Japanese Higher Education in a Global Context

Editorial

論 説

Japanese Higher Education in a Global Context: Making Students More Innovation-Minded 　Céline Mougenot ※１ 　By the year 2020, Japan is expected to account for just 4% of people with a university-level education in G20 and OECD countries, while China and India will account for 40%. For the sake of Japan competitiveness in a global context, the universities have to produce innovation- and global-minded graduates. We suggest （1）to create a truly goal-oriented education system which supports entrepreneurship （2）to develop a design-based education system （3）to gather an innovation-centered community through dedicated spaces and （4）to change students’mindset and behavior towards difference and risk-taking. Faculties and staff members have a major role to play in encouraging students to take risk, to think differently and to overcome their“Uncertainty Avoidance”. 　Keywords：Mindset, Design Thinking, FabLab, Uncertainty Avoidance, Industry 4.0

１．Introduction 　This paper is an opportunity to share ideas on engineering education in Japan and draw some perspectives for the future. It reports findings from education research literature, listed in the references section, as well as the subjective point of view of the author, a non-Japanese Japan-based faculty with international experiences, with the aim to answer the following question: What can be improved in Japanese higher education, in order to produce innovative graduates? Initially trained as a mechanical engineer and design researcher in France, the author experienced educational and professional environments in Canada, U.S.A., Denmark and Italy. She joined the Japanese higher education system in 2009, first at the University of Tokyo as a JSPS post-doctoral researcher, then at Tokyo Institute of Technology where she is currently working as an Associate Professor in the School of Engineering. In her daily experience at a Japanese engineering university, she observes the following: ・Students would like to go to the university with more passion and participate in exciting projects ・Families, who pay the tuition fees, would like to make sure this type of education leads to an interesting career ・Faculty/staff members would like to have a bigger Received June 10, 2016 ※１Tokyo Institute of Technology 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016）

impact on society through their educational activities ・Japanese society and corporations need more people with creative abilities and a global mindset 　Although there is a pressing need for improvements towards more globalization and more innovation in Japanese universities, changes can still happen while keeping the strengths of the current education system. Because this paper mostly covers possible improvements, we mention here only two of these strengths. First, Japanese students have excellent skills and abilities in hands-on activities like“Fabrication / Making”（ものつくり ）. Second, Japanese students are comfortable working in a team and good at empowering each individual towards a shared objective. Any change in the Japanese higher education system should preserve these extraordinary characteristics of Japanese culture.

２．Vision: Producing Innovation-minded engineers for Japan competitiveness in a global context 　Engineering education is a key factor in the capacity for a country to improve its competitiveness on a global market, thus to ensure its domestic social development. For many countries in the world, higher education, especially engineering and science education, has become a priority, as reported by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development （OECD）１）. 39

　The expansion of higher education in fast-developing countries has reduced the share of university graduates from Japan, Europe and the United States

internationally-minded, i.e. with the ability to be re-

in the global talent pool. The most striking example is China: In the last ten years, the country has doubled its number of universities and quintupled its number

citizen. 　The following paragraphs describe factors that are likely to make students more innovative. They are

of graduates. If current trends continue, China and India will account for 40% of all people with a university-level education in G20 and OECD countries by the year 2020, while Japan will account for just over 4% as shown below1）.

presented in the format of the Four P’s of Creativity3）-Product, Process, Place and Person- mapped to the education system.

Fig. 1．Estimated share of 25-34 year-olds with a university degree across OECD and G20 countries in 2020 1）

　

Fig. 2.　Past and estimated share of Japan in OECD and G20 countries, of 25-34 year-olds with a university degree１）

　In Western countries as well, the number of engineering graduates has to be increased in order to meet the needs of companies, e.g. the United Kingdom recommended to double the number of students in engineering in ten years2）. In a context of global competition between universities or corporations, and under strong demographic constraints, Japan needs to focus on the quality of its graduates. Making the engineering graduates competitive on the global market is possible by making them more: innovationminded, i.e. with values and habits that allow to develop a creative vision of the future, to imagine technical solutions that solve real-world problems and fulfill real users needs, and to produce tangible outcomes with a social and economic impact and 40

ceptive to a variety of people and ideas, open towards things“other”and prepared to play a role as a global

