journal of language and literature

BEYNƏLXALQ DİL VƏ ƏDƏBİYYAT JURNALI

ISSN: 2078-0303

JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Vol. 6. No. 2, May, 2015 Member of DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015

Indexed by: “SCOPUS”, “UlrichsWeb”, “Education Research Complete-EBSCO”, “IndexCopernicus International”, “Norwegian Social Science Data Services”, “Academic Search Complete”, “Genamics”

Baku-2015

Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

All rights reserved. No part of this journal may be reprinted or reproduced without permission in writing from the publisher.

JLL, Vol. 6. No. 2, May, 2015

ISSN: 2078-0303

DOI for issue: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2 EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Dz.Dzafarov, Dr. National Academy of Sciences (Azerbaijan) EDITORIAL BOARD M.Modarelli, Dr. Walsh University (USA) A.Kh. Ahranjani, Dr. Islamic Azad University (Iran) A.Alimogly, National Academy of Sciences (Azerbaijan) M.F. Shaugnessy, Prof. Dr. Eastern New Mexico University (USA) J. H.Khan, Prof. Dr. Department of English, Sardar Patel University (India)

“Beynəlxalq Dil və Ədəbiyyat” jurnalı Azərbaycan Respublikası Ədliyyə Nazirliyi tərəfindən rəsmi Dövlət Qeydiyyatına alınıb (№ 3809). “Beynəlxalq Dil və Ədəbiyyat” jurnalı müstəqil şəkildə Ümumdünya ISSN Mərkəzində (Paris, Fransa) qeydiyyatdan keçərək mətbu orqan kimi ISSN: 2078-0303 nömrəsi ilə beynəlxalq nəşr statusu qazanıb. Jurnalın bütün hüquqları “Proqres” İnternet və Poliqrafiya Xidmətləri Şirkətinə məxsusdur. “Beynəlxalq Dil və ədəbiyyat” jurnalı “SCOPUS”, “UlrichsWeb”, “Humanities InternationalComplete-EBSCO”, “Norwegian Social Science Data Services”, “Academic Search Complete-EBSCO”, “IndexCopernicus International”, Genamics və s. elmi indeksləşdirmə bazalarına daxil edilib. “Beynəlxalq Dil və Ədəbiyyat” jurnalı ildə 4 dəfə - Fevral, May, Avqust və Noyabr aylarında dərc olunur. Bütün hüquqları qorunur. Redaksiyanın yazılı icazəsi olmadan materialların təkrar nəşri, tərcümə edilərək yayılması qadağandır. Məqalələr bir qayda olaraq Beynəlxalq Redaksiya Heyətinin yekun qərarı ilə dərc olunur. Məqalələrin elektron versiyası jurnalın İnternet səhifəsində yerləşdirilir və açıq şəkildə istifadəyə verilir. About the journal The Journal of Language and Literature is published four times per year in February, May, August and November. Journal publishes original papers in language and literature in general, but giving a preference to those in the areas of language and literature represented by the editorial board. All submitted papers are considered subject to the undersanding that they have not been published and are not being considered for publication elsewhere. To be publishable, papers must treat new research, be well written, and be of interest to a significant segment of the science community. Papers may be written in English, French, Spanish or Russian. All articles are subjected to a double blind peer-review process. Manuscripts (and minireviews) are invited from academicians, researchers and practitioners. Ünvan: Bakı şəh., İ. Qutqaşınlı küç., 97/2. E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: +994 12 5100280

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303,TABLE Vol. 6. No. 2015 OF2.CONTENTS

Januleviciene Violeta, Masoodi Marjan ON EFL LEARNERS’ IDIOM ACQUISITION: A QUANTITATIVE COMPARATIVE STUDY………………………………….7 Parvin Golizadeh, Mahtab Otari NIMA YOUSHIJ POEMS REFLECT THE IDEAS OF HUMANISM……………………………………………………………..17 Binti Maunah THE MOSLEM RELIGION STUDENT’S ATTITUDE ON LEARNING OF ARABIC LITERATURE IN AL-HIKAM MOSLEM BOARDING SCHOOL MALANG..........................................................................22 Parvaneh Khosravizadeh, Zahra Kowsarifard, Moharram Eslami PREPOSITION SEMANTIC ANALYSIS VIA PERSIAN TEXT CORPUS…………………………………………………...…26 Imroatus Solikhah DESIGNING ACADEMIC LITERACY FRAMEWORK OF EAP PROGRAM FOR INDONESIAN LEARNERS.............................................................................................................34 Janulevičienė Violeta, Kavaliauskienė Galina ESP STUDENTS‘ SELF-EVALUATION AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS TRANSLATION……………………………………..38 Ihor Papusha NARRATIVE MODELS OF UKRAINIAN REALISM: PANAS MYRNYI AND THE TOPOS OF PROSTITUTION……………………………………………………………………...44 Abdullina Liliya Rafailovna, Gizatullina Albina Kamilevna, Mingazova Rauchaniya Razulovna LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC POTENTIAL OF EMOTIONALLY EXPRESSIVE SENTENCES IN THE TATAR AND FRENCH LANGUAGES…………………………………………………………………..50 Olga Vadimovna Klimchak, Liliya Gumarovna Gazizova, Garcia Muñoz Ricardo LEXICAL PECULIARITIES OF CUBAN VARIANT OF SPANISH LANGUAGE UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF DIALECTOLOGICAL ISOLATION……………………………………………………………55 Radif Rifkatovich Zamaletdinov, Guzel Chahvarovna Faizullina METAPHORIZATION OF MYTHONYMS AS THE WAY OF A PERSON SECONDARY NOMNATION IN THE SIBERIAN DIALECTS OF TATAR LANGUAGE……………………………………………………….59 Elena Valer'evna Varlamova, Gul'shat Rafailevna Safiullina METHODS OF MODERN SLANG EXPRESSIONS FROM ENGLISH TO TATAR TRANSLATION……………………….64 Edward Grigoryevich Volchkov MULLTILINGUALISM AS PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTOR OF CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS (IN TERMS OF YOUNG PEOPLE OF TR)………………………………………………………….68 Elzara Vasilovna Gafiyatova, Marina Ivanovna Solnishkina MULTI-WORD LEXICAL ENTRIES IN LSP DICTIONARIES: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS………………………71 Zulfiyya Rafisovna Zinnatullina, Liliya Fuatovna Khabibullina MYTHOLOGIZATION OF HISTORY IN ENGLISH LITERATURE BY THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (JOHN FOWLES, A. BURGESS)……………………………………………………76 Nadezhda Yuryevna Murzina, Gulshat Akhmatkhananovna Hayrutdinova ON THE ISSUE OF STUDYING THE AESTHETICAL RESOURCES OF THE LANGUAGE (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF THE GENDER CATEGORY OF THE RUSSIAN SUBSTANTIVES)……………………………………………………………………………...79 Rosa Zupharova Khaphizova, Ilvera Irphanivna Salakhova, Fanuza Shakurovna Nuriyeva PHONETIC ADAPTATION OF ARABIC VOWELS IN MEDIEVAL TURKIC LANGUAGES MONUMENTS……………….83 Oksana Vladimirovna Shemshurenko, Natalya Anantolyevna Deputatova, Zubayda Albertovna Biktagirova PHONETIC, GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL FEATURES OF SOUTHERN AMERICAN ENGLISH ON THE EXAMPLE OF “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD” BY HARPER LEE………………………………………...87 Oksana Yur’evna Amurskaya, Marina Ivanovna Solnyshkina PHOTO-SHARING COMMUNITIES DISCOURSE: STRATEGIES AND LANGUAGE………………………………………93 Firuza Ramzelovna Sibgaeva PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS AS THE WAY OF TATAR LANGUAGE PERSON REPRESENTATION…………………...101 Denis Andreyevich Martiyanov, Kamil Rakhimovich Galiullin TH RUSSIAN PROVEB CORPORA OF THE 18 CENTURY: VARIATION PROBLEM………………………………………104

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Liliya Rashidovna Muharlyamova, Geng Jie, Naila Nurihanovna Fattakhova SEMANTIC VALENCY OF LEXICAL UNIT "WIND" IN BELIEFS OF RUSSIAN AND CHINESE LANGUAGES………………………………………………………………………………………..109 Dinara Irekovna Rahimova, Zulfiya Firdinatovna Yusupova SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS IN RUSSIAN AND TURKIC LANGUAGES………………………………………………………………………113 Leylya Ruslanovna Mukhametzianova, Olga Andreevna Bezuglova, Anastasiya Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova SPECIFIC FEATURES OF TEACHING LEGAL VOCABULARY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES…………………117 Karimullina Guzel Nurutdinovna, Karimullina Rezeda Nurutdinovna SUMMARIZED LINGUOGRAPHIC CORPUS OF THE TATAR LANGUAGE: ARCHITECTURE, STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES……………………………………………………………………………….123 Vilyuza Robertovna Gafarova, Gulshat Raisovna Galiullina TATAR LANGUAGE NON-DERIVATIVE VERBSIN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE………………………………………..128 Vasil Zagitovich Garifullin, Lyailya Rashitovna Sabirova THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE TATAR JOURNALISM: ITS PROGRESS AND LOSSES………………………………….132 Marina Mikhailovna Morarash V.V. NABOKOV "MASHENKA": COGNITIVE APPROACH TO SEMANTIC-CONNOTATIVE STUDY…………………...136 Rinat Pherganovich Bekmetov COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF LITERATURE IN RUSSIA: EXPLORATION OF NEW PARADIGMS……………………141 Dyussekeneva Indira Muratovna, Ismailova Gainigul Kabidullinovna, Kadyrov Aibar Kabykenovich, Toksambayeva Aiman Omarkhanovna, Demezhanov Tuleubek Mukhamediyevich, Toishibayeva Gulzhan Kayirlynovna, Zhumadilova Gulnar Akanovna DURATION AS A SEMANTIC CONSTITUENT OF THE CATEGORY OF ASPECTUALITY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE……………………………………………………………………………...146 Mansour Hessami Kermani, Mona Emami AN INVESTIGATION INTO CONCEPTUAL ART WITH POSITIVISM APPROACH (A Case study of Joseph Kosuth)………………………………………………………………….151 Nikolai Fyodorovich Alefirenko, Irina Ivanovna Chumak-Zhun, Elena Grigorievna Ozerova, Kira Konstantinovna Stebunova TEXT AND DISCOURSE: BETWEEN SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS OF COGNITIVE LINGUOPOETICS………………………………………………………………………………157 Jerome Baghana, Elena V. Bondarenko, Tatiana G. Voloshina, Oksana V. Markelova, Yuliana Y. Genkin (Filonova) EMOTIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCES PECULIARITES IN BRITISH AND AMERICAN SCRIPTS……………………..161 Natalia Anatolyevna Besedina, Yelena Viktorovna Shemaeva, Irina Valentinovna Borisovskaya, Natalia Viktorovna Zimovets GRAMMAR AND INTERPRETATION……………………………………………………………………………………………165 Ehsan Hosseinzadeh, Abdollah Baradaran EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IRANIAN EFL TEACHERS’ TEACHING STYLES AND THEIR TOTAL AUTONOMY..................................................................................................168 Vera Vladimirovna Demicheva, Olga Ivanovna Eremenko, Tatjana Viktorovna Jakovleva, Valerij Anatoljevich Cherkasov ANDROGYNOUS PLOT IN THE OEUVRE OF Z.N. GIPPIUS AND ITS REFLECTION IN THE NOVEL BY V.V. NABOKOV “THE GIFT”……………………………………………………………..175 Hosney M. El-daly WRITING ACROSS LANGUAGES AND CULTURES: FOCUS ON LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL THOUGHT PATTERNS……………………………………………………………………….178 Nelya Leonidovna Krivchikova, Inna Anatolievna Koteneva, Arkadiy Petrovich Sedykh, Natalia Vassilievna Trescheva STYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEGISLATIVE TEXT………………………………………………………………...188 Bahareh Bagherzadeh Samani THE HOTHOUSE & THE DUMB WAITER BY HAROLD PINTER: A READING BASED ON FOUCAULT’S ARCHEOLOGICAL AND GENEALOGICAL METHODOLOGIES……………………………………………191

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Galina V. Mironova, Natalia A. Sheifel, Natalia I. Kostina, Angelina O. Blokhina, Larissa V. Tsurikova THE MINIMAL COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE HIERARCHY………………………………………………………...197 Sophia Akhmetovna Moiseeva, Inna Anatolievna Koteneva, Natalia Vasilievna Treshcheva VERBS OF PERCEPTION IN WESTERN ROMANIC LANGUAGES AND PHENOMENON OF DEIXIS……………………………………………………………………………….201 Hossein Fathi Pishosta ALEXANDER POPE'S AN ESSAY ON MAN: A LOCKEAN PERSPECTIVE………………………………………………..204 Elena Anatolievna Ogneva, Olga Alexandrovna Moiseenko, Alexei Anatolievich Kolesnikov, Alina Alexandrovna Kutsenko, Olga Nikolaevna Yarygina LINGUOCULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE DISCURSIVE SYNERGY…………………………………………………………208 Nunung Suryati ENGLISH TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS ON THE ROLE OF CLASSROOM INTERACTION TO PROMOTE STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE…………………………………………212 Olga N. Prokhorova, Elena V. Pupynina, Igor V. Chekulay, Vladimir S. Pugach FACTORS RELEVANT TO THE USE OF LOCATIVE NOUNS IN ENGLISH……………………………………………….216 Nurchasanah CONVERSATION IN SOCIAL INTERACTION AMONG TODDLERS..............................................................................219 Olga N. Prokhorova, Igor V. Chekulai, Jerome Baghana, Irina A. Kuprieva, Andrey P. Peresypkin CONCEPTUAL FEATURES OF MENTAL STRUCTURE OF ASSESSMENT………………………………………………224 Tatiana Vladimirovna Samosenkova, Olga Nicolaevna Bil, Elena Borisovna Nazarenko, Irina Redjinaldovna Dedikova REPRESENTATION OF THE SPACE IN THE EARLY XX CENTURY POETIC DISCOURSE…………………………...227 Ludmila Fedorovna Svoijkina, Olga Valentinovna Lyutova, Raisa Vladimirovna Kuleshova, Olga Nikolaevna Kravchenko CULTURAL AND NATIONAL FEATURES OF THE LANGUAGE REPRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPT “MONEY” IN THE RUSSIAN AND FRENCH ADVERTISEMENT PRINT TEXTS……………………………..230 Tatiana Evgenyevna Soboleva, Yulia Evgenyevna Lomonosova, Natalia Nikolaevna Kopytina, Oksana Vladimirovna Kuzmina DISCOURSE AS THE BASIS OF PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………..233 Irina A. Aizikova, Irina A. Matveenko, Anna N. Utkina SEARCHING FOR A FORM OF NOVEL: E. BULWER-LYTTON’S PELHAM AND A. PUSHKIN’S DRAFTS BULWER’S PELHAM AND PUSHKIN’S DRAFTS………………………………………………...236 Yuni Pratiwi WOMEN CULTURAL VALUES IN THE NOVELS WRITTEN BY CHINESE WRITER OF INDONESIA..........................242 Venera Rudalevna Amineva PHENOMENON OF BORDER IN INTERLITERARY DIALOGUES…………………………………………………………..246 B.S. Abduova, U.O.Asanova, L.N. Gumilev, A.A.Musabekova CONCEPT «HOPE» IN NATIONAL REPRESENTATION OF KAZAKH PEOPLE………………………………………….250 Irhamni, Ali Ma'sum TRANSLATE-SELF REVIEW METHOD IN ARABIC LEARNING BY KYAI RAHMAT AL-ARIFIN IN PESANTREN DAAR AL-HIJRAH MALANG…………………………………………………………256 Lilia Rashidovna Duskaeva PRAXEOLOGIC METHOD IN MEDIALINGUISTICS........................................................................................................260 Renée Grenarová REGARDING RESEARCH INTO THE LINGUISTIC INTERFERENCE OF CZECH AND RUSSIAN AT THE INITIAL STAGE OF TEACHING RUSSIAN AS A SECOND FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS..................................................................................265 Vladimir Ivanovich Konkov, Alexey Alexandrovich Goryachev “PERFORMATIVE” AND “COGNITIVE”: ABOUT TWO COMMUNICATIVE STATUSES OF MEDIA TEXTS……………………………………………………………………………269 Kundharu Saddhono INTEGRATING CULTURE IN INDONESIAN LANGUAGE LEARNING FOR FOREIGN SPEAKERS AT INDONESIAN UNIVERSITIES…………………………………………………………………….273

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Andrey Vasilievich Polonsky, Evgeny Alexandrovich Kozhemyakin, Svetlana Viacheslavovna Baranova, Veronika Alexandrovna Smirnova HOW DO NEW MEDIA CONTRIBUTE TO IMAGE-MAKING? THE CASE OF PERSONALIZED WEB-COMMUNICATIONS ON RUNET…………………………………………………………………….277 Dafina Kostadinova, Ekaterina Tabutova TEACHING ENGLISH TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY......................................................................................................280 Arkadiy Petrovich Sedykh, Larissa Robertovna Ermakova, Nelia Leonidovna Krivtchikova, Margarita Viktorovna Naydenova LINGUISTIC WORLD VIEW AND NATIONAL GASTRONOMY………………………………………………………………290

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS....................................................................................................................293 MÜƏLLİFLƏR ÜÇÜN TƏLİMAT.......................................................................................................................295

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

ON EFL LEARNERS’ IDIOM ACQUISITION: A QUANTITATIVE COMPARATIVE STUDY Januleviciene Violeta, Masoodi Marjan Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius (LITHUANIA) E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/1 Received: 06 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 04 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT This study evaluates the potentially relative effectiveness of three different teaching methods applied for the acquisition of idioms by Iranian and Lithuanian intermediate EFL learners in university settings. To this end, 234 homogeneous intermediate learners were selected and randomly assigned to six equal groups (three Iranian and three Lithuanian groups). Following a pre-test, the six groups attended four sessions of teaching in which all the learners received the same set of idioms through different methods: the first group -translation group- received treatment via translation of idioms in specific contexts. The second group -historical origin and picture group - underwent teaching of idioms via presented related picture and cultural origin. The third group -output task group - received instruction through completing two types of output tasks. The results on idiom acquisition were processed statistically and it was established that teaching idioms with related picture and cultural note has a satisfactory significant effect on the acquisition of target items. Furthermore, a cognitive-learning questionnaire was given to all respondents before any instruction to assess if there was any consistency between the learning strategy for idiom acquisition and the applied effective method. The research revealed that although most of the participants focused primarily on meaning and contained words of an idiom before instruction, the picture along with cultural and historical note method fostered their learning. Key words: English as a foreign language, Dual coding, Learning and cognitive style, Pictorial, Output tasks 1. INTRODUCTION It has been noted that the Second Language (L2) learners often fail in achieving effective communication (Calviño, 2011; Tran, 2012) due to the lack of idiomatic knowledge which can be processed as whole units (Zhao, 2009, p. 1). Y. Zhao (2009, p. 10) further highlights that a number of studies indicate the fact of fixed phrases being helpful not only to increase L2 learner motivation but also to contribute to the aspect of language fluency, accuracy, creativeness and cohesion. In addition, H.Q. Tran (2012, pp. 76-77) highlights that the idiomatic competence is one of the criteria for language proficiency and a crucial factor in the daily language. Accordingly, if collocation associations are not learned as part of the L2 knowledge, the learners’ speech or writing will be immediately decided upon as non-native, odd and incompetent, and that poses a prevalent problem in present EFL situation. The necessity of teaching idioms is completely obvious since the lack of idiom competence is noticeable when nonnative speakers of English need productive language knowledge. Students either use only the limited number of idioms they know or under the influence of their first language create unnatural and farfetched collocations. Therefore, the overgeneralization of collocation range is quite risky. Thus, from many researchers we can reasonably infer that because collocation capacity cannot be spontaneously acquired, the teaching of idioms is absolutely integral to the encoding of a language by non-native speakers. A lot of research has been carried out in this area, however, a burning issue both for language researchers and practitioners still remains what are the best ways to teach idioms in class situation. Although translating is an ancient practice, it has been formally and systematically studied in a non-evaluative way for less than thirty years. Many researchers (Griffin, 2004; Mustonen, 2010; Rostamzadeh, 2011; PACTE, 2011) have suggested translation as a method for teaching culture-specific items (CSIs), such as idioms. Some researchers have investigated that both methods—picture and explanation about historical and cultural origin of idiom—evoke mental imagery (Lakoff, 1987), and can be treated as an application, or of the cognitive linguistic (CL) views on idiomaticity. They investigate ‘imagery’ in the sense of verbal and non-verbal elements that may stimulate the form ation of conventional images (Lakoff, 1987, pp. 446–447) associated with the literal readings of idioms. The more recent research on the function of output (Izumi and Bigelow, 2000) is based on the assumption that drawing learners’ attention to target forms, as they arise incidentally in lessons with an overriding focus on meaning and communication, makes it easier for the learners to acquire form and meaning of idiom simultaneously. Thus, the importance of idioms on one hand, and the significance of formal instruction (in this particular case, teaching through translation, presenting picture with cultural origin and output tasks), on the other hand, have encouraged the researchers to conduct this work. Given the purpose of this research, three ways for treatments of idioms are briefly introduced below. 2. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE 2.1. Idiom, Culture and Translation Competence Model One of the unique ways in which the assembly of particular words and expressions, stemming from one’s culture or language, is in the form of language idiomatic expressions (Marzocchi, 2010). Also, L.E. Grant and L. Bauer (2004) propose that figuratives can be made sense by stretching the known meaning of individual words (p. 51). Another defining characteristic of idioms is their frozenness or fixedness (Grant& Bauer, 2004), which entails both limited substitutability and lack of grammatical flexibility.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Since the concept of culture is essential to understanding the implications for literary translation and culture-specific items in translation, many researchers in translation have dealt with the definition of culture. B. Ivanovska and A.S. Groszeler (2011) drew attention to the relationship between idiomatic expressions and culture: “Idioms are also interesting to study because of the insight they give us into the language and the people who use them. These expressions originate in the history, literature, religion, and traditions typical of a certain community. For this reason, idioms reveal much of the way of thinking of a community.” (p. 28) Thus, while idioms pose a linguistic challenge in effectively interpreting the idioms of one language as compared to those of another, the the cultural challenge is more significant. (Ghafel et al., 2011, p. 160). The realization that texts must carry out a communicative purpose has resulted in the concept of translation competence. This study will adopt the holistic competence model of The PACTE Group (Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) as it is one of the most sophisticated one in translation studies which has following components: bilingual sub-competence (for solving translation problems at the lexical, syntactic, and textual level), extralinguistic sub-competence (background knowledge), knowledge about translation, instrumental sub-competence (translation resources, dictionaries, parallel texts, glossaries), strategic sub-competence (for monitoring and coordinating the whole translation, which includes planning the process, identifying and solving problems, activating most appropriate strategies and evaluating the product) and psycho-physiological (psychomotor, cognitive and attitudinal factors) components (PACTE, 2011). M. Gonzalez Davies (2004) suggests that teachers can improve students’ competence and performance by exploring areas of psychology and pedagogy which encourage cooperation, motivation and participation as well as the development of students’ mental processes. It is worth to note that A. Rostamzadeh (2008, p. 10) argues that a translation class can be invested to improve foreign language competence. F. Griffin (2004, p. 463) claims that translation may lead to learning because translation encourages learners to have fun with language and to think about language as a creative tool, while realizing the potential for misunderstanding when communicators lack a common culture. By making learners active decoders and translators, this method allows learners to experience that potential and to realize, in a memorable way, the rationale for prescriptive warnings about figurative idioms in intercultural communication. It is further pointed out that the method deepens an appreciation for the kinds of translation learners do daily, as they navigate between worlds that only partially and imperfectly share a common language and shared meaning. There are no ready-made, fixed strategies to be prescribed to translators in dealing with idioms and it is up to the translator to draw upon the best strategies while translating idioms. Although all translation exercises involve an inevitable loss of a number of idioms, some idioms can also be gained in the process (Mustonen, 2010, p. 44). S. Mustonen further states that "the most recommended translation strategy for idioms is translating them with a natural target language idiom which has the same meaning as the original source language idiom." C.Helleklev suggests that there are four ways of handling idioms: 1) translating an idiom with an equivalent idiom or 2) explanatory everyday expression, 3) using an idiom instead of an everyday expression and 4) word for word translation (Helleklev, 2006, p. 27). The other solution offered by K.E. Jensen to translation of idioms is "Basically to apply the same decode-representation-encode strategy" (Jensen, 2008, pp. 5-6) which is finding the meaning and encoding it into the receptor text (translation). "In case of not finding a similar idiom or an idiom, he suggests, "you will have to use an ordinary universal term". S. Sornsuwannarsi (2010) points to four strategies used for translating idioms in her research: free translation, equivalent translation, omission, and literal translation. In this case, translation theory does not provide a set of hard-and-fast rules, which, when followed, will ensure that the translator will come up with a perfect translation. What translation theory can do, however, is to make the translator aware of various factors which are involved in the translation process and offer some principles and guidelines that will help the translator to make certain decisions and choices. 2.2. Idiom Characteristic Features 2.2.1. Semantic structure Based on the Idiomaticity Theory adopted by D. Dobrovol’skij and E. Piirainen (2005, pp. 39–44), opacity, or lack of transparency, refers to the difficulty in explaining the link between the lexical structure and the actual meaning of the idiom. The image component is ‘a specific conceptual structure mediating between the lexical structure and the actual meaning of figurative units’ (Dobrovol’skij and Piirainen, 2005, p. 14). It is postulated that relevant elements of the image component can be included in the explication of an idiom in order to raise the awareness of the difference between the idiom and its nonfigurative equivalent. If, as D. Dobrovol’skij and E. Piirainen (2005, p. 80) observe, the strategies used for processing the image triggered by the lexical structure of the idiom “stabilize the understanding of the idiom”, the insertion of illustrations and culture origin background in teaching of idioms seems to be justified. 2.2.2. Idioms as motivated lexical units Motivation refers to a speaker’s ability to make sense of an idiomatic expression by reactivating or remotivating their figuratively, i.e. to understand why the idiom has the idiom atic meaning it has with a view to its literal meaning’ (Langlotz, 2006, p. 45). CL holds that most idioms are motivated, even if motivation is a gradable and subjective phenomenon, dependent on the speaker’s knowledge, experience, age, etc. Motivation does not imply predictability and the meanings of the idioms can be seen as motivation and not arbitrary (Lakoff, 1987).For instance, we cannot guess that “to take the bull by the horns” means “to deal with a difficult or dangerous situation in a direct and brave way” on the basis of the lexical makeup of the phrase. One could as well hypothesize that the idiom means “to act recklessly, foolishly”. However, once the actual meaning is known, one makes sense of the idiom. The bull stands for the difficult situation, whereas the act of taking it by the horns—for tackling the situation. We would like to suggest that the implication of these ideas for teaching idioms is that this kind of motivation should facilitate the teachability/ learnability of idioms. Theoretically, at least by providing the learners with cognitive motivation for idioms, learners should be able to learn the idioms faster and retain them longer in memory. Motivation of idioms arises from knowledge of the cognitive mechanisms (metaphor, metonymy. conventional knowledge) and this links idiomatic meanings to literal ones and has important implications for teaching/learning idioms. 2.2.3. The Effects of Imagery and Cultural Origin on Idiom Learning Giving culture origin information in teaching idioms is not without merits, since it may raise awareness of language change, development and show relationships between words and real life situation. Last but not least, people claim to enjoy

