Irrigation and Water Management in the Eastern ...

Irrigation and Water Management in the Eastern Hindu Kush (Chitral, Pakistan)

Universitetet i Oslo – Morgenstierne Lecture Arnd Holdschlag 30th April 2012

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1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion

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Central/High Asia: Recent climatically determined landscape classification

(Böhner/Langkamp 2010: 38)

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Central/High Asia: IPCC (2000) A2-Projection landscape classification

A2-scenario (2100): global warming of 4.7 °C

(Böhner/Langkamp 2010: 43)

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1. Introduction World‘s mountains as „watertowers of humankind“ Global environmental change: conflicts about water distribution more likely Debates on quantitative & technological aspects sometimes disguise the significance of the nexus with societal properties & institutional setups Water economies of scale: specific localities with own entitlements & sets of rules

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1. Introduction High Asia‘s inhabitants of arid & semi-arid mountain regions depend to a substantial degree on irrigation Irrigation systems are based on decentralized & local management practices & institutions (construction, maintenance, distribution) Land use patterns are modified & framed by changing power constellations & external interventions

Aim: to understand better social-ecological structures & change by examining the organization of water-user communities with an integrated socio-hydrological approach 6

High mountain water management system (Kreutzmann 2000)

Ecological context • Climate • Topography IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Agricultural features • Irrigation techniques • Selection and rotation of crops • High mountain agriculture

WATER MANAGEMENT Resource use Resource endangerment • Aggregate state of water in store

endogenous realm

Socio-economic and local political factors • Institutional aspects • Social organization 7

High mountain water management system (Kreutzmann 2000) Ecology

Agriculture Irrigation

endogenous realm exogenous realm Conflict fields • Resource exhaustion and distribution conflicts • Demands for revenue, levies and taxes • Constr. of storage dams • Competition: irrigation versus generation of hydro-electricity • Water requirements for lowland irrigation

Resource use

Socio-politics

Regional planning and development approaches and strategies • Application of agro-technical inputs (high yielding varieties, mechanization of tillages oil preparation and harvesting inorganic fertilizers, pesticides etc.) • Organizational measures (agricultural advisory and extension services, formalization of water management) • Financial support (construction of irrigation network, improvement of existing systems, introduction of new irrigation techniques, 8 amelioration projects)

1. Introduction

2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion

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Chitral

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Chitral: Topography du n i H

sh u K

e g n Ra

H

u d in

e g n a jR a R

14 850 km² 34 % above 4500 m asl Study villages

Altitude (m asl)

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Arid subtropicalmediterranean climatic influence from the west Humid monsoon disturbances from the south Higher glacier regions: 4 x

(Holdschlag 2011: 34)

or more higher precipitation

Climate diagrams Chitral Town & Drosh

- yomoon: Winter - bosoon: Spring - grishpo: Summer - shoro: Autumn 12

(Haserodt 1996: 7)

Variation of yearly precipitation at Chitral Town (1965-82) & Drosh (1945-82)

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Eastern Hindu Kush

Geo-referenced Color composite Landsat TM Image (29.8.1993) 4,3,2 = RGB 14

(Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)

Eastern Hindu Kush: Vegetation belts

subnival alpine subalpine montane

submontane

colline

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Eastern Hindu Kush: Vegetation map

Subhumid to arid desert milieu

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Torkho Valley

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Mulkho Valley

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Harsh montane environment: Limitations and hazard risks Inter- & intra-annual variations in precipitation Low precipitation in summer Low temperatures Short growing seasons Dependence on altitude

Mudflow in Khot Valley (Torkho)

Frost Water shortage Heavy rains Flooding Mass movement

Photos: A. Holdschlag 1999 ff.

