogic traditions, can be traced back to Ancient Egyptian views on energy healing, which were based on the vision of a harmoniously interrelated universe suffused with the energies of heaven and earth. The sun god Ra radiated cosmic forces of light on microcosmic humanity, whose ultimate purpose in life was to become enlightened, through opening to the light and channelling, distributing and merging this light with earth energy, which was symbolised in the form of a rearing serpent. Successful energy channelling was depicted in Egyptian paintings and sculpture as a snake rising from the forehead of enlightened healers (Graham, 1990). In Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia some form of conscious breathwork subsequently emerged as a key feature of energy healing. Kundalini Yoga postulates that life-energy flows up and down the spine in terms of three main energetic pathways, called Ida, Pingala and Sushmna. Ida carries prana in form of feminine lunar along the left side of the body, Pingala transmits masculine solar energy along the right side and Sushumna runs up the middle of the body connecting seven spinning energy wheels called chakras. The chakras are associated with particular anatomical locations of the spine and brain, plexuses of the nervous, endocrine and other human functional systems as well as colours, sounds, patterns and symbols (Khalsa, et al., 2009; Reid, 1998). For example from perineum to crown, the chakras muladhara, svadisthana, manipura, anahata, vishudda, ajna and sahasrara are respectively associated with systemic functions of elimination, reproduction, digestion, circulation, respiration, enervation and ultimate realisation through relation with the cosmos. Breath and energy control through these chakras has been demonstrably linked to various psychosomatic phenomena such as cardiac cessation and peristalsis control and starting and stopping of bleeding (Khalsa et al. 2009; Rama, Ballentine & Hymes, 1979). It is instructive that such energetic systems are essentially based on introspective, indigenous phenomenological forms of knowledge passed on over generations. Contemporary Contexts In addition to being a central pillar in spiritual healing traditions, breath control establishes harmonic resonance between the human energy system and the electro-magnetic field of the earth, which pulses at 7.8 hertz (cycles per second).
Investigation into breath meditation 397 Known as the Schumann Resonance, this the frequency at which the human energy system activates immune responses in the human body (Reid, 1998, p.93), characterized by relaxed waking consciousness reflected in alpha/theta electroencephalographic activity. Along with discovery of the opiate receptor and holistic implications of molecules of emotion and/or or energy providing physiological substrates for consciousness, such findings form foundations for the burgeoning field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) (Pert, 1997). In this context, relaxed diaphragmatic deep breathing re-establishes resonance with the natural world, with special reference to what is variously termed atmosphere, oxygen, carbon-dioxide, air, wind, Breath and Spirit. Rural African settings still readily reveal this slower deeper rhythmic resonance. Still sitting, standing and moving forms of breath co-ordinated behaviour may also be viewed as providing a foundation for healing and transcendence as exemplified in alpha conditioning, biofeedback, transcendental meditation, !Kung healing dance and Tai chi (Edwards, 2008; Reid, 1998). Healthy breathing experiences, that have been bodily re-experienced as anchors, provide a phenomenological foundation for various forms of imagery, light, sound, colour, touch and movement used in breathwork, expressive therapy, progressive relaxation, systematic desensitisation, crisis intervention and other forms of holistic psychological caring, counselling, psychotherapy, illness prevention, health promotion and ultimate spiritual healing (Edwards & Sherwood, 2008; Ivey, D’Andrea, Ivey & Simek-Morgan, 2002). Breath control has become established practice in clinical and sport psychology, particularly in relation to arousal control, anxiety reduction, relaxation and various recent cognitive behavioural techniques such as mindfulness in Western countries, many of which have older African and Asian roots (Edwards & Beale, 2011; Weinberg & Gould, 1999). In Eastern and African psychological contexts there tends to be more holistic emphasis on all implications of breath-control; spiritual, social, physical, emotional, mental, ethical, occupational and environmental. For example, Chinese soft style chi-gung exercises such as tai chi have meditative, medicinal and martial arts aspects (Reid, 1998). An African example is a breath based psychological skills training program for health and sport (Edwards & Edwards, 2007). The present study was partly motivated by previous research indicating that integral breath consciousness workshops were associated with improvements in spirituality and health perceptions (Edwards, 2012). One particular practice, which focused on tuning subtle heart and breathing rhythms, to a ratio of inhalation of about three heart beats and exhalation of six or seven heart beats, seemed especially effective in improving spirituality and health perceptions. Such practice, commonly found in meditative and contemplative traditions, was supported by modern scientific evidence that a decreased breath ratio of five to
398 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. seven breaths per minute is associated with enhanced autonomic nervous system balance and heart brain concordance (Edwards, 2012). The first author’s consciousness of the value of breath meditation, the use of the breath in psychotherapy in general and sport psychology in particular, and similarities and difference in various colleagues approaches lead to the following research questions. What do psychotherapists experience in breath meditation? How did they use breath in their psychological and/or psychotherapeutic practices? As a relatively small scale investigation was planned, for enhanced objectivity it was decided to supplement co-authors’ experiences with neurophysiology measures. This suggested an integral research design with integrated individual and collective, qualitative and quantitative components. As participants were all practising psychotherapists, a null hypothesis of no change was set for quantitative components. Methodology Approach Wilber’s epistemological approach is based on an integral philosophy of science, and a post-metaphysical, post-postmodern epistemology, that leads to an integral methodological pluralism (Wilber, 2007, p.33), which transcends and includes theoretical, paradigmatic perspectives such as positivism, interpretivism and social constructionism (Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter 2006, p.6). An integral, epistemological approach becomes possible if it is accepted that the same investigative sequence, the same three deep strands of science, run through all such perspectives. This investigative sequence consists of three phases: (a) an intuitive apprehension, (b) direct experience or resultant data discovery and (c) communal confirmation or rejection of the data. This also enables research investigations to integrate knowledge specific to various domains, such as matter, mind and spirit, as well as recognize logical category errors that occur if knowledge derived from one domain is confused with or substituted for knowledge from another domain. Contextualized within this theoretical, integral approach, the present study is heuristic and phenomenological in approach, research methodology and practical investigation, with psychotherapists functioning as both researchers and participants, with special reference to their therapist-client relationships (Moustakas, 1994). Model Wilber’s AQAL model, which is shorthand for all quadrants, all levels, refers to a comprehensive system that integrates quadrants and levels, as well as lines, states and types of consciousness (Wilber, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2007). The AQAL model postulates an essentially non-dual universe, with four quadrants, reflecting interior and exterior aspects of the individual and collective. The fundamental