Product- C reating a truly goal-oriented education system which supports entrepreneurship Process- Developing a design-based education system for students from all engineering backgrounds Place- Gathering an innovation-centered community through real and virtual dedicated spaces Person- Changing students’ behaviors by teaching soft skills that enhance creativity and communication

３．Product- Creating a truly goal-oriented education system which supports entrepreneurship 　Current engineering education system is oriented towards“graduation”rather than the application of what has been learnt to real-life needs in professional situations. In an enlightening interview4）, Rick Miller, President of the Olin College of Engineering（U.S.A.）, explained that students generally lack motivation and goals because of the way the educational system is designed. 　　Most of the courses had to do with analysis and calculus, with the unspoken assumption that more math is always better: it doesn’t really matter what the problem is−if you use more advanced math it means you’re a better engineer. This approach is way too formulaic, and it doesn’t draw students into engineering. Their mindset when they walk into the classroom reflects this. They want to know, number one, “Is this going to be on the test?” , and number two, “Which chapter is this from, and what formulas apply?” And that’s pretty much what engineering education was, not just at one school but at every school. 　To stimulate the students, the goals and purpose of engineering education have to be clarified by the university. The students should understand what roles they can play after graduation and what impact they might have on the society. Changing the society is an appealing objective but, at present, Japanese higher education is geared towards incremental innovation, 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016）

rather than disruptive innovation, thus the social impact is unclear and somewhat limited. Engineering

　　You’ve got to start with the customer experience and work backwards to the technology（Steve Jobs, 1997）

students barely have the opportunity to develop the skills for disruptive innovation and entrepreneurship. 　As compared to Western students, Japanese students barely have any interactions with companies during their studies. Some students spend a few

　Several universities have successfully developed design-based education curriculum, where students from various disciplines work in multidisciplinary teams to solve real-life problems.

days at companies for a short“internship” , but a few days are way too short to learn any valuable skills or start building a professional network. In France for instance, most engineering students have conducted, at the time of graduation, a 6-month research project with a corporate partner and completed a 6-month internship as a“junior engineer”at a company, locally or abroad. The internship is an opportunity to be exposed to real needs and problems encountered in a company, as well as to apply to the company for a permanent position. 　Through more interactions with the society in general and companies in particular, the students might get a clearer idea of what their education prepares them for, and thus stimulate them in acquiring a variety of skills that will enable them to have an impact on the society. Interactions with companies might include research projects in collaboration with companies or 3-to-6-months internships at company facilities. With exposure to real-life issues, companies problems and people needs, students will become aware of the impact they might have on society, as engineers.

４．Process: Developing a design-based education system for students from all engineering backgrounds 　Today, successful and sustainable innovations usually originate in superior user insights rather than technical breakthroughs5）. For graduates to be innovative, technical skills are necessary but not sufficient. Students have to be familiar with the“Design” approach, also sometimes called“Design Thinking”.

Fig. 3．Design Thinking model, Stanford University

　Stanford University pioneered innovation education with“Design Thinking”, an approach firstly taught in a Mechanical Engineering course（ME310） , followed by the creation of the d.school in 2005. Several universities have put Design Thinking at the center of their education system, like Aalto University and its Aalto Design Factory for instance. In Japan, design-based innovation has been gaining more importance in the past five years, with the establishment of new platforms and curricula like the i.school at the University of Tokyo（東京大学）, KYOTO Design Lab at Kyoto Institute of Technology（ 京 都 工 芸繊維大）and the Engineering Sciences and Design graduate program at Tokyo Institute of Technology （東京工業大学 ）, to name a few. 　Design is a way to realize innovation through a human-centered and iterative approach, as described in the Double Diamond model below. An initial problem is explored with a user perspective [Discover] and reframed [Define]. Then solutions are developed in an

In this approach, the focus is on the people, the“users”and their needs, not on specific technology. The objective is to create an ideal“User Experience”or “User Scenario” , the technology is not a goal in itself, rather a way to achieve the ideal“User Experience” . Companies like Apple or Samsung are successful because they focus on people, their needs and desires. Apple is not making computers; the company is making computers that are desirable and easy to use by anyone（ “user-friendly”）. 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016） 

Fig. 4．Double-Diamond model of design6） 41

iterative way [Develop], by incorporating user feedback, and through hands-on prototyping approach. The final outcome can be a product, a service, a software, an application, something new that is expected to change the way people live [Deliver]. 　With a Design approach, innovators combine feasibility（Technology）, desirability（People）and viability（Business） . At Imperial College London（UK）, the business school and the engineering faculty work together with the Royal College of Art to offer a radical innovation education to engineering Masters students7）. Engineering students study with MBA students to learn how to transform their ideas into new business models more effectively. Together they explore the commercial potential of new technological inventions and their ideas are evaluated by potential investors. If the idea is promising, students can receive support from Innovation RCA, the incubation center of the university.