Thunderstorms

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Chitral: Land cover and land use 2001 Sparsely populated region

Partly densely populated settlements 20

Village resources

Arable land Pastures

Agricultural & pastoral products

Water resources

Human resources

Precipitation Perennial & seasonal streams, springs & snowfields Glaciers Drinking water Irrigation Water mill operation Electricity generation

Population structure & composition

Biological reproduction Domestic labour force Export of labour

Domestic needs Basic input for farming Source of energy

Subsistence household economy

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(Modified after Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 49)

Land resources

Yak keeping in the northern upper valleys

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Yarkhun

Mobile pastoralism (Yakhdiz Village)

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Thorn-cushions (Tirich Valley): conspicuous plants in the montane & subalpine belts fuel

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Photos: Nüsser 1997

Forest utilisation (Kesu, southern Chitral)

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Various (rainfed &) irrigated (> 90 %) agricultural systems Alluvial fans of tributary valleys River terraces

Orghuch

Kesu

Broz Gol

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Chitral main valley

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1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources

3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion

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(Government of Pakistan: various Census data)

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(Strand 1999)

Chitral: Languages & population estimates (ca. 1990) Indo-Iranian Language Group Indo-Aryan

Iranian

NuristanLanguages

West-Iranian East-Iranian

New IndoAryan Gujri

Khowar

Dameli

Madaklashti

Yidgha

(3000)

(173-200000)

(5000)

Persian

(5000-6000)

Palula

Eastern Katavari

(2000-3000)

Pashto

(8600)

(3700-5100)

(3000)

Kalasha

Kamviri/

Wakhi

(2900-5700)

Shekhani

(450-900)

Gawar-Bati

(1500-2000)

(1300-1500) (Modified from Decker 1992:11) 31

Chitral: Ethno-linguistic diversity

Group-specific histories, identities & modes of

Data: Decker (1992: 11)

socio-political organization

83 % 32

Principles of social structure: Historical power and clan systems Dichotomy (adamzada – ghalamus) Clans (qaum) & lineages Milk kinship (shirmush) Patronage systems

-

Partly relevant to date (e.g. resource control, local elections)

-

No homogenous groups

-

Decrease of significance 33

Current categories of local & translocal social networks Household Neighborhood/ gram

Marriage

Resource user group

Clan

Patronage-/ tenancy

Individual

Milk kinship

Ethno-linguistic category

Religious community NGOnetwork

Education network Village community

State

Profession network

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gram Informal institution with a defined spatial territory Neighborhood relations (grambeshi) Reciprocal social security system based on mutual trust Political unit & respected conflict solving institution

Vibrant system: Restructuring due to internal conflicts, population growth & migration, external influences

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Resource user groups (Entitlement groups) Local labor exchange systems

yardoyee: household-level arrangement of labor, reciprocity is not expected moan: mutual, obligatory contribution of the same kind (often rotation system), strict control hoyou: reciprocal consensus between two households, duty

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NGO-initiated groups NGO-projects (e.g. Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, AKRSP; Chitral Area Development Project, CADP) Village Organizations (VOs) Women Organizations (WOs) Community-based decision making, community savings groups etc.

… add to or reform existing local governance institutions 37

1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization

4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion

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Tirich Mir area

Chitral: Snowline 4800-5300 m 22 glaciers with lengths > 10 km Great thickness Plentiful meltwater

Geo-referenced Color composite Landsat TM Image (29.8.1993) 4,3,2 = RGB 39 (Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)

Chiantar Glacier (Yarkhun, length: ca. 30 km)

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Darkot Glacier (Yarkhun)

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Tirich Glacier (Mulkho)

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Tirich Concordia

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(Sarikaya et al. 2012: 78)


a) b)

c) d)

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Chitral: Stream & river system

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Chitral River: Average monthly discharge (Chitral Town, 1965-1981)

(Holdschlag 2011: 37)

Spatio-temporal variations of water availability Shortages in spring (cool, dismal weather) & autumn Abundance in summer (high temperatures & radiation) Chitral River: Average monthly discharge 48 (Chitral Town, 1970-1976)

(Haserodt 1996: 9)

Mountain irrigation in Chitral Mountain villages (deh) are sharply defined oases in an arid environment Steep gradients of water flow & limited space for cultivated fields Agrarian production depends on absolute quantity of water supply and onset & duration of reliable runoff Sophisticated canal systems & techniques and decentralized, small-scale institutional patterns on communal basis (co-owner communities) Shareholder water management as basic framework for social organization and collective action 49

The state as actor Chitral District: Governmental irrigation channels (1999) of integration No.