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 notes on culture origin (Landau, 2001, p. 101), which may increase learners’ motivation and interest in idiomatic expressions. Culture origin background can be instructive, provided that they are understandable (Landau, 2001, p. 102), and not too long. Committing new idioms to long-term memory in a way that taps the motivating links should be a less daunting task than simple parrot-like learning, in line with the well-known principle that “it is easier to remember and use motivated knowledge than arbitrary knowledge” (Lakoff, 1987, p. 346). According to the levels of processing theory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) and the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1986), memory performance is a function of the depth of processing, and visual and verbal information are processed and stored along different channels. Accordingly, extensive processing of the information stimulating mental imagery may enhance the depth of processing and, additionally, encourage the processing of verbal information through the non-verbal code. Storing inform ation via both mem ory channels: verbal and non-verbal should have a favorable effect upon the comprehension and retention of words. Apparently, ‘reading a brief culture origin explanation is equally beneficial to retention (through dual coding) as correctly identifying the SD (source domain) followed by reading the culture origin explanation’ (Boers et al., 2008, p. 73). It has been revealed by that the scores for correctly interpreted opaque idioms are not particularly affected by the presentation of culture origin information due to the learners’ affective factor. 2.2.4. Static Pictures in Learning Idioms F. Boers et al. (2008) demonstrated, that pictures can also act as mnemonic devices. Pictures best represent complex and abstract phenomena, unusual or unfamiliar things. Their primary function should not be purely aesthetic, but explanatory, complementary to the explication in the definition (Stein, 1991, p. 105), especially when the definition would have to be extremely complicated. In order to fulfill their instructive functions, they require contextualization, and this is achieved by means of captions, verbal elem ents, often in the form of a full sentence. Further, in spite of the presence of contextualizing captions, pictures do not represent statements, but ideas (Anglin et al., 2004, p. 867). Our cognition predetermines the ways we view the picture. We actively construct the meaning in the picture. Our perception is also a result of the knowledge of conventions, due to which we can interpret the outline drawings as the edges of objects (Anglin et al., 2004, p. 867). 2.3. Output Hypothesis and output tasks With the proposal of M. Swain’s Output Hypothesis (2005), the learning output has come to be deemed not merely as an end product of learning, but as an important factor to promote L2 learning. It has been noted that producing the target language provides learners with unique opportunities for a level of processing (i.e., syntactic processing) that may be needed for the development of target-like proficiency and higher accuracy (Izumi& Bigelow, 2000). The more recent research on the noticing function of output (Izumi& Bigelow, 2000) are based on the assumption that drawing learners’ attention to target forms, as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focuses are meaning and communication, makes it easier for them to acquire form and meaning simultaneously. R. Schmidt (2001) postulates that input does not become intake for language learning unless it is noticed, i.e., consciously registered. It was further proposed that nothing is learned unless it has been noticed. In a more conservative weak version, it is said that noticing does not itself result in acquisition, but it paves the way for acquisition to occur. According to noticing hypothesis attention, noticing and awareness, are crucial in perceiving different features of language. Recent second language acquisition (SLA) research has demonstrated a need for classroom activities that promote both communicative interaction and attention to form in second language (L2) classroom s (Ellis, 2003, 2005). One way of promoting such opportunities is through pedagogical tasks that encourage negotiation of meaning, while at the same time providing opportunities for attention to form (Ellis, 2003). Argum ents for the role of output have shown that exposure to inputbased communication is not enough to develop target like accuracy. The studies have suggested that despite ample exposure to meaning-based interaction and comprehensible input, learners are still inaccurate with respect to certain aspects of the L2 idioms. This is to be due to the fact that learners in such contexts do not have enough opportunities for language production and focus on form (Swain, 2005). M. Swain (2005) has identified three functions for output: a noticing function, a hypothesis-testing function, and a metalinguistic function. The noticing function holds that when learners produce output, they may notice gaps in their knowledge because through output they may realize that they cannot say what they want to say. Producing output also provides learners with opportunities for hypothesis testing; that is, when talking to others, learners may try out different ways of saying the same thing and may come to realize whether their utterances are comprehensible and well formed. When learners cannot express their intended meanings, they may search their existing linguistic knowledge to find solution to the problem. If they cannot find a solution, they might seek help from others and/or pay closer attention to the subsequent input. Another function of output is a metalinguistic function. That is, output may encourage learners to consciously reflect upon language and consciously think about what to say and what not to say. In light of the above theoretical arguments, several studies described below have empirically examined the role of output tasks in L2 learning. M.P. Garcia Mayo (2002) compared the effectiveness of a dictogloss with a text reconstruction task (a text that had certain grammatical words missing, such as articles, prepositions and function words, and the learners had to supply them. It was arrived at the conclusion that a text –reconstruction task was an effective form-focused task in her study, but she stressed the need for further research in this area. Some recent classroom studies seem to advocate the use of both cloze and editing tasks (Storch, 2007; Garcia Mayo, 2002). Studies by T.Pica et al. (2006) have also suggested that cloze exercises are useful information gap tasks that can provide effective contexts for pushed output and negotiation about language forms. Furthermore, editing tasks are frequently used in L2 classrooms (Storch, 2007), but few studies have examined their effectiveness for L2 learning. 3. METHODOLOGY The present study was conducted to examine the potential effects of using different teaching instructions, translation, historical and cultural origin explanation accompanied by related picture and output tasks (closing and editing) on the idiom acquisition of EFL learners. Another purpose of current research was to assess whether there was any consistency among the learning strategies that the learners usually had used to learn a new expression before any instruction and the effective method that was applied in this research. In order to attain the purpose of the study, the researchers employed both descriptive and

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 experimental methods to collect the required data. This section contains the details concerning the participants, instrumentation and materials, and the procedure for data collection. The participants of this study consisted of 300 junior university students in three different classes majoring in English translation at Payam Noor University in Iran and Mykolas Rom eris university in Lithuania. However, after administering a homogenizing proficiency test, there remained 234 students with the sam e level of English proficiency divided into three groups in each country. Each group received one form of the intended instruction at random. The target words were 29 English idioms. The reasons for focusing on idioms were that these idioms were forseen t o be difficult to master and constituted the teacher’s plan of the observed classes. The idioms were from the textbook to be covered throughout a semester. The research was performed in two different countries- Iran and Lithuania. In order to collect the required data in this study several instruments were used: an English proficiency test with 90 items containing of 40 grammar items (sentence completion in two-line dialogs), 30 vocabulary items (contextualized synonyms and sentence completion), and 20 reading comprehension items based on 4 reading passages. The time allocated to this test was 60 minutes. It included six different learning strategies (picture association, memorization, translation, contained words, overall meaning and structure) to determine prevalent learning strategies applied by learners before any type of teaching. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were calculated and the results proved that the administered questionnaire met both requirem ents. Before the instructional treatment started, the subjects were pre-tested in order to ensure that all three groups were equivalent in terms of their general knowledge of idioms. The pre-test comprised 28 multiple-choice (MC) items from which targeted idioms were missing and the subjects were required to complete the sentences by selecting the correct choice. In order to determine the effect of three types of instruction on the acquisition of the target forms, a 29 items MC post-test was constructed to test the meaning of target idioms. 4. PROCEDURE As the first step of the research, 300 Iranian and Lithuanian students majoring in English translation took a homogenizing proficiency test. Based on the obtained scores, three homogeneous Iranian groups, each consisting of 38, 47 and 34 members and three homogeneous Lithuanian students, each consisting of 35, 42, 38 respectively, were formed in order to collect the target data. Then, the pretest was performed. After that, the students received treatment during 4 teaching hours, 4 sessions. For Groups 1, 28 original short texts, each with one idiom and its meaning, were given in individual pamphlets to each student (Appendix 1). They translated those texts with researcher’s guidance and found the equivalent of the idiom in target language. Groups 2 were given explanation about the origin of each idiom (historical, cultural, literal, etc) accompanied by the related picture (picture was drawn based on literal meaning of the idiom) with a view to stimulate dual coding memory, processing theory in a pamphlet (Appendix 2). According to A. Cieslick’s (2006) study, learners’ inclination to look for clues in the literal meaning of the constituent words of an idiom and the association of the figurative phrases with images of concret e scenes help them to comprehend and remember meaning of L2 idioms better. For Groups 3, 2 output tasks were prepared based on the exactly the same texts used for Group 1: cloze and editing tasks (Appendix 3). Each task contained randomly 14 of the 28 target idioms. Each mini rational cloze test contained missing parts all of them were related to the meaning of the target idioms. For the cloze task, the teacher first read the original text that the cloze task was based on at the norm al pace twice, and the students were asked to listen to the reading carefully for meaning and wrote down notes related to the content. Then the students received the cloze version of the text and were asked to restore the missing sections as correctly and as closely as possible to the original text. After a cloze task, the students completed an editing task and were asked to correct any erroneous section as correctly and closely as possible to the original dialogue. Here again, the erroneous section were those parts of idiom related to the meaning of it. The am ount of time, 10 minutes, to complete each task was suggested by the teacher, based on the average am ount of time students took to complete similar tasks before. The cognitive-style questionnaire that the teachers used in this study was constructed by the researcher herself. At the start of the course, respondents were invited to indicate from six learning strategies (picture association, memorization, translation, contained words, overall meaning and structure) which one they mostly preferred to use when they encounter an idiom. 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS At the outset of this study, a 90-item proficiency test was given to 300 Iranian and Lithuanian senior university students majoring in English translation in order to choose a homogeneous learner sample. After scoring the test, a thorough process of item analysis was conducted in order to identify the faulty items. All items with IF indexes between.30 and.70 and ID indexes above.30 were retained on the test and the rest were discarded. The final version of the proficiency test included a total of 64 items consisting of 25 grammar items, 22 vocabulary items and 17 reading comprehension items. Then, the participants’ papers were rescored on the basis of the remaining items, and 119 students from Iran and 115 from Lithuania with scores between one standard deviation above and below the mean were chosen as the main participants of the study. The descriptive statistics of the homogeneity proficiency test of the six newly formed groups appears in Table 1. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Homogeneity Proficiency Test of the Iranian & Lithuanian Groups

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Dividing the statistic of skewness by its standard error, the research proved the assumption of normality to be observed in the distribution of the scores of the three Iranian groups and three Lithuanian groups.

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

G1 G2 G3 Iran

Lithuania

Fig. 1. The mean scores of the six groups on homogeneity proficiency test Later, a Robust Test of Equality of Mean and ANOVA (Table 2) was run in order to establish the homogeneity of the participants regarding their writing ability at the outset of the study. Since the significance level was higher than α=0.05, it was decided that the six groups belonged to the same population. Table 2. Robust Tests of Equality of Means for the Proficiency Group Iranian Group Lithuanian Group

Statistic 0.411 0.357

df1 2 2

df2 91.23 83.45

Sig. 0.664 0.567

The results of the ANOVA for both ethnic groups show that there is no significant difference between the scores of the groups in the proficiency test. Table 3. One-way ANOVA for the Iranian& Lithuanian Group Proficiency Sum of Squares 47.69 6267.45 49.69 6377.55

Between Groups (Iranian) Within Groups (Iranian) Between Groups (Lithuanian) Within Groups (Lithuanian)

df 2 116 2 112

Mean Square 23.84 54.03 21.43 56.02

F .441

Sig. .644

.42

.702

Analysis of the Idiom Pre-test In the next phase of this study, an idiom pretest consisted of the idioms to be taught. The test was administered to determine the a priori idiom knowledge of the participants. This would enable to investigate the possible impact of the treatment on the improvement of idiom acquisition. Table 4 summarizes the descriptive statistics of the idiom pre-test in both etchnic groups of students. Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of the Iranian & Lithuanian Writing Pre-test N Group G1-Iranian/Lithuanian G2-Iranian/Lithuanian G3-Iranian/Lithuanian

Statistic 37/35 45/42 34/38

Mean Statistic 8.49/6.47 7.98/8.28 10.71/9.91

Std. Deviation Statistic 5.26/4.26 3.57/5.51 5.59/4.99

Skewness Statics Std. Error .766/.706 .388/.401 -.091/-.021 .354/.357 .174/.274 .403/.383

The results of the skewness analysis, as shown above in Table 4, revealed that the assumption of normality was observed in the distribution of the idiom pre-test scores of the six groups.

12 10 8 G1

6

G2

4

G3

2 0 Iran

Lithuania

Fig. 2. The scores of the six groups on pre-test

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 ANOVA for the Pre-test Mean Scores It should be noted that the six groups were hom ogenous in terms of their variances. The Levene’s F of 4.64 and 5.25 has a probability of.102 and.304 (Table 5). Since the probability associated with the Levene F is higher than the.05 level of significance it can be concluded that the six groups enjoyed homogenous variances. Table 5. Levene’s Test of Hom ogeneity of Variances for the six Pretest Group Iranian Group Lithuanian Group

Levene Statistic 4.64 5.25

Sig. 0.102 0.304

In order to determine the homogeneity of the participants regarding their idiom skill, the research ran an ANOVA. The probability associated with the F-observed value of Iranian groups (.37) was higher than the significant level of.05. Also the probability associated with the F-observed value of Lithuanian groups (.42) was higher than the significant level of.05. Therefore, it was safely concluded that all groups belonged to the same population in terms of idiom before the treatment. Table 6. One-way ANOVA for the Iranian & Lithuanian Pre-test Group Between Groups (Iranian) Within Groups (Iranian) Between Groups (Lithuanian) Within Groups (Lithuanian)

Sum of Squares 155.29 2589.28 125.26 1569.28

df 2 113 2 112

Mean Square 77.64 22.91 54.28 31.43

F 3.38

Sig. .37

4.22

.42

Analysis of the Idiom Post-test The descriptive statistics in Table 7 reveal the mean scores of all six groups. Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of the Iranian & Lithuanian Idiom Posttest Group G1-Iranian/Lithuanian G2-Iranian/Lithuanian G3-Iranian/Lithuanian

N Statistic 37/35 39/42 34/38

Mean Statistics 20.00/17.34 23.23/24.54 18.97/19.45

Std. Deviation Statistics 3.52/2.34 1.66/3.23 5.323/1.44

Skewness Statistic Std. Error -.012/-.014 .388/.401 -.496/-.326 .378/.357 -.514/-.364 .403/.383

30 25 20 G1

15

G2

10

G3

5 0 Iran

Lithuania

Fig. 3. The scores of the six groups on post-test In order to compare the means of the six groups on the idiom post-test, an ANOVA was run. As Table 8 indicates, the probability associated with the F-observed value (.000) was lower than the significant level of.05. Therefore, it was concluded that there was a significant difference among the mean scores of the six groups. Table 8. One-way ANOVA for the Iranian& Lithuanian Post-test Between Groups (Iranian) Within Groups (Iranian) Between Groups (Lithuanian) Within Groups (Lithuanian)

Sum of Squares 367.82 1487.89 436.83 1654.82

df 2 107 2 107

Mean Square 183.91 13.90 173.93 12.80

F 13.22

Sig. .000

12.32

.000

Since the probability associated with the F-observed value (.000) indicated significant differences among the mean scores of the six groups on the posttest, a post-hoc Scheffe's test had to be run to identify the exact location of differences among the three groups. According to Table 9, all the mean differences were significant at 0.05 level.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Table 9. Schefee Test for the Post-test Mean Difference Groups (J) Picture with Note Output task Translation Output task Translation Picture with Note Picture with Note Output task Translation Output task Translation Picture with Note

Groups (I) Translation (Iranian) Picture with Note (Iranian) Output task (Iranian) Translation (Lithuanian) Picture with Note (Lithuanian) Output task(Lithuanian)

(I-J) -3.231* 1.029 3.231* 4.260* -1.029 -4.260* -2231* 1.049 4.271* 3.276* -1.169 -3.250*

Std. Error .856 .886 .856 .875 .886 .875 .856 .886 .856 .875 .886 .875

Sig. .001 .511 .001 .000 .511 .000 .001 .311 .001 .000 .421 .000

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

A Scheffee post-hoc test was employed to pinpoint exact spheres of differences. In the above tables, the difference between picture along cultural note and translation group is significant since there is an asterisk (*) next to the values listed in the second column. Similarly, the difference between output task group and picture with cultural explanation group seems to be significant. And, accordingly, it can be claimed that picture with cultural note group is significantly different from output task and translation groups. In other words, there is no statistically significant difference between translation and output task instruction in terms of the influence they exert on the acquisition of idioms. It was established that employing the use of picture with cultural background in group 2 of both nationalities contributed to greater progress in the acquisition of the idioms. The second research question looked into cognitive or learning questionnaire, and, although idiom learners perceived idioms via different learning strategies according to their individual preferences, difficulties or successes, the research results reveal that they showed some common trends. As we can see in Table 10, most learners, facing the idiom for the first time, primarily focused on specific words and their meaning of an idiom as their learning strategy. Idiom meaning and contained words were followed by a picture, memorization and translation although not in the different sequence. The idiom structure was the least addressed category by learners of both nationalities. Most of the students opted for overall meaning and contained words in the idiom respectively as their strategies for learning a new idiom and fewer students chose picture association as their main strategy for learning it. This revealed that most students were not inclined to think in mental pictures and they were mostly low imagers than high ones. They inclined to think in contained words and meaning than visualize a new figurative expression picture for its acquisition. Consequently, it can be estimated that some students do not tend to resort to mental pictures while trying to learn new idioms, they prefer to use other strategies instead. Table 10. Analysis of Iranian &Lithuanian learner’s learning and cognitive strategies Translation (Iranian) Picture (Iranian) Output task (Iranian) Translation (Lithuanian) Picture (Lithuanian) Output task (Lithuanian)

Picture 12.94% 21.10% 15.34%

Memorization 7.55% 3.03% 8.72%

Translation 6.04% 7.20% 4.25%

Contained words 40.69% 38.39% 27.91%

Meaning 30.71% 30.28% 43.51%

Structure 2.07% 0% 0%

10.93%

6.45%

7.04%

42.96%

33.75 %

5.17%

24.13% 14.34%

5.03% 10.72%

8.24% 7.56%

40.39% 28.99%

54.28% 45.51%

0% 0%

The results obtained from the compared means of the three methods of teaching showed that pictures did not have a distracting effect on students who were already prone to processing idioms via meaning and words. On the contrary, it revealed that applying picture in teaching figurative expressions is an effective idiom learning strategy. 6. DISCUSSION According to the findings arrived at by different statistical tests, it is obvious that the subjects in Group 2 of both nationalities, who were taught via presenting pictures and related historical and cultural explanation of idiom, appeared to have benefited from this explicit method of formal instruction. This was based on the assumption that using both methods of pictures and historical and cultural explanation of idiom evoke mental imagery associated with the literal readings of idioms, which, in turn would enable participants’ acquisition and better performance on the post-test. The most convincing explanation for such a finding may come from the works of F.I.M.Craik and R.S.Lockhart (1972) in processing theory, which defines memory performance as a function of the depth of processing. Further studies of A. Paivio (1986) in dual coding theory highlighted the association of verbal information with a mental image as advantageous because it creates an additional pathway for recollecting the verbal information and also informing learners about the probable origin of an idiom is likely to call up in the learners’ minds a mental picture of a concrete scene. Moreover, the fact that the learners who received treatment through picture and historical and cultural explanation of idiom made significant gains with regard to the acquisition of idiomatic expression is consistent with the general trend observed in the works of S.I. Landau (2001, p. 101) who points out to awareness of language origin, its change and the relationship between words as particularly useful for idiom learning, stressing that people enjoy reading historical and cultural explanation of idioms which, in its own turn, increases learners’ motivation and interest. Also, it can be claimed that the results of the present study are in the same line with the views of G. Stein (1991, p. 105) that pictures best represent complex, abstract, unusual and unfamiliar things and their function should be complementary to their definition. F. Boers et al. (2008) reinforce this by pointing out that pictures can also act as mnemonic devices. Therefore, it can be claimed that the findings of this study lend support to speculations mad by previous researchers that pictures have a positive impact on the L2 acquisition. Besides, the results of the research provided further empirical

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 support for G.J.Anglin et al. (2004) and A. Cieslick (2006) ideas. In addition, the analysis showed that motivated idioms, meaning that learners make sense of an idiomatic expression by remotivating it figuratively (Langlotz, 2006, p. 45), through picture and historical and cultural notes facilitates idioms aquisition. The fact that the learners who engaged in output tasks and actual production of language did not perform significantly better on the post-test suggests that having output opportunities was not effective in developing learners’ idiom retention and usage. This is not in line with Output Hypothesis proposed by M. Swain (2005) who maintains that output should not be viewed merely as an end product of learning, but as an important factor to promote L2 learning. The findings of the first research question in the present study did not lend empirical support to previous experimental studies (Izumi, 2002) which claim that producing the target language provides learners with unique opportunities for a level of processing (i.e., syntactic processing) that may be needed for the development of the target-like proficiency. On the other hand, S. Izumi and M. Bigelow (2000) reported confirming findings regarding the second language acquisition. According to them, there was no significant difference in gains between those learners engaged in output tasks and those involved in non-output tasks. On the whole, it should be noted that relatively few studies to date have investigated this issue and their inconclusive findings demonstrate the need for further research. Contrary to the expectations, the results of this research suggest that using different teaching output methods such as editing and closing tasks had no significant role in idiom learning. This questions the views by M.P. Garcia Mayo (2002), T. Pica et al. (2006) and N. Storch (2007) regarding different types of output tasks, especially editing and closing, in EFL acquisition. Also, the results found regarding output task contradict the noticing function proposed by M. Swain (2005) and R. Schmidt (2001), by which the learner can only learn via noticing. The findings were not in the consistency of a hypothesis testing function of M. Swain (2005), according to which learners if not able to express their intended meanings, search their existing linguistic knowledge or either seek help from others or pay closer attention to the subsequent input. There might be several reasons for not supporting the presumed advantage of output task. One reason might be related to the brief and limited nature of the output tasks that took place during instruction which not lead to the appropriation and internalization of the word knowledge. Another reason could be related to the types of the target forms which were new and difficult for the learners although we gave them adequate direction and instruction about how to complete the output tasks (editing and cloze). Other factors are participants’ shared goals and assumption, learners’ strategies, and their cognitive and developmental readiness. We can use other formats of output tasks such as jigsaw and dictogloss (Pica et al., 2006) because each learner holds part of task and hence is required to contribute his own share in order for the task to be completed. As we already concluded, the explicit instruction via picture along with historical and cultural background was more effective than output tasks which are mostly implicit. Such a claim can be considered in setting where learners are after explicit rather than implicit instruction which teaching the teachers’ intent and learners’ interpretation do not match. All these suggest that it is not the output tasks themselves, but how and under what conditions they are conducted that determines their beneficial effects for idiomatic expression learning. Although many researchers (Griffin, 2004; Rostamzadeh, 2011; Mustonen, 2010; PACTE, 2011) believe that translation should be based on the assumption that equivalence exists between SL and TL, the CSIs of SL constitute a connotative semantic variable which the teacher cannot ignore this changing and hybrid feature of culture has important consequences for the act of translation. It seems that the risk of not conveying the source message in its totality when dealing with CSIs and that a loss of information might often occur even by using different strategies (Helleklev, 2006; Jensen, 2008; Musonen, 2010; Sornsuwannarsi, 2010). The meaning in translation is constructed by the readers which completely depend on their social position, nationality, political preference and historical background. Therefore, there is a large gap between the theories pertaining to the translation and the actual practice of translators. All of the above stipulated reasons can be the base for lack of efficiency of translation instruction of idioms in this study. The finding of this study contradicts the presupposition that contrastive analysis between L1 and L2 of idiom reveals their similarities and differences as enhancing factors for the collocations teaching and learning, where attention is drawn to the differences between the L2 and L1 ways of expressing similar meanings. The analysis of the questionnaire reflected that most of the students tend to focus on meaning and then individual words of idiom for learning idioms. The reason for having these learning traits may be categorized under three headings: a. Epistemological frames: Most teachers did not utilize picture and historical background of idiom and output task during their idiom classes since they thought that implicit teaching was deemed to be a potential source of frustration for students. As the result many students preferred a very structured lesson with communicative activities serving to reinforce concepts after explicit instruction. b. Cultural norms: Output tasks and picture along the cultural and historical notes would not allow for overt demonstrations of teacher expertise as they always give explanation and controlled activities with worksheet. c. Lack of support: Unfamiliarity of mentors who had been educated in the principles of audiolingualism or communicative language teaching with these methods, obligation of teachers to complete the curriculum courses prior to embarking on their practical expiration, i.e. a division between theoretical and practical experiences, and lack of appropriate resources. 7. CONCLUSIONS The results achieved through instruction with picture and cultural note revealed that this trend indeed did not distract students’ attention from the precise verbal input in our study sample since pictures were chosen with significant information relevant to the task and, as proved by the research, actually fostered the learning process. However, sometimes students seemed to zoom on the ‘wrong’ elements of the scenes depicted by the photographs or drawings in the previous studies. We also acknowledge that the addition of pictorials and cultural origin can make pedagogical materials more appealing, and that it is thus likely to contribute to positive affect. Nonetheless, our findings suggest that, when a language learners’ objective is to add expressions to their repertoires for active usage, the following learning sequence is recommended: first, the learners’ attention is drawn to the linguistic form of an idiom in addition to its meaning, presenting pictorials following the verbal information or by drawing learners’ attention explicitly to certain formal features with a mnemonic potential. However, the mnemonic route via the output tasks and translation may just be a dead end when it comes to recollecting a word that has left only but a weak trace in memory.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 One of the most difficult problems in teaching idioms through translation is based on the different cultures. It should be highlighted that each language contains elements which are derived from its culture, that each text is anchored in a specific culture, and that conventions of text production and reception vary from culture to culture. This leads to the uniqueness of every translation and, consequently, to different effects on the acquisition of idiom learners. Maximizing retention of the learned idioms is the responsibility of teachers and teaching material producers. Pictures with historical and cultural notes of idioms are facilitating idiom recognition and active usage. This is particularly encouraging for foreign language classrooms with limited time frame for input. The following studies could verify the results found by including bigger intake of respondents with different level of English proficiency and the increased number of idiomatic expressions to be mastered. Thus, the subsequent research may focus on other target idioms and level of proficiency of learners. We nevertheless believe our findings call for some realistic, research proven expectations, for the language materials writers, textbook authors and CALL package designers to add pictorials and cultural explanation as indispensable tools to the verbal input for idiom acquisition. REFERENCES 1. Anglin, G. J., Vaez, H. and Cunningham, K.L.(2004).Visual representations and learning: The role of static and animated graphics in D. H. Jonassen(ed.): Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 865 918. 2. Boers, F., Lindstromberg, S., Littlemore, J., Stengers, H. and Eyckmans, J. (2008).Variables in the mnemonic effectiveness of pictorial elucidation in F. Boers and S. Lindstromberg (eds): Cognitive Linguistic Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary and Phraseology (Applications of Cognitive Linguistics 6). Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 189–216. 3. Calviño, M. A. M. (2011). Is it possible to achieve native-like competence in second language acquisition? Tlatemoani, 5. 4. Cieslick, A. (2006). Literal salience in on-line processing of idiomatic expressions by second language learners.Second Language Research, 22, 115-44. 5. Craik, F. I. M. and Lockhart, R. S. (1972).Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671–684. 6. Dobrovol’skij, D. and Piirainen, E. (2005). Figurative Language: Cross-Cultural and Cross-Linguistic Perspectives.Elsevier. 7. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language Learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8. Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27,141-72. 9. Garcia Mayo, M.P. (2002). The effectiveness of two form-focused tasks in advanced EFL pedagogy. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12, 156-75. 10. Ghafel, B., Rasekh, A., & Pazhakh, A. (2011). Idiomatic expressions of the sewing fram e in English and their Persian counterparts: Nida's dynamic equivalence theory in focus. International Education Studies, 4(2). doi: 10.5539/ies.v4n2p160. 11. Gonzalez Davies, M. (2004). Multiple voices in the translation classroom: Activities, tasks and projects. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 12. Grant, L.E. & Bauer, L. (2004). Criteria for re-defining idioms: Are we barking up the wrong tree? Applied Linguistics, 25, 38–61. 13. Griffin, F. (2004). Idioms and Back Translation. Business Communication Quarterly, 67, 455464. 14. Helleklev, C. (2006). Metaphors and terminology in social science: A Translation and an analysis. Sweden: Vaxjo University. 15. Ivanovska, B., & Groszler, A.S. (2011). Animal idioms in German and their Macedonian 16. Equivalents, 27-36. Retrieved from http://eprints.ugd.edu.mk/4617/1/ugd.edu.mk 17. Izumi, S., Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 34, 239-278. 18. Jensen, K. E. (2008), Metaphors and idioms in translation + feedback on assignment # 4. Retrieved from: www.hum.aau.dk/~kim/TRO08/TROLN7 19. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 20. Landau, S. I. (2001). Dictionaries. The Art and Craft of Lexicography. 2nd edn. Cambridge: University Press. 21. Langlotz, A. (2006). Idiomatic Creativity: A Cognitive-Linguistic Model of Idiom-Representation and IdiomVariation in English. John Benjamins. 22. Marzocchi, C. (2010). On idioms, intertextuality, puddings, and quantum physics. Retrieved from: http://translationjournal.net/journal/32idioms.htm 23. Mustonen, S. (2010). Translating idioms: A case study on Donna Tartt's ‘the secret history and its Finnish translation’. 5-88. Retrieved from: https://jyx.jyu.fi/dspace/bitstream/handle/123456789/25001/ urn:nbn:fi:jyu20 1009142572.pdf?sequence=1 PACTE (2011). Results of the validation of the PACTE translation competence model: Translation project and dynamic translation index. In S. O’Brien (Ed.), Cognitive exploration of translation (pp.30-53). London. Continuum. Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pica, T., Kang, H., & Sauro, S. (2006). Information gap tasks: Their multiple roles and contributions to interaction research methodology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 301-38. Rostamzadeh, A. (2011). Evaluation of Undergraduate Translation Program in Azad University. The Journal of Quality in Education, 2, 1-19. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3-32. Skorge, P. (2008).Visual representations as affective instructional media in foreign language teaching. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 44, (2), 265–281. Sornuwannarsi, S. (2010).Translation of Idioms in Children's Literature into Thai. Stein, G. (1991). Illustrations in dictionaries. International Journal of Lexicography, 4,(2), 99–127.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Storch, N. (2007). Investigating the merits of pair work on a text editing task in ESL classes. Language Teaching Research, 2, 143-59. Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: theory and research. In: E. Hinkel, (Ed.), Handbook on Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum, 471-484. Tran, H. Q. (2012). An Explorative Study of Idiom Teaching for Pre-service Teachers of English. English Language Teaching, 5(12), 76-86. Zhao, Y. (2009). Production (Master‘s thesis, Kristianstad University College, Kristianstad, Sweden). Retrieved from: http://www.divaportal.org/smash /get/diva2:229050/FULLTEXT01.pdf Appendix 1. Translation text Translation 1 Somebody told me that you and Doug had been quarreling over the construction site of the new building. That’s true, but we worked out the problem and decided to bury the hatchet. Glad to hear that. You guys have always worked well together. Well, once we came to the conclusion that we both had the same goal in mind, we put an end to our bitter feeling and made peace with each other. Translation 2 Bob was going to retire from teaching in June, and the foreign language department was planning on presenting him with some luggage at his retirement dinner. He wasn’t supposed to know about it, but some onelet the cat out of the bag. At the dinner Bob acted surprised, even though someone had told him what he was getting before the official presentation. Appendix 2. Picture along cultural origin note

1. Bury the hatchet Meaning: end a quarrel Example: After fighting for weeks, they buried the hatchet. Origin: An American Indian custom was to bury a tomahawk or other weapon on the conclusion of a peace. The expression is found in writing as early as the 18th century and came into general use by being popularized is such works as Longfellow's Song of Hiawatha (1858).