５．Place: Gathering an innovation-centered community through real and virtual dedicated spaces 　The place where students and faculties gather, the university space, should be a space that supports creative collaboration and thus the establishment of an innovation-centered community of faculties and students, through easy and frequent interactions between the people and exposure to sources of inspiration and creativity. 　Spaces that support creative collaboration. The space where students work has the potential to enhance ways in which teams and individuals communicate, work, play − and innovate. The d.school at Stanford University has been a pioneer in the design of spaces that support communication and creativity in design projects8）. 　The d.school has built novel spaces for design projects, develop prototypes of the space and tested it

Fig. 5．Ideation space at the Stanford d.school8） 42

with students and faculties. The spaces are flexible, open and enable to share ideas and make them tangible in easy way. Spaces for ideation / brainstorming and spaces for fabrication / making, like a FabLab 9） , are located nearby. Simi（Fabrication Laboratory） lar spaces have been created in other universities in the past years, e.g. the“Invention Studio”at Georgia Tech or the“Design Factory”at Aalto University. 　　Aalto Design Factory operates in an old wood research laboratory which has been designed to support experimentation, prototyping and interaction. The multipurpose nature of the spaces makes it possible to maintain a high rate of use and keep things flexible.（source: http://designfactory.aalto.fi/#spaces） 　These spaces are free and open to all students, sometimes run by volunteer students who help with students’ projects. The students projects developed in such spaces can be class projects or personal projects. The equipment for fabrication is diverse and covers all the latest technologies: traditional fabrication（metal, wood, waterjet / laser cutting), additive technologies（3d printing）, electronics（Arduino, Rasperry Pi…）and others like clay modeling or sewing / knitting. More than the space and the equipment itself, students access a community of“makers” who can share ideas, inspiration and skills. 　Connected spaces as a source of knowledge and creative inspiration. 21st century students,“Millennials”, grew up with the Internet, smartphones and social media, they are connected 24/7, especially in Japan. But in most Japanese classrooms, they are currently using pen and paper, looking at a whiteboard, sometimes even a blackboard, and they are asked to turn off their phones and disconnect from the online world.

Fig. 6.　Ideation and Prototyping at Tokyo Tech Design Factory 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016）

The tools used in class have not much changed for the last centuries. Why not fully using new technologies in class, especially in technological or engineering universities? The daily environment of students should be a showcase of what innovation is and a platform for cultivating innovation mindset. New technologies, smartphones, tablets, are part of innovation and support collaborative work. If students were allowed, even encouraged, to use Information and Communication Technologies devices in the classroom, they could access a wide range of online resources as a source of knowledge and inspiration. Online tools should be used as a way to enhance the interactions between faculties and students, as it is the case for Massive Open Online Courses（MOOC）, even if the class is taught in a real classroom.

６．Person: Changing students’ behaviors by teaching soft skills that enhance creativity and communication 　Enhancing international communication skills. The internationalization of Japanese higher education system is a pressing issue. In 2009, Japan had the lowest score of any of the International Monetary Fund’s advanced economies on the Test of English as a Foreign Language（TOEFL）, administered to foreign students who want to study in the United States. It had the second-lowest score among Asian nations, outperforming only Laos. In the last decade, the number of Japanese students studying abroad has rapidly decreased and the ratio of Japanese students with overseas experience falls below those of other countries. At 0.9, Japan has one of the lowest outbound