Location

Length [feet]

Irrigated area [acres]

Year of compl.

Costs of maintenance p.a. [Rs]

1

Attani (Ayun, Bumburet)

35000

690

1981-82

286900

2

Kaldam (Shishi)

47000

590

1978-79

261900

3

Kalkatak

42000

270

1976-77

61000

4

Lovidam (Shishi)

15000

200

1992-93

227000

5

Batrik (Bumburet)

10000

70

1987-88

68700

6

Bakarabad

15000

218

1970-71

63400

7

Danin

19500

225

1976-77

153400

8

Mori Bala

9000

500

1978-79

52000

9

Mori Lasht (Istan Gol)

18250

450

1971-72

43100

10

Girim Lasht (Reshun Gol)

13500

650

1972-73

99000

11

Zait (Reshun Gol)

22000

450

1996-97

284400

12

Lon (Owir)

55000

2500

1997-98

889000

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Murdan Kuh (Garam Chashma)

12500

200

1992-93

100000

14

Harchin (Mastuj)

4600

150

1990-91

35400

15

Ghochar Kuh (Bumburet)

50000

500

1998-99

50 4644000

(Irrigation Department, Chitral)

“The system nobody knows” (Netting 1974) Own complex non-written regulations & customs for water use, distribution & infrastructure maintenance Share = responsibility & duty (sanctions) Water shortage: turn systems (sorogh, niawa, sawa, nabat) sorogh: 1-24 hours time Local units of channel measurements for yearly repair (ber, phi) Channel watchmen (mer zhoi) depending on channel length - Old, well adapted & maintained, stable but dynamic systems (population growth, land divisions & transactions, land use changes, state, NGO) - Possessing control means to wield supreme political power (entitlements) 51

Khot Valley (Torkho)

ra zhoi

(Israr-ud-Din 2000: 56)

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Buzund (Torkho)

53

Arkari Valley (Lotkuh)

54

Water mill (Shotkhar, Torkho)

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Case study Odier (Torkho)

Odier

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Case study Odier (Mehlp Valley, Torkho, 2800-3500 m) Single-crop area, seasonally varying water shortages, land slide prone Comparatively egalitarian social structure (former nonadamzada clans) Highly variable land ownership Water: common property resource Irrigation water (13 main channels) usually associated with transaction of arable land Water rights: rotation cycle system per channel Individuals can buy or sell water shares Households sharing 1 channel = user group Households are members of up to 4 user groups 57

Case study Odier (Mehlp Valley, Torkho, 2800-3500 m) User group organizing committees Practically follow regulations of their ancestors Formulate new or change existing rules Impose fines and penalties on defaulters Grant new water turns Upgrade the status or increase the duration of existing turns

Process of general consensus: a lot of lobbying required 58

Odier: Clan-based water turns (sorogh) in the irrigation channels

(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 108) 59

Annual irrigation related work (water allocation, distribution, [night] operation, crisis management): predominantly men‘s work Spring: Repairing channels, first watering (pastegh) of cereal crops Summer: Second watering (amunek) of crops, irrigating maize

(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 129)

Method of field irrigation in Odier

Successful NGO cooperation No conflicts among co-owners in living memory 60

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(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: suppl.)