2. Let the cat out of the bag Meaning: inform beforehand Example: Edith’s sister let the cat out of the bag when she mentioned Edith’s new engagement ring. Origin: At medieval markets, unscrupulous traders would display a pig for sale. However, the pig was always given to the customer in a bag, with strict instructions not to open the bag until they were some way away. The trader would hand the customer a bag containing something and it was only later that the buyer would find he'd been conned when he opened the bag to reveal that it contained a cat, not a pig. Therefore, "letting the cat out of the bag" revealed the secret of the con trick. Appendix 3. Output tasks Editing task Bob wasn’t supposed to know about his graduation gift but someone let the cat out of the basket A BC ruined everything. D Cloze task A: Doug and I had a great argument, but we worked out the problem and decided to ……… the hatchet. B: Glad to hear that. A: Well, once we came to the conclusion that we both had the same goal in mind, we put an end to our ……………….. feelings and made …………………… with each other. Appendix 4. Style of memory questionnaire People differ in the types of cognitive or learning strategies they tend to use when learning a figurative expression. The purpose of this questionnaire is to find out what strategy you tend to use. For example, do you often try to remember expressions by associating them with picture? Or do you prefer to connect them to translation perhaps? Or do you exploit the contained word, meaning, memorization or structure for learning? Please circle one of the six options. There is no right or wrong answers. I try to remember new idioms by……………………………. a. Picture association b. Memorization c. Translation d. The words contained in it e. Its overall meaning f. Its structure

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

NIMA YOUSHIJ POEMS REFLECT THE IDEAS OF HUMANISM Dr. Parvin Golizadeh1*, Mahtab Otari2 1

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Associate Professor, Graduate student of Persian Language and Literature, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Khuzestan (IRAN) *Corresponding author: [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/2 Received: 10 Dec, 2014 Accepted: 01 Mar, 2015

ABSTRACT Nima Youshij, the founder of modern poetry is a different approach to singing poetry, inspired by poets progressive constitutional period and thereafter, Awakening era, with deep insight to the literature of the world, to discover the reality of human nature and man's place in society was real. Nima pressure and spoke to the man and asked his autocratic rule made under or related to the establishment and condemned. Nima, enjoying the teachings of the ideas of humanism, man sentenced to pressure the ruling class in classic literature out from under him. Thus, by analyzing the writings and letters Nima, will be the largest and most important concern of his mind, "Man," he said. Reflect the views of humanism in Nima in titles such as anti-poverty, anti-authoritarianism, justice is manifested And to examine in-depth look at each of these patterns can be understood Nima man and his actual position. Key words: Nima, man, Humanist, thoughts, poetry, contemporary 1. INTRODUCTION Man and addressing the wishes and aspirations of the hum an person, one of the most basic and most fundam ental motivus known in the literature of the world. As human beings, clean and reasoning power, has always occupied the minds of writers and poets. Therefore, addressing issues related to human and global thinking is the most important concern. Humanism, as one of the great literary schools that are the core of hum an dignity And free up the school to all human needs and Please Deals human and seek to establish justice and freedom at a global level "device for hum an humanism, a former victim of stereotypes that man was attributed to the gods, His individuality is not the sacrifice of social systems, it is safe "(taslimi, 2009: 15). Seyyed Hosseini, about humanism movem ent, writes: "The movement at this time under the name of humanism (Humanism) was first introduced in Italy, took its name from the Romans. Because the Romans of his time to the study of the works of ancient Greece, a literary and philosophical systems were established as studiahumaritatis And believed that in light of the study of ancient monuments can be grown man and his spiritual power as more human, more out of the civil "(Seyyed Hosseini, 1998: 84). One of the underlying themes of man and man's circuit contains Persian literature, poets and writers, from time immemorial, man and his main place of work and his writings have And books and books he wrote a lot about the character and nature. For example, Najm alDin Razi, author Mrsadalbad, All human beings are created in the summary: "But then, purpose and summary of all creation, the human being was And anything that is out of the realm of human existence is to follow and if you consider all the falls, Again finds himself all human existence "(Razi, 2011: 39). In poetry, poets like Ferdosi, naser khosro, Rumi, Saadi, Hafiz, and man is a special place and best It is up to the ideals and aspirations of the people and their attempt to showcase their poetry. Rumi's Masnavi Sharif example, sentient being knows him: The rest of you thought your brother as bone and root If you thought Iran was a thorn Garden around you Wood bathroom Thus, in classical literature, addressing the human and spiritual aspects of human, cultural, religious, social, mystical, romantic, mystical and been driven; But it is what it is important to show that you are human and not man's. For exam ple, Saadi in his garden and civil society, pointing out that his ideas call for it; Or guardian speaks in his criticism of social hypocrisy that exists and needs to be corrected, but the Constitutional Revolution and civilization months. And the adoption of a new culture of Western civilization was formed to look at the man and the actual position is changed Poets and writers who were no longer in the band and was oriented human imagination, but of human beings today are tangible, Outlined in the literature. Therefore, humanity in the post-constitutional, the interaction with the community that they were not far apart, but were complementary. Nima looking man Nima, as realism and realist poet, known in the literature of his poetry, borrowed from the real issues and events of human life. His poems, describing the real story of bitterness and pain of human life. His theories and his poems have been introduced himself as a poet and a realist realistic returns. Hamidian, the realist and the realism of Nima's poetry, emphasizes: "The issue of who the lyrics are fairly realistic Nima, If possible, more or less in reality and in the environment and society to be so, why can not these poems is incumbent upon the category of realism? Except for death by starvation or disease of poverty that often leads to death, in communities unraveling what is unrealistic and impossible? "(Hamidian, 2004: 84). One of the important features realistic lyrics Nima, philanthropy and addressing human needs and has a mind and a sense of Nima. The Nima, human, civic officials that "human greed to eat and eat and to wear and flattering embarrassing fall term. Creature called man, has the potential to take pleasure in excellent hands "(Nima, 1998: 644). "I love mankind right

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 over everyone and everything is love" And always as a matter of principle poems addressed to "the social and human thought in the Nima Scientific certainty as know-it-in the great mystics" (Sarvat, 2000: 16). Nima, the meaning of art in the service of man: "Art is, if it is humanity and this Order, art alone, to address human concerns knows And want to be able to reflect the views of the people of his community and everyone will hear their cry wishes and desires " My literature about the world, man and his destiny. None of them, of the details and problems of instability and other effects not speak. I'm no authority on the effects of imaginary time ". NIMA said: "My lyrics are the main source of my suffering" (NIMA, 1998: 423). In fact, he was suffering from a life of suffering and pain of people did not know the time apart from their pain. He believed that all humans are the same tone and sorrows they had sneaked in existence, because his tone made with tons of people who were all together in one cool illness overcrowded. I do not have tons of Sorrows a rogue fever, and the only Sad know why and why every vein I whip my body is stiff and abortion. Susan was swallowed every now and again in my body I have tons of people or I have made a ton of people all and a compact yet you knowIn this cool illnesses have thrown. Nima poetry characters, and not alienated from him, but in Nima, all human beings can influence our destiny and life, Therefore, the basis of his theory, addressing the people, "I have this sentence: If I was a miller itself, Asia is not never happen. My ideas about human life, is almost in the plural "(Nima, 1363: 106) Hamidian about it says: "Nima general attitude of the world (secular) and human-centered (humanistic), and this means the totality of works of prose and poetry comes and his letters" (Hamidian: 2004: 45). Nima on poetry, which delivers the highest image, human life and express their aspirations, in other words, Nima linguistic and rhetorical technique takes advantage of all the human expression of pure thought alone and Human suffering and pain to portray the poem "I would say a poem for his suffering. Form of words and rhyme, and meter, at all times, to have the tools I've been forced to change it, so that I and others have suffered, it is compatible. In the course of my own life, which is part of the suffering of others ". Nima, in one of his writings, it makes clear that my poems for the needs of people today and that is why the opposition is: "I am opposed to people not in the old school. The head is that I want the poem to people's needs, and it can not do and their reputation low "(Nima, 1998: 59) in this regard Nima, how much of it there is a human obligation to show him as a poet committed. Our commitment to human NIMA, a deep commitment to the poet's soul is formed. He also His type their sufferings, not far and only when he is worth a human life that others may benefit. That is why in his poetry, concordant with the pain of the people that wrote it this way: Life is fleeting, not Added value the good of the people if you do not believe Benefit thousands Job losses involved in some if you do not want According to the ideals of humanism and human reflection Nima Without goals and dreams, empty of purpose is what the human spirit and the purpose of life and survival, Reaching demands in different periods of her life, form. In fact, you could say, what, It is important for people at different stages of life, achieve inner desires. Nima, a poet, an enterprising and innovative, the most important concern of his mind, man, can not compare to the demands and Wishes fellows And his contemporaries, is indifferent, but as far as you can, want to portray to that of humans, has been withdrawn. He sought human freedom in all areas, including intellectual, social, political and cultural, etc., hence, more theories about the man he is. Nima to achieve self, the true description of human life, everything is served, even mean And the concept of love in Nima with different poets before him, and the love that the human commitment, Wave. Nima seeks love, love that will exist around the world with its unique nature and human nature. Following his lyricism is common traditional poets in section bent brow and coma sweetheart, he's unique love of words and phrases of love, not in words; It sees the world in connection with human love and in fact, the same determination that says "ideal man raised at any time in the love poetry of the period" (Mokhtari, 1372: 30). Nima, a lover of truth and the rule of oppression halo. Nima love for the poet to know, love is the essence of the poet's grief and pain mixed viewer. Nima love that stems from the existence of the poems and speeches, the pen becomes "true Nima love and concern because the opening paragraphs of the hands and feet of land And rescuing them from poverty and misery, a genuine concern and love, full of purity and consequently, all the pain and difficulties easier for her and her poetic tribute to the mighty digging "(Drkahy, 2010 68). One of the important poetry Nima true love is able to depict the human form, the poem is Darvag. In this poem, Nima love in the human sense of the world, considers the freedom of everyone. My room is wall to wall and bamboo ribs bursts of his land because the fellowship of the separation friends Daily herald cloudy, Darvag! When it rains? Nima, willing, human rights, in all aspects of their lives, and therefore, in his poems, describing the misery and poverty of the lower stratum of society, Descriptions of people under oppression, injustice, oppression, agitation, etc. Frvan this reason, more characters Nima's poetry are those who are disadvantaged class, Those who are forced to work long hours, and endure the worst thing, but ultimately, they do not miss a thing and still remain poor and condemned and Nima want to display all their lives, lost their authority and will return. Dstghyb, says Nima value in addressing the Jan Doho summarized in this expression: "One hundred years ago, on this side, Poets of the peaks that are deemed to have come into the sitting, insult their lords have no other God and People have learned and rebel song without trying discouragement, his songs to teach others and to ensure that for all the talk. Poets alone today disappears. Now they are popular among other people ". It must be considered that humanism Nima, interaction and mutual relationship with her lesbian community, where it Nima, a social poet And have her poems reflect the social and political affairs, could the rights of the people of his contemporaries, is indifferent, That is why it is the evolution of the '' man and man, the child's physical, material and social conditions for all, With Comprehensiveness the conditions that complements their meaning. Once the changes in the demographics change, he will change ". Humanism and human concerns in poetry Nima, the social aspects of diversity can be investigated. Anti-poverty similar dimensions, anti-tyranny, injustice, etc., which reflects a deep and sensitive vision Nima, the society and the social issues of his time. "Nima is on Facebook become objects of his journey has been and som etimes so extreme sensitivity to

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 social issues through simile and metaphor And myth suggests that without the deep poetry of the soul, is compromised, its more than most of his contemporaries, the social poetry "(Baraheni, 1991: 249). 1. Anti-poverty Nima, a popular poet and as he says, for the suffering of the poem says. He was a member of their community, an expression of the wishes and desires of the people of his time. He looked under pressure from the people govern their lives. The sponsor of the oppressed introduces himself: "I know I support clean and without hypocrisy I oppressed" (nima, 1998: 497). Nima more lyrical theme of oppressed people in poverty is, of course, be borne in mind that Nima, asked to form, their poverty and poetry in a show. For example, in one of his letters he writes: "I have no work, no money, I'm going to dream, that of my father's farm, Sell, because I'm not a farmer nor the suffering farmers can eat" and in some of his writings explicitly acknowledges his poverty: "Maybe I can find my disciple. Science Education science or psychology or literature and taught French and I'm a little more about dogmas, these gains do not hear ". Nima, sees the suffering of all people, but most examples of his poems, with this them e can be found among the inhabitants of the land north. One of the most important poems by Nima with a focus on poverty, the night of feet in this poem, depicts the life of a man who, because of poverty and destitution, his family has lost and he has to work on other farms in the worst conditions. One of the most important signs of hunger in this poem describes that happened to his children: Double your kids sick Hand in hand, and the fever left starved burn both the mother and only has Another Nim a poems that focus on poverty, mother and son, the poetry of the first descriptions of poverty started: In the pile of poor off Is not news, but news is far away from everyone, night The story of nights Furnace flame burns and dance Every now and again it takes him clause of paragraph The residence where the foot is the silence of the night is a link But ultimately there is no hope for bread as well as the shadow of poverty remains: The poverty in the rain the turbulent motion in the corner mother and son placed bread to eat, but where bread In fact, poverty in poetry Nima, a reformist approach, the image is drawn, in other words, he is showing, destitution and poverty of the people in the form of a symbolic language, Called for the improvem ent of the living and everyday people are looking for a true picture of life in people who work with great hardship; But their hunger and their families can not be resolved "narrative poems Nima poverty, often in the most brutal and deadliest dimensions, This is why the story is so romantic realism him to Exaggeration blends may also be dem anded of poetry "(Hamidian, 2004: 84). 2. Anti-authoritarianism The most important goal for the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of "freedom" and "independence" of man and Constitutionalists for human liberation, In all aspects of life, especially, out of the tyranny of the ruling class has been under pressure "on Iran in the last century and the most important movements And social and political movement, the movement of the constitutional movement to nationalize the oil industry and the revolution of 1357, All claims of "independence" and "freedom" have had their theoretical foundations of the concept of "national independence," "sovereignty" "Freedom and national rights", political and social freedoms, are interconnected "(Ajoodani, 2002: 12). Following the extinction of the Qajar dynasty in 1304, Reza Khan came. During this period, Iran also socially and economically and politically, Turmoil and chaos, and the governments of Russia and Great Britain, the north and south to seek his interests and Domestic and foreign colonial power and the country was devastated. This period of intense repression and suppression was, Reza Khan, Modern claims or promises Zarghani was like modern, but still subject to the rules of traditional governmental tyranny, Its distinctive feature of the "Governance practices satisfaction, is quite traditional and authoritarian. In contrast, the apparent effects of modern life, or rather pseudo-modern social level-that he represents. So they grab the material and the modern city life going And this had caused significant changes in all social strata "(Zarghani, 2005: 154). Tyranny and oppression Reza Khani was also drawn to the field of literature, so that if a writer or poet explicitly, Criticism of the government apparatus, was looking terrible consequences if the newspaper or magazine publishing antigovernment views the payment, the owner was murdered or deported. For example, poets like Yazdi farokhi love to sew the mouth and condemned the assassination. Shafie kadkani the literature of the underground literature mentions: "The regime does not allow anyone into the deep stuff scrap And his works reflect the deep problems in the literature that it must take into account the category of underground literature; Like poetry farokhi Yazdi, Nima Lahooti even a kind of underground literature, although Nim a, a direct confrontation with the regime of Reza Shah did, but poetry was full of criticism "(Shafii kadkani, 2001: 47). Nima held in this period, a period in which Reza Khan came to rule, but apparently he did not seem satisfied with this and In connection with the arrival of her in one of his notes as "National Assembly" on 21 November 1304 SSI writes: "I do not understand what this game. Have drawn on the work of one person. A dangerous dictatorship, the country will change "(nima, 2009: 56). Nima, has been protesting the cruelty of society and its time to look Innovators law is pessimistic. Hence one of the most important features of poetry Nima, a permanent conflict with the tyranny of the society. His fight against all kinds of oppression, Such tyranny, cultural, political, literary, and throughout his poetry full of laughter and Nima knows that som eday stand-by state oppression would collapse; Even with a simple pen of a poet "during spring misery of others should Specified to congratulate those who have a big belly and a rough voice And in case their palace sure huddled, an innocent poet His life the misery of exile and wandering spent; But the pen is less than ax, the foundations of the palace during the review will be to overcome ". A poem in which Nima explicitly tyranny and oppression and freedom is spoken, where the old owlish, clearly show its throbbing climax community, with emphasis on the "hush" it states. Hush! Lest say, relaxed atmosphere of the valley and perished Deteriorated Stop the sun from the earth Jogging and Upset and perished What's poem, clearly seen, the image of a society in which no security and whatever it is, fear and apprehension. This time lying down in the blood Owl sitting on a stone silent hush! Lest say, owlish old RA is listening on the pitch

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Nima, only the political and governmental tyranny unhappy times, but also of cultural oppression in society and literature, was to hang, no satisfaction, It was back to the communities in terms of cultural development, in pain, in fact, Nima breaking with tradition, the classic poetry can be written chains, a cultural battle is "The third feature of poetry and art Nima Youshij his warrior spirit. Henry has spent his whole life fighting Nima. Struggle not only with agents And agents of the government, but the enemies and what they say, the arts, and even with a super modern and super reactionaries "(tahbaz, 2001: 436). Nima is one of the most important poems in which, speaking of tyranny, is that in this poem the night, the night is a symbol of oppression in society considers, Rejection of any society in which freedom of laughter. When the tail of an evening speaks, in fact, the authoritarian spirit that speaks of the pain is Nima. The tail is night and night soil occurring color is lost wind, cloud from the mountain Infant Has attacked me Nima, wanted to reform society and move it to the Humanist, he wants the spectrum of human consciousness, to understand and to fight against the tyranny of the contract. He wants to remain hum an in the collar rule of tyranny; but freedom is calling on all groups and classes of people. One of the most important poems of December, in the context in which Bell expresses hope for transformation: The weave creates smoke the secret lies in the sound her beautiful interprets each caress It has been revealed cayenne old device change This poem, one of the most important symbolic and symbolic lyrics Nima structure in which the spirit of freedom and against tyranny shout of laughter. Some critics Nima poem, this poem is considered the most optimistic Nima poem "Poem Bell is one of the most optimistic Nima is poetry written in Persian date February 1945, Twelve stanza that freed the bell begins to cry, maybe twelve hours a night on the meaning of the poem is not clear and not very clear. The picture is on the verge of changing the situation thoroughly, potentially revolutionary and reactionary forces, poor living conditions, Poverty, Corruption and Decay are nudity prison own funds, referred " (Poornamdariya, 2010: 40, 41). 3. Justice After the constitution, all the intellectuals and educated to realize that society is moving in a balanced way and the culture of global growth in the sector is declining, then to the conclusion that people should be put in a class and class differences avoided. Nima serum taken after the constitutional period, a period in which the first and the main slogan of the people and their suffering and the release of people from the oppressive restrictions and constraints that govern them. Nima in an era in which the ideas of freedom in composing poetry as a child and he ran wave constitutional movement, it is the duty of the man in the poem. In other words, if the constitutional movement against tyranny and oppression of the garment know, Nima have to be someone who would know the idea to enter the field of literature and poetry. Nima, the class differences that exist among the people, unhappy and suffering and pain of the people in the know: "The author, whether male or fem ale, in terms of their ability to write anything that people with dementia and paralysis "The author, whether male or female, in terms of their ability to write anything that people with dementia and paralysis And smashed against a group of people not invited "(Nima, 1998: 678). Nima, the class differences that exist among the people, unhappy and suffering and pain of the people in the know: "All this pain is unclear from where? If a public education, if their talent is indeed taking place, If a path is not another burst to die of hunger, were too smart for his work ". His poetry is also a good point. For example, in Manley poem refers to a limitation of the community And the introduction of the story refers to its commitment in this story: "What I found most useful by the thought of this story. I think the strength of their commitment to the expression ". In this poem, Manley symbol of human beings who have to work, but they will never be able to get welfare. In this poem, Nima says the man, who lives in the community, having been convicted. I know the Lord that it Man His way to the sea that night, too expensive, so the nights and livestock raising hopes that Hunted for him ship to sail the seas calm In another paragraph angler, suffering, misery, and tells her that he has no interest in the sea and with regret for his remarks says. I destroyed the adult work Where to go? Gone with the alternation of night the fish in the mouth! Water from the left and right of the screen n o mildew is gone obviously not carp But he has other fish to find a better symbol of his desires, hopes, and not least to the minimum required to solve, is compelling. For this reason, the sea is limited and the same injustices that are taking place in society and human Nim a finish to your right. How to pass a fleeting breath, I am left to the body and soul captive near the river to get water slowly Slack Maybe for me comes to sling or Chakav trap? 2. CONCLUSION Nima could introduce himself as committed realist poetry, poetry that his main concern is human and hum an suffering, And have a theoretical writings and his poems to them. Nima poems, crystallization emotions poet, who lived in the community, all the inequalities And oppression that people come on their own, they could see with their natural symbols, it Photos demonstrate his poem, also serves to human problems have been constructed. Nima has been suggested that human poetry and human times and circumstances that condemn injustice and inequality in society and He wants to be the voice of the people who want to get out of this situation and are looking for their own freedom and real rights. REFERENCES 1. Ajoodani, Mashallah (2002), or death, or modern (constitutional office in poetry and literature), Tehran: Publication stars 2. Baraheni, R. (1991), gold and copper in poetry Vol. 1, 2, 3, Tehran: Author Publisher. 3. Baneh, MT (2010) My hom e is cloudy (poetry Nima from tradition to modernity), Third Edition, Tehran: Pearl 4. Taslimi, A. (2009) proposition that in contemporary Iranian literature, second edition, Tehran: Publication stars Sarvat, M. (2000), literary theory, Nima, publisher plateau, Tehran 5. Hamidian, S. (2004) The story of metamorphosis (transformation of poetry Nima Youshij) Tehran: Lily

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Razi, Najm al-Din (2011), Mrsadalbad, correction: Mohammad Amin Riahi, Tehran: Scientific Publications Zarghan, Mehdi (2005) vision of contemporary Iranian poetry, Second Edition, Tehran: the word Seyyed Hosseini, R. (1998) Literary School, Eleventh Edition Tehran: look Kadkani Shafii, M. (2001) eras Persian poetry (the fall of constitutional monarchy), Tehran: the word. Tahbaz, Cyrus (2001) Big Mountain Archer (The Life and Poetry of Nima Youshij) Tehran "third issue Huge, M. (2004) explores the poetry Nima, Mazandaran: publication Zavsh Mokhtari, M. (1990) Man in poetry, Tehran: Birch Nima (1998) the complete set of Nima Youshij a collection tahbaz Cyrus, Tehran: scientific publishing.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

THE MOSLEM RELIGION STUDENT’S ATTITUDE ON LEARNING OF ARABIC LITERATURE IN AL-HIKAM MOSLEM BOARDING SCHOOL MALANG Binti Maunah IAIN Tulungagung, Jln. Masjid No 1 Tawang Bendosewu Talun Blitar (INDONESIA) E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/3 Received: 07 Feb, 2015 Accepted: 14 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to find out the Moslem religion student attitude of Arabic literature in Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school Malang. The method of this study was qualitative research, it is phenomenological perspective. The research subjects were Moslem religion student in Al-Hikam Moslem Boarding School Malang. Data were collected with participatory observation techniques, in depth interviews and documentation. Based on the analysis concluded that: 1) The social interaction of Al-Hikam Moslem religion student with social environment such as interaction with great Moslem teacher (Kiai ), Moslem teacher (Ustadz), the other Moslem religion students, and also society are harmonic; while on the other side there are much discrepancy. 2) Moslem religion student has not had high maturity on the social institution determined in AlHikam Moslem boarding school. 3) Moslem religion student's attitude on learning process in students Moslem Boarding School and Ma'had Aly Al-Hikam Malang are not too different with learning process generally. 4) Moslem religion student's attitude on Arabic Literature learning process in Al-Hikam Moslem Boarding School showed some uniqueness which distinguished to the others. Key words: Moslem Religion, Student's Attitude, Arabic Literature Learning, Ma'had Al-Hikam 1. INTRODUCTION In the Moslem boarding school environment, a great Moslem teacher (Kiai ) has an authority that almost absolute. In this environment no other who is more respected than Kiai. Although one of Moslem boarding citizen has excellent academic achievement, we have to obey to Kiai. In Moslem boarding school culture, Kiai may not be defeated by the other because of his or her achievement in certain field. [1] Based on sociological, Kiai is more than a teacher. The position of Kiai is similar with a king. Kiai is someone who belongs to, defends, looks after, and develops Moslem boarding school so that gets high reward. It is proper because he is as a pioneer of Moslem boarding school and someone who has responsible for all risks that might be faced. [2] Kiai is a single authorization central who leads knowledge sources, power, and being a basis for every Moslem religion student. Kiai becomes a figure who serves and protects Moslem religion students. Even there are some Kiai who has willing to guarantee their Moslem religion students' daily needs. They don't calculate economically but give them more protection. [3] Every Moslem religion student feels protected on the right way and avoided from the losing if they follow their great Moslem teacher's track record, such as relates to his religious, social or politics. That feeling is based on a believe that mufti is a heir of prophets. This habit makes Moslem religion student becomes passive because of worry about losing his blessed. [4] This anxiety becomes special characteristics for Moslem religion students and also as distinguishing between students in Moslem boarding school and in the school. Moslem religion students are disposed to respect their great Moslem teacher, Kiai, while students are more disposed to criticize their teacher and head master. [4] Actually, nowadays there are two kinds of Moslem religion students' attitude in Moslem boarding school, they are: first, high loyal and obedient to their great Moslem teacher without disputing. This belongs to Moslem religion student and graduated Moslem boarding school; second, their loyal and obedient are necessary. This action belongs to the students who have general education. So that, differentiate of learning model has high effects on differentiate of Moslem religion student. [5] Learning model in general school emphasizes to mastering and developing matter through providing critical capacity Moslem religion student, while teaching model of Arabic literature in Moslem boarding school emphasizes more in mastering and enriching matter learnt. From here, then produces different mindset and action for the students. [5] in case of Tebuireng Moslem Boarding School Jombang as the example, since 1960-1970, loyalty and reverence of the Moslem religion students to their great Moslem teacher had been incredible. Moslem religion student had not been brave to speak up while looking at great Moslem teacher's eyes. But now it has changed. The Moslem religion students often discuss or take dialogue with their great Moslem teacher about some problems. This changing happened after implementing formal schools such as religion school (madrasah) or general school and high institution. [6] The changing of Moslem religion student's attitude also caused by some factors; there are reform of Moslem boarding school education system has classical character so that it may be distributed great Moslem teacher's authority on some senior as the assistant of great Moslem teacher; reform of Moslem boarding school management on institute form made great Moslem teacher is not the only one manager in Moslem boarding school. The effects of modernization and globalization of information that attack Moslem boarding school life has also opened Moslem religion student's perception to be more opened. [7] Recently, Moslem religion students have changed their attitude significantly. Moslem religion students who are usually obedient for whatever great Moslem teacher said, eventually showed changing indication. Moslem religion students

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 are obedient on religion problem only. While, on politic problem they have not based on judgment and great Moslem teacher instruction yet. [7] The great Moslem teacher’s effects on social field and learning are very strong and gluttonous. But on politics field, the great Moslem teacher effect is weak. Although great Moslem teacher becomes charismatic figure, Moslem religion student feels supported to follow the steps of great Moslem teacher politics is just a few. [8] While on learning process also happens Moslem religion student's attitude changing. If in the past time they had high spirit to conservation that is obedient spirit on great Moslem teacher's instruction was still high. But now, it is contrary. Their spirit has changed to be critic. [9] The other phenomenon as changing of Moslem religion student's attitude of Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school that has positive constructive connotation is a brave to be critic and opened to face great Moslem teacher's view. They are brave to accuse mechanism of religion problems explanation especially about low. Besides that, they are brave to gaze religion matter which is on mufti composition book likes generally matter has weaknesses that should be completed by next generation of mufti. 2. METHODS The research method used qualitative phenom enological perspective. The focus of this study was Arabic literature learning in Ma'had Aly Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school Malang. Informant was chosen purposively by considering its relevance with research topic. The instruments used in this study are: researcher as the main instrument and is accompanied by the observation and interview guides. Data collection technique of this study is a qualitative approach and conducted with in-depth interviews. The data were analyzed induction and interpretive. The step of data analysis procedure is done through some coding (coding). Three encoding process, they are open coding, axial coding (encoding centralized), and selective coding (encoding selected). [10] 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Moslem religion boarding school as an institution of traditional Islamic education is an important medium to transfer knowledge on the village people and Moslem religion students. Besides that, great Moslem teacher is as a patron for everyone. Especially, central position of great Moslem teacher could be seen on this patronage because of this system connecting and binding great Moslem teacher to the Moslem religion students or his students. [8] Social interaction that runs among Moslem religion student with their great Moslem teacher, religion teacher, their friends, and people surrounding are still intimate enough although on the other side, there are much discrepancy. This happened because of some factors which could not be separated with the existence of Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school. There are much inconsistent of Moslem religion student's attitude on facing the social institution that has been determined in Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school with som e regulation. There are some Moslem religion students' attitude that are not and less consistent at this Al-Hikam Moslem religion student may be caused by discrepancy's element from the Moslem religion student. In fact, Moslem religion student came from variety of background. When they registered as Al-Hikam Moslem religion student, they were also faced on new rules. Besides that, inconsistency Moslem religion student's attitude on facing social institution also is caused by their discrepancy's attitude. This relates to Ritzer's theory that: (1) People action appears from own action as subject and from external side, it is as object; (2) as subject, people act to reach their aim, so the people action is not without aim; (3) directness of people action is only limited on the condition that can't be changed by itself; (4) people choose, assess, and evaluate the action that will be, ongoing, and have been done; (5) standard, rules, and principle of moral expected appear when getting decision. [11] Moslem religion student's attitude which is inconsistent on facing social institution, such as rules, tradition, norm, and convention realize on infraction of rule that has been done by Moslem religion student of social institution. On perspective of conflict theory: conflict theoretically is a part of social dynamics that is normal happened and as a form of social interaction process on people arrangement. [12] In learning process, form of rule infraction that has been done Moslem religion student could be seen on undisciplined on following teaching learning process. In other words, Moslem religion student has not had high maturity yet on social institution that is determined in Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school. This invention based on voluntarism Parsons Concept that puts action theory on social definition paradigm. The actors (great Moslem teacher, religion teacher, Moslem religion students) based on voluntarism concept are active and creative actor and also have ability to assess and choose of alternative action. Although the actors (great Moslem teacher and Moslem religion students) have not absolutely freedom, basically they have freedom to choose some alternative action. Some aims that want to be reached, condition, norm and the other important condition. All of them limited the actors' freedom. While for the other side, the actors are active, creative and important one, such as Weber with interpretative understanding concept. [13] There is various Moslem religion students' attitude on learning process in Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school Malang. Generally, Moslem religion students' attitude on learning process in Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school are not too different with learning process in the other institution of education generally. Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school as the institution which organizes two types of education with various learning process, not only in Students Moslem religion boarding school but also in Ma'had Aly showed that this institution is an institution which proper to be as solution on coordination of education in the future. Skinner said that someone's attitude that is ongoing on its relation with environment factor that produced causes or changing on environment factor causes attitude changing so that on this theory there are functional relationship between attitude and changing that happened in Moslem religion boarding school environment to emphasize on interaction process of Moslem religion school in learning process of Arabic Literature. [14] So, it could be understood that Moslem religion student's attitude in learning process in Students Moslem boarding school and Ma'had Aly Al-Hikam Malang is not too different with learning process generally. Arabic literature learning process that is held in Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school is learning process which is different with Arabic literature learning process in the other education institution especially traditional Moslem reading boarding school even if it differs to Arabic literature learning process that is held by Ma'had Aly. Because Ma'had Aly AlHikam has clear and different specification and qualification, it is not only Arabic literature learning.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 As high education institution, Ma'had Aly is not too different with the others. Learning process held is similar with the other high institution generally. But the different one of Ma'had Aly Al-Hikam has specification point that differs with the others. The point of this specification is on the student and the aim of learning. The student who learns or is educated in Ma'had Aly is a student coming from traditional Moslem boarding school. It also happens with Students Moslem boarding school, its requirement is a student of high institution getting non religion general major that wants to learn about religion. It could be seen on the action unit that based on Parsons contains four components, they are: (1) the actor (2) the aim or what thing that will be oriented (3) the situation where the action happened that its element consists of the condition that can and can't be handled by the actors; (4) the value and norms used by the actor do determine the ways of reaching action aim. [15] The comprehension taken on its relation with phenom ena above that Moslem religion student on Arabic literature learning in Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school showed some uniqueness that differs to the others. It relates to Hinkle summary that mentions seven basic elements on the theory of action, they are (1) people social activities grow by their awareness about themselves as a subject and his awareness about the other one and external situation as object; (2) as subject, people act to reach their destiny, aim, and their subjective target; (3) they used a way, method, procedure, technique, and appropriate tool; (4) their action limited by the condition or situation that can't be modified; (5) there is evaluation element on the action that wants to, will be, being, and has been done; (6) considering norm, rule, or principle of morality that obtains to get a decision; and (7) it is a necessary for the researcher who examines every social relation to use subjective investigation technique such as verstehen, imaginative reconstruction or the other. [16] This also appropriates with Blumer's idea that everyone can give the meaning or different social definition on something based on his or her perception and attitude so that as his or her consequence will express social action that is also different. [17] The social function of Moslem religion students seen on their moral or immoral besides appears from their meaning on their attitude. It relates to perception and information that they belong to and also their attitude as an active actor. The critic's Moslem religion student on great Moslem teacher if it is seen from perspective of conflict theory could be explained that view the conflict as something that could not be avoided in the society. Higher emotion complicity in the conflict so more disposed a conflict will be hard. [18] The character of Moslem religion students who always try to stay away from every rule in Moslem boarding school relates to Coser's view that conflict could be have positive and negative functional characteristics. It is called positive functional if a conflict has effect to support a group while it is called negative functional if he or she against the structure. Conflict usually caused by some lining people that asked more about legitimation and the existence of rare sources distribution. The question about legitimation is caused by insignificant way to deliver grievances. [19] 4. CONCLUSION Based on the analysis concluded that: a. Social interaction of students of Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school with social environment such as master teacher, religion teacher, the other students and society is quiet harmonic although in the other side there is discrepancies. b. Moslem religion student has not had high maturity yet on social institution determined in Al-Hikam Moslem religion boarding school. c. Moslem religion student's attitude on learning process in Students Moslem boarding school and Ma'had Aly Al-Hikam Malang is not too different with learning process generally. d. Moslem religion student's attitude in learning process of Arabic literature in Al-Hikam Moslem boarding school showed some uniqueness that differs with the others. REFERENCES 1. Dirdjosandjoto, Pradjarta, 1999. Memelihara Umat Kiai Pesantren-Kiai Langgar di Jawa, Yogyakarta: LKiS 2. Qomar, 2005. Pesantren Dari Tarnsformasi Metodologi Menuju Demokratisasi Institusi, Jakarta: Erlangga 3. Billah, M.M., 1999. “Pesantren dan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Menuju Millenium III”, Makalah, diseminarkan di Hotel Sahid Jaya Jakarta, pada 8-9 Nopmeber 1999 4. Mukti, Abdul, 2002. “Paradigma Pendidikan Pesantren: Ikhtiar Metodologis Menuju Minimalisasi Kekerasan Politik”, dalam Ismail SM., Nurul Huda dan Abdul Kholiq (eds.), Dinamika Pesantren dan madrasah, Yogyakarta: Kerjasama Fakultas Tarbiyah IAIN Walisongo Semarang dengan Pustaka Pelajar. 5. Homans, G.C., 1962. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Form, New York: Harcour Brace and Word. 6. Mastuhu, 1994. Dinamika Sistem Pendidikan Pesantren (Suatu Kajian tentang Undur dan Nilai Sistem Pendidikan Pesantren), Jakarta: INIS 7. Asfar, Muhammad, 1995. “Pergeseran Otoritas Kepemimpinan Politik Kiai”, Prisma, no. 5, Tahun 1995. 8. Turmudi, Endang, 2004. Perselingkuhan Kiai dan Kekuasaan, Yogyakarta: LKiS 9. Hasan, Muhammad Tholchah, 1997. “Santri Perlu Wawasan Baru”, Santri, No. 06 Juni 1997 M/MuharramShafar 1417 H. 10. Alvesson, Mats dan Kaj Sholdberg, 2000. Reflexive Methodology, New Vistas for Qualitative Research, London: Sage Publications. 11. Ritzer, George, 1988. Contemporary Sociological Theory, New York: Alfred A Knopft 12. Johnson, Doyle Paul, 1988. Sociological Theory Classical Founders and Contemporary Perspectives, University of South Horida, jilid I, Terj. Robert M.Z. Lawang, Jakarta: Gramedia. 13. Moore, Wilbert E., 1963. Social Change, Englewood Cliffts, N.J: Prentice-Hall. 14. Ritzer, George, 1988. Contemporary Sociological Theory, New York: Alfred A Knopft. 15. De Ville, Phillipe, 1989. “Human Agency and Social Structure in Economic Theory: The General Equilibrium Theory and Bayondf”, Paper presented of the Conference on “Social Theory and Hum an Agency”, Swedis Collegium for Advenced Study in The Social Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden, September 1937 16. Cook, Karen S., dkk., 1990. Exchange Theory: A Blueprint for Structure and Process, dalam George Ritzer, ed., New York: Columbia University Press.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 17. Blumer, Herbert, 1969. Symbolic Interactionism Perspective and Method, London: University of California Press Berkeley Los Angeles 18. Turner, Jonathan, 1988. The Structure of Sociological Theory, Chicago: The Dorley Press. 19. Coser, Lewis A., 1971. Masters of Sociological Thought (Ideas in Historical and Social Text), New York: Horcout Brace Javanovich Publisher.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

PREPOSITION SEMANTIC ANALYSIS VIA PERSIAN TEXT CORPUS Parvaneh Khosravizadeh1*, Zahra Kowsarifard2, Moharram Eslami3 1

Assistant professor of Linguistics, Languages and Linguistics Centre, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 2 MA graduate student in Computational Linguistics, Languages and Linguistics Centre, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, 3 Associate professor of Linguistics, Persian language and literature center, University of Zanjan, Zanjan (IRAN) *Corresponding author: [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/4 Received: 04 Dec, 2015 Accepted: 16 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT

Prepositions are considered as frequent linguistic units, whose role in computational linguistics cannot be neglected. These units are often thought to have functional meaning. On the other hand, in some cases, the substitution of one particular preposition with another onewould changethe meaning ofa sentence. This paper argues that prepositions are not meaningless units, which are only used for the purpose of sentence cohesion. The central goal of the research is to show that prepositions are meaning distinguishingelements.In order to achieve this goal, five Persian prepositionsare examined in a Persian text corpus. Firstly, 1000 sentences consisting of these prepositions are extracted randomly from a text corpus. Next, the meaning of each prepositionis assigned based on the linguistic context. Finally, each preposition is replaced by other prepositions in order to examine any change in the sentence meaning.The findings indicate that approximately 53% of prepositions, when replaced by other prepositions can cause a great change in themeaning of the whole sentence. Besides, it is argued that the resulting change in the meaning of sentences is system atic. That is, the semantic change after prepositions substitution is predictable. Key words: Preposition, Text Corpus, Computational Linguistics 1. INTRODUCTION “Preposition is a term used in the grammatical classification of words, referring to the set of items which typically precede noun phrases (often single nouns or pronouns), to form a single constituent of structure”(1). Linguists and grammarians hold different views concerning the meaning of prepositions. Linguists can be classified into two general groups in respect to their views on the semantic of prepositions. The first group consider prepositions to be functional units whose role is connecting different elements in a sentence. In addition, prepositions are thought to be semantically insignificant units which are used to make a grammatical sentence not a meaningful one. According to Bannard and Baldwin(2), “Prepositions are often considered to have too little semantic content or be too polysemous to warrant a proper sem antic description.” Moreover, Marina(3) states that “Prepositions do not have semantical autonomy, that is why they cannot have syntactical functions.” Shaghaghi(4) puts it in the way that prepositions are functional units which do not have any semantic content. As Natelkhanleri(5) points out, “prepositions are words which do not bear any independent meaning. They are used to introduce predicate complement”. On the other hand, the second group is linguists who believe that prepositions bear semantic information. They indicate that each preposition convey a variety of meanings based on the context in which it occurs. As a result, they establish the basic senses of each preposition. Prepositionsare considered as meaningful units in (6-8). Likewise, (9) introduces various senses for each preposition. For instance, he defines preposition(with) with different senses like: MEANS, GOAL, and EXPLANATION. According to(10-11), prepositions convey different senses. In their paper, Mansuriheredasht et al. (12)put an emphasis on semantic representation of Persian prepositions in conceptual graphs. Hurford et al. (13)explain how to represent the proposition with logical formulae. They suggest that if prepositions contribute to the sense of the sentence, they should be used in the logical representation. Saint-Dizier(14) suggests that prepositions can be viewed as a lexical category. This is due to the fact that they have type restrictions on their arguments, they assign thematic roles, and they have a semantic content. Snider(15) is concerned with English sentences that differ in terms of prepositions “At” and “To”. As observed by Snider, prepositions have significant role in conveying the meaning of sentences. In his article, Jamrozikand Gentner(16)claim that the prepositions “in” and “on” retain aspects of their spatial meaning in abstract context. In addition, it is a widely accepted belief among cognitive linguists that prepositions are meaningful. Tyler and Vyvyan (17) focus on the issue of sem antic polysemy of English preposition “over” within a cognitive linguistic framework. Dolores portorequejo(18)notes that “Prepositions are highly polysemous words”. Other cognitive studies can be found in (1921). These different points of views necessitate more research in this field; as a result, this research is concerned with the semantic analysis of Persian prepositions. There is evidence to suggest that the substitution of one particular preposition with another one, in some cases, would change the meaning of a sentence. For instance, if the underlined preposition, in the following sentence, is replaced by other prepositions such as: toward, from, for, into, at, and through, the meaning would completely change. (1) X went to the gate.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 This paper focuses on the semantic analysis of Persian prepositions, using the notion of paradigmatic relation. In doing so, Persian sentences containing(from), (in),(to/ until), (with), /be/ (to) are extracted from a Persian text corpus. Each of these five prepositions is in paradigm atic relation with other potential prepositions. Consequently, each preposition is substituted with other prepositions to analyse any semantic change in the sentences. Furthermore, each preposition is assigned a sem antic tag to examine whether the subsequent change in the sentence meaning is rule governed or not. The central claim of this paper is that prepositions are meaning distinguishing units. The paper argues that preposition substitution would modify the meaning of 53% of the sentences. Besides, it is argued that the resulting change in the meaning of sentences is systematic. That is, the sem antic change after prepositions substitution is predictable. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the importance of prepositions in natural language processing. Section 3 introduces the methodology and procedures in this research. Results of the research are presented in section 4. Finally, section 5 includes conclusion and proposes different suggestions for further researches. 2. PREPOSITION AND NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING According to snider (15), “Computational linguists have been attempting to decipher and formally codify the syntax and semantics of natural language, paying special attention to nouns, verbs, and adjectives, typically considered the bigger, meatier, semantically more satisfying units of language”. The commonly held belief is that prepositions are semantically insignificant units. Consequently, little or no attention is paid to prepositions in computational linguistics. However, to overlookprepositions would undoubtedly cause difficulties in natural language processing (NLP). Reduction of precision or accuracy ofsystems is among these difficulties. In this section, the role of prepositions in NLP would be exemplified. Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) is one of the NLP tasks, which is concerned with determining the exact meaning of a word in a context. In most cases the main focus of WSD systems are on lexical morphemes like verb, adjective and nouns. But little or no attention is paid to preposition sense disambiguation in Persian. Perhaps this is because prepositions are thought to have no sense. Nevertheless, several works have been conducted in English for preposition sense disambiguation. Among these works are(10-18).The following sentences indicate that a preposition like(ON), might express various senses in different contexts: (2)  hatonhead put.PST-3SG andfrom home out go. PST-3SG ‘She put on a hat and went out of the house.’ (3)  dutyGL-COP.2SG to follow PRO go.PRS-IMP-2PL ‘It is your duty to follow him.’ (4)  atPROangerget.PST-3SG ‘He angered at me.’ In the first sentence this preposition conveys the meaning of ON. While in the next case, it has another meaning; that is, OBLIGATION. Finally, the last one means AT. Thus, it is essential to specify the exact meaning of prepositions in the sentences. Another important point is the significance of WSD systems in other NLP applications like machine translation. Table (1) indicates the sentences in which(to/ until), can have different equivalents in English with regards to the various meanings that it conveys in Persian and various functions (like “preposition” or “conjunction”)that it has. Table 1. Different equivalents of (to/ until) in English Persian sentences

(1) PRO come.PRS-1SG in order to/ to PRO  OBL see.INF

English translation

‘I come in order to/ to see you’

(2) from Tabriz to Tehran

‘From Tabriz to Tehran’

(3) until tomorrow morning

‘Until tomorrow morning’

Number (1)is an example of to/ until), functioning as a conjunction, so the English equivalent is “In order to” or “To”. However, this unit in the next sentence means PLACE. In the lastexample it conveys the meaning of TIME, thus “Until” is selected as its equivalent in the English translation.The above examples indicate that preposition WSD is required, in order to specify the exact meaning of a preposition before the process of translation begins. It is worth noticing that there is a difference between the translation of prepositions and particles in phrasal verbs. Prepositions are linguistic units that have diverse equivalents in different languages. However, particles and verbs in phrasal

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 verbs should be translated as one unit. Consequently particles in contrast with prepositions cannot be translated separately. Machine translations, such as Google, do not consider this difference so the resulting translation is not an accurate one. In the following sentence “show off” is a phrasal verb which consists of “show” as a verb and “off” as a particle. These two elem ents should not be translated as two separate units; nonetheless, Google translates each part separately with no attention to the particle. (5) He showed off his new car. Google translation  PRO show.PST-3SG carnew PRO OBL ‘He showed his new car.’ Besides WSD and machine translation, prepositions are substantial units in other NLP applications like information retrieval (IR) and search engines. Information retrieval is the task of retrieving documents which are relevant to the users’ needs. If lexical morphem es are the only linguistic units which are considered in search engines, the retrieved documents would not satisfy the users’ needs in some cases.For instance two queries, “Immigration to Iran” and “Immigration from Iran”, are equal in regard to lexical units. Nonetheless, what makes them different from semantic point of view is the choice of prepositions “To” and “From”. It is certain that excluding prepositions in such cases would result in retrieving irrelevant documents and decreasing the precision of the IR systems.. As Baldwin et al.(31)states, “In information retrieval and information extraction, it would seem desirable to be able to predict that “book on NLP” and “book about NLP” mean largely the same thing, but “paranoid about drugs” and “paranoid on drugs” suggest very different things.” 3. METHODOLOGY This research is conducted in four major steps, which will be discussed in the next sections: a) Extracting sentences from a Persian text corpus b) Semantic tagging of prepositions in the extracted corpus c) Substituting prepositions with other prepositions d) Semantic analysis of prepositions 3.1. Extracting Sentences from a Persian Text Corpus The corpus which is used in this study is Persian Text Corpus. This corpusis a tagged one that is suitable for natural language processing research on the Persian (Farsi) language. The corpus is gathered form daily news and common texts, and all documents are categorized into different subjects such as political, cultural and so on. Totally, there are 4300 different subjects. The sentences, extracted automatically from this corpus, consist of five most frequent Persian prepositions (from), (in),(to/ until),(with), (to). The sentences are extracted randomly in order for the extracted corpus to be a representative of natural language; furthermore, these sentences are selected from different genres of Bijankhan corpus (32). Around 200 sentences are examined for the analysis of each preposition. Therefore, the final extracted corpus consists of 1000 sentences. Since the crucial focus of this paper is on semanticanalysis of simple prepositions, hom onymous words are not taken in to account. Hom onyms are words with the same spelling and pronunciation. In Persian, prepositions, affixes, verb particles, and prepositional component of compound prepositions are hom onyms.Due to the fact that such units are not preposition, they are excluded from further sem antic analysis in this research. In the following section, distinctions among these four items would be exemplified. Prepositions and particles “Phrasal verb is a verb idiom which consists of two words, (a) a main verb, such as take, find, and (b) a prepositional adverb (often called a particle), such as off, out, away. Thus take off, carry on, and find out are examples of phrasal verbs” (33). Particles are required in some sentences, so that they would complete the meaning of a verb; nonetheless, they do not convey any meaning by themselves. Phrasal verbs are specified in the sentences below.In these examples (to)is a particle but not a preposition. (6)  at this moment bell was heard.PST-PAS ‘At this moment, the bell was heard.’ (7)  phrases and vocabularies which in this law are used. PST-PAS ‘Phrases and vocabularies which are used in this law.’ Simple prepositions and compound prepositions According to crystal compound is a linguistic unit composed of elements that function independently in other circumstances. Compound prepositions have an internal structure that can be broken into smaller independent units. For instance(except) is a compound preposition which is composed of two simple prepositions and. Other compound prepositions such as: (looking for), and  (due to)have the sam e morphological structure.These compound prepositions are underlined in the sentences (8) and (9). (8) people do not know.NEG-PRS-3PLPRO looking for. PRS-GER-3PL what  are.PRS-COP-3PL ‘People do not know what they are looking for.’ (9)  due to rain heavyhighway blocked is.PRS-COP-3SG

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 “Due to heavy rain, the highway is blocked.” Prepositions and affixes The underlined elements in the following sentences seem to be prepositions; nonetheless all of them are used as prefix. (10)  peoplewhen grow up.PRS-3PLlearn. PRS-3PL tocautiousbe.COP ‘When people grow up, they learn to be cautious.’ (11)  PRO friend loyal was.PST-COP-3SG ‘He was a loyal friend.’ 3.2. Semantic Tagging of Prepositions in the Extracted Corpus In this phase, each preposition is assigned a semantic tag based on its linguistic context. The tags, which are selected from “Sokhan Dictionary” (34), indicate the sense of each preposition. Compared with other Persian dictionaries, this dictionary covers the widest range of preposition senses. For instance, in this dictionary, a variety of meanings such as: PLACE, ABOUT, TIME, CAUSE, AIM, and AS SOON AS are defined for(in). In the following table semantic tags are assigned to(from)based on different contexts. Table 2. Semantic tags assigned to(from) Sentence

Semantic tag

(1) spoons OBL from kitchenbrought.PP  has.PRSPER-AUX-3SG “)He has brought the spoons from kitchen.”

PLACE

(2 from morning till now waiting am.PRS-COP-1SG “I am waiting for you from morning till now.

TIME

(3)  this time to sound PRO woke up.P S-1SG “This time I woke up to his sound.”

CAUSE

3.3. Substituting Prepositions with Other Prepositions Lyonsexplainsdifferentrelations between linguistic elements and he puts it in this way: By virtue of its potentiality of occurrence in a certain context a linguistic unit enters into relations of two different kinds. It enters into paradigmatic relations with all the units which can also occur in the same context (whether they contrast or are in free variation with the unit in question); and it enters into syntagmatic relations.(35) Therefore, in this section, prepositions are replaced by other prepositions in order to examine meaning alternation in the sentences. The analysed data indicated that in some cases this substitution would modify sentence meaning; nevertheless, in some sentences it would result in thesentence ungrammaticality. In table (3), prepositions that can modify the sentences meaning together with the changed meaning are stated. In the last three examples there is no preposition whose substitution causes the semantic change.

Sentence

Preposition to change the sentence m eaning

Changed meaning in English

1-  fastlywiththeir husbands get away.PRS-IMP-3PL ‘They should get away with their husbands fastly.’

(from)

‘They should get away from their husbands’

2- (2  till1327 my father let.PST-3SG 3-  4- did not. PST- NEG-AUX a radio at 5-  6- home PRO have ‘My father did not let us have a radio at our hometill 1327.’

(from) (in)

‘My father did not let us have a radio at homefrom/in 1327’

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 (3)  PROstudents OBL  with training required provided.PST-3SG ‘He provided the students with the required training.’

-

-

In some sentences, it is difficult to determine any semantic alternation in the sentences. Consequently, in such cases linguistic intuition of the Persian speakers are used. In doing so,questionnaires consisting of 40 sentences are distributed among Persian subjects who specify which preposition can change the meaning of each sentence.93 participants are selected among both male and female Persian speakers. Moreover, age of the subjects with different educational backgrounds ranges from 16 to64. 3.4. Semantic Analysis of Prepositions The principal questionwhich is concerned in this section is that: “whether the notion of preposition substitution and meaning modification is rule governed or not?” In order to accomplish this goal, several contexts, in which preposition substitution is either meaning distinguishing or ungrammatical,are specified. The findings of this section are as follows: a. In 99%of the contexts, where(to/ until), means DISTINCTION, substitution of this preposition would result in the sentence ungrammaticality. For instance, preposition substitution in the following sentence is not allowed grammatically: (12)  fromissues religious topolitical ‘From religious issues to political issues’ b. If(with) conveys the meaning of POSSESSION, itsreplacement in 87% of the sentences is meaning distinguishing. In most examples this preposition can be replaced by to alternatethe meaning of the whole sentence. (13)  1362 thisdissertation with translation Persian PRO in 1362  was published.PST-PAS-3SG ‘This dissertation was published with its Persian translation in 1362.’ (14) 1362 this dissertation without translation Persian PRO in 1362  was published.PST-PAS-3SG ‘This dissertation was published without its Persian translation in 1362.’ c. In 90% of the sentences, in which/ba:/(with) means TOGETHER or WITH, the preposition substitution wouldmodifythe interpretation. d. If (with) has the internal meaning of BY and its complement is [+ abstract], its replacement with other unitschanges the meaning. e. Conveying the sense of GOAL or MOTIVATION,(in) can be replaced with other units in 92% of the cases to change the sentence meaning. With regards to this sense,(in) complem ent is always a gerund. f. There is a pattern for the substitution of (from) and (to/ until) in all of the Persian sentences. The pattern, exemplified below, may convey TIME DISTANCEor PLACE DISTANCE between the first NP and the latter one. NP + + NP +  (15) 2006   Duration agreement from 2006 to 2013is.PRS-COP-3SG ‘The agreem ent duration is from 2006 to 2013.’ The above example shows this pattern. In such patterns, neither of the prepositions can be replaced by other prepositions. This is because of the fact that any replacement would undoubtedly make the sentence ungrammatical. (from) might be implied in the above pattern; that is, sense of DISTANCE or TRANSFORMATION is conveyed without (from) being explicitly stated. For instance: (16)  London to Toronto OBL talked.PST.1PL ‘We talked from London to Toronto.’ g. The previous pattern for the replacement of(from) and(to/ until) can be restated for(from) and(to).Compared with the previous pattern, the new pattern expressesPLACE DISTANCEand TIME DISTANCE. For example, in the following sentence both prepositions convey sense of PLACE but neither of them is allowed to be substituted with other elements.   PRO from Turkey to Dubai was expatriated. PST-PAS-3SG ‘He was expatriated from Turkey to Dubai.’

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The main aim of this paper is the sem antic analysis of Persian prepositions. In order to accomplish this goal, the research is conducted both as a library research and a field research. In the library research, sentences consisting of prepositions are extracted from the Persian text corpus. In the next step, semantic tags are assigned to simple prepositions. Finally, in order to examine what semantic role prepositions might play in the sentences, each preposition is substituted by other units. In several cases, it is difficult to decide whether there is modification in the sentence meaning or not. Therefore, in the field research, such cases are prepared in the form of questionnaires whicharedistributed among Persian speakers. Trying to sum up the most relevant results reached up to this point, we might want to state that: a. Approximately 53% of the Persian prepositions can change the meaning of sentences. Thus, they are not dummy units without intrinsic semantic content. b. As figure (1) shows (with) has the most meaning alternation compared with(from),(in), (to/ until), (with),(to) if it is replaced by other prepositions.