students. As an example, Tokyo Institute of Technology launched several specialized courses in English, like“Design Thinking Fundamentals”or“Creative Design for Innovation”, where Japanese students can interact with foreign students in hands-on engineering projects. Rakuten and Uniqlo have made English their corporate language already, so should more universities and leading companies make high English scores a prerequisite for acceptance, the English ability of Japanese students would rapidly increase 12）. 　Cultivating skills for the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The First Industrial Revolution（1784） used water and steam power to mechanize production. The Second （1870）used electric power to create mass production. The Third（1969）used electronics and information technology to automate production. Now a Fourth Industrial Revolution is building on the Third, the digital revolution that has been occurring since the middle of 20th century. It is characterized by a fusion of technologies that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological spheres13）. 　　When compared with previous industrial revolutions, the Fourth is evolving at an exponential rather than a linear pace. Moreover, it is disrupting almost every industry in every country. And the breadth and depth of these changes herald the transformation of entire systems of production, management, and governance. The possibilities of billions of people connected by mobile devices, with unprecedented processing power, storage capacity, and access to knowledge, are unlimited. And these possibilities will be multiplied by emerging technology breakthroughs in fields such as artificial intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things, autonomous

mobility ratio（number of students overseas / number students in the country）of the countries with top-ranked universities like France: 3.6, South Korea:

vehicles, 3-D printing, nanotechnology, biotechnology, materials science, energy storage, and quantum computing13）.

3.5 or China: 2.1. Japanese students account for 1.1% of internationally mobile students in the world, whose ranking is topped by China: 15.8%, India: 5.6% and South Korea: 3.5%10）.

　The Fourth Industrial Revolution will cause disruption with tremendous changes predicted in the skill sets needed to thrive in the new working environment. Chief human resources and strategy leaders from leading global employers were asked what the

　To support the internationalization of Japanese universities, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology（MEXT）has established programs such as:“Go Global Japan Project” （2012-）and“Top Global University Project” （2014-）, that promote courses in English or exchange stays overseas 11）. Before students actually go abroad, Japanese universities could immerse them in international environments in Japan and expose them to international experiences with Japan-based foreign 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016） 

current shifts mean, specifically for employment, skills and recruitment across industries and geographies14）. Interestingly, the top 3 skills, complex problem solving, critical thinking and creativity, are closely linked to a“Design”mindset. 　Supporting a cultural move towards acceptance of risk, failure and difference. Before they enter the university, Japanese students are taught to answer questions only when they are fully sure of the answer. Striving 43

Table 1.　Top 10 skills in 2015 and in 202014） Top 10 skills in 2015 1. Complex problem solving 2. Coordinating with others 3. People management 4. Critical Thinking 5. Negotiation 6. Quality Control 7. Service Orientation 8. Judgment, Decision Making 9 Active Listening 10. Creativity

Top 10 skills in 2020 1. Complex problem solving 2. Critical thinking 3. Creativity 4. People Management 5. Coordinating with others 6. Emotional Intelligence 7. Judgment, Decision Making 8. Service Orientation 9. Negotiation 10. Cognitive Flexibility

for perfection might be conflicting with the willingness to take risk, to discover unexpected findings and thus to potentially innovate. Universities and companies in the Silicon Valley, the world cradle of innovation, chose the mantra“Fail fast, fail often”. This is as an encouragement to take risk, to embrace failure early and often, before eventually succeeding. Hofstede’s study about dimensions of various national cultures shows that“Uncertainty Avoidance”score of Japan is one of the highest in the world（Japan: 92/100 vs. USA: 46/100）15）. Uncertainty Avoidance reflects the way a society deals with the future and with ambiguous and unknown situations. In Japan, most events in private and professional life are prescribed for maximum predictability（e.g. detailed schedule for project meetings or for wedding parties） and people are reluctant to do things without precedence. A lot of time and effort is put into feasibility studies and all the risk factors must be worked out before any project can start. According to Hofstede, the high need for Uncertainty Avoidance is one of the reasons why changes are so difficult to realize in Japan. Innovation, especially disruptive innovation, is about trying new things that have not been done before and doing things differently. Thus risk aversion or difference aversion has to be addressed by the education system. Risk, failure and difference in students’ projects, activities, even behaviors, should be praised by their educators and openly described as necessary inputs for innovation.