Investigation into breath meditation 399 linkages in this universe are called holons, which are always both wholes and parts of other wholes, at various levels of consciousness experienced as matter, body, mind, soul and spirit, involving, evolving, moment to moment, in interbeing. In the present heuristic phenomenological study, psychotherapists investigate their breath meditation experience from individual and group, qualitative and quantitative perspectives, with special reference to psychotherapeutic and sport psychological implications. Design An integrative, qualitative and quantitative design was adopted. The qualitative research methodology involved heuristic phenomenological analysis, of natural meaning units of experience in individual and collective profiles. The quantitative research methodology involved a within group, repeated measures design and appropriate non-parametric statistics for neurophysiologic data recorded for a small, non-representative sample of participants (Giorgi, 1970; Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter, 2006). Neurophysiologic data recorded consisted of electroencephalographic (EEG), electromyographic (EMG), blood volume pulse (BVP) and respiratory activity respectively. Sample There is no set sample size for qualitative studies but generally they involve around 6-8 people, for homogeneous samples as in the present study, where emphasis is on individual participants’ characteristics and /or experiences of the phenomenon or event being researched (Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter 2006, p. 289). Although larger samples are preferable for purposes of reaching significance levels in statistical analysis of quantitative data, this investigation is essentially qualitative in nature in its concern with breath meditation. In this particular research the phenomenon of more subjective than objective, more qualitative than quantitative, more concerned with meaning than measurement, with insightful, experiential depth rather than resulting behaviour or the number of times a certain action is performed. This does not in any way diminish the great value of the quantitative data in providing material, objective, correlative neurophysiologic signatures of the subjective, qualitative data. Participants The participants were all well known to the first author as practising psychotherapists, four of whom specialize in sport psychology. They thus constituted a volunteer, convenience sample, specifically self-selected for their relationship with the first author, commitment to participate in the research, and willingness to explore, describe, explicate and articulate their experience. They thus defined themselves as having suitable, qualitative characteristics for
400 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. research purposes. There were 4 men and 4 women, with a mean age of 45 years and an age range from 31 to 62 years. All participants spoke English and the interview language of communication was English. In terms of home language 5 spoke English; of the remaining 3 persons, 1 spoke Afrikaans, 1 Hindu and 1 Zulu. Six held doctoral degrees and 2 master degrees. Most also held other qualifications. In terms of main professional work categories, there were 6 clinical psychologists, 1 educational psychologist and 1 social worker. Ethical matters All participants were informed as to the nature of the research and provided their consent with regard to the use of the information for publication purposes. Procedure After appropriate establishment of rapport and discussion with regard to procedure, all meditation sessions took place in a relaxed, comfortable and quiet setting. Following attachment of standardized neurophysiologic apparatus, the following standard instructions were put to all participants: (a) Pre-test condition: Please rest for at least two minutes with your eyes closed, while remaining still and maintaining a steady posture. (b) Meditation condition: Please meditate on the breath for twenty minutes (twenty minutes is the length of time usually recommended for an effective meditation session). After each meditation, participants were requested to write down (1) descriptions of their meditations. These descriptions also provided the basis for (3) shared, intersubjective, descriptions, discussions and interpretations of experiences, and their use of the breath in psychotherapy and/or their psychologist practice. Research notes were kept throughout the process. Apparatus An Infiniti Thought Technology biofeedback apparatus (Thought Technology, Ltd., Montreal Canada) was used to monitor and record the abovementioned neurophysiologic data. Data Analysis The qualitative research methodology involved heuristic phenomenological analysis of natural meaning units of experience in individual and collective profiles. The quantitative research methodology required a within group, repeated measures design and appropriate non-parametric statistics (Wilcoxon signed-ranks test) for psychometric and neurophysiologic data recorded for the small, non-representative sample of participants, with non-normally distributed data. Neurophysiologic data consisted of electroencephalographic (EEG),
Investigation into breath meditation 401 electromyographic (EMG), blood volume pulse (BVP) and respiratory activity respectively. All qualitative, quantitative and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) analyses were particularly informed by the work of Giorgi (1970), Moustakas (1994), Terre Blanche, Durrheim and Painter (2006), and Bryman and Cramer (2008). Preliminary one way analyses of variance indicated that age and sex had no significant influence on any of the dependent variables under investigation. In summary, the integrated qualitative and quantitative, subjective and objective analysis and synthesis of the individual and collective data, as informed by Wilber’s AQAL model, methodological pluralism and practical research knowledge (Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter 2006; Wilber 2007) consisted of the following steps. Firstly, this involved phenomenological analysis based on all aspects of the interviews, including participants’ written descriptions, shared discussions and researcher notes. An essential aspect of all phenomenological analysis involves continuous, vigilant research attempts to remain open-minded so as to allow the research participants’ reality to reveal itself. Secondly, there was holistic and repeated reading of all individual written protocols. Thirdly, individual profiles were analyzed into smallest naturally occurring units of experience (nmu’s). Fourthly, the essential effect of each individual’s descriptions was summarized. Fifthly, nmu’s that emerged spontaneously in relation to the descriptions were clustered together. Sixth, individual descriptions were integrated into a group profile, based on the collation of the above mentioned phenomenological analysis. Seventh, participants’ quantitative, individual neurophysiologic recordings were analyzed. Eighth, group neurophysiologic recordings were analyzed. Ninth, individual and group, qualitative and quantitative data were integrated, analyzed, synthesized and discussed. Tenth, the completed research paper was given to each participant for critical reading and feedback. This also served as an ethics, validity and integrity audit. Results and Discussion Phenomenological findings Qualitative findings follow in the form of phenomenological analysis of the participants’ individual descriptive, smallest, naturally occurring units of experience (nmu’s). Each participant’s description is followed by a brief interpretive summary. Individual profiles are followed by a more detailed, collective profile, with an audit trail of natural meaning units. A group profile follows in the form of integrated, phenomenological, content and discourse analyses of the participants’ individual profiles. The eight participants are coded from A to H with regard to personal breath meditation experience.