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Case study Yakhdiz (Torkho)

Yakhdiz

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Water sufficiency: 74 % of HH Inter-village cooperation Successful NGO cooperation No water conflicts reported 67

Upper limit of irrigation (3070 m)

Shotkhar Lasht Zhoi (2960 m)

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Case study Rayeen (Torkho)

Rayeen

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Case study Rayeen (Torkho, ca. 2100-2300 m) Water surplus, single-crop area Age-old history, location of forts First settlement area of the Khoshey-clan: (perhaps) the most powerful clan in Torkho Two dominant adamzada-clans (Khoshey, Zondrey) Absentee landlords in the whole Torkho Valley (Istaru, Werkup, Mehlp, Odier, Khot, Uzhnu) Wealthy village, part of the regional elite (functions in Chitral Town)

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Rayeen (Gol-a-tori): Irrigation & the social construction of history Pachili zhoi Sayyid Beg (Khoshey)

Gol-a-tori zhoi Qazi Jabbar (Zondrey)

Shut Bap (Zondrey)

Nadir (Khoshey)

1932

Shah Abab (Khoshey)

Purdan Wali (Zondrey)

Channel development as indicator & representation of local history & power Clan leaders responsible for channel construction Arrangements between two dominating adamzada-clans Today: mer zhoi, moan-system of maintenance, sufficient water availability = no restrictions

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Kesu

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Case study Kesu (southern Chitral, ca. 1300-1450 m) Water shortage, flood-prone, double-crop area Ethno-linguistic heterogeneity (Kho, Gujar, Pashtun, Afghan refugees: Pashtun, Taji, Usbek) “urbanization” processes Socio-economic polarization (Katoorey landlords) Clan-wise land & settlement structure

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Kesu: Clan-wise land and livestock ownership Clan

Land (area/household) [chak]

Livestock (number/household) cattle

goats

sheep

Katoorey

15,8

2,1

8,4

0,3

Quraishey

6,5

2,2

2,0

0,0

Charshambey

2,6

2,0

7,0

0,0

Wahbhaphey

2,3

1,4

0,2

0,0

Dashmaney

2,1

1,3

0,1

0,0

Jahaney

2,0

1,6

0,0

0,0

Charwaley

1,7

1,5

0,7

0,0

Julumey

1,2

1,7

6,8

0,0

Dolbegey

0,8

1,2

0,2

0,0

Malgasiey

0,6

1,4

0,0

0,0

Other

2,6

1,6

0,4

0,0

Source: Author’s own survey 1999 (random sample, n = 100), 1

chak = 1084 m² = 0,27 acre

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Kesu (southern Chitral)

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Kesu (southern Chitral)

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Case study Kesu (southern Chitral, ca. 1300-1450 m) Water shortage, flood-prone, double-crop area Ethno-linguistic heterogeneity (Kho, Gujar, Pashtun, Afghan refugees: Pashtun, Taji, Usbek) “urbanization” processes Socio-economic polarization (Katoorey landlords) Clan-wise land & settlement structure Kesu Gol: 75 % of irrigation water Katoorey fields Water shortage for non-Katoorey clans after July/Aug. (occasionally only 1 cereal crop possible) Clan-wise turn system Successful NGO cooperation but “elite capture” criticism (CADP projects) Eroding local cooperation systems

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Types of water management in Chitral

Water availability

Water surplus

Distribution system

No restriction

Water right per clan

Water right per canal/settlement unit

Case Study

Rayeen

Kesu

Odier

Water shortage

Yakhdiz 78

British colonial government (1895-1947)

(Develin 1896: 62)

Chitral Town 1895 79

British colonial government (1895-1947) Fixing of unequal social structures Installation & strengthening of the regional ruler (Mehtar of Chitral) Property extension of the Katoorey by amelioration (forced labor) Greater amelioration projects by Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk (1895-1936) Balach (Chitral), Merin (Chitral Gol), Bronshal (Chitral), Birmoghlasht (Chitral), Kasawir & Gokhshal (Chitral Gol), Bakarabad (Chitral) & Chumurkhon, Gumbas (Broz), Balawusht (Ayun), Maskor (Ayun, Birir Nisar), Kalkatak, Suwirlasht, Mirkhani, Shi-eli (Ashret), Arandulasht, Bohtuli (Lotkuh), Shoghor, Susum (Ojhor), Garam Chashma, Ughutilasht (Parabek, Lotkuh) & Bumbagh (Kosht, Charun) (Ghulam Murtaza 1962: 238 ff.) 80

(Holdschlag 2011: suppl.)