７．A glimpse at innovations in Engineering Education around the world 　A few universities in the world are testing new ways of teaching engineering. Although not mature yet, these universities produce graduates whom recruiters want to hire, as emphasized by Rick Miller from Olin College of Engineering4）, they can be a 44

Table 2.　Examples of innovations in engineering education16） Innovations in Engineering Education All Project-based Learning Liberal engineering

Institutes and country Aalborg University（Denmark）

American University in Cairo （Egypt） Florida Polytechnic Univ.（USA） Harvey Mudd College（USA） New Model in Technology and Engineering,“NMite” （UK） Student-designed American University in Cairo programmes （Egypt） Olin College（USA） Many projects High Tech High（USA） Olin College（USA） Distributed learning Minerva Schools（USA） Blocks, not modules Quest University（Canada） Entrepreneurship Olin College（USA） Zeppelin University（Germany） Gender parity American Univ. in Cairo（Egypt） Singapore University of Design and Technology（Singapore） Design-led Singapore University of Design and Technology（Singapore） No lecture theatres New Model in Technology and Engineering,“NMite” （UK）

useful source of inspiration for the universities which try to experiment new educational systems. A few examples of innovations in engineering education around the world were listed by Goodhew from the Royal Academy of Engineering, UK (Table 2). 　Among the aforementioned examples, university models for the future of Engineering Education are Olin College of Engineering（USA）, New Model in Technology and Engineering-NMITE（UK）and Singapore University of Technology and Design（Singapore）. Their most salient characteristics are: multidisciplinary and project-based education, a curriculum with no“years”, hands-on workshop spaces instead of lecture theatres, production of project outcomes instead of written exams. Last but not least, gender balance.

８．Conclusion 　To make Japanese students more innovationminded, the curriculum could be changed, the teaching style could be changed, the environment and equipment could be changed. But most importantly, the mindset of students should be changed. Faculties and teaching staff have a major role to play. On one hand, they can help students becoming familiar with a user-centered design approach that puts the real 工学教育（J.of JSEE）, 64–5（2016）

needs of people first and thus make students work towards innovations that have a real social impact. On the other hand, faculties and staff can strongly influence students’behaviors by encouraging them to express different and unconventional ideas and by praising the willingness to take risks and to“Fail fast, fail often”. In other words, to overcome the Japanese “Uncertainty Avoidance”which does not get along well with innovation. Japanese students have great qualities to build upon and the input of their professors and mentors will be key in transforming them into truly innovation-minded engineers. References 1） Education Indicator in Focus, OECD Report （2012）Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Online report: http://www. oecd.org/edu/50495363.pdf 2） Engineering UK 2016 The State of Engineering （2016） Online report: http://www.engineeringuk. com/Research/Engineering-UK-Report-2016/ 3） Rhodes, M.（1961）. An analysis of creativity, Phi Beta Kappen, 42, 305-310 4） Miller R., Euchner J.（2014）The Future of Engineering Education: An Interview with Rick Miller. Research-Technology Management, 57 （1） : 15-19 5） Beyer von Morgenstern I., Kenevan P., Naeher U（2011）Rebooting Japan’s high-tech sector. McKinsey Quarterly, in: Reimagining Japan: The Quest for a Future That Works 6） Warwick Business School and the UK Design Council（2015）Double Diamond model 7） Educating engineers to drive the innovation economy（2012）The Royal Academy of Engineering. Online report: www.raeng.org.uk/innovationeconomy 8） Doorley, S., Witthhoft, S.（1992） Make Space. How to Set the Stage for Creative Collaboration. Wiley & Sons

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9） Gershenfeld, N.A.（2005）Fab: the coming revolution on your desktop−from personal computers to personal fabrication. NY: Basic Books 10） Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students（2016） UNESCO: http://www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Pages/international-student-flow-viz.aspx 11） Top Global University Project（2014）Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology（MEXT）: http://www.jsps.go.jp/ english/e-tgu/index.html 12） Iwatani N., Orr G., Salsberg B.（2011）Japan’s globalization imperative. McKinsey Quarterly, in: Reimagining Japan: The Quest for a Future That Works 13） Schwab K.（2016）The Fourth Industrial Revolution: what it means, how to respond. World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-respond/ 14） World Economic Forum（2016）Future of jobs. https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-futureof-jobs 15） Hofstede G., Hofstede G.J., Minkov M.（2010）Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill USA 16） Goodhew P.（2015）The Future of Engineering Education: Doing It Differently. Royal Academy of Engineering ………………………………………………… Biography Celine Mougenot is an Associate Professor at Tokyo Institute of Technology, in the School of Engineering, Engineering Design course. She has a mixed background in mechanical engineering and product design and she holds a PhD in Design Engineering from ENSAM ParisTech （2008）. Her research interests are in design engineering, affective engineering and interaction design.

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