402 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. A The breathing becomes a conscious process (1) so that I am aware of the ebb and flow, the rhythms that permeate my body, the rising and the falling of my lungs (2), and the inhaling and exhaling become increasingly conscious so that I begin to experience a flow in my breathing which emerges as I continue to consciously breathe (3). As though the threads of a yarn are weaving themselves together on an invisible loom without human hands touching the thread (4), this thread seems to lengthen as though unwinding from an intangible spindle (5) and gradually a golden chord seems to rise up my spine and out though the top of my head into the universe (6).... At first this thread seems singular and vertical (7) but gradually as I continue to breath it breaks into a rhythmical dance spiralling as though the one thread becomes two weaving up and down with a unified but separate pattern of energy (8). As I continue to breathe I sense the muscles in my hands relax (9) and my arms become heavier (10) while my back becomes straighter and more upright as if wanting to maximise the length of the pole upon which these dual golden threads can spiral up and down (11). As I continue to breathe I start to vibrate in a spiral motion beginning within (12) but gradually the spiral increases in intensity (13) and subsumes all of my body (14). My consciousness seems to rise up and out of my body (15). At that moment I sense my body is a temporary home (16) a dwelling whose occupant has gone on vacation to some place beyond this skin encapsulated space (17). I have arrived at a place of still movement (18), a place of pulsating light (19), a place of solitude in union with a pulse that is transcendent (20) and the I that I know has faded into insignificance with all its fears, plans, hopes, expectations and aversions (21). It is enough to be here (22). A describes a conscious breathing process with spiralling, energetic, kundalini-like effects involving relaxation and transcendence to transpersonal realms of stillness, light and union. B During the neurophysiologic recordings of the breath meditation I was aware of little else except light, bliss, breathing and heart rate (1). I used a relaxing, releasing, emptying technique (2) which research has shown to be associated with enhanced spirituality (3). In the beginning, I focused on a ratio breathing pattern of inhalation for 3 heart beats and exhalation for 7 heart beats (4), which eventually slowed down to about 10 heart beats per inhalation and 15 beats per exhalation (5). Longer out-breaths are known to have a relaxation effect associated with the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (6). This is my usual breath meditation which can be used for various goals, spiritual, psychotherapeutic, creative (7) etc. On this recorded occasion I simply become completely involved in heart and breath patterns (8). In background consciousness was the following meditation, written down specifically for this research (10). As this meditation had the same blissful light and breathing pattern, it may be viewed as an interpretation for the recorded meditation (11). Let me say at the beginning that I meditate on breath in order to arrive at that universal consciousness that I call God, Godhead, Self, Emptiness, Ultimate Mystery (12), which has different names in different spiritual and religious
Investigation into breath meditation 403 traditions such as Tao, Allah, Tixo, Nkulunkulu, Mmopi, Umoya, Ruach, etc (13). So I quite consciously use breath for this (14) and many other reasons, such as healing of self and others (15). The little self transcends into a greater Self and Beyond (16). In concrete phenomenological terms, breath is experienced as energy arising out of consciousness (17) – I am also indebted to William James and Ken Wilber for this insight as well as my own meditation knowledge (18) – and consciousness is a knowing and being revealed through breath and energy (19) – all inextricably related as is everything else (20) and this is what happens in breath meditation (21)- one can go anywhere, be anything, arrive at knowledge in the Biblical sense and as consciousness, conscientiousness, conscience etc (22). I have researched and written about it (23). One can use breath for spiritual healing, love making, physical exercise or anything else (24). It’s a given while we are on this earth (25), a gift that is ours to return as best we can to God and/or pure universal creative consciousness (26). I am aware that I sound like a teacher, which is what I have become with regard to breath (27). This is also a continual learning experience (28) – an integrating dieing-living, living-dieing, physical-spiritual, spiritual-physical, bodymind experience (29), a dynamic energetic, transforming, healing, whole-making, integrating process, drawing together all elements, nature, people, realms (30), where we come together and can see ourselves as “representatives of the universe”(31). Breath meditation has been popularly described as “a learning to die before you die so when you die you don’t die” goal (32). Jung also said the breath-body or spiritbody is a second half of life phenomenon (33). Anyway one of my goals, if given the opportunity, is to breathe consciously as I leave this physical existence (34). I became very much aware of this reality holding both my parents when they died and both my children when they were born (35). Later there was a special experience when running a race (36). I have used breath meditation since for sport, health, community development etc (37). I am aware that this is more reflection than meditation phenomenology now (38), but this is all it means to me and much more, infinite, eternal, love, freedom and peace (39). Part of the motivation behind this article was to experience, learn and teach more skillfully from breath meditation (40). B describes being aware of little else except light, bliss, breathing and heart rate, following a relaxing, releasing, emptying, ratio-breathing technique he uses for transcendence. An in-depth interpretation follows. C At the beginning, it was easy to attach the mind to the breath (1). Staying with the breath was easy (2). I experienced the sensation of being one with the breath (3), almost a feeling of transcending the body with each out-breath (4). Then the mind interceded with thoughts of a disturbing nature (5). Staying with awareness of the breath helped bring awareness to the breath (6). But the mind went back after a while to troublesome thoughts (7). This was followed by awareness taking me back to the breath (8).