Chitral Town (around 2000)

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Chitral Town (Bazaar) 2001

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Chitral Town (Danin) 2001

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1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems

5. Conclusion

84

Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” endogenous realm Ecology

Agriculture Irrigation

Resource use

Conflict fields

Socio-politics

Regional planning & development approaches & strategies exogenous realm

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Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” Complexity & local socio-hydrological variety of irrigation systems are principle features Irrigation systems as “creative adjustment” are integral part of the local culture & reflect social organization & power asymmetries (water entitlements) Irrigation systems are sustainable & dynamic systems driven by both endogenous & exogenous factors Change, stress & disturbances must be acknowledged as common system features (“Living with risk” ) Disputes over irrigation water & water theft are common Quarrels on land distribution during new ameliorations

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Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” Shareholder water management organized by respected institutions as “social capital” for social organization and collective action Reciprocal and collective subsistence strategies are under huge pressure (precarious for low-income households) Exogenous change: institutional pluralism, new crop varieties, input prices, pluri-local livelihoods strategies Socio-economic changes appear to be more influential than ecological Potentials for future amelioration Main limitation: financial resources Failed irrigation projects often lack community participation 87

Conclusion – Outlook Existence of locally adapted irrigation systems have long been neglected (“backwardness”, limited growth orientation) Importance & necessity of inter- & transdisciplinary cooperation in studying complex systems & local knowledge A retrospective approach can reveal system dynamics & path dependencies

“Scarcity can occur at every level. Proper understanding of the local and regional expressions of deficiency, resource pressure and societal challenges and constraints can be enhanced only by acknowledging local diversity and decentralized systems.” (Kreutzmann 2011: 533)

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Thank you very much!

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Bakarabad – Kesu – Yakhdiz Level of household self-sufficiency with cereals [%] Self-suffiency [%]

Bakarabad

Kesu

Yakhdiz

< 20

6,5

17,1

9,4

20-39

18,2

36,8

45,3

40-59

24,7

15,8

32,1

60-79

23,4

15,8

3,8

80-100

27,3

14,5

9,4

Mean

60,0

45,3

41,2

Random sample, n = 100

Random sample, n = 100

Compreh. survey, n = 57

Source: Author‘s own survey 1999

90

Structure of non-agrarian income

Kesu Ziviler Staatsdienst 50 40 32

Rimessen

Armee/Scouts

30

31

20 6 10

Saisonale Arbeitsmigration

5

24

21

0

Pensionen

18

Lohnarbeit

46

Dienstleistung/Handel

Handwerk

Yakhdiz Ziviler Staatsdienst 30 25

Rimessen

Armee/Scouts

20 15 14

10

10

11

5

Sais. Arbeitsmigration

19

0

Pensionen

7

Quelle: Eigene Erhebungen 1999 Kesu: Stichprobe, n = 100

17

8

Yakhdiz: Vollerhebung, n = 57

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Lohnarbeit

Dienstleistung/Handel Handwerk

(Mehrfachnennungen möglich)

91

Yakhdiz: Durchs. Viehbesatz pro Haushalt nach Clans 14

12

Rinder

Ziegen

Schafe

Esel

8

6

4

2

0

Sh eg hn ie Sh y ak hm ire y La lik Sh ey ak hr aw ey A ta m B eg ey B ai ke y K ho sh ey Zo nd re y Fa iz ey B eg al ey Q ou be le y

Stück

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Quelle: Eigene Erhebungen 1999 (Vollerhebung, n = 57)

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