Fig. 1. Percentage of change in the sentence meaning after prepositions substitution c. The context, in which preposition occur, is systematically selected; that is, a particular preposition cannot be substituted with every preposition; otherwise, the sentence would be ungrammatical. Furthermore, there are specific regularities for substitution of prepositions and the subsequent change in the sentence meaning. d. This study argues against the idea that prepositions are extra units which can be neglected. There is evidence to suggest that disregarding such units in natural language processing would have negative effect on function of the systems. e. Prepositions have various senses; however, each preposition does not convey different senses to the sam e degree. To clarify the point,(from) has numerous meanings such as: PLACE, TIME, MATERIAL, CAUSE, PART OF, DISTINCTION, CONSISTING OF. Nonetheless, this preposition conveys the meaning of PLACE in 31%and TIME in 15% of the corpus. In table(4) the most frequent senses conveyed by five Persian prepositions are stated: Table 4. Senses of prepositions Frequency of occurrence Preposition m eanings

(to/ until)

(from)

(to)

(in)

(with)

(1) PLACE

31%

44.33%

5.02%

-

17.67%

(2) TIME

15%

-

24.12%

-

64.14%

(3) REASON

3.5%

-

-

-

-

(4) WITH

3.5%

-

-

13.06%

-

(5) PART OF

9.5%

-

-

-

-

(6) CONNECTION AND ADDRESSEE

-

19.7%

-

10.55%

-

(7) AS

-

2.46%

-

-

-

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 (8) REASON

-

1.97%

-

-

-

(9) SIZE, AMOUNT, AND COST

-

2.46%

-

-

9.59%

(10) GOAL

-

-

5.52%

-

-

(11) QUALITY

-

-

4.52%

-

-

(12) ACTION

-

-

2.51%

-

-

(13) POSSESSION

-

-

-

15.57%

-

(14) TOGETHER

-

-

-

9.54%

-

(15) RESULT

-

-

-

18.09%

-

(16) DISTINCTION

-

-

-

-

7.57%

(17) Other meanings

37.5%

29.08%

58.31%

33.19%

1.03%

5. CONCLUSION We started out this paper by posing the question of whether prepositions have internal content or they are semantically empty units. The rationale for this hypothesis came from the fact that the use of a preposition instead of another one modifies interpretation of sentences. This paper argues that prepositions are m eaning distinguishing elements. It rejects the view shared by several linguists who consider prepositions as meaningless units. Moreover, it is found that meaning modification following from preposition substitution is predictable. Probing the contexts in which each preposition bears specific meaning provides rich territory for future research. This is beneficial in WSD systems and other NLP applications requiring semantic analysis. REFERENCES 1. Crystal D. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Malden, MA; Oxford: Blackwell Pub.; 2008. 2. Bannard C, Baldwin T. Distributional Models of Preposition Semantics. 2003. 3. Matrozi Marina, A.Semantic Description of The Preposition, Studies and Research Work in Onomastics and Lexicology. 2008, 153-161p. 4. Shaghaghi V. Sarf (Morphology). Tehran: SAMT Pub.; 2010. 5. Natelkhanleri P. Persian grammar. Tehran: Tus Pub.; 2009 6. Sadeghi A. Modern Persian Prepositions. Journal of Literature and Humanities Faculty, Tabriz university: 1970. 441-470 p. 7. Vafaii. Persian Prepositions- Their Application and Syntactic Features. Journal of Literature and Humanities Faculty, Tabriz university: 1976. 49-87p. 8. Anvari H, Ahmadigivi H. Persian grammar. Tehran: Fatemi Pub.; 2010. 9. Khatibrahbar Kh. Persian grammar: prepositions and conjunctions. Tehran: Sadi Pub.; 1988. 10. Gharib A, Bahar M, Froozanfar B, Homaii J, Yasami R. Persian grammar. Tehran: Ashrafi Pub.; 1992. 11. Mohtashami B. Persian grammar. Tehran: Sadi Pub.; 1991. 12. Mansoori heredasht N, Ghayoom i M, Abolhasani Chimeh, Z. Using Conceptual Graphs for Sem antic Representation of Persian Prepositions. In Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the Linguistics Society of Iran (LSI), Tehran University, Iran: 2006. 13. Hurford JR, Heasley B, Smith MB. Semantics: a coursebook. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]; New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007. 14. Saint-Dizier P. Syntax and Semantics of Prepositions. Springer; 2006. 340 p. 15. Snider T. The Semantics of Prepositions: An exploration into the uses of “at” and “to.” Dietrich Coll Honors Theses [Internet]. 2010 Apr 1; Available from: http://repository.cmu.edu/hsshonors/61 16. Jamrozik Anja, Gentner D. Prepositions Retain Aspects of Spatial Meaning in Abstract Contexts. In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Cognitive Science Society, Boston, MA; 2011. p.1589-1594. 17. Tyler A, Evans V. The Semantics of English Prepositions: Spatial Scenes, Embodied Meaning, and Cognition. Cambridge University Press; 2003. 270 p. 18. Requejo MDP. Making sense of prepositions in computer English. 2006;727–32. 19. Boers F. Spatial Prepositions and Metaphor: A Cognitive Semantic Journey Along the Up-down and the Frontback Dimensions. Gunter Narr Verlag; 1996. 226 p. 20. Lee D. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand; 2001. 223 p. 21. Hampe B, Grady JE. From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter; 2005. 500 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 22. Alam YS. Decision Trees for Sense Disambiguation of Prepositions: Case of over. Proceedings of the HLTNAACL Workshop on Computational Lexical Semantics [Internet]. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2004 [cited 2013 Nov 13]. p. 52–9. Available from: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1596431.1596439 23. Boonthum C, Toida S, Levinstein I. Preposition Senses: Generalized Disambiguation Model. In: Gelbukh A, editor. Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing [Internet]. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2006 [cited 2013 Nov 13]. p. 196–207. Available from: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11671299_22 24. Litkowski K, Hargraves O. Semeval-2007 Task 06: Word-Sense Disambiguation of Prepositions. In Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Sem antic Evaluations. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2007. 25. Ye P, Baldwin T. MELB-YB: preposition sense disambiguation using rich semantic features. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluations [Internet]. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2007 [cited 2013 Nov 12]. p. 241–4. Available from: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1621474.1621525 26. Yuret D. KU: Word Sense Disambiguation by Substitution. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Semantic Evaluations [Internet]. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2007 [cited 2013 Nov 19]. p. 207–13. Available from: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1621474.1621518 27. O’Hara T, Wiebe J. Exploiting Semantic Role Resources for Preposition Disambiguation. Comput Linguist. 2008 Jul 31;35(2):151–84. 28. Tratz S, Hovy D. Disambiguation of preposition sense using linguistically motivated features. Proceedings of Human Language Technologies: The 2009 Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, Companion Volume: Student Research Workshop and Doctoral Consortium [Internet]. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2009 [cited 2013 Nov 12]. p. 96–100. Available from: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1620932.1620949 29. Hovy D, Tratz S, Hovy E. What’s in a preposition?: dimensions of sense disambiguation for an interesting word class. Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Posters [Internet]. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics; 2010 [cited 2013 Nov 12]. p. 454–62. Available from: http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1944566.1944618. 30. Rudzicz F, Mokhov SA. Towards a Heuristic Categorization of Prepositional Phrases in English with WordNet. ArXiv10021095 Cs [Internet]. 2010 Feb 4 [cited 2013 Nov 19]; Available from: http://arxiv.org/abs/1002.1095 31. Baldwin T, Kordoni V, Villavicencio A. Prepositions in Applications: A Survey and Introduction to the Special Issue. Comput Linguist. 2009 Jun;35(2):119–49. 32. Bijankhan, Mahmoud. 2005. The role of linguistic corpus in writing grammar: An introduction to a software. Journal of Linguistics, 19(2): 48-67. 33. Leech GN. A glossary of English grammar. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press; 2006. 34. Anvari H. Sokhan dictionary. Tehran; Sokhan Pub.; 2004. 35. Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge University Press; 1968. 540 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

DESIGNING ACADEMIC LITERACY FRAMEWORK OF EAP PROGRAM FOR INDONESIAN LEARNERS Imroatus Solikhah English Language Education Program, Faculty of Islamic Education and Teaching, State Islamic Institute at Kartasura, Jl. Pandawa, Pucangan, Sukoharjo, Central Java (INDONESIA) [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/5 Received: 11 Dec, 2014 Accepted: 25 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to design English academic literacy framework for EAP program in Indonesia. EAP program in Indonesian context has been set modifying ESP class and assign students of non-English program in a university to learn English as additional course. This study uses qualitative approach and collects data from variety of sources: document, textbook, students, lecturers, and staffs. The study discovers that English academic literacy does not appear in the teaching program of EAP as set in the textbook and learning outcomes. Teaching materials focus on English skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing as well as vocabulary and grammar. However, quality of materials is low and the management program is not standard yet. This study recommends that English academic literacy should include General Word List 1,000 to 3,000, academic vocabulary, basic grammar, and competency on reading, writing, and speaking. Due to limitation of speaking exposure, oral English academic literacy should receive priority in learning activities and classroom instruction. Key words: academic literacy, higher education, EAP 1. INTRODUCTION The term academic literacy has entered the educational discourse but models for developing students’ academic literacy has not yet been explored in Indonesian context. By virtue, university students in Indonesia are expected to discuss, read and write high quality of academic content materials students should accomplish for minimum competency but settings to equip students’ academic environments are lack of exposures. Academic literacy is a composite of the generic, transferrable skills that are required of and developed by academic study and research. Academic literacy comprises of: (1) Knowledge of how academic discourse is structured and presented, (2) Knowledge of how academic discourse is produced, (3) Communication, (4) Creative and critical thinking, (5), Independent learning, and (6) Respect for the work and effort of others [1]. Academic literacy appears on theories of reading, writing and literacy as social practices, aspiring that reading and writing only make sense when studied in the context of social and cultural parts [2]. This approach asserts that reading and writing in higher education can fall into three models: study skills, academic socialisation and academic literacy [3]. The study skills approach takes the form of surface level language workshop or course, covering aspects of language, spelling and grammar and it takes is also a model typical writing tasks from essays to reports and note-taking applicable for university students. Academic socialisation approach suggests contexts that students are acculturated into the academic way of life, culture and habits. This approach admits that language and discourse practices are hom ogeneous; one approach will suit all disciplines, from arts to science to humanities [3]. The third model of academic literacy is based on the New Literacy Studies, promoting a perspective that reading, writing and meaning are situated within specific discourses [4]. This way, discourse is defined as being a socially accepted association among ways of using language, of thinking, feeling, believing, valuing and acting that can be used to identify oneself as a member of a socially meaningful group [5]. In Indonesian context where English language is taught as a foreign language double barriers exist as main problems. First, in the perspective of academic literacy, academic behaviour, habits, and disciplines comes as the main focus that faculty should formulate from which students should perform. Second, contents of academic literacy cover competencies the students would achieve to help their study success and English is the core materials that faculty should focus and students would achieve standardized competency of English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Regarding the EAP program, this study devotes its focus to design framework on English competency the students should accomplish in the EAP program. From the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) meetings prior to survey, a list of weaknesses is identified: (1) lack of ability in listening, speaking, critical reading, and writing, (2) lack of basic knowledge of English: vocabulary and grammar, (3) lack of exposures to speak English, and (4) lack of challenges to use English in various circumstances. Focus of this study refers to the standardized English academic literacy that students should accomplish nine language competencies adapted from The University of Pretoria as follows: 1. Is student academic vocabulary good enough? 2. Can students see how metaphors, for example, are used to describe issues? 3. Can students see how a text is compiled and linked together? 4. How comfortable are students with different types of language or text? (Scientific language makes use of a wide range of descriptions, diagrams, instructions, tables, arguments, etc.) 5. Can students interpret graphic information and understand a diagram? 6. Can students distinguish between the main idea and supplementary detail, cause and effect or fact and opinion? 7. Can students classify issues and compare them? 8. Do students know how to make deductions from information and then apply them to other case studies? 9. Can students define an issue, argue a case and present evidence?

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Traditionally, academic literacy is viewed just a set of skills that students must master in order to perform successfully as a scholar [5]. A broad survey of four Queensland university websites indicated that the dominant model of academic literacy refers to a skills-based approach. Academic literacy strongly associates with academic skills advisers, learning support, or some form of centralised learning centre. Here, academic literacy is defined as a generic set of skills, e.g. grammar and editing and types of writing, such as essay writing, scientific reports and reference lists that students need for success. Procedural guides lead students step by step in the construction of particular text-types [6]. Academic literacy development in University of Waikato, New Zealand is offered to students from pre-degree bridging courses, to undergraduate, postgraduate, and higher degree, catering academic literacy needs of both domestic and international students. Although the intended outcomes for all students are the same to achieve the development of sufficient academic competence for successful study, the starting points for different types of students and their learning outcomes vary. For example, international students have difficulties in semantic norms. Although their writing is “correct” from a grammatical perspective, their sentences often include oddly constructed word or phrasal combinations. Other problems such as inaccurate word or verb forms, limited understanding of modality, inadequate or mechanical signposting (leading to problems of coherence and cohesion in text), or simplistic lexical choices and collocations are common. On the other hand, domestic students’ grammatical errors are likely to include inform al and inaccurate sentence structures, such as incomplete sentences, inadequate understanding of punctuation rules, poor spelling, or illogical signposting (caused by an underdeveloped sense of the logical relationships between sections of texts, rather than from not understanding grammatical structure) [7]. To be prepared for college and university courses, students need greater exposure and instruction in academic literacy than they receive in English classes alone. This need calls for greater coordination of literacy education among subject matter areas within high schools. Statement of academic literacy definitely consists of three competencies: reading, writing, and critical thinking. However, all the elements of academic literacy—reading, writing, listening, speaking, critical thinking, use of technology, and habits of mind that foster academic success— are expected of entering freshmen across all college disciplines. These competencies should be learned in the content areas in high school. It is, therefore, an institutional obligation to teach them [7]. The recent studies on English academic literacy of EAP students in Indonesia assert that university students of non-English departments are lack of academic vocabulary, reading, and writing. The academic literacy for freshmen is not set out as the requisite for academic competency [8]. EAP program facilitated to improving academic literacy tends to implement product oriented program giving students tests on TOEFL or IELTS in response on the request of students needs [9]. There is a program labelled as EAP in universities being observed but the contents of teaching materials are general English that put emphases on grammar, reading, and exercises to answers General English tests. Two factors are responsible in this context: teaching management rules MKDU (General Basic Skill Course) to serve for non-English program and instructional designs, including syllabus, curriculum, and textbooks are not available in reference to the needs analysis. MKDU is intended to design as English for Specific Purposes (ESP) or EAP, however, the implementation is lack of preparation and low standard [10]. 3. METHODS This study uses a qualitative approach to collect and analyze data. Three procedures of inquiry this study included content analysis, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), and SEMI-structured interviews. Document analysis was used to identify curriculum, teaching materials and English textbooks where academic literacy were included as the learning outcomes. FGD was conducted to share objectives and targets to include academic literacy prior to framework of academic literacy appropriate to the EAP program was implemented. In addition, an unstructured interview was set out to determine how academic materials were perceived by students, lecturers, and management of EAP program. This study involved 40 informants as volunteers including 30 undergraduate students, 15 each from IAIN Surakarta and Veteran University of Sukoharjo (Univet). Other volunteers were 5 lecturers and 5 management staffs of EAP program. Data obtained from the semi-structured interviews were analysed thematically. The themes were derived from the key research questions. Literature assisted in identifying the final categories. Data of this study were analyzed considering thematic construction and linkage of the themes in the holistic context of academic framework. Finally, design of EAP teaching materials that integrates academic literacy was formulated. 4. FINDINGS Findings of this study are presented into three categories, including findings of the survey, needs analysis, and recommended framework of academic literacy. The Survey Document analysis on the academic literacy showed that EAP program in IAIN and Univet serves general English. EAP in both universities are likely to apply general English as the main objectives of teaching. Students are equipped with grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and writing assignments for general purposes. Speaking is used partly for medium of instruction. Classroom activities are dominated with exercises on grammar, vocabulary, and reading questions. Writing are based on writing techniques of paragraph and essay. No listening comprehension is given and practices on speaking interactions do not exist, either. What is set in the vocabulary building is the general word list ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 words as present in the passages of the textbook. There are 5 students who were taught by a senior lecturer, who applied different model and objective, emphasizing reading competency as learning outcomes. Classroom interaction uses English and students should participate in English. The lecturer served English grammar integrated in reading, writing, vocabulary, and speaking. Reading comprehension was focused on genre-based approach, equipping students with different themes and vocabulary dependent upon the topic of the passages. This way, vocabulary the students should accomplish was achieved through reading texts of different genres. Vocabulary ranges were designed based on the word frequency in the passages that indicated general word list of 2,000 to 3,000 words.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Management staffs of the program argued that model of EAP teaching in this way is more applicable in reference to the actual conditions in the institutions. They thought that EAP program is not the core program to improve students’ needs in the university. The management staffs say: “EAP program is not out main concern. It is the Language Center management that they should serve. Our facilities are restricted and our teaching staffs are short. We do the job as how it works.” Concerning the main objectives of the EAP program and the quality of the teaching process, one staff asserts: “The main objective of this program is to teach students English skills. Yet we do not have standardized objectives of teaching that determines competency as the main goal. We copy some book we think relevant and adapt the books for our needs. We have a team but the team does not think so much on quality of the book contents.” Needs Analysis Needs analysis is the starting point to any curriculum development renewal process, syllabus and materials. To meet data of the needs analysis, data were collected from variety of source, including: students, lecturers, academic staffs, administrators, and current lecturers in the EAP program [11]. In general, results of needs analysis shows that EAP Program is conducted in trivialities. English academic literacy the students have indicates low level of mastery. Recruitments of students for EAP program is not based on the level of competency. General findings on the accomplishment of English skills based on students and instructors beliefs are as follows: Speaking Instructors mention that students demonstrate low competency in speaking. Instructors admit that in any presentation that require oral English during the class, only certain students participate in English. Interactions will cease where students do not know the vocabulary to express ideas in English. In addition, students admit that speaking is not required in the EAP class since the main objectives to join the EAP class is to gain certificate. Reading The majority of instructors claim that reading skills are the most important in the EAP class. They focus more on how to understand various texts through vocabulary exercises and answering questions that follow each passage. Reading comprehension is addressed to tap vocabulary building, grammar, and writing instead of reading techniques to literal and inferential comprehension. What the students face as the big problem is students have limited vocabulary where most messages in the texts are not clearly understood. Writing Writing skill is considered the most important area of academic skill, however, teaching writing for EAP program is very hard. Most instructors admit that to write a paragraph or an essay in English, instructors should teach grammar, vocabulary, and writing techniques. With low competency in vocabulary and grammar, students feel more difficult to impress creativity in writing forms. This way, logic and rhetoric of L1 that is Bahasa Indonesia are frequently used in the discourse. Vocabulary Problems on vocabulary building appear some ways that students do not have standardized vocabulary competency, e.g. 1,000 or 2,000 General Word List. If shared with academic vocabulary that ranges higher level that 3,000 words, students get frustrated. Subject-specific vocabulary is considered interesting but it is difficult to implement unless the context is relevant. Grammar Basic grammar is another problem the students face during the EAP class. Mistakes in using agreements, tenses, passive voice, plurality and auxiliary do are prevalent, indicating that basic knowledge of English is limited. This evidence obviously restricts students to develop greater knowledge in reading or writing for EAP where English academic literacy is the basic competency. Recommended EAP Program Results of needs analysis promote a recommendation from which English academic literacy would be integrated in the EAP program. 1. Learning outcomes should be stated explicitly in the curriculum and learning objectives be described in the teaching materials. The aim of the program should be literacy academic-based EAP program. 2. Learning outcomes of the program should consider and match objectives from students needs, institution, lecturers, and standard objective of international EAP program [12]. The mixture of four parties-objective, students-lecturersuniversity- international EAP would provide accurate contents and quality of the program. 3. Basic knowledge of English vocabulary and basic grammar be set as the minimum standard of competency. Core materials of vocabulary should be General Word List 1,000 to 3,000 words and academic vocabulary. In addition, basic grammar for academic uses would be the minimum target of grammar teaching. 4. The objectives of teaching English skills should consider typical skills each of which aspire recent researches that identify best practices in the EFL countries all over the world. The aim of speaking skills is to accommodate critical thingking that focuses on improving competency for interaction in various discourses and uses. As much as possible, medium of interactions during lectures should be in English. Reading comprehension is aimed at improving critical reading that starts from literal, inferential and critical skills. In addition, writing competency should focus on academic writing that puts emphasis on the development of ideas using variative techniques. Paragraph elements and essay organization that fit to the academic writing whould be the main materials and rhetoric of the academic writing becomes the core materials of exposure for language styles in the writing. 5. Teaching materials are designed in competency-based materials dividing sub-competency of academic vocabulary, reading competency, writing competency, and speaking competency.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 6. Syllabus and textbook be devised in accordance with the learning outcomes and should be fram ed for the Competency-Based EAP Syllabus and EAP Competency-Based Textbook. 5. DISCUSSION This study defines academic literacy as basic knowledge of English and English skills. This way, academic competency would consist of academic vocabulary, academic grammar, reading, writing, and speaking skills. In line with definition from ICAS, academic competency includes: reading, writing and critical thinking. Reading competency indicates critical reading students should accomplish to suit reading in academic environment. Writing competency refers to academic needs such as report, paper, article journal, thesis and dissertation. In addition, critical thinking competency basically indicates competency in oral use of English either for academic setting or other various formal and informal settings. The identification of Engish as academic literacy in this study is emphasized on the application of basic knowledge and skills in the competency basis. Competency-based instruction should be explicitly stated in the syllabus and textbook as admitted by Solikhah [8]. This implies that EAP program should develop competency-based EAP syllabus and competencybased EAP textbook. Prior to the developm ent, of course, assigned university should conduct a survey on the curriculum and teaching materials and devise needs analysis as conducted in Korea by Kim [12] and Turkey by Yurekli [11]. Contents of basic knowledge in English refer basically to General Word List that ranges from 1,000 to 3,000 words, academic vocabulary, basic grammar and academic grammar [9]. If so far, reading and writing have been the core materials in EAP program; in this study reading and writing are not enough. A crucial competency is required for oral communication the students should accomplish from speaking activities. This way, critical thinking should start from speaking activities to other implementation in academic setting that require speaking as the basic competency. In conclusion, academic literacy framework for EAP program of Indonesian learners in this study would cope with general word list, academic vocabulary, basic grammar, academic grammar, speaking, reading, and writing. 6. CONCLUSION This study admits that English academic literacy for EAP program in Indonesia is beyond the standard. Academic literacy is not involved either in the learning objectives to represent target of teaching materials, learning objectives to see learners’ competency after completing program, textbooks, and English skills. A proposed academic literacy framework in this study is relied upon evidences that EAP program should incur general word list, academic vocabulary, basic and academic grammar, reading, writing, and critical tthinking with emphasis on speaking competency. REFERENCES 1. University of Essex. 2015. What is academic literacy? Available on www.essex.ac.uk. Accessed on February 2015. 2. Shackleford, N & Blickem C. 2007. A model for language and academic skills development for first-year students of business. Prospect 22(1):72–93. 3. Lea, M R & Street, B V. 2006. The ‘Academic Literacies’ model: theory and applications. Theory into Practice, 45(4):368–377 4. Gee, J P. 1998. The New Literacy Studies and the ‘Social Turn’. Retrieved on 10/9/07 from www.schools.ash.org.au/litweb/page300.html 5. Jacobs, C. 2005. On being an insider on the outside: new spaces for integrating academic literacies. Teaching in Higher Education, 10 (4), 475-487. 6. Intersegm ental Committee of the Academic Senates (ICAS). 2002. Academic Literacy: A Statement of Competencies Expected of Students Entering California’s Public Colleges and Universities Intersegmental Committee of the Academic Senates of the California Community Colleges, the California State University, and the University of California. California: ICAS. 7. Gilliver-Brown, K. E., & Johnson, E. M. 2009. Academic literacy development: A multiple perspectives approach to blended learning. In Same places, different spaces. Proceedings ascilite Auckland 2009. Concise paper: Gilliver-Brown and Johnson. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/auckland09/procs/gilliver-brown.pdf 8. Solikhah, Imroatus. 2013. English for Academic Purposes Voices: A Survey on a. Practices and Challenges in the State Universities of Central Java, Indonesia. International Journal of Academic Rerearch, 5(4):121-125. 9. Solikhah, Imroatus. 2014. Buku Teks Bahasa Inggris Akademik Berbasis Kompetensi untuk Mahasiswa Jurusan Non-Bahasa Inggris (Penelitian dan Pengembangan di Universitas Negeri di Jawa Tengah dan DIY). Disertasi. Program Doktor Pendidikan Bahasa. Surakarta: FKIP Universitas Sebelas Maret. 10. Solikhah, Imroatus, at. al. 2014. English for Academic Purposes Textbook for the Learners of Non-English Program (Research and Development at State Universities in Central Java and DIY) Indonesia. Journal of Language and Literature, 5(3):301-307. 11. Yurekli, Ainur. 2012. An Analysis of Curriculum Renewal in EAP Context. International Journal of Instruction, 5(1):49-63. 12. Kim, Hyo Hyun. 2013. Needs Analysis for English for Specific Purposes Course Development for Engeneering Students in Korea. International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engeneering, 8(6):279-288.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

ESP STUDENTS‘ SELF-EVALUATION AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS TRANSLATION Janulevičienė Violeta, Kavaliauskienė Galina Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius (LITHUANIA) E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/6 Received: 19 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 14 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The article aims at examining students’ needs for using the mother tongue in learning English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and analyzing their self-evaluations of translating from the L1 into L2 and vice versa. With English becoming rather a second than foreign language in Lithuanian higher education, it was considered important to carry on the research on the learners’ perspective and attitude towards the necessity and scope of the mother tongue in studying ESP. The respondents are the students of four specializations, psychology (PS), social work (SW), sociocultural education (SCE) and internet management and communication (IMC), who study professional language at university level. The obtained results are processed statistically by a means of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and presented in charts. The findings demonstrate that all learners need some usage of the native language in ESP classes, but the amount of translation depends on students’ proficiency and specialization. The research findings also point to the students’ expressed need to develop skills in translating from their native language into English in ESP university courses. Key words: ESP teaching/learning, translation, students’ self-evaluation 1. INTRODUCTION The current prevalent teaching of languages is based on the communicative method which favors teaching only in a target language, e.g. English through English (Willis, 1981). The idea of abandoning the native language, however, is too stressful to many learners who need a sense of security in the experience of learning a foreign language. In the past, the prevalence of grammar-translation method led to the extraordinary phenomenon: students were unable to speak fluently after having studied the language for a long time. For this reason, translation was defined as uncommunicative, boring, pointless, difficult and irrelevant (Duff, 1994). A revival of interest towards using some mother tongue in the English classroom is caused by the necessity to improve language accuracy, fluency and flexibility. It is necessary to mention that learners’ mother tongue in L2 classes was not approved of because of linguistic transfer or interference, such as under- or over-production and misinterpretation. However, our research and experience in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) convinces that translation is needed for precise usage of the language in communicating with and passing on the information to fellow colleagues, i.e. mother tongue is needed to some extent for precision in activating ESP vocabulary. Another reason is that translation is a natural thing to do in language learning, and code-switching between languages is regarded as a natural phenomenon in language acquisition. Moreover, translation can serve as a tool for improving language skills. 1.1. Review of relevant literature It is necessary to distinguish between the teaching of translation as a vocational skill and the use of translation in the teaching situation as an aid to language learning. The need for some translation in language teaching / learning is usually supported by the non-native teachers. Native teachers of English argue that foreign language learning needs as much exposure to the L2 as possible during classroom time, and any usage of the mother tongue or translation is a waste of time. However, translation has been an important part of English language teaching for a long time, but it has been abandoned since communicative methodologies became dominant. Interestingly, although translation was out of favor with English language practitioners, „it has rather stubbornly refused to die in the teaching of languages other than English“ (Cook, 2010). It was claimed that a present interest in using a mother tongue for learning English was due to the necessity to improve language accuracy and fluency (Ross, 2000). In other words, the use of mother tongue and translation can serve as a tool for improving language skills. Some practitioners believed that students’ first language should not be allowed in a second language classroom due to the L1 interference. In the past, a learners’ mother tongue was rejected because of linguistic transfer of structures and vocabulary from the native language (Kroll, 1994). There appears a widespread assumption that language transfer is an important characteristic of second language acquisition and this deficiency may be developmental. Cross-linguistic similarities and differences between the L1 and the L2 can produce positive transfer or negative transfer such as underproduction, overproduction, production errors, and misinterpretation (Odlin, 1996). Both negative and positive transfer between the L1 and the L2 is important for development of the complex system of the learners’ second language. Translation is a natural thing to do in language learning, and code-switching between languages is regarded as natural development in learning another language. A. Bonyadi (2003) claims that it is inevitable for language learners to use their native language L1 as a resource; they need to be able to relate lexis and structures of target language into their equivalents in their mother tongue; moreover, translation makes the students develop their reading comprehension ability as it is a conscious process of learning. Regarding the use of the L1 in the L2 classroom, it is important to find out how students themselves feel about it. Schweers (1999), in a report of the outcomes of his research on the use of the mother tongue in English classes, concludes that a second language can be learned through raising awareness to the similarities and differences between the L1 and L2.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 His research into the issue of the L1 use in the L2 classes shows that 89% of the participants felt that mother tongue had to be used in their English classes. S. Deller (2003) supports the same ideas by stating that the mother tongue is not only a resource to notice differences and similarities between the two languages, but also it lets learners 1) develop and produce their own materials, including their own tests; 2) encourage spontaneity and fluency; 3) have a beneficial effect on group dynamics and receive ongoing and meaningful feedback from learners. In our earlier article, we emphasized the necessity of translation as the fifth skill in teaching ESP (Author et al., 2002). The study of grammar-translation method aiming to achieve a communicative goal and to improve learners’ performance confirms the idea (Kim, 2011). Recent studies into use of the L1 in the ESP classes (Xhemaili, 2013) report that 75 of 150 participants believe that the L1 must be used in English classrooms, and about 67% of students feel it can be used in translating the unknown and difficult words. Major objections to using translation in language teaching were summarized as follows (Kaye, 2009). First, translation does not help students develop communication skills. Second, it encourages them to use the L1 instead of the L2. Third, translation activities may be suitable for students who prefer analytical or verbal-linguistic learning strategies. Finally, translation is a difficult skill, which is not always rewarding. On the other hand,the benefits of translation activities include practice of all language skills, i.e. reading, writing, speaking and listening. In terms of communicative competence, it helps to master accuracy, clarity and flexibility.It is well known that translation is a real-life, natural activity which many learners use on a daily basis either formally or informally. Translation is a usual strategy used by many learners even if teachers do not encourage it. Discussion of differences and similarities between languages help students understand problems caused by the interference of their native language. Therefore, developing skills in translation is a natural and logical part of improving language proficiency (Kaye, 2009). Translation is often referred to as the fifth language skill alongside the other four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It holds a special importance at an intermediate and advanced level: translations from the L1 to the L2 and from the L2 to the L1 are recognized as the most important social skills since they promote communication and understanding between strangers (Ross, 2000). If students are aware of the differences between languages, language transfer and intervention from their own language are likely to be reduced. There is an opinion that eliminating or limiting the native language does not guarantee better acquisition (Mattioli, 2004). Translation as a teaching tool needs to take into account grammar, syntax and other aspects of language. However good the students are at understanding authentic materials, some of them keep mentally translating from L2 into L1 and vice versa. This fact makes teachers of English consider the importance of translation for learning purposes. The findings by Author et al. (2007) confirm ed this idea. Moreover, some practitioners think that it is highly probable that L2 learners will always think most often in their L1, even at the advanced level (Mahmoud, 2006). According to B. Naimushin (2002),“translation is culminated with the moment when learners realize there will always be words and expressions they do not know but this cannot be an obstacle to successful communication, and that translation is not about word-by-word rendering of the original message in the target language but is communication-oriented, and with the equivalence of the entire message supreme to the equivalence of its segments”. G. Cook (2010)claims that for most contemporary language learners, translation should be a major aim and means of language learning, and a major measure of success.The aims of the modern language learner have shifted from the old monolingual and teacher-stated aims to bring learners as close as possible to native competence, to new aims which involve a constant awareness of how languages interact, cross over and complem ent each other.According to G. Cook,‘translation has been (grudgingly) accepted as a useful tool for decades, even if it went against recent theories of language learning; translation is inevitable. People are L1-based creatures, but this is also a potential bridge to L2, 3 or 4, and translation can be stimulating, fun and enriching’. The debate over the use of L1 in foreign language teaching has not been settled yet. On the one hand, there are teachers who reject the use of L1 or fail to recognize any significant potential in it. On the other hand, there are those who massively overuse it. It is important to use the L2 as the language of instruction when possible and switching to the mother tongue when it is really necessary. Whatever the teachers’ attitudes to the L1 appropriateness in English classes are, they must take into consideration the needs of their clientele, i.e. the learners of the L2. This paper aims at examining perceptions of Generation Y (Reilly, 2012) on the use of translation in ESP classes in various linguistic situations. These students were born into a world of the Information Technology, they prefer to multitask and are technologically advanced, and they think and behave differently from the members of previous generations. The perceptions of the present respondents are compared with the attitudes of previous streams of learners in 2002 and 2007. 2. RESPONDENTS AND METHODS st

The respondents in this research were the students of different 1 cycle study programmes in Social Sciences at Mykolas Romeris University and studying English for Specific Purposes. There were 5 samples of respondents in accordance with the number of specializations.There were 135 respondents: 45 students (4 sub-groups) of Psychology (PS, in 2012), 22 students (2 sub-groups) of Social Work (SW, in 2012), 13 students (1 group) of Sociocultural Education (SCE, in 2013), 25 students (1 group) of Internet Management and Communication (IMC, in 2013), and 30 students (2 sub-groups) of Law and Customs Activities (LCA, in 2014). Their level of English proficiency was assessed by administering the Oxford Placement Test: students of PS and IMC were intermediate, and students of SW, SCE and LCA were pre-intermediate. The amount of time in L2 environment was 4 contact hours per week for 1 semester, which amounted to 64 contact hours of English instruction. The design of the questionnaire conforms to the accepted standards (Dőrnyei, 2003). In this research, the sam e questionnaire was administered as in (Author et al., 2007).The responses were rated on a 5-point Likert’s scale from 1 to 5: strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section reports the findings of the survey and analyzes the key points that emerged. For the sake of clarity in visual displays of the data, the positive responses (4 and 5) and negative responses (1 and 2) are added up. The st frequencies of positive responses in percentage versus class activities are shown in Chart 1. The 1 cylinders represent the nd rd responses by the students of Psychology (PS), the 2 cylinders – by the students of Social Work (SW), the 3 cylinders – by

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 th

students of Sociocultural Education (SCE), the 4 cylinders - by students of Internet Management and Communication (IMC), th and the 5 cylinders – by the students of Law and Customs Activities (LCA). The relevant statements of the questionnaire are reproduced below: 1) In English classes, I occasionally prefer to use my mother tongue. 1 – strongly disagree,2 – disagree, 3 – not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree. 2) In writing activities, I often mentally translate ideas from my mother tongue into English. 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 –not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree. 3) While reading professional texts I use a bilingual dictionary to translate unknown words. 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 – not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree 4) It is easier for me to translate ESP terms from English than into English. 1 –strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 –not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree. 5) In listening activities, I mentally translate what I hear. 1 – strongly disagree, 2 – disagree, 3 –not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree. 6) In speaking activities, I mentally translate what I want to say. 1 – strongly disagree,2 – disagree, 3 – not sure, 4 – agree, 5 – strongly agree.

Frequency of responses, %

Use of mother tongue 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

90 85 8079

79

70

85 85 86 85 80 80

86 80 75 70

70

85 7071

60

71 60 55

50 40 30

45 35

25

In class In writing Dictionary use Vocabulary use In listening In speaking Chart 1. The positive responses on the use of the mother tongue in different class activities by the students of 5 different specializations st

nd

rd

The 1 cylinders - students of Psychology (in 2012), the 2 cylinders –students of Social Work (in 2012), the 3 th cylinders –students of Sociocultural Education (in 2013), the 4 cylinders –students of Internet Management and th Communication (in 2013), and the 5 cylinders – students of Law and Customs Activities (2014). Chart 1 clearly demonstrates that the need in mother tongue depends on the specialization and the classroom activities. It is obvious that there is a spectacular need in: 1) class activities (between 70% and 90%); 2) use of a bilingual dictionary (between 80% and 86%); 3) use of ESP vocabulary (between 70% and 86%). In writing and listening activity, PS students rely less on their native language (between 35% and 25%, respectively). As far as speaking activity is concerned,35% and 45% of PS and IMC students, respectively, need translation, while SW, SCE and LCA cannot do without it: 60%, 55% and 71%, respectively, formulate their ideas by mentally translating. Moreover, all students of these three specializations emphasized the need for translating terminology by writing remarks in the margins of their survey sheets. The obtained results were processed statistically by a means of Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). First, the reliability of collected data was evaluated by computing Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients. According to Dőrnyei (2003), results are reliable if the value of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient is at least 0.60. Here the values of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients have been equal to 0.91 for the responses of PS students, 0.87 for the responses of SW students, 0.82 for the responses of SCE group, 0.84 for the responses of IMC students, and 0.86 for LCA students, respectively, which proves that obtained data are reliable. The Means and Standard Deviations, for exam ple, for speaking activities, are presented in Table 1: Table 1. The Means and Standard Deviations for speaking activities of each specialization. Specialization st PS 1 sub-group nd PS 2 sub-group rd PS 3 sub-group th PS 4 sub-group st SW 1 sub-group nd SW 2 sub-group SCE 1 group IMC 1 group st LCA 1 sub-group nd LCA 2 sub-group

Means 3.18 3.38 3.28 2.82 2.09 2.18 2.91 3.25 2.85 2.58

Standard Deviations 0.60 0.92 0.40 0.75 0.94 1.25 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.95

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 In the settings, when the number of samples exceeds two, and in the current research, the responses of students of 5 specializations were analyzed, it is necessary to compute One-Way ANOVA in order to find out if there is the statistically significant difference between the Means. The comparison of the Means by One-Way ANOVA includes the following computations: 1) The Mean for each of the sample (known as the Group Mean); 2) The Mean for all samples combined (known as the Overall Mean); 3) The total deviation of each score from the Group Mean (known as Within Group Variation and denoted MSW); 4) The deviation of each Group Mean from the Overall Mean (known as Between Group Variationand denoted MSB); and finally, ANOVA produces 5) The F value which is the ratio Between Group Variation to the Within Group Variation, i.e. F = MSB/MSW. If the difference between the Means is due to chance, i.e. there are no real differences between the Means, the expected value of F-ratio would be one (1.00). Computed F ratios for the responses in Chart 1 are presented in Table 2: Table 2. One-way ANOVA computations for the responses (Chart 1) on using the L1 by the respondents of 5 specializations Class activity In class

Mean Squares Between groups 1129.17 Within groups 75.00 Between groups 673.61 Within groups 58.33 Between groups 631.25 Within groups 1012.50 Between groups 187.50 Within groups 50.00 Between groups 221.88 Within groups 1250.00 Between groups 521.87 Within groups 50.00

In writing Bilingual dictionary In vocabulary In listening In speaking

F= MSB/MSW 15.06

Sig. level 0.063

Probability, % 93.7%

11.55

0.081

91.9%

0.62

0.726

27.4%

3.75

0.367

63.3%

0.18

0.923

7.7%

10.44

0.23

77%

Computed F ratio for the responses of 5 samples shown in Chart 1 vary between 0.18 and 15.06 (column 3). As F values are not equal to1.00, it implies that there are real differences between the Means. However, statistical significance of the findings depends on the value of Sig. The lowest value of significance level Sig. is 0.063 and the highest value is 0.923 (column 4 in Table 2), i.e. the probabilities are 93.7% and 7.7%, respectively. The acceptable values of Sig. level for F ratio must be either 0.01 (probability 99%) or 0.05 (probability 95%). Therefore, the obtained values of Sig. level are too large, which implies that the responses between the samples are not statistically significant.

translation from L2 to L1

50 45

40

47 40

40

frequency, %

35

30

30

30 25

30

2525 20

20

25

25

27

2525

20

20 15

10

10

1313

10 5 0 PS

SW

SCE

IMC

LCA

Chart 2.Self-evaluation of translation from the L2 into the L1 abilities by the students of 5 different specializations. st

nd

The 1 cylinders show the percentage of excellent grades, the 2 th and the 4 cylinders – weak.

rd

cylinders – very good, the 3 cylinders – good,

Chart 2 and Chart 3 display the results of students’ self-evaluation of their translation skills. The frequencies of selfevaluation grades are grouped by the 5 specializations: Psychology (PS), Social Work (SW), Sociocultural Education (SCE), Internet Management and Communication (IMC), and Law and Customs Activities (LCA). Each group contains four cylinders: the 1st shows “excellent” grade, the 2nd – “very good”, the 3rd – “good”, and the 4th – “weak”. Chart 2 shows that translation from English into the L1 does not present many difficulties: 90% of PS (40%+ 30%+20%) and IMC (40%=25%+25%) students award themselves grades from excellent to good, and only 10% are weak at it. Majority (80%) of SW students estimate their translation ability between excellent and good, with only 20% being weak. Similarly, 75% of SCE are good at it and 25% are weak.Over a half (53%) of LCA students award themselves good grades with 47% feeling weak at translation activities.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 However, as Chart 3 shows, translations from the mother tongue L1 into English are rather difficult, and the statistics depends on specialization.Majority of PS students, i.e. 80% (20% excellent +30% very good +30% good), award themselves good grades. Just fewer, namely 70% of IMC students manage to perform quite well. However, only 40% (10% excellent+10% very good+20% good) of SW students think their translation abilities are good. Moreover, only 30% (5% excellent +5% very good +20% good) of SCE students expect to be able to translate well. Thus, students of SW, SCE and LCA admit being weak at translating from L1 into L2: 60%, 70% and 47%, respectively.

translation from L1 to L2

70 70

60

frequency, %

60 47 40

50 40 30

3030 20

20

20

3030 20 1010

10

20

2020 13

5 5

0

0 1

2 PS

SW

3

4

SCE

IMC

5 LCA

Chart 3. Self-evaluation of translation from L1 into L2 abilities by students of 5 different specializations st

nd

The 1 cylinders show the percentage of excellent grades, the 2 th and the 4 cylinders – weak.

rd

cylinders – very good, the 3 cylinders – good,

The findings in Chart 2 and Chart 3 were treated using the SPSS software to find out if there were any correlations between the specializations and if the results were statistically significant. It appeared that, although computed F ratios for 5 samples in Chart 2 and Chart 3 were 10.4 and 11.5, respectively, i.e. exceeded the critical F values, but their significance levels were 0.23 (probability 77%) and 0.08 (probability 92%), respectively. It implies that,in spite of the differences, the responses between the samples in both Charts are not statistically significant. It is not surprising that there are no significant statistical differences for these findings. Ability to translate depends on learner’s intelligence, aptitude, self-esteem, self-confidence and general proficiency in English, which are parts of learner’s personality. It is suggested that the future studies of L2 acquisition lie in the integration of linguistic and psychological approaches and the study of learner individual differences needs to identify various aptitude complexes and contextualized nature of L2 learning (Dőrnyei, 2005). 5. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions have been drawn. First, the current respondents, similarly as previous streams of learners (Authors, 2002; Author et al., 2007), rather strongly rely on their mother tongue in learning English for Specific Purposes. Second, the amount of the native language that students need depends on their proficiency in General English, chosen specialization and linguistic activities. Third, the processing of the responses on the use of mother tongue by a means of SPSS software showed that the data by five different specializations are not statistically significant. Fourth, the respondents’ self-evaluation results of translation abilities are not statistically significant, i.e. they are also due to chance. Finally, respondents are realistic about their abilities to translate professional materials: students are more capable of translating from the L2 into the L1 than from the L1 into the L2, which is consistent with the data obtained in the previous research. REFERENCES 1. Bonyadi, A. (2003). Translation: Back from Siberia. Translation Journal, 7(3). http://translationjournal.net/journal/25edu.htm 2. Cook, G. (2010). Translation in Language Teaching. OUP. 3. Deller, S. (2003). The Language of the Learner. English Teaching Professional, 26,5-7. 4. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner. Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. 5. Dörnyei, Z. (2010). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration, and processing (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. 6. Duff, A.(1989). Translation. Resource Books for Teachers. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 7. Janulevičienė V., Kavaliauskienė, G., (2002). Promoting the Fifth Skill in Teaching ESP. http://www.esp-world.info/Articles-2/issue-2.html 8. Kavaliauskienė, G. and Kaminskienė, L. (2007). Translation as a Learning Tool in ESP. Kalbotyra, 57(3), 132139. 9. F-distribution Tables. http://www.socr.ucla.edu/applets.dir/f_table.html 10. Kaye, P. (2009). Translation activities in the language classroom. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/ articles/translation-activities-language-classroom 11. Kim, E-Y. (2011). Using Translation Exercises in the Communicative EFL Writing Classroom. ELT Journal. 65/2, 154-160. 12. Kroll, B. (1994). Second Language Writing. Cambridge University Press. 13. Mahmoud, A. (2006). Translation and Foreign Language Reading Comprehension: A Neglected 14. Didactic Procedure. English Teaching Forum, 44 (4), 28-33. 15. Mattioli, G. (2004). “On Native Language Intrusions and Making Do with Words: Linguistically Homogeneous Classrooms and Native Language Use”, English Teaching Forum 42(4), 20–25. 16. Naimushin, B. (2002). Translation in the EFL Classroom: The Fifth Skill. http://www.academia.edu/ 2466271/TRANSLATION_IN_THE_EFL_CLASSROOM._THE_FIFTH_SKILL 17. Odlin, T. (1996). Language Transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. 18. Reilly, P. (2012). Understanding and Teaching Generation Y. English Teaching Forum. 50(1), 2-11. http://americanenglish.state.gov/files/ae/resource_files/50_1_3_reilly.pdf 19. Ross, N. J. (2000). Interference and Intervention: Using Translation in the EFL Classroom. Modern English Teacher, 9 (3), 61-66. 20. Schweers, C.W., Jr. (1999). Using L1 in the L2 Classroom. English Teaching Forum 37 (2), 6-9. 21. Willis, J. (1981). Teaching English through English. London: Longman. 22. Xhemaili, M. (2013). Advantages and Disadvantages of Mother Tongue in Teaching and Learning ESP. Anglisticum. http://www.academia.edu/3853832/The_Advantages_and_Disadvantages_of_Mother_Tongue_in_Teaching_a nd_Learning_English_for_Specific_Purposes_ESP_Classes

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

NARRATIVE MODELS OF UKRAINIAN REALISM: PANAS MYRNYI AND THE TOPOS OF PROSTITUTION Ihor Papusha

DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/7 Received: 04 Feb, 2015 Accepted: 15 Mar, 2015

1. THEMES AND MOTIFS Compared with the preceding era of Romanticism, Ukrainian literary realism substantially expanded the repertoire of its narrative possibilities. Shedding populist poetic stereotypes with their traditional similes and verbal clichés (particularly at the time of plot transitions or pauses in the narrative that focus on portraiture or landscape), Ukrainian literature was gradually developing a manner of “objective” narration, whose main distinctive feature lay in the creation of what Roland 1 Barthes has called “the reality effect,” namely, the representation of objects of a work’s discursive realm that may have no connection to the unfolding of the event structure of the fictional world; while generation, however, an illusion of reality of events and characters. This narrative specificity of a realist work was closely tied to its ideological intent: to represent events within a system of causal linkages, grounding the movement of a character in his or her social, psychological (and often genetic hereditary) dependency. Them atically such a text was determined, on the one hand, by the legacy of narrative models of Romantic literature. (For instance, the them e of the fallen women pokrytka, actualized by the Romantic Shevchenko, continued its successful existence in the works of realist prose writers, and even with later modifications in Modernist writing, for exam ple in the early works of Vynnychenko.) On the other hand, the thematic thesaurus of realism was dictated by the non-fictional variables of external life, for representation of so-called “real” events offered the best answer to this style’s principal realistic orientation. The thematic contours of a realist text were concretized through a series of key motifs, such as: family, money, popular rebellion, the seduced maiden, the intelligentsia’s service to the people, the destruction of patriarchal daily life, criminality, Rastignac-like career-rise—thereby creating a distinct motif structure. In the Ukrainian realist novel the motifs of popular uprisings and of the seduced maiden came to dominate, becoming, as it were, topoi of rebellion and prostitution, as evidenced by the writings of the two central figures of Ukrainian realism: Ivan-Nechui-Levyts’kyi in his Mykola Dzheria and Burlachka, and Panas Myrnyi in Khiba revut’ voly iak iasla povni and Poviia, each pair forming a kind of gendered dyptych. In Ukrainian literature before realism, the topos of prostitution, which is our subject here, was almost undeveloped. Even in Nechui-Levyts’ky’s Burlachka Vasylyna finishes her life as a poviia, only very cursorily articulated, in a legal and happy marriage, counter to the readers’ expectations. Therefore it is important to note that the narrative repertory we encounter in Panas Myrnyi he developed at the same time as Europe’s and Russia’s best authors, such as Zola, Maupassant, and Tolstoy; sometimes Myrnyi even outpaced them. For instance, his novel Poviia was conceived in 1878, and its first version was completed in 1882. By comparison, Zola’s novel Nana was published in 1880, Maupassant’s short story collection Mademoiselle Fifi in 1883, and Tolstoy began his work on The Resurrection only in 1889. Note the statement by Ivan Bilyk, Myrnyi’s brother, critic and co-author, in a letter to Myrnyi: Ты, повторяю, в малороссийской литературе явление новое—не по приемам, а по мотивам. У тебя социальные мотивы, которых дондеже мы не хотели и не умели изображать. Пыльчиков не ошибается: у 2 тебя вкус французский... It is worth remarking that the theme of prostitution in its many different variants became the leitmotif of almost all of Myrnyi’s œuvre. Let us recall that the first prose work of the then only twenty-three-year-old writer was the story “Lykhyi poputav” about the young pokrytka named Varka who drowns her baby; then came the story “P’ianytsia” about the young woman Natalia who is seduced by the panych Ivan Mykytovych and later becomes a drunkard, a flea market trader, and a poviia. In the story “Lykho davnie i s’ohochasne” the peasant woman Maryna sells her daughter Kylyna to a panych. In the novel Khiba revut’ voly iak iasla povni the prostitution topos is actualized in the subplot of Maksym Hudz’ and his wife moskalykha Iavdoshka. Chipka’s mother-in-law, and a former drunkard and poviia. This topos reappears with an unexpected twist in the story “Lovy,” where a gendarme, having married an instytutka, conducts a police raid at a hotel frequented by prostitutes and finds in one of the rooms his young wife. Finally, in the novel Poviia, which Myrnyi reworked continuously through his entire creative career, this topos is represented in its fullest form. In a letter to Mykhailo Staryts’kyi dated 15 November 1881 the author wrote the following about the central concept of his work: Головна ідея моєї праці—виставити пролетаріатку і проститутку сьогочасну, її побут в селі (перша частина), в місті (друга), на слизькому шляху (третя) і попідтинню (четверта). Гуртом усю працю я назвав 3 Повія. Цією назвою народ охрестив без пристановища тиняючих людей, а найбільше усього проституток. The prostitute, occpying society’s lowest stratum and satisfying for pay the “true,” that is, the phisical needs of its members, serves as ready-made material that sheds light on the deep “reality” of life and therefore serves as an ideal 4 subject for depiction in a realist work. Mykhailo Rudnyts’kyi noted that реаліст хоче передати вражіння „дійсности” тим, що змальовуватиме зовсім сірих людей серед найзвичайніших обставин. Усі ті, хто досі не зазнали чести, щоб називатися героями, стануть ними 5 автоматично – члени найнижчої суспільної верстви .

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The general contours of the narrative about the prostitute in Ukrainian realist literature were shaped by a tendency towards compassion for the wronged (seduced and abandoned) young woman, developed already by the Sentimentalists and the Romantics (Kvitka, Vovchok, Shevchenko). All the stories of unhappy love (such as Kvitka’s Marusia and Shevchenko’s “Kateryna”) or about the landowner who rapes a serf girl (as in Marko Vovchok’s “Odarka”) are forerunners of the prostitute plot: while the Romantic convention cautioned the heroine against moral downfall, the Realist one, on the contrary, foresaw it. Thus, while Odarka, raped by her master in Marko Vovchok’s story, cannot endure the torment in her conscience and soon dies from shock, the tempted Khrystia in Panas Myrnyi’s work continues her downward spiral to moral and physical catastrophe, passing through all the stages of a poviia’s life. This thematic point itself highlights the difference in the way the theme of prostitution is conceptualized in Ukrainian and other European literatures. Thus, for example, in French literature (in the first instance in Maupassant) the prostitute’s story tends to elicit recognition, rather than compassion, as evidenced by one of the principal plot patterns (along with that of “seduction”) which is constructed as a meeting between a writer (or another thinking subject) and a prostitute and hearing her life story. An excellent example of this type can be found in Maupassant’s short story “Odyssey of a Prostitute.” At the same time, in Russian literature the dominant intent was directed at the salvation of the woman (Dostoevsky, Tolstoy). Count Nekhliudov in The Resurrection, meeting a few years after the seduction Katiusha Maslova, now sentenced to hard labor, experiences pangs of conscience and joins her (even against her will) on the road to Siberia, hoping thereby to help her and to atone for his sin. 2. NARRATIVE STRUCTURE 6

The character level of the prostitute narrative is represented by several actant roles. Thus the hero, frequently present in Russian and French texts (a lonely intelligentsia man: a student, a revolutionary, a journalist, a writer, an artist) occupies in relation to the prostitute a position of generosity, as her well-wisher. He either sympathizes with her and studies her (like Maupassant’s writer-heroes), or tries to save her (like Tolstoy’s Nekhliudov). But in Myrnyi’s Poviia this role is absent. A pale suggestion of a hero of this type can be found only in “P’ianytsia,” where the panych Ivan Mykytovych offers marriage to Natalia, who had been seduced by his brother Petro; however, while genuinely moved, she refuses. The absence of the role of the hero in Myrnyi can be explained by the specific construction of the narrative point of view. For if in the works of French and Russian realists the narration is presented from a point of view proximate to the hero, or from the point of view of the prostitute herself (but only as a narrative within a narrative), in Myrnyi’s novel the story of the poviia 7 Khrystia is presented from a point of view that in the “plane of judgment,” to use Boris Uspensky’s terminology, is close to the position of the heroine. The actant role of the heroine is usually realized either by a professional prostitute who works in a bordello or walks the streets, or the cocotte or kept woman (as in Zola’s novel Nana). Her age, beauty and moral qualities can fluctuate in the extreme, although more often than not she is a beautiful young woman with a good heart. In the story of Khrystia Prytyka Myrnyi introduced almost all the basic plot devices used by writers in creating the typical story of a girl’s decline: seduction, being passed from one man to another, boarding with a kind older man (Kolisnyk), his death, and the final transformation of the heroine into a “fallen wom an.” While an antihero is a feature in few plots of European realist narratives about prostitutes, in Poviia he performs several specific functions, the main one being the initial seduction of the heroine (Hryhorii Protsenko). The anti-heroine (who figures in realist plots far less frequently than the antihero) is also present in Myrnyi’s novel: it is Khrystia’s friend, the prostitute Maryna, who is distinguished from the heroine by her cynicism. The prostitution topos in realist literature was developed as a means for analyzing the contradictions of social morality, although this realist goal was reached which the help of Romantic techniques of doubling and contrast, creating such obvious binaries as hero/antihero, heroine/anti-heroine, 8 as well as heroine (prostitute)/antihero (client). Thus Maryna, after marrying the panych Dovbnia, leaves him of her own volition to return to prostitution. 3. INITIATION For all the frankness and openness in stories about prostitutes, the sex act itself, as a rule, is not represented in any way, although, naturally, it is implied. Here one can single out such stages in sexual relations as the “first seduction” of the heroine, sexual intimacy with a series of more or less individualized clients, commercial sex, and sympathy or even love for a client. The heroine’s sexual initiation that was normally supposed to take place within marriage, takes the form of seduction, thereby casting the heroine out of “polite society” and forcing her into the role of prostitute. The heroine appropriates the 9 mentality characteristic of this role, a mentality imposed upon her by society and her clients. Here one must touch at least briefly upon the question of semioticization of artistic space in the process of conceptualization of the prostitution topos in the Ukrainian realist novel. The basic underlying opposition here is the binary “country versus city.” For every girl living in a village was under the constant control of the community (hromada) which regimented the sexual behavior if its members. Thus, a maiden had no moral right to meet a male youth during the day or talk to him in the presence of other villagers, but she had the right (and in a certain sense was required) to attend evening gatherings (vechornytsi, dosvitky), gaining there her fist sexual experiences, which had to be limited to kisses, caresses, and spending the night together. This enabled girls to enter marriages as virgins. Repressive measures that followed violation of these norms included vile rumors (pohani chutky, nedobryi poholos) which led to the girl being shunned by the community, as well as various physical manipulations and rituals. In Poviia Myrnyi presents the story of a girl who lost her virginity before marriage, as narrated in the novel by baba Oryshka. In punishment the girl had her hair shorn, and was then tarred and feathered and paraded naked through the 10 village. It is important to note that in passing the boundary from country to city for a girl meant leaving the semiotic space of the country and an implicit marking of her in the village as a poviia. For the community, whom the novel characterized as hundred-eyed bunch of pesple (“stooka kupa liudei”), thereby loses control over the girl and the accompanying repressive functions. The former villager, Khrystia’s friend Maryna, in a relationship with the panych Dovbnia and even planning to marry him, remarks, „Я тепер одрізана скиба од хліба! А в село я не піду. Чого я там не бачила? Щоб кожне на тебе 11 пальцем тикало? очі вибивало? Не тільки світу, що в вікні—за вікном його більше!..”

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 By way of contrast, a country girl just arrived in the city seeking work is automatically viewed by city dwellers as honest and decent: „Девка как есть девка—настоящая! Не наших городских шлюх,” the landowner Seleznev says about Khrystia. The Panych Dovbnia thinks the same in his admiration of Khrystia: „Оце так! Оце смак! Це не городська... хльорка, не панянка, що у їх жилах замість крові тече буряковий 12 квас або сирівець. Ця—запечена сонцем; у сеї кров—огонь” In contrast to other authors, Myrnyi describes the heroine’s first sexual experience in detail. While Zola and Tolstoy as a rule present the heroine’s seduction in a summary flashback, merely stating the fact, Myrnyi devotes sixty pages of text to it, presenting all the stages of the process: from the heroine’s first erotic feelings to the moment when she is thrown out of her master’s house for her erotic liaison with the panych. This extended treatment, it seems, was meant to emphasize the sincerity of Khrystia’s feelings, her purity and naïvété. The description of the heroine’s physiological erotic reactions to the panych’s caresses is dominated by plant phraseology that emphasizes the natural and unconscious aspect of the sensations: рука паничева якось гріє, лоскоче; Христя червона, як маківка, схилила голову на один бік і придавила підборіддям його руку до своєї шиї. Вона почула, як її серце забилося, як дух у грудях затнувся, високо піднімаючи повне огню лоно... у Христі ж очі горіли-палали... Дух у грудях ще дужче сперло, кров ще більше 13 вдарила в лице, аж в ухах шуміло. The same botanical vocabulary can be noted at the moment when Khrystia for the first time views herself in a mirror: ...вона здавалася не польовою квіткою довгостеблою, от як Марина, а повною огородною маргариткою, що так щиро ходили коло неї невтомні дівочі руки, доглядали невсипущі очі, кожну бур'янину прополюючи, рано й вечір поливаючи... Білі вишиті рукава випадали з темної корсетки, мов пучок квіток, нав'язаний на руки; корсетка чорніла, а ситцева спідниця червоніла незчисленними квіточками, мов поляна 14 серед лісу, густо укрита трав'янками . It is may be noted that Nechui-Levyts’kyi uses similar phraseology in his description of Vasylyna’s contemplation of 15 herself in the mirror in “Burlachka,” as Tamara Hundorova has remarked in her essay “Zhinka i dzerkalo.” In Myrnyi’s novel the heroine’s sexual initiation first takes the form of voyeurism, when Khrystia spies on the amorous liaison between the panych and his kuma, a much older woman named Pystyna Ivanivna: «Що ж се ж воно буде?» — подумала Христя і підвела голову. Двері були не причинені, щілина завширшки з долоню давала на все вільно дивитись. «Невже і вона?..»... Мороз наче пройшов вподовж Христиної спини... «У неї ж чоловік... У неї двійко дітей... Вона — кума його!» — думала Христя і чогось сама 16 себе боялася Later Khrystia, having fallen in love with Protsenko, allows him to kiss her from time to time, and then learns from her friend Maryna that she’s going to her own panych “na soderzhaniie.” Thus the heroine undergoes as it were an informational initiation into being a poviia, compares her maidenly sexual experience with that of her friend, and only then gives herself to Protsenko. It is worth noting that the heroine perceives this initiation, this sexual liaison with a person from a higher social stratum, as a change in her own social rank. The heroine hears from the servant Mar’ia that many young society women chase after Protsenko, even the priest’s wife—but he chooses her, Khrystia. This flatters the heroine and allows her to think of herself as a panianka: „Невже він... він, панич, що за ним ганяються панянки з усього міста, — мене любить?.. Невже та попадя, що, кажуть, як картина хороша, не подобалась йому? А я... я — проста дівка? — йому подобалася?.. 17 Оце дивно!” 4. PROSTITUTION AND FAMILY If marriage is normally considered the natural setting for a wom an’s sexual initiation, it is understandable that the conceptualization of the prostitution topos cannot avoid the family-related aspect of the plot. In some cases we observe prostitution itself being granted familial features, in others—there is a plot collision between family and prostitution. A characteristic Russian variant of this superimposition of prostitution onto the family is the motif of “introduction of the prostitute into the home with the rights of a wife,” represented through such clichés as the fake marriage, and even on the level of small details, such as “having tea together.” We find analogous situations in Myrnyi as well. Already Khrystia’s first master, Ulas Zahnybida, tempted by her youth and beauty, implores her in the middle of the night: „А от що я тобі скажу... Хочеш бути багачкою, ходити у шовках, у золоті? [...] Ти бачила оту здохляку? — ткнувши пальцем на кімнату, спитався Загнибіда. [...] Стидка-бридка!.. А ти мені якраз під 18 норов підійшла...” Later Protsenko tells Khrystia, «Знаїшь шо? Діждемо літа, я поїду у губернію, похлопочу собі переводу, візьму і тебе з собою. 19 Тамто ми заживемо тихо та любо!» When Protsenko and Khrystia remain alone in the house, he indeed invites her to have tea together, which was also tied to the idea of family life, and of the heroine as the mistress of the house: «Будемо пити чай укупі. Хоч раз побачу, як ми будемо жити колись, — сказав він... Чай посідали пити у столовій, де завжди пани п'ють; він по один бік столу, вона напроти його. Боже! яка вона щаслива! Уперше 20 зроду вона чує рівною себе з ним, близькою до його...” Similarly, when Khrystia, then still staying with her last master, Kolisnyk, sits alone by the samovar, her interior monologue unfolds in the same plane of tea-taking: Сама біля самовару, над стаканом чаю, котрий, недопитий і холодний, стояв коло неї. Нащо його 21 допивати, коли ні з ким допити?

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 In this context the episode in the novel when the not yet seduced Khrystia for the first time serves the samovar with tea to Zahnybida (who will later try to seduce her) and having accidentally tilted it, burns her hand acquires special meaning. The metaphor is obvious: the young woman is burned precisely by family life. It is also interesting to note that in texts about prostitutes having tea is often contrasted with drinking alcohol, contrasting metaphorically family life and prostitution. The prostitute’s self-consciousness was directly tied with the clouding of the mind by alcohol. Therefore, tea and alcohol are often present at the same time, placing the heroine in the situation of symbolic choice between family life and the status of a prostitute. Thus Khrystia, falling into the hands of the gendarme Knysh, tries out both the role of housewife and prostitute, gradually leaning towards the latter. This situation is symbolically realized in the simultaneous drinking of tea and rum: А ввечері Христя удвох з Книшем уже розпивали чаї. Пляшка рому стояла на столі. Книш раз по раз підливав з неї у свій і без того темний стакан. [...] Теплий чай, привітна розмова і гріли, і веселили її. Один раз, коли вона простягла руку до пляшки, щоб собі у чай налити, їй здалося, наче синє Колісникове лице з 22 зажмуреними очима виглянуло з-за пляшки. Вона струснулася і линула рому більше, чим треба. The interruption of Khrystia and Protsenko (with whom she is already in love) drincing tea together (here, symbolic of family life) by the unexpected arrival of the drunken Dovbnia, Protsenko’s friend, thus also acquires symbolic meaning.. Khrystia’s entrusion into someone else’s family often destroys the latter: thus because of her, Zahnybida kills his wife Olena, and Kolisnyk, tormented by the thought of the necessity of leaving Khrystia at least briefly to see his wife, soon commits suicide. Something similar, by the way, befalls Zola’s Nana: she leads to ruin or corruption the families she comes in touch with—everything ends with either the loss of social prestige, or financial ruin, or death. The family aspect of the plot is also tied to the heroine’s periodic reflections on her own fate as a poviia and even the word’s etymology and meaning, considered an antonym of berehynia, the mistress protecting the house: Почувалося — нема їй місця такого, немає кутка нагрітого! Повія... Повія... як вітер віється по полю, як 23 птиця носиться по вітру, так вона по білому світу. Or: «Немає нічого рідного, до чого б я прихилилась, що б мене привітало, гріло. Немає того, про що б я сказала: оце моє і ніхто його не одніме від мене. Все чуже, і я чужа. Як та безпарна птиця, ношуся від 24 деревини до деревини, від гілки до гілки, де б зобачити чуже гніздо і пересидіти в йому ніч темну” Although within the paradigm of the family the prostitute is frequently put in an analogous place with the wife, she is also quite often compared to a child and given infantile features. Writers themselves have given as a reason for this the 25 observation that a prostitute’s psychological development is often arrested at the time of her first seduction. Myrnyi manages to sustain through the end of the novel the reader’s impression of Khyrstia’s infantile nature and the tone of purity and innocence with which the novel had opened. This is achieved primarily by means of the interior monologue of the character in question and through indirect free speech, as well as through the narrative’s fabula. Thus, Khrystia’s childlike quality is emphasized by the situations when she is overcome with joy, “like a child,” upon receiving the new boots bought for her in the city by her father, while the father himself was found dead on his way home. It is also implied by the episode when visiting her ailing mother she does not stay with her for the evening, but runs with her girlfriends to spy on the boys. In Myrnyi’s text, the prostitutes (Khrystia, Mar’ia, Maryna) are frequently compared to children in moments of tears, despair, play, or joy. Their male clients carry them in their arms and hold them “like babies”; Khrystia calls Kolisnyk her daddy: (papasha, tatus’, tatochko). Narratives about prostitutes also underscore the tragic contradiction between prostitution and motherhood. Examples of this conflict can be found already in the Romantic plots about pokrytky, and later in realist stories about abandoned women killing their own children (Varka in Myrnyi’s “Lykhyi poputav,” Vasylyna in Nechui-Levyts’kyi’s “Burlachka”). One also finds instances of abortion (as in Marta’s unintentional abortion in Poviia), neglect, and frequently death of the child (Tolstoy’s Resurrection, Zola’s Nana). 5. MONEY If prostitution is love for sale, then it is understandable that money acquires a wide range of functions in the text and is conceptualized on several levels. In narratives about prostitutes an episode of a prostitute refusing money often acquires special importance, as does an offer of sex for free or a request that the pimp or the client safeguard her money at his own 26 place. Money acquires a symbolic and ritual dimension, and comes to correlate with other realia that acquire such a symbolic dimension. 27 On the level of composition money plays the role of the plot’s main driving “spring” in Myrnyi’s novel. Khrystia Prytyka’s path to the city begins with the five rubles taken from the dead Pylyp Prytyka by Hryts’ko Suprunenko, and which the young woman has to repay through work. Khrystia’s first arrest also taces place because of money, namely, a large bank note Zahnybida gave her to buy her silence (in a state of excitement, Zahnybida, filled with desire for the lovely Khrystia, kills his aged wife, with Khrystia as witness). Khrystia’s last “sugar daddy,” Kolisnyk, meets his death because of embezzlement of the zemstvo treasury; after this, she becomes a streetwalker. Even at the closing of the novel, over the already dead Khrystia, the peasants talk about money. The ritual function of money is conceptualized in the novel both on the level of action and of symbol. First of all, the opposition between the country and the city is actualized again. In this intance it is interpreted not in the aspect of morality/immorality, but of hard work vs. commercialism, creating an opposition between the commercialized city and the hard-working village. Thus, Khrystia’s friend Maryna (the novel’s anti-heroine), in answering the question if she liked the city, uses a “financial” simile: „Мені? Коли б хто давав сотню рублів і сказав: кидай, Марино, город та йди знову у село—не пішла б! 28 І не піду... Ніколи! ніколи!»—граючи очима і усміхаючись рожевими устами, торохтіла Марина As we can see, even the actional code of her behavior during the answer reminds the reader of features characteristic of cocottes or prostitutes (in her eyes and mouth). Similarly, at the end of the novel one of the characters 29 makes the following statement over Khrystia’s dead body, „У селі робота, а у городі—комерція.” Khrystia and Mar'ia, in

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 contrast to from Maryna, leave their money with their “sugar daddies” for safekeeping, trusting them—which is supposed to connote the selflessness of their love and their unspoiled consciousness. If money in the novel becomes the universal symbol of commercialization of human relations, a local symbol of this kind in Myrnyi’s novel is embodied by the image of the Jew. It must be noted at the outset that Myrnyi interprets this image not on the level of nationality or ethnicity, or religion; it is only the social role of a shopkeeper and a tavern keeper. An example of this kind can be found in a fragment of the novel in which Jews are mentioned not along with representatives of other ethnic groups, but along with other social groups in a representation of social stratification: Не те у місті:...там оселились люди не польової праці — гречкосії та хлібороби, а городської — ремісники, купці, крамарі, пани — воєнні й невоєнні, служащі й не служащі, жиди — в ярмулках і без ярмулок, в дорогих саєтах і в драних балахонах... Все те живе тільки на гроші, все те купує, що потрібно для життя, а 30 не своїми руками добуває. It is this interpretation that allowed Myrnyi to link the character of the Jew and that of the prostitute and to draw an analogy between them. Already in his novel Khiba revut’ voly iak iasla povni, the narrative voice in the story of the prostitute Iavdoshka, Chipka’s future mother-in-law, states, Знаючи красі своїй ціну, вона торгувала нею, як жид крамом, не пропускаючи случаю зірвати найбільше. An interesting detail: both times when Khrystia asks a Jewish man for employment (the first, when she is still in her best physical form, is as a singer and a “harpist”; the second when in her worst form sick with syphilis, is for simple menial work), she does not use her real nam e. Symbolically she, as it were, sells it too. In both cases Myrnyi brings the heroine into the narrative under an assumed name, creating an intrigue for the reader and forcing him to guess who this allegedly new character is and why she appears here. As a “harpist” Khrystia uses, as it were, a stage name, the classic prostitute nam e Natasha. And as a maidservant she is called “rohozhka” (‘sack cloth’—because she covers her face, disfigured by syphilis, with a cloth). Myrnyi even brings Jews into the last moment of Khrystia’s life: having lost her beauty, health, and savings in the city, the heroine decides to return to the village, and having arrived freezes to death next to her parents’ house, now sold 31 to a Jewish man who runs a tavern. 6. PROSTITUTION AND VIOLENCE A peculiar thematization in the texts about prostitution is given to strategies of power and the violence associated it both physical and moral. The simple form of physical violence is beating. Prostitutes are beaten in Maupassant’s “Madem oiselle Fifi,” in Zola’s Nana, in the works of many Russian authors (Kuprin’s Pit, Gorky’s “Once in the Fall,” etc.). In Myrnyi’s novel Mar’ia suffers a cruel beating by a moskal’. The most extreme form of violence is murder (Zahnybida because of Khrystia kills his own wife) and suicide (Khrystia’s lover Kolisnyk, unwilling, after embezzling the zemstvo treasury, to let the case reach the courts, kills himself). But much more prevalent in the text is the so-called “legal” violence, exercised upon the blameless prostitute by the state mechanisms of the courts, the police and organs of power more generally. Thus it is through the volost’ that Khrystia’s mother is informed that the girl must go into employment at Ulas Zahnybida’s; it is from the volost’ that people come to find out why poor Khrystia is in possession of a fifty-ruble note. After Kolisnyk’s suicide Khrystia is taken to the police office, where the gendarme Knysh, using the weight of his position, forces her to have sex (she even does a strip show for him) as a payment for setting her free. Every criminal or financial threat experienced by the heroine forces her to pay with her own body, the only universal currency in the world where power is in the hands of men. 7. PROSTITUTION AND REALISM One manifestation of “docum entary’ intent in plots concerning prostitutes is their presentation of the heroine’s “true story”. The content itself, full of details on the harshness of life, the circumstances of narration (the telling of the story to a writer, a reporter, a policeman—representatives of an objective point of view), work in favor of the reality effect. 32 A classical example can be found in Maupassant’s story “Odyssey of a Prostitute”: the writer-narrator saves a prostitute from the police, and she tells him her story: the seduction, the road to the city, her wanderings. Her first decent client suddenly dies at a restaurant over dessert, and she is charged with murder. A similar situation can be found in Franko’s story “Soichyne krylo.” There a woman tells her life story of a prostitute in the form of a letter, from which the hero learns about all her men. Panas Myrnyi uses a peculiar form of representing the realness and truthfulness of the story, namely, the telling of it by a woman to a woman. This case is notable, since the prostitute’s story about her downfall, which forms the very core of this topos, is usually presented to a male client who looks in this story for erotic stimulation and desires to take advantage of the heroine 33 morally. A prostitute usually invents a cliché story, especially about the moments connected to her first downfall. By contrast, Khrystia does not tell any of the characters anything about her life. One can guess why: Myrnyi, to maintain the realist conventions, would have had to force the heroine to lie, and therefore reconcile herself to being a prostitute—whereas Khrystia, although she frequently thinks of herself as a woman without a stable home, internally does not accept this role. At one point she, having spied on the amorous play of Protsenko and Pystyna Ivanivna, looks for a pretext to recount this to her older friend “Mar’ia,” and having related it, herself becom es a listener of a story of downfall told to her by Mar’ia herself. In the novel this story has a prospective function, for in a summary form it sketches for the reader Khrystia’s own fate, which would follow a similar path. 8. CONCLUSION The conceptualization of the prostitution topos in Panas Myrnyi’s work cannot be unlinked from the stereotype of the suffering woman, inherited by Ukrainian realism from the previous era and the works of Shevchenko and Marko Vovchok. 34 Franko gradually rids himself of this stereotype (see his “Dlia domashn’oho ohnyshcha” ), and Vynnychenko ironizes and 35 thereby destroys it. In the era of realism the prostitute becom es a peculiar mirror of the process of modernization of the Ukrainian nation, the proletarization of the peasantry, and the capitalization of daily life. She found herself at the crossroads of limits and boundaries: spatial (between the city and the country); temporal (between serfdom and hired labor); social (the

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 formation of a new social stratification); and cultural. Due to her liminal status, the prostitute becomes the ideal object for representation by a realist. REFERENCES 1. Roland Barthes, Izbrannye raboty: semiotika, poetika / perevody s frantsuzskogo. Moskva: Progress, 1989. – P. 399. 2. Panas Myrnyi, Zibrann’a tvoriv u 7 tt., t. 2 (Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 1969), P. 384. 3. Ibid., t. 7, P. 359. 4. Alexander Zholkovsky, Mikhail Iampolski [sic], Babel’/Babel (Moscow: Carte Blanche, 1994). 5. M. Рудницький, Від Мирного до Хвильового, с. 114. 6. Zholkovsky, Iamploski, op. cit. - P. 324. 7. Б. Успенский, Поэтика композиции: Структура художественного текста и типология композиционной формы (М.: Искусство, 1970), с. 16. 8. Zholkovsky and Iamploski, op. cit. - P. 334. 9. Ibid. - P. 356. 10. Панас Мирний, Повія, in Мирний, Зібрання творів у 7 тт., т. 3 (К.: Наукова думка, 1969), с. 421. 11. Там само. – 286. 12. Там само. – С. 251. 13. Там само. – С. 226. 14. Там само. – С. 227. 15. «Ї». – Ч. 7. – 2000. Poviia contains one more episode when Khrystia admires her reflection, this time looking into a water-filled pit; however, thoughts of men cloud her self-perception, pointing to the problem of gender power: «У ковбаньці, кругом отороченій зеленою травою, мов у дзеркалі з зеленою оздобою, знову показалося молоде личко, чорнії коси, заквітчані фіалками та трав'янками, як віночок, облягали біле, наче з мармуру, чоло. Ніс прямий, на кінці трохи угору піднявся, щічки повні, злегка рожеві, уста пухлі та червоні, трохи розкриті, і з їх невеличкої щілини виглядають дрібні білі зубочки. "То се ж я, я!" — скрикнула Христя і усміхнулась сама до себе. Личко, що в воді, собі усміхнулось. Та яка ж то привітна та втішна ухмилка! Зубенята ще більше блиснули, а очі Заграли, мов зорі, у їх непрозорій темноті зажевріли іскорки невеличкі. Христя замилувалась сама на себе. Вона вперше підгляділа свою красу пишну, уперше серцем прочула свою вроду незвичайну. Досі скільки раз їй приходилось заглядати у дзеркало, і вона того нічого не примічала, а тепер щось любе, невимовне любе та втішне обізвалось у її серці... «Недаром же вони так гоняться за мною! і старий одутлий Колісник задивляється на неї!» — подумала вона, удивляючись все прикріше та прикріше у те обличчя, що стиха тремтіло на чорному лоні води. «Що ж мені із сього? Другим — утіха, Забавка, а мені?» Неясна хвиля туги прилила у душу, болісно ущипнувши за серце. Потухли іскорки ув очах, пропала ухмилка весела, замість неї непримітная тінь нерадісної думки обняла все обличчя. Сумно визирало воно з води на неї своїми темними очима» [с. 439]. 16. Мирний Панас. Повія //Панас Мирний. Зібрання творів у 7 тт. – Т. 3. – К.: Наукова думка, 1969. – С. 198. 17. Там само. - C. 276. 18. Там само. - C. 120. 19. Там само. - C. 307. 20. Там само. - C. 308. 21. Там само. - C. 425. 22. Там само. - C. 479. 23. Там само. - C. 426. 24. Там само. - C. 445. 25. Such is the opinion put for, for instance, by Vsevolod Garshin in his story “An Accident.” 26. Zholkovsky and Iamploski, op. cit. - P. 380. 27. See Черкаський В.М. Художній світ Панаса Мирного. – К.: Дніпро, 1989. – С. 65. 28. Мирний Панас. Повія //Панас Мирний. Зібрання творів у 7 тт. – Т. 3. – К.: Наукова думка, 1969. - C. 221. 29. Там само. – С. 517. 30. Мирний Панас. Повія //Панас Мирний. Зібрання творів у 7 тт. – Т. 3. – К.: Наукова думка, 1969. - C. 175. 31. The introduction of the image of a Jew in the prostitution topos (and based on Ukrainian material, as it is set in Kyiv) can also be observed in Aleksandr Kuprin’s novel The Pit, in the character of the pimp Gorizont. 32. Zholkovsky and Iampolski, op. cit. 33. Ibid. - P. 380. 34. Captain Anharovych’s wife, who supplied prostitutes to bordellos in Constantinople and Alexandria, turns out to be a strong person and even capable of killing herself, in difference from her husband. 35. Volodymyr Panchenko notes, “Якщо Софія у “Повії” - це спокушена й кинута паничем дівчина, то Галя з оповідання “Народний діяч” (1903 р.) сама обирає свою долю, свідомо продаючи красу. Вродлива й розумна сільська дівчина, вона вирушає в місто, де стає шансонеткою. Але Галя не виглядає жертвою, як героїня Панаса Мирного чи та ж Винниченкова Софія! Як і “народний діяч” Вася Головатий, якого вона колись любила, Галя знайшла свою “нішу” і, здається, цілком задоволена нею» / Див.: Панченко В. Творчість Володимира Винниченка 1902-1920 рр. у генетичних і типологічних зв’язках з європейскими літературами. – К., 1998.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC POTENTIAL OF EMOTIONALLY EXPRESSIVE SENTENCES IN THE TATAR AND FRENCH LANGUAGES Abdullina Liliya Rafailovna, Gizatullina Albina Kamilevna, Mingazova Rauchaniya Razulovna Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya str., 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/8 Received: 01 Dec, 2014 Accepted: 30 Jan, 2015 ABSTRACT The article deals with the problem of peculiarities of the expressive syntax in the Tatar and French languages. The expressive syntax has a large and varied inventory of linguistic resources among which an important place belongs to the lexical content of emotionally expressive sentences in the compared languages. The choice of specific lexical and syntactic means depends in each individual case on the situation, the subject of emotional evaluation itself, the relationship with the person or persons to whom the sentence is addressed. The expressive possibilities of the sentences appear brighter when they don’t only characterize a phenom enon, but also transmit a special attitude of the subject of the speech towards it. The emotionally expressive sentences in the Tatar and French languages represent specialized syntactic means that are used to implement the category of em otional expression. Key words: expressive syntax, emotiveness, evaluative, expressivity, intensity, emotional evaluation, lexical and semantic content, secondary nomination 1. INTRODUCTION The present stage of development of linguistics is characterized by an increased interest towards comparative studies of languages. The problem of comparative linguistic studies is subject to many scientific researches in Russia and all over the world [1-7]. The comparative study of two and more languages reveals their national peculiarities in the clearest way. It is no coincidence as all the totality of the conditions of life of an ethnic (customs, mores, and established norms of behavior) is reflected in the language and in this sense the language is “the mirror of the culture”: during the communicative situation the communicants do not limit themselves by the frame of the set topic, but raise other essential questions [8]. It should also be taken into account that mutual understanding between the communicants is based not only on presentation and adequate interpretation of the factual information, but also on the information about the personality of the speaker, in particular his feelings and emotions. The emotional state of the communicants effects on the occurrence of specific communicative intentions of the speaker and hearer, that determine the choice of language register, stylistic means, structural and semantic construction of the sentences in the course of linguistic communication. In connection with the above, the present study attempts to identify national linguistic originality by comparative-typological analysis of the lexical and semantic content of the emotionally expressive sentences in two typologically different languages. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS In the present study artistic works of famous Tatar (G.Ahunov, G. Bashirov) and French (M. Castillo, R.Gary) writers provided the material for analysis. The selection of literary fiction as study material is due to the fact that those texts, representing the logical unity of the characters’ speech and the authors’ text clearly reflect the verbal expression of the emotion, experienced by the subject. This material provides an opportunity to use elements of diachronic analysis of quite an extensive language material, and to identify on its basis common features of the implementation of emotive markers on the lexical and syntactic levels in the Tatar end French languages. We used a set of methods and techniques of linguistic analysis of factual material, the main of which is the comparative method that allows determining the similarities and differences between two compared languages. The comparative interpretation is based on a technique of parallel study; as for the substantive difference between the compared languages, it is specified by means of structural and stylistic interpretation. The above components of the comparative method and model of typological studies are specifically used for the determination of linguistic universals. In this paper we also present the method of distributional analysis, the purpose of which is to obtain a picture of the associative capabilities of the various components of syntactic structures, and the component analysis method, which allows identifying the main and dependent components in emotive sentences. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Tatar and French languages dispose a lot of possibilities of emotional expression: interjections, nouns with direct and figurative meanings, adjectives, amplifying adverbs, verbs. 1. Among lexical means of expressing emotions interjections have to be mentioned first, since in contrast to the words with a subject-logical content, they entirely belong to the emotionally- expressive aspect of the language. From a semantic point of view all emotive interjections are divided into three groups: 1.1. Interjections that can report approving emotions: «joy», «admiration»: Ура! Во! Hourra! Bravo! The meaning of the interjectional sentences is less dependent on the context and situation, although som etimes the latter are able to specify the emotion expressed by these sentences. E.g.: In French: Admiration: Bravo! Je ne me reste plus qu’à vous souhaiter bonne chance! [9]

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 In Tatar: Joy: Егетләр бер авыздан: - Урра! - кычкырып, Исакның күңелен күтәрделәр [10] In both languages emotive interjections expressing approval function as syntactically non-separable sentences deprived of those categorical attributes, which are peculiar to significant parts of speech (they don’t have the nominative function, the system of derivational and grammatical forms, they are characterized by a formal autonomy, syntactic isolation, special sound structure). 1.2. Interjections with meanings related in our consciousness with emotions of disapproval: “indignation”, “despite”, “resentment” etc: Тфү! Фу! Уф! Hélas! Par exemple! Tiens! Pouah! Peuh! Hou! Fi donc! Heu! Hum! E.g. : In French: Regret: Tiens! s’écria-t-il. Que je suis bête [11]. In Tatar : Indignation:Фу! Җәфа икәнсең, кайдан башыма бәла алдым [10]. In Tatar as in French invective interjections expressing a negative attitude are distinguished in a specific group. They are pronounced with a special intonation and can express “indignation”, “anger”, “irritation”, “despite”, “resentment”, etc.: Шайтан алгыры! Атаңбашы! Пычаккергере! Yләткыргыры! Sacrebleu! Que diable! Nom de Dieu! Tiens! etc. In French: Disapprobation: Et qui je trouve dans le confessionnal, derrière la grille? Le diable! Apostolo Farinelli! [9] In Tatar : Indignation: Гөнәh шомлыклары! Аяк астына әллә нәрсә җәеп куйганнар [12]. In Tatar and in French the group of abusive interjections, forming sentences, includes stable expressions appealing to supernatural forces. It should be noted that in French many secondary interjections were formed mainly on the basis of religious vocabulary: solemn vows. 1.3. Interjections characterized by polysemy. Depending on intonation and contextual conditions they can express a variety of emotions. These are, for example, the following interjections in the compared languages: А! Ай! Их! И! Абау! Эх! Оh! O! Mon Dieu! Ah! Oh! He! Zut! We will demonstrate this fact by the following examples. In French: Wonder: Bon Dieu! Que c’est dur! [11] In Tatar : Regret: Ah, ah... Киттеңме, җаным! Мине ташлап киттеңме? Гәүhәр! Җаным... [12] In the same group we include interjections which in almost all cases express “surprise” (sometimes with nuances of “indignation” or “admiration”): Иhи! Оhо! Уhу! Comment! Eh bien! Bah! Oh là là! E.g.: In French: Surprise with a nuance of indignaion : Eh bien, s’écria celui-ci en jetant son épée sur le lit [...][9] In Tatar : Surprise with a nuance of admiration: Иhи! Менә кайда икән рәхәт, - диде. [12] Interjectional sentences, which, depending on the context, are able to express opposite emotions, exist in both languages; thus, the role of the language situation and context increases. 2. As emotionally-evaluative are also used nouns, the semantics of which denote one of the qualities of the object of evaluation, which outputs the object beyond the norm, accepted in a language community. A noun of this type can be the main part of the sentence, expressing positive/negative emotions: In French: Admiration: Une beauté! Vous ressemblez beaucoup à votre mère! [9] Indignation : Sottises que cela! Sottises! [9] In Tatar : Approval: Менә шулай! Молодец! Яратам турыдан бәргән кешене! [12] Despite: - Корткыч, паразит, үләт ялагыры! [12] Substantive sentences with secondary parts of speech can also express such emotions in the compared languages. E.g.: In French: Surprise : Un monde de loisirs, vraiment! s’exclama Chawki [11]. Irony : Bénéfice du doute [11]. In Tatar the studied type of sentences is represented by several kinds of izafet constructions: In Tatar : Approval: Батыр егетләр, батыр кызлар! [12] Despite: - Тирес чырай! - диде Мәрфуга! [12] All of the examples are characterized by categorical em otional evaluation. However, we should pay attention to the interlingual differences. For example, in French nouns can be used with an article in one case, and without the article in the other. In its most complete and constant way the intensifying function is realized in the form of the definite article. In Tatar the possession affixes are used in order to intensely express emotions in simple substantive sentences. The emotionally evaluative sentences in both languages often contain nouns with a figurative meaning. Thus, the role of the context and communicative situation becomes more important, the emotionally expressive sentences with specific vocabulary receive an unambiguous anthropocentric orientation. It is necessary to distinguish several types of transposition between the common areas of extra linguistic reality. 2.1. Animal names, when transferred to humans, usually refer to their appearance, personality traits (chicken, snake, duck, crow, pig, wolf, donkey, sheep, dog, etc.). The use of animal names applied to men is based on certain permanent traits of the animals (real or attributed). Sentences, in which metaphors are used, contain vivid emotional coloring and can express a whole range of feelings. In French: Disapproval Un vrai porc-épic! [9] In Tatar: Admiration: Менә, Диярич, нинди егетләр тәрбияләп калдырасың син безгә. Арсланнар! Бөркетләр! [12]

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Thus, considering emotionally expressive sentences, in which zoomorphisms are used to describe the interlocutor and his actions, we come to a conclusion that they tend to express negative emotions, although, of course, there are cases of their use for the expression of positive emotions. 2.2. Names of mythical creatures can be used to denominate human beings, whereby the qualities possessed by fictional creatures like the devil, Satan, etc., are attributed to men. We shall examine the following sentences: In French: Indignation, fear: - Elle criait: - Sorcière! [11] In Tatar: Surprise: Кыяр-кыймас кына ишек ачып керүенә, каршында - әүлия! Чып-чын фәрештә! Әйе, Әйе hич тә кеше заты түгел, шәүлә генә! [12] Thus, the majority of emotionally-saturated sentences quoted above express negative emotions. The isomorphism is manifested in the fact that sentences of this type in both languages are based on the figurative and metaphorical use of the nouns. The allomorphism consists in the use of intensification means, specifically evaluative adjectives in Tatar sentences and interjections, possessive adjectives in French sentences. 2.3. Object qualities and properties (hat, broom, pole, etc) can also be attributed to a person. Attributes have an intensifying function in those sentences, as well as in the previous group: In French: Despite: J’ai crié: - Cochon! Fumier! [11] In Tatar: Indignation: Карт себерке! Син кавыштырган ул этләрне, син! Син, карт эт! - дип үкерде [10]. Those emotionally expressive sentences, in which phenomena of secondary nomination are used, represent typical constructions in both French and Tatar languages. The peculiarity of this type of sentences consists in the fact that the referent can only be identified through the context. However, the evaluative adjectives often serve as means of intensification in the Tatar sentences, in French the adjective quelle prevails. 3. Emotionally expressive sentences, in which adjectives perform the function of intensifying a positive or negative quality, are quite common. In the emotionally expressive sentences intensity, closely related to the quantitative and qualitative param eters is decisive, whereas in the unemotional sentences those parameters are only important. Moreover, as we have already noted, the emotional and evaluative adjectives can be used in the predicative position and express positive/negative emotions. In French: Admiration: Parfait! Ravissant! Splendide! Épatant! Exquis! Меrveilleux [11] Fear: C’est... C’est monstrueux! Monstrueux! [11] In Tatar: Admiration, approval: Акыллы! Матур! Гүзәл! Искиткеч! [12] Disapproval: Хәерсез! Дивананың бүресен яралады, дивана елый хәзер... [12]. In the following sentences the emotionally evaluative adjectives are used as attributes. In French: Surprise: Quel hasard merveilleux! [9] Disapproval: Erreur! Profonde erreur! [9] In Tatar: Admiration: Изге җан! [12] Indignation: Агрессор кайнешләр! Әрсез кодачалар! Өйдә дә туйган мин ул юлбасарлардан [12] As shown by research material, the possessive affix is widely used in Tatar emotionally expressive sentences, whereas articles and the exclamatory adjective quelle are more typical of the French language. Repetitions, syntactic means of intensification are characteristic of the adjectival sentences in both languages. 4. Adverbs with the general evaluative meaning, i.e. denoting polar emotional evaluations (good/ bad) with some measure of intensification, constitute a relatively small group in Tatar as in French. They are direct synonyms of the words “good” and “bad” and can be represented as “good”+ intensification+ emotiveness or “bad”+ intensification+ emotiveness: Искиткеч! Барыбер! Parfaitement! Heureusement! Malheureusement! Imparfaitement! In most cases the adverbs function as intensifiers of the adjectives, they indicate a greater or lesser degree of emotional display. As a rule this function is performed by the non-derivative adverbs: искиткеч, бик, très, bien, fort: Искиткеч матур! Бик матур! Бик гаҗәп! Bien fort! Trè sbelle! At the present time, in the French language there is an active process of using the adverbs with the suffix -ment as intensifiers. Foremost among them are those adverbs, the lexical meanings of which include the quantitative semantics: énormement, infiniment, extrêmement, profondem ent. Admiration: Une jeune fille extrêmement belle! [9] Moreover, the -ment adverbs with a qualitative value (drôlement, terriblement) can also be used as intensifiers; when combined with the adjectives, they partially lose their semantics. Surprise: Terriblement fort homme [11]. Combined with the evaluative adjectives, the intensifying adverbs reinforce the seme of evaluation: Admiration: Extrêmement sympatique! [11] It is known that the intensifying adverbs can also be used with verbs. Thus, the evaluative adverb enhances the emotional impact, increases the perlocutionary effect of the emotionally expressive sentences. This phenomenon is the most common in the Tatar language: Irony: Ничек яхшы, акыллы сөйли. Ничекәмер бирә. Әле кайчан гына бу - исерек Абдул иде [10]. 5. Among the lexical means of emotional expression in both languages it is necessary to distinguish the verb. Here are som e examples of emotionally expressive sentences with verbs in their personal form in the Tatar language, which are not typical for the French language: Regret: Әни бәгырем! Кызганам сине...Аh, әни, әни! [12] Fear: Уф, котымны алдыгыз! [10] In those sentences the verbs are emotionally evaluative; the intensifying function, as we can see, is performed by interjections. Moreover, after examining the sentences of this kind, we concluded that the present indicative is generally used in the Tatar sentences with emotionally evaluative semantics. It is known that in the emotionally evaluative sentences of the

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 compared languages the verb can also be used in its infinitive form. In French: Disapproval: Te réjouir?! Je ne comprends pas. [9] In Tatar: Indignation: Көлергә?! Чукынган! Кыяфәтең белән котны алдың [...] [10]. In the spoken language an imperative verb can be used to express an unfriendly attitude towards somebody or a threat. The following examples demonstrate that: In French: Despite: Va bêler plus loin, vilain boue! [11] In Tatar: Disapproval: Тиргим үземне. [...] менә карт тиле, ерткычның авызына үзең теләп барып кер инде! [12] In those sentences the verbal properties of the imperative are weakened, the imperative mood acts as an intensifier of the emotional evaluation implemented by other (lexical) means. In French there are registered cases where the same verb has two functions: the function of the imperative and the function of the dependent infinitive: Indignation: On te paie pour ramer, rame! [9] Furtherm ore, French verbs can som etimes be used with the suffixes of subjective evaluation: -aille, -ot, -ass-, which give a pejorative connotation to the words- ecrivailler (to write bad books). The suffixes -ill, -ot, -onn can add to the meaning the nuance of a reduction of the intensity or frequency of an action - mordiller (nibble), toussoter (hem). We have examined the emotionally evaluative vocabulary which is used in the emotionally expressive sentences themselves. However, as in the sentences, or in the surrounding context, there are specific indicators that signal on referring to the category of emotional sentences. Among contextual indicators we distinguish sem antics of the verb, specifying circumstances, contained in the author’s remarks, which can express internal and external manifestations of emotions, experienced by a person. As verbs, performing this function, should be listed those that denote feelings (шатланырга, яратырга, бырчылырга, se réjouir, aimer, se chagriner), and those that describe the expressive intonation of the direct speech (кычкырырга, көлəргə, s’exclamer, crier, rire). e.g.: In French: Regret: Oh, malheureuse! s’écria le commissaire. [11]. In Tatar: Approval: Хәерле бәнат, чишенеп беткәч, аңа карады да кычкырып көлеп куйды: - И-и, бала-бала!.. [12] The above-m entioned means, that determine the relatedness of the sentences to the category of emotive, can complement each other. The association in the sam e sentence of several means of intensification can dram atically increase the expressive properties of the sentences. In the Tatar language there are more author’s remarks transmitting the inner experiences of a person, whereas in French the sentences often describe the state of the interlocutor. 4. CONCLUSION Thus, the emotionally expressive sentences in the Tatar and French languages are constructed using a set of means of emotional expression, namely: 1. Interjectional sentences expressing emotions in the most general terms. The specific features of the language are shown through the secondary emotive interjections. 2. Substantive sentences representing the largest group in the Tatar and French languages. In French substantive emotive sentences the intensifying function is implem ented by the definite article, whereas in Tatar this function is performed by the possession affix. 3. Adjectival and adverbial sentences. Sentences with interjections and adverbs are one of common forms of adjectival emotive sentences specific to both languages. Moreover, in the Tatar language should be noted the widespread use of such means of the intensification of the emotional content of the sentences, as particles, the demonstrative pronoun шундый, exclamatory words and repetitions. 4. Verbal sentences, which are presented in two languages in different proportions. Common to the Tatar and French are imperative and infinitive sentences. Verbal sentences, with a personal or impersonal form of the verb in the main function, are actively used in the Tatar language. Verb constructions without a subject are rarely found in French. The emotive sentences in the Tatar language are characterized by all sorts of repetition: with the change of repetitive components and without it. They can also be repeated entirely. In French, repetitions are not as popular, as in the Tatar language, but nevertheless they occur in the emotionally intense speech. In every language there are “favorite” types of sentences. With varied particular grammatical characteristics and lexical content, they are used for expressing the emotional state of the speaker. According to our observations, in the Tatar language “favorite” are substantive and verbal sentences. In French, substantive sentences should be noted. According to the study, we observe the prevalence of isom orphic traits in the use of emotionally expressive syntactic constructions in two typologically different languages. The existing differences are substantially manifested at the structure level of the sentences, subjected to analysis. The identified similarities on the semantic level are apparently due to the commonality of human feelings and emotions. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The authors confirm that the submitted data is free of conflict of interest. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is performed according to the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 REFERENCES 1. Abdullina, L.R. Semantic interpretation of verbal phraseological units in the newspaper text (based on the French and Tatar languages) / L.R. Abdullina // Vestnik of Voronezh State University. – Voronezh, 2010 - №1.

 pp.: 113-115 2. Gizatullina A.K. Depiction as a semantic component of expressiveness in emotionally expressive sentences in the Tatar and French languages / Philological sciences. Theory and practice. – Tambov: Gramota, 2014 - № 3(1), pp.: 64-67. 3. Mingazova R.R. Function of vegetal metaphor in French and Tatar literature discourse / Contemporary issues of science and education. - № 3( 2), 2014. - pp.: 436-439. 4. Galieva, A.M., Nagumanova E.F. An Integrated Analysis of Translations of Tatar Prose into Russian: The Methodology and General Principles; (2014) Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, Volume 21, Issue 1, pp. 263-267. 5. González, G., María de los Ángeles Canonical tag questions in English, Spanish and Portuguese: A discoursefunctional study; (2014) Languages in Contrast, Genre- and register-related discourse features in contrast, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Vol.14 (2), pp. 93-126 6. Hüning, Matthias and Barbara Schlücker (eds). Contrastive Linguistics and other Approaches to Language Comparison; (2012) Special issue of Language in Contrast (12:1), pp. 3–26. 7. Khabibullina, L.F., Vassilieva V.N. Interaction des idées nationales dans les littératures anglaise et française du XXe siècle (S. Maugham, R. Gary); (2014) Journal of Language and Literature, Vol.5 (1), pp. 55-60. 8. Abdullina, L.R. Abdullina, L.R., Ageeva A.V., Smirnova, E.A. The Evolution of the ‘Comment’ Genre: Theoretical Aspect; (2014) World Applied Sciences Journal, Vol. 29 (3), рр. 354-358. 9. Castillo, M. Mon frère l’idiot / M. Castillo. – France : Fayard, 1995. - 380 p. 10. Akhunov, G. Хəзинə / Household. Novel / G. Akhunov. – Kazan: Tatar book publisher, 1963. – 267 p. 11. Gary, R. La promesse de l’aube / R. Gary. - Paris: Gallimard, 1960. - 391 p. 12. Bashirov, G. Works / G. Bashirov. - Vol. III. - Kazan: Tatar book publisher, 1983. – 422 p.

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LEXICAL PECULIARITIES OF CUBAN VARIANT OF SPANISH LANGUAGE UNDER THE CONDITIONS OF DIALECTOLOGICAL ISOLATION Olga Vadimovna Klimchak, Liliya Gumarovna Gazizova, Garcia Muñoz Ricardo Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, Kazan, 18 Kremlyovskaya str. (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/9 Received: 02 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 01 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The article deals with lexical peculiarities of Cuban variant of Spanish language, that is an example of dialectologically dissected variant used in an isolated insular territory with a special political situation. Historical evolution of Spanish language Cuban variant lexis to a large extent repeats evolution of other national variants of Spanish language, th including such aspects as Arabisms, Africanisms, Indianisms. In the meantime events of the 20 century brought completely unique phenomena into the lexical system of Spanish language in Cuba, having thrusted into the spotlight extratextual factors of its evolution. The article is a research that precedes the creation of the cultural linguistics vocabulary of lexis of Caribbean basin Spanish-speaking countries. As research methods the authors used the method of continuous vocabulary sampling and descriptive method. The main purpose of the research was to reveal extratextual factors which conduced to evolution of vocabulary of Spanish language Cuban variant, and that in its turn led to classification of vocabulary of that variant of Spanish language depending on revealed extratextual factors in the situation of dialectological isolation of Spanish language Cuban variant. The main factor of replenishment and changing of Spanish language Cuban variant vocabulary was the choice of a geopolitical partner at a particular period of Cuba historical development, and also “from-the-top” inculcation of the special politically marked lexis. Key words: lexicology, dialectology, Cuban variant of Spanish language 1. INTRODUCTION Cuban national variant of Spanish language belongs to the Antilles dialectic continuum, which also includes Dominican and Puerto-Rican variants. Despite the previous century’s great interest in studying of Spanish language Cuban variant, there are still a lot of questions about the process of its vocabulary formation, and also about peculiarities of development of Cuban differentiation in Caribbean basin. Researches of evolution of Cuban national variant, its phonetic, morphosyntactic and lexical peculiarities were th th started as far back as late 18 – early 19 century. The very first works were dedicated to systematization of so-called cubanisms: “MemoriaquepromuevelaedicióndeundiccionarioprovincialdelaIsladeCuba”(Notes for publication of local dictionary of Cuba island) by José María Peñalver, published in 1795, “Dicionariocubano, etimológico, crítico, razonadoycomprensivo” (Cuban aetiologic dictionary with review and valid arguments) by José Miguel Macias (1885), “LalingüísticadeCuba” (Cuba Linguistics) by Francisco M. Mota (1868-1968), “Diccionaristasdecubanismos” (Dictionary of cubanisms) published in 1961 by Alfredo Padrona, “Elvocabulariocubano” (Cuban dictionary) (1921) by Constantino Suárez [1] etc. th The most up to date works concerning Spanish language Cuban variant date from the second half of 20 century. For obvious reasons many works of that time were based on theoretical insights of Soviet scientists. Phonetical and syntactical peculiarities of Spanish language Cuban national variant became a stumbling block to researches of Rafael Núñez, Tracy D. Terrel, Robert M. Hammond. Most of works (Carlos Paz Perez, Lirca Vallés Calaña) belong to general theoretical descriptions of Spanish language Cuban variant peculiarities. Among Russian works we can highlight thesis research by Aluart de la Cruz Mae Florentina “Linguocultural specificity of presentive lexis of Spanish language Cuban variant against the background of Castilian variant”, which represented and described linguocultural specificity of lexical units in Castilian and Cuban variants of Spanish language. However, this work touches on only one range of aspects of lexis. For example, Aluart de la Cruz notes that in Cuba som e words can have additional meanings: casa– ‘house’ and ‘bring roosters together for fight’; cama – ‘bed’ and ‘truck body’ etc. [2] Thus, on the basis of above mentioned, we can affirm that it is topical to study peculiarities of formation of Spanish language Cuban variant vocabulary in the context of dialectological isolation. Research Methods Main methods of studying of Spanish language Cuban variant vocabulary were method of continuous sampling from Spanish language dictionaries containing lexical units typical for Spanish language Cuban variant, and method of descriptive introspective analysis allowing to fit language facts into Spanish language Cuban variant lexicographical view. Language facts analysis was also carried out taking into account the effect of extratextual factors being considerably important for this research. 2. RESULTS As the research material we have analyzed 1390 lexical units having marks that are characteristic and relevant for the research.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Speculation Revelation of above mentioned lexical units and subsequent analysis of them allowed to draw following conclusions: Indian substrate Formation of vocabulary of the concerned national variant was influenced by historical development of the island, its social and geographical situation. Originally Cuba was inhabited by tribes of Indians of Arawakan group, tribes of Ciboney and Guanahatabey, and also Indians from Haiti. Therefore, colonizers’ Spanish language in XVI century came into contact with such Indian languages as Arawakan, Nahuatl, Kechua and Guarani. A lot of scientists also write about occurring of socalled aruaquismos, which denoted everyday objects, flora and fauna. However, later the island’s aboriginal population shared the same fate as the Indians in other Caribbean basin countries: part of them was exterminated, and other part died because of new diseases. In this regard many researchers outline the impossibility to study Indians languages effect on Spanish language Cuban variant in phonetical aspect. Cuban Spanish did not incur the grammar effect of the island’s aboriginal population languages. Nevertheless, we cannot say the same about the language’s vocabulary. Study of Indianisms in Cuban Spanish triggered works of Ramos Duarte (1892) “Orígenesdellenguajecubano” (Origin of Cubanl anguage) and “Diccionarioyucayo” (Dictionary of Yucayo), and also “EllenguajedelosindiosdeCuba” (Language of Cuba Indians) by Julian Vivanco (1946). Humberto López Morales carried out the research aimed at checking if Indianisms presented in the dictionary by Pichardo (1953) and in works by Buesa Oliver (1965) were used. The scientist arrived at a conclusion that the presented set of Indianisms is far from being fully used in modern language. Thus, Morales highlights randomness and inaccuracy as main characteristics of many dictionaries of Indianisms [3]. The scientist also underlines necessity of starting out from words normative usage and also paying special attention to dialectal differences within the boundaries of Cuba. For instance, Morales notes that intonation in Cuba Eastern regions differs from intonation in the island’s other part. The scientist explains such difference with the influence of Taíno language: “… parecequeestehechotengaalgunarelaciónconeltaíno, yaquelainfluenciaindigenasubsistió conmayorfuerzaenlaszonasorientales” (…it seems that this fact is som ehow related to Taíno, because the aboriginal population influence was especially significant in Eastern regions) [4]. Among lexical units of Indian origin we can note the following ones: cocuyo – a flying insect glowing with green light at night, which is also called a firefly; ja – to bear; ba – inside (the word Cuba itself meant “green, inside” and was used to denote a garden or a vegetable garden); bibijagua – an ant etc.. African adstrat Aboriginal depopulation in XVI century caused dem and for unpaid labour power. As a result, onto the island slaves from Central Africa were imported. Absence of reliable sources of information on African element in Cuba gives no chance to make some statements with certainty. It is known that over one million slaves from different tribes were imported, in particular Congo, Ewe, Yoruba, Ashanti etc. Fernando Ortíz is an author of “New ‘catauro’ of Cubanisms” published in 1923; it contains data on Africanisms in Spanish language Cuban variant [5]. N. Del Castillo notes that Africanisms are quite often used in modern language, because most of them are toponyms, anthroponyms and demonyms [6]. For example, murruñoso - little, chachá – African musical instrum ent, lipidioso– greedy, pelona – death, gatazo- deceit, fuguilla- impatience etc. Dialectological distinctiveness of Spanish language Cuban variant. We should note a special dialectological situation with Spanish language Cuban variant. On the one hand, Spanish language in Cuba is affected by geographical position of the island, its detachment from other variants of Spanish language in South America and exposure to influence of other languages (for example, English) which are geographically near to Cuba. On the other hand, Spanish language Cuban variant distinguishes itself with certain uniformness, which is connected with compulsory expansion of Spanish language standard variant after Cuban revolution of 1959. This is especially expressed specifically at the language lexical level. Cuba can be divided into 5 dialectal zones: Zone I. PinardelRío, LaHabana, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, municipality Trinidad Zone II. Villa Clara, Santi Espíritus, Ciego de Ávila Zone III. Camaguey, LasTunas, Holguín, Northern and Western part of province Granm a Zone IV. South-Eastern part of province Granma, province SantiagodeCuba, Guantánamo Zone V. Municipios Baracoa, Maisí, Imías, Moa, Sagua de Tánamo Among these zones Zone 1 (including the country’s capital Havana) is the pronest to lexical innovations, and two last ones are the most conservative. Absence of significant dialectological differences allows to talk of certain dialectological isolationism of Spanish language Cuban variant which is used in the territory without visual boundaries with zones of functioning of other Spanish language variants or other languages. Such isolationism promotes language changes orientation towards extratextual factors, among which choice of geopolitical partner in a historical period becomes a critical one for Cuba. Presence and significance of this partner played an important role in uptake and accepting of borrowings by Spanish Cuban language system. Gallicisms and anglicisms in Spanish language Cuban variant. The special island location of Cuba destined its certain dialectological isolation in comparison with other variants of Spanish. Cuba turned out to be detached from both peninsular variant of Spanish and other territories of South America where Spanish was used. A major contribution to formation of vocabulary of Spanish language Cuban national variant was made by the French who emigrated from Haiti and Louisiana in great numbers in late XVIII century, and also the Germans, the Italians and the British. Up to now in the west of the island many surnames have French origin. This influence resulted in a significant amount of French borrowings in Spanish language Cuban variant, and also some phonetic phenomena which are peculiar to th th it (in particular, special pronunciation of ch). Written sources of the Francophone era in Cuba (late 19 – early 20 century) abounds with gallicisms examples, mostly unadapted (malcontent, cuaseries, touriste). But as French influence grew weaker, amount of French words in Spanish language Cuban variant decreased. Nowadays the island variant contains gallicisms which are common to other Spanish language variants too (attaché, constelado, matiné), usage of unadapted gallicisms is not noted in corpuses.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Following independence, Cuba shunned from its metropolis, Spain, both in political economic and linguistics spheres. Relationships with the United States of America became the most influential factor in this period, and this strengthened language contacts with descendants from this country. In Spanish language Cuban national variant a large amount of anglicisms was registered due to presence of American military forces on the island after Spanish-American War (1898) and subsequent external policy situation. USA were the main economic partner of Cuba, and during this period Spanish language Cuban variant vocabulary was filled with lots of Americanisms imported by both USA citizens and the Cubans who obtained education in the USA. Among Americanisms blended into the Cubans lexicon we can observe first of all words reflecting culture and American life style: beisbol, basquetbol, ring, short, and other words, on the contrary, do not reflect neither realities nor lacunae, but are used in everyday life: foráneo, despotricar. As a rule, English borrowings in any language become assimilated to different degrees, this is demonstrated by A. Ashrapov and S. Alendeyev in their article which is dedicated to borrowings from English and German [7], and this is also characteristic of Spanish language Cuban variant («ahoratenem oslacompetenciade beisbol de // delauniversidad / puedesparticipar» [8]), English loan words became widely used: estacióndepolicía (En. police station, vacasagrada - En. sacred cow). Some lexical units, which had already been in Spanish language peninsular variant, changed their meanings under the influence of its English equivalent (agenda – Sp. day planner, Cub. agenda, order of the day). XX century was marked by the Soviet Union’s great influence and inclusion of such words as revolución (revolution), brigada (brigade), colectivo(collective) etc. into Cuban variant. In particular, in 1966 the USA adopted “Cuban act” according to which any Cuban footing in the American territory, legally or illegally, got permanent residence. Thus, in Spanish language Cuban variant we can observe following examples: cranquear - from English crank; catao - from En. cut-out; manichear – from En. manage; plo – from En. plug; lapelota – baseball which is a national game in Cuba; suin – from En. swing, etc. Relationships between Spanish language Cuban variant and English can be observed also in one unusual language situation outside the territory of Cuba. Cuba’s isolationism in the period after Revolution of 1959 caused a quite intensive emigrational outflow of Cuba citizens into the territory of neighbouring countries, in particular the USA. A large community of Cuba descendants in Florida exists in the situation of active bilingualism as “not a result of historical gradual immigration, but large-scale and sudden migration of the Cubans, for whom value of bilingualism remains in the foreground for many (including political) reasons” [9]. Revolution and “Russian trends” in Spanish language Cuban variant Extratextual factors of Spanish language Cuban variant lexis evolution are especially clearly observed following the Cuban revolution of 1959. New historical and political conditions caused necessity for new nominations and rethinking of some ideas, and that led to lexical units having new meanings (revolución, brigada, voluntario), and to rearrangem ent of these meanings in the context of their popularity (pionero, reunión, colectivo). In connection with new realities occurring, new lexical units were introduced – anapista (member of National Association of Agricultural Workers), cederista (member of Committee on Revolution Protection) etc. Most of these units have ideological nature, however they are widely used in different contexts. This period is also marked with lots of new abbreviations connected with expansion of bureaucratic apparatus (MINTRAB – MinisteriodeTrabajo (Ministry of Labour), CAME – ConsejodeAyudaMutuaEconómica(Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), MININT – MinisteriodeInterior (Ministry of Internal Affairs). Most of lexical units were phonetically and grammatically assimilated. Active relationships between Cuba and USSR, joint programmes of higher education promoted introduction of some borrowings from Russian into Spanish language Cuban variant lexis; they were quite successfully (partially or fully) assimilated by Spanish phonetics and grammar (sputnik, bulldózer, nihilista, biosfera) [10]. However, when the Soviet Union broke up and cooperation between two countries subsided afterwards, lexical units stopped to be actively borrowed from Russian language. Concluding provisions Special geographical position of Cuba and its development political conditions predetermined specificity and special characteristics of Spanish language Cuban variant lexical profile. Influence of several substrates simultaneously, sequential change of geopolitical partners and, as a consequence, introduction of lots of borrowings into vocabulary, dialectological isolation and uniformness of dialectological variants allow to speak about the utmost importance of extratextual factors for Spanish language Cuban variant vocabulary formation. Culturological uniqueness of this national variant lexical units is first of all connected with the history of the nation for which this variant became a national language. Unique location of the island allowed it to absorb language contacts, connected with political economic conditions in Cuba, to the fullest and became an important extratextual factor of Spanish language Cuban variant lexical system change. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The authors confirm that the presented data are free of conflict of interests. ACKNOWLEGEMENT The work was prepared within the frames of implementation of “Plan of measures on execution of the Program of competitive recovery of FSAEI HVE `K(V)FU` among leading world scientific educational centres for 2013 – 2020”. REFERENCES 1. Suárez Constantino. Vocabulario cubano. Libr. Cervantes, 1921. - 576 pp. 2. Aluart de la Cruz Mae Florentina. Linguocultural specificity of presentive lexis of Spanish language Cuban variant against the background of Castilian variant: synopsis of thesis of Cand. Sc. {Philology} / Mae Florentina Aluart de la Cruz; Voronezh State University. – Voronezh, 2012 – 24 p. 3. López Morales, H. Estudios sobre el español de Cuba. Nueva York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970.- 188pp. 4. López Morales, H. El Español de Cuba: Situación bibliográfica [E-resource] / López Morales, H., 1968. – URL: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED046313 (Access date: 23.02.3015) 5. Ortíz, Frenando. Nuevo catauro de cubanismos. Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1985. - 526 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 6. Del Castillo Mathieu Nicolás. Afronegrismos en el léxico de Cartagena (Colombia).// Estudiossobre el léxicodelespañolenAmérica. Leipzig, 1982. – pp. 120-160. 7. Ashrapova A., Alendeeva S. Recognition of English and German Borrowings in the Russian Language (Based on Lexical Borrowings in the Field of Economics) //English Language Teaching. – 2014. – Vol. 7. №. 12. – pp. 47-53. 8. PRESEEA (2014-):Corpus del Proyecto para el estudio sociolingüístico del español de España y de América. Alcalá de Henares: Universidad de Alcalá. [E-resource] URL: http://preseea.linguas.net] (Access date: 23.02.3015) 9. Antonyuk E.V. Language situation in Florida state / E.V. Antonyuk