404 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. An experience of going deeper in to the self was felt with a sense of body lightness (9). Breath meditation in general has developed within me a constant awareness of my breathing patterns (10) and with that awareness a conscious effort to calm my breathing when I find my breathing becoming short and shallow, as I find in anxious or stressful situations (11). Turning my attention from the present situation, inward towards my breath creates an immediate distraction from the outside stimuli/stressors (12) and almost gives me a mechanism to control my feelings about the environment I find myself in (13). Awareness of my breath also serves as an indicator of the emotional impact an experience has had on me (14) and my “aliveness” and connectedness to that experience (15). In life experiences that leave me forlorn, rejected, disappointed, confused or bitter, getting back to the practice of yoga which in co-operates co-ordinated breathing, I find myself coming out of that session with my feelings more contained, and less overwhelmed, agitated or restless (16). I view the whole bitter experience differently and regain my focus in life (17). I find that I have to stay with the practice for some time to achieve a sustained effect (18). Physiologically, 20 minutes of breathing, using Anulom Vilom, a pranayam technique or meditation the day before, helps my sleep break earlier and more easily in the morning (19). I arise feeling refreshed both mentally and physically as opposed to feeling physically exhausted with my brain still not registering (20). C Breath experience facilitated the working through of a negative issue and contact with her deeper self. Regular practice of yoga and specifically pranayama facilitates transcendence. D My breath slowed automatically (1) and my body quickly become heavy and numb (2). I felt a decreased need to breathe (3), and breathed with what felt like small shallow breaths, punctuated at intervals by longer deeper breaths (4). I found myself focusing on a central focal point in my vision (5), a vision of nothingness taking me deeper (6). I was simultaneously aware of my breathing, but left my breath at times (7). My attention was drawn to the thought/memory of a recent negative relationship (8). I became more consciously aware of the feeling state associated with that (9) and began a visualisation process of clearing that negative feeling state (10) and releasing myself from the internalisation of the negativity (11). During this, I seemed to forget my breath although my attention still felt very focused (12). I refocused on my breath together with a focal point in my immediate vision (13), and I was then aware, together with my breathing, of intense colours of purple and blue, spiralling into and deepening towards a centre (13). The subjective experience was one of intensity and my breathing pattern felt difficult to sustain (14). I also felt some restlessness at this point (15). I changed to what felt like a more regular and easier breathing pattern (16). This was followed by a second automatic return to what felt like a deep trance-state, nearing dreaming (17). During this, the visual experience was one of light and expansion (18). This was followed by a return to a waking state with the end of the meditation (19).
Investigation into breath meditation 405 At some point during the meditation process I noticed my breath locking in my throat (20), with the corresponding physical response to cut off the breath (21). This was transient, and breathing flowed again (22). D Breath experience, which was both focussed and divergent, facilitated the working through of a negative feelings and contact with expanded and deeper states of consciousness. E. Breath has been very useful in getting in touch with nature (1) and thoughts of thankfulness (2). It has been amazing to experience the presence of nature (3) and how wonderful it has been to be with it (4) and just be part of it (5). It also gave me chance to connect with the higher power (6) and thank Him for all that I have (7) and what I have been exposed to (8). E Breath has facilitated nature consciousness, thankfulness and contact with higher power. F Initially I found I was trying too hard to relax and focus on my breathing (1). But as time went by, I found that I could feel the rise and fall of my chest which was a very relaxed feeling (2). I found it easy then to clear my mind (3). I found that I felt quite at ease and centred when breathing, very calm, and enjoyed the time to simply ‘be’ and not to have to think of daily worries and stresses (4). I also found that time sped up and as soon as I stopped trying too hard, the time flew past and I was surprised that twenty minutes went so quickly (5). F Breath meditation brought, clarity, centring, a calm state of being, and altered time perceptions. G My initial experience was one of allowing myself to be in the moment (1) and of letting go of my cognitive process (2). My awareness of my out-breaths was accompanied by overall relaxation, calm and tranquillity (3). My in-breath seemed to pull me back into outside awareness (4). As time went on I became less aware of the consciousness of my breath (5). I became less in my mind and it felt like the effort to meditate was more spontaneous (6). I had let go (7). Time was suspended (8) and I felt more in my mind than in my body (9). G Relaxing of cognitive processes brought calmness and altered time perceptions. H I tried to focus on my breath during the meditation (1). I could feel the air moving in and out of my lungs (2) which was a lovely feeling (3). I kept thinking that it is so important for us to practice this on a daily basis (4) but that due to the fast pace of life (5) and the many things which one needs to do (6) such practice is often put aside (7). I could feel myself becoming more relaxed and sleepy (8).
406 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. I tried to block out all external noises such as cars driving by, mobile phones vibrating and other distractions (9). I could feel my body becoming stiff due to my sitting position (10) and my foot becoming itchy (11). I tried to avoid moving and tried to keep myself as still as possible (12). When thoughts about work or other things which I need to do entered by mind I tried to let them go freely using mindfulness and would then continue to focus on my breathing (13). At the start it felt like 20 minutes would be a long time to relax and breathe (14) but by the end could have done it for even longer (15). It was a very pleasant experience (16) and one which I feel will have a positive influence on the rest of my Sunday (17). H After various distractions an enjoyable, meaningful, mindful experience is described. Collective Meditation Experience The natural meaning units for each participant were synthesized into the following collective profile. Various patterns of breathing and related consciousness transformations were explicitly or implicitly revealed in all experiential descriptions (A15, B12, C3, D14, E6, F4, G5, H13). Participants explicitly referred to relaxing (A9, B2, F1, G3, H8) ) and letting go (G7) into improved calmness (C11, F4, G3), stillness (A19, H12) and peace (B39), with deepening of consciousness (C9, D14), visualization (D10), merging with the breath (C4), energetic transformations (A8, B17), dreams states (D18), universal, shared consciousness (B31) and transcendence (A20, B16, C4), into realms of light (A19, B1, D19) and bliss (B11). Other states of consciousness concerned the natural physical world (B30, E1), bodily sensations (A2, B29, C3, D2, H10), feelings (C4, D9, H2), mind (B29, C1, F3, G8, H13), spirituality (B12) and therapeutic working through of negative feelings and/or events (C16, D10). The general theme of the experiential descriptions may be understood in terms of Bensons’ (1997) concepts of the relaxation response and remembered wellness, as well as Wilber’s (1977, 2000) concept of the spectrum of consciousness, ranging through material, mental and spiritual realms. Findings are similar to those from other forms of meditation and psychotherapeutic research (Benson, 1997; Edwards, 2012; Ivey et al., 2002; Iyengar, 2005; Kabat-Zinn, 1994; Reid, 1998; Travis, Munly, Olson & Sorflaten, 2005; Travis & Pearson, 2000). Neurophysiologic Findings Neurophysiologic data were coded for blood volume pulse in mean number of beats per minute (BVP), muscle tension or relaxation as measured on the electromyograph (EMG), respiration in terms of mean number of breaths per minute and electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in terms of percentage delta activity (0-3 hertz or cycles per second), theta (4-7 hertz), alpha (8-12 hertz),
Investigation into breath meditation 407 sensory-motor activity (SMR) (13-15 hertz), beta (16-30 hertz) and gamma (above 30 hertz). Individual profiles Table 1 contains individual quantitative recordings for each participant’s (Pa), age (A), sex (S), where M refers to male and F refers to female. In addition, baseline and contemplation recordings are given for BVP (P1, P2), EMG (E1, E2), Respiration (R1, R2), Delta (D1, D2), Theta (T1, T2), Alpha (A1, A2), Beta (B1, B2) and Gamma (G1, G2) measures. Recordings are rounded to the nearest whole number for space purposes. Table 1: Individual neurophysiologic recordings Pa
P1
P2
E1
E2
R1
R2
D1
D2
T1
T2
A1
A2
S1
S2
B1
A B C D E F G H
71 72 64 85 69 61 51 69
65 72 63 85 70 64 55 67
0 2 1 16 2 14 2 4
24 1 3 2 1 4 4 4
16 15 8 9 14 8 15 16
7 5 6 9 14 6 15 16
15 12 19 12 12 15 16 3
12 9 11 11 9 11 12 5
11 8 9 9 9 11 12 4
11 7 13 11 7 13 19 8
9 7 8 11 5 8 8 4
15 6 15 15 5 20 20 9
7 4 5 6 3 4 4 3
9 4 5 7 3 6 5 6
7 7 7 7 6 6 6 4
B 2 9 6 9 8 5 7 8 10
G1
G2
3 2 2 1 3 2 3 2
2 2 2 1 2 2 2 9
Table 2 contains individual quantitative neurophysiologic recordings for each participant (Pa). Baseline and meditation recordings are given for BVP (P1, P2), EMG (E1, E2), Respiration (R1, R2), Delta (D1, D2), Theta (T1, T2), Alpha (A1, A2), SMR (S1, S2) Beta (B1, B2) and Gamma (G1, G2) measures. Group Profile The individual psychometric and neurophysiologic data were summarized into group means and standard deviations for baseline and meditation scores respectively, and then statistically analyzed with Wilcoxen signed-ranks test. Table 2: Means, standard deviations, wilcoxen z statistics and probability levels Measure BVP EMG RES Delta Theta Alpha SMR Beta Baseline 67.75 3.75 12.63 13.0 9.13 7.50 4.50 6.25 Std Dev 9.78 1.83 3.62 4.72 2.47 2.20 1.41 1.04 Meditation 67.63 5.38 9.75 10.00 11.13 13.13 5.63 7.75 Std Dev 8.68 7.63 4.53 2.33 4.01 5.84 1.85 1.67 Wilcoxen Z 0 .68 1.84 2.254 1.706 2.201 2.041 1.852 Probability 1 .496 .066 .024 .088 .028 .041 .064
Gamma 2.37 .744 2.75 2.55 .378 .705
Table 2 indicated significant increases from baseline to meditation recordings, in alpha activity, Z (2, 8) = 2.2, p = .028 and SMR activity, Z (2, 8) = 2.0, p = .041; and clear, increasing trends in theta activity, Z (2, 8) = 1.71, p = .088, and beta activity, Z (2, 8) = 1.85, p = .064. There were corresponding significant
408 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. decreases in delta activity, Z (2, 8) = 2.25, p = .024 and clear decreasing trends in respiration Z (2, 8) = 1.84, p = .066. In summary, results generally indicated rejection of the null hypothesis in favour of an alternative hypothesis of physiological decreases in breath rate and lower frequency delta bands accompanied by increasing trends towards the higher frequency range of the electro-encephalographic spectrum, peaking in the alpha and SMR bands, associated with an aroused and alert state of waking consciousness. Inspection of Table I indicates that EMG and gamma means are relatively skewed by the scores of participants A and H respectively. Participant A’s EMG could be attributed to a kundalini arousal effect, which this participant has also demonstrated in other forms of breath meditation. Participant H’s relatively high gamma score could have reflected binding, integrative neural effects (Negrao & Viljoen, 2009), of intensive, cognitive tasks, with which this person was involved at the time of assessment. As the number of participants was very small and involved only a single breath meditation session, such skewed findings are to be expected and should obviously be treated with much caution. Unless there is appropriate vigilance and rigor, findings can be distorted relatively easily in such small scale studies. Larger, randomized controlled studies, involving ongoing neurofeedback sessions, qualitative and quantitative methods, as well as triangulation of investigators, methods and data are typically needed to generalize findings and strengthen any validity claims. Psychotherapeutic and sport psychological findings These findings are viewed collectively, with the view that all sport psychology is to some extent dependent on a psychotherapeutic alliance and/or relationship. A Breathing meditation contributes to my therapeutic practice in six ways: Firstly breathing deeply enables me to create a strategic depth in my therapeutic sessions (1). If something explosive comes up with a client, or the client goes into a reaction I am able to breathe deeply and create a space to hold the client safely without entering into their disturbed or distressed space (2). The empathy then remains much centred and creates high levels of safety and security for the client (3). Secondly, breathing deeply facilitates the maintenance of good professional boundaries (4). Through the practice of focused breathing one develops the capacity to clearly differentiate between the client’s material and reactions and one’s own material and reactions (5). This minimised the possibility for counter transference on my part (6) and maintains a clear space for the client to share the experience which is not infested with my introjections (7). Thirdly, breathing deeply at any moment creates a calming effect within myself (8) and within the therapeutic encounter (9) and it creates a full space for client’s to share deep feelings (10). The therapeutic space needs to be punctuated by silences when delving into their life (11) and the client can express and release deeply held emotions and feelings (12). If I breathe deeply then I can sit in this
Investigation into breath meditation 409 space which opens up the possibility for the client to likewise engage in deep breathing (13) so the client can claim insights and profound expression of feelings (14). Fourthly as a result of breathing deeply (15) and birth meditation (16) one sits in a space that is not judgemental (17), where the flow of life just is (18). In this clear still place (19), one experiences the qualities of non judgmental connectedness (20) which are the essential qualities that are required in the effective therapeutic encounter (21). Clients need to be held in a non judgmental flow of awareness (22) if they are to find the space to express, transform and heal (23). Empathy is always lost in a judgmental environment (24) and this quality is essential for a sack full of therapeutic experience (25). Fifthly, breathing meditation creates a finely tuned awareness in myself as therapist (26) as to when I am reacting to a client (27) rather than holding a clear therapeutic space (28). It is no longer feeling angry (29), upset or disturbed by the client (30) but rather becoming aware of the tiniest blips in one’s breathing rhythm (31) which are signals that there is something not in total harmony or flow in one’s mind (32) that must be addressed (33) and released through meditative practice or other practices (34). Finally the therapeutic encounter is like a dance between two people (35) that if therapeutic (36) must have a natural flow a natural rhythm (37), and the therapist must demonstrate the capacity to follow the client’s steps (38) while at the same time facilitating a dance of recovery (39). It requires great selflessness (40) and simultaneously considerable self awareness on the part of the therapist (41), it demands that full presence in each moment (42) and skills that are synchronised with the needs of the client (43). To achieve this I must have total concentration (44) and focus on the client for the entire session (45) and not let a single other thought enter my mind (46). This capacity is greatly enhanced through the practice of breath meditation (47). A uses breath therapeutically in six ways: to facilitate a safe environment with strategic depth; to maintain professional boundaries; to create a calming effect for sharing insight and expressiveness; to promote non-judgemental connectedness; to enhance therapist awareness, harmony and flow; to facilitate the therapeutic dance, presence, skills, focus and many other therapeutic ingredients. B While I do use breath in personal counselling sessions (1), for healing of self and others (2), my main focus has been on offering workshops for various groups such as student counsellors, academic staff, mental health professionals, sportspeople as and members of the general public (3). Some of these workshops have been researched and described in depth in academic journals (4). It is amazing that breath healing is not more widely practiced (4), for simple health benefits (5) let alone consciousness explorations (6) and control of personal lives (7). There are so many valuable techniques (8). Probably the simplest, practical one for is to help beginners experience the effect of relaxed belly (diaphragmatic), breathing with soft, slow, silent, sublime, equal length, in-
410 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. breaths and out-breaths (9), followed by the powerful energizing effect of longer in-breaths (10), then the relaxing effect of longer out-breaths (11). In addition to academic writings, I view breath psychology and psychotherapy as probably the most valuable public health intervention I can offer (12). Some of my articles appear in the reference section (13). In addition to Christian, African, Asian and other spiritual healing traditions (14), authors such as Ken Wilber, Daniel Reid, Trish Sherwood and Roberto Assagioli have been great inspirational sources (15). This is the essential way the healing (whole making) works – the process involved (16). Consciousness drives breath through spirit to soul to mind to body to matter (17). Soul and body are more intermediate than essential (18). Intent, will, belief, practice (19) as well as all other universal characteristics of healing, such as therapeutic relationship, love, care, dialogue and the rest are also all essential (20). For example, if one is dealing with typical universal sufferings involving anxiety, depression, stress and/or loneliness, various forms of breathing facilitate relationships with spirit, mind and matter (21). As an exterior manifestation of consciousness, breath in turn facilitates consciousness of the way that a thought or feeling is related to a bodily pain (22). Breath constriction is directly experienced in the entire body or an area of the body (23). Conscious breathing augmented with will, intent, visualization, regular practice, releases the constriction (24). If there is much spiritual/mental/physical inflammation in the area (25), much cooling breath work may be needed (26) as the traumas leave cellular memories, negative energetic circuits in the electricity and chemistry of the body, emotional scars, mental blocks, shadowy repressions and spiritual contractions (27). Conscious breathing releases all this (28). Sometimes vigorous breathing as in running or martial arts style chi-gung is needed (29), at other times conscious energetic breathing accompanied by imagery, verbalization, movement etc, is called for (30), but for most people most of the time who live stressful, hyperventilated lives, simple, slow, soft, smooth, relaxed heart rate coordinated breathing, at about three heart beats per inhalation and seven heart beats per exhalation, equivalent of about five to seven breaths per minute, for about fifteen minutes is sufficient to effect changes in state of consciousness and choice to practice breathing for physical, mental and spiritual health in future (31). Research shows that this type of breathing is associated with various psycho-neuro-immunological benefits (32) as well as generally alkalizing and oxygenating the body (33). It calms the mind, and (34) facilitates re-connection with our greater Self (35). It effects healing in all senses, bio-psycho-social as well as moral, spiritual, ecological etc (36). B uses breath for healing of self and others, typically in workshops, public health, sport psychology, physical, mental and spiritual interventions. Breath therapy includes explorations of consciousness, personal control, ratiobreathing especially with longer out-breaths for relaxation, imagery, energy
Investigation into breath meditation 411 healing with intent, will, belief and practice. Breath therapy involves breathing into, alkalizing, oxygenating and releasing constricted areas of the body as well as facilitating many consciousness transformations. C In the educational setting (classroom), I use it to teach a study technique (1). As a concentration technique, I use breath awareness to help learners “make the mind one-pointed” (2) (Rama, Ballentine & Hymes, 1979). To calm a poorly disciplined class I use breathing coupled with visualization to help them contain their energy and bring them into focus (3). Initially, some find it strange others become very self-conscious while some trivialize the exercise (4). With time and practice, they become more comfortable and enjoy the exercise as a ritual before each lesson begins (5). During my assessment sessions, my clinical observations include noting the client’s breathing patterns as they tell their story or complete their test taking (6). In trauma work, I ask the client to find the place in their body where they feel the tension (7) and breathe into it to release body held tension (8). I also teach the client the skill of using their breath as a centring skill (9) or technique for relaxation (10). C’s breath interventions help learners study, concentrate, control energy and visualize. In clinical work, breathing is observed in assessment. Breath therapy includes breathing into and releasing bodily tensions, as well as centring and relaxation techniques. D Previously, I used breath primarily in the practice of relaxation (1), but I found that centring clients and/or patients on the breath worked more effectively to relax and calm them, than it did to work through the muscle groups (2). Then with highly anxious or agitated patients, I would spend a few minutes centring them in their breathing (3). After a workshop with Prof Edwards I incorporated the longer out-breath to increase relaxation effects (4). After a hypnotherapy course, I now use breath to induce deep relaxation and hypnotic trance (5). The influence of constellations work has encouraged me to observe the breathing of my client/patient as an indication of emotional states and the resolution of these (6). I also observe my own breathing patterns on the hypothesis that these mirror the patients as we are both participating in the same field (7). I find I am able to observe my own breathing patterns more closely than looking for them externally on the patient (8). I ask my patients to notice changes in their breathing as they are speaking about certain topics, memories, thoughts etc (9), to bring to their awareness feeling states, possibly just below consciousness, associated with the material (10). Focus on the breath also precedes mindfulness exercises to develop skills in being aware of physical and somatic experiences, emotions and also thoughts (11). I teach awareness of breathing and control of breathing, as well as focus on breath as a neutral stimulus, in the management of anger (12). Finally, I use breath to bring the patient’s awareness into the here and now, away from their cognitions and into their feelings (13). I use breath to help
412 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. with the deepening of a feeling state, to enable containing the feeling so it can be felt instead of going into defensive states (14). D uses breath for relaxing, centering and hypnotising clients. Breath consciousness, control and mindfulness exercises facilitate the assessment, deepening, containing, insight into and resolution of emotional states and mental issues. E Breathing has been very therapeutic for me in a number of contexts (1). For example I use breathing when I drive a car to the workplace in the morning (2) when I prepare for the new day especially (3) when I am reminded of a challenging situation (4). I often single out a challenging “thing” “factor” as a physical, visible thing that I have to breathe out (5) and I separate it with a positive experience (6). As I breathe in, I use the power of imagination where a positive feedback or experience which may be in the form a colour is allowed to occupy the space that is presently occupied by a negative or challenging feeling or thought (7). It is fulfilling even to repeat a words “Thank you for the new day” for about 10 minutes (8). Of late, I find myself starting a day by appreciating what I manage to do or have achieved (9). I often suggest breathing when a client is distressed and breaks down during the session (10). A session becomes a shared time with the client (11) in the sense that we experience breath together as a given tool that can be used to “self-heal” (12). We both identify the place of discomfort in the body (13) then breathe positive energy into that space (14). As we breathe out, we imagine the “ailment or negative energy” going out of our system (15). Such a breathing exercise, often takes about 15 to 20 minutes (16). Clients have found this very useful to realize that they have what can assist them in times of distress even in the absence of a therapist (17). E uses breath in everyday life situations, to prepare for personal challenges and assist clients. After bodily discomforts are identified, negative energies and issues are distinguished and breathed out, as well as imaginatively and colourfully replaced with positive experiences and gratitude meditations. Breath is shared as a given tool for self healing during and after therapy. F I use breathing as an essential tool in helping athletes I work with to control arousal levels (1). Generally it is used to calm them down and relax them prior to competition (2). Many of them have commented that this is the single most useful tool they have learnt (3). Generally the 6 breaths/min technique is used (in 3sec – hold 1sec – out 5sec – hold 1sec). (4) I use this in combination with Thought technologies RSA/HRV screens that measure respiration rate and heart rate (5).
Investigation into breath meditation 413 F notes that many athletes view breath as the most useful tool learned. Breath work includes relaxation and arousal control complemented by respiration and heart rate biofeedback. G I frequently use breath and meditation in my practice (1) as a tool conjunct to psychotherapy (2). Educating patients of the mind/body connection is valuable in empowering them to gain control back over events and environment that so often experience as out of their control (3). Using breath and meditation together in the room becomes a shared experience (4) which facilitates the therapeutic alliance (5) and equips both patient and I to retrieve the serenity which is so often part of the healing (6). G uses body-mind education, breath and meditation in a shared therapist-client experience which empowers clients and facilitates the therapeutic alliance and healing. H Focusing on the breath is an important aspect which I use with clients in general clinical psychology practice (1) as well as in sport and exercise psychology practice (2). I incorporate it into CBT practice with other CBT techniques (3) and I have found it to be particularly effect with clients who are experiencing anxiety including PTSD, depression and sexual abuse (4). In terms of sport and exercise psychology practice I feel it is an essential technique (5) and one which is often not emphasized on as much in literature (6). I have used it when working with sportspeople who complete in the following sports: rugby, cricket, swimming, running, chess, tennis and hockey (7). H uses breath in clinical and sport psychology. It is especially effective for persons with anxiety, depression, trauma and sexual abuse and for sportspersons playing rugby, cricket, swimming, runners, chess, tennis and hockey. Collective psychotherapeutic and sport psychological findings Breath therapy is used in various ways for various purposes in psychotherapy (all participants) and sport psychology (B, F, G, H). These include public health, spiritual, community, clinical, and counselling psychological, exercise and sport interventions. In therapy, breath work facilitates: a safe containing environment, strategic depth, professional boundaries, a calming effect, insight, expressiveness, non-judgemental connectedness; insight, the therapeutic dance, presence, skills, focus and many other therapeutic ingredients. Breath therapy includes explorations of consciousness, mindfulness, arousal control, centring, relaxation, imagery, energy, intent, will, belief and practice. Body-mind education, breath and meditation facilitate a shared therapist-client experience which empowers clients and the therapeutic alliance, harmony, flow and healing. Breath consciousness, control and mindfulness exercises facilitate
414 Edwards, Sherwood, Naidoo, Geils, Van Heerden et al. the assessment, deepening, containing, insight into and resolution of emotional states and mental issues both during and after therapy. Breath work can be complemented by respiration and heart rate biofeedback. It has been used in a great variety of sports. Many athletes view breathing exercises as the most useful tool learned. Integrative findings This research is a heuristic phenomenological and neurophysiologic investigation into breath meditation with special reference to psychotherapeutic and sport psychological investigations. What remains is discussion to provide further objectivity and inter-objectivity to what is essentially a subjective and inter-subjective investigation. Wilber’s (1997, p. 8) integral approach and AQAL model includes researcher consciousness and reflexivity with regard to individual, collective, interior and exterior quadrants, which translate into intentional, behavioural, cultural and social dimensions. Wilber’s (1977) approach to validity claims integrates subjective, inter-subjective, objective and inter-objective, validity claims of truthfulness, mutual understanding, truth and functional fit, which all mutually reinforce each other, correlatively and causally. In the present investigation participant co-researchers have intentionally explored their interior consciousness and its expression in their breathing behaviour. This has been described and documented in individual and group form. Participants have individually, collectively and reflexively audited their heuristic productions for integrity and authenticity. We evaluate our integrative findings as follows: Integrated findings clearly indicate the value of breath meditation as experienced personally and as applied in our psychotherapeutic and sport psychological practices. To the extent to which the study satisfies qualitative research criteria of credibility, dependability and transferability, as well as quantitative research criteria of validity, reliability and generalizability, integrated and/or triangulated validity claims apply with regard to research integrity, researcher reflexivity and quality assurance of the investigation as a whole. The fact that all findings were consensually validated by all of us also provides reassurance towards the authenticity of the study as a whole. In practice, we found that integration of findings from qualitative and quantitative analyses facilitated understanding and interpretation of apparent similarities and obvious differences between individuals with regard to their experiential descriptions. As the number of participants was small and involved only a single breath meditation session, interpretation of quantitative findings, if viewed in isolation, should obviously be treated with caution. Larger, randomized controlled studies, involving ongoing neurofeedback sessions, qualitative and quantitative methods, as well as triangulation of investigators, methods and data are needed to generalize findings and strengthen
Investigation into breath meditation 415 validity claims with regard to neurophysiologic data. However, when integrated, findings mutually support and validate each other. Conclusion The aim of this investigation was to explore psychotherapists’ experience in breath meditation and how they used breath in their psychotherapeutic and sport psychological practices. As a relatively small scale, heuristic phenomenological investigation was planned, for enhanced objectivity it was decided to supplement co-authors’ experiences with neurophysiology measures in an integral research design with integrated individual and collective, qualitative and quantitative components. As participants were all practising psychotherapists, a null hypothesis of no change was set for quantitative components. Various patterns of breathing and related consciousness transformations were explicitly or implicitly revealed in all experiential breath meditation descriptions Participants explicitly referred to relaxing and letting go into improved calmness, stillness and peace with deepening of consciousness merging with the breath energetic transformations, dreams states, universal, shared consciousness and transcendence into realms of light and bliss. Other states of consciousness concerned the natural physical world, bodily sensations, feelings, thoughts, spirituality and therapeutic working through of negative feelings and events. Contrary to expectations the single breath meditation training session indicated rejection of the null hypothesis in favour of an alternative hypothesis of physiological decreases in breath rate and lower frequency delta bands accompanied by increasing trends towards the higher frequency range of the electro-encephalographic spectrum, peaking in the alpha and SMR bands, associated with an aroused and alert state of waking consciousness. Psychotherapeutic and sport psychological findings indicated that breath work facilitates many healing ingredients, through explorations of consciousness, mindfulness, arousal control, centring, relaxation, imagery, energy, intent, will, belief and practice. Body-mind education, breath and meditation facilitate a shared therapist-client experience, which empowers clients through the therapeutic alliance, harmony, flow and healing. Breath consciousness, control and mindfulness exercises facilitate the assessment, deepening, containing, insight into and resolution of emotional states and mental issues both during and after therapy. Breath work can be complemented by respiration and heart rate biofeedback. It has been used in a great variety of sports. Many athletes view breathing exercises as the most useful tool learned. Integrated findings clearly indicate the value of breath meditation as experienced personally and as applied in our psychotherapeutic and sport psychological practices. In our view, the study satisfies qualitative research criteria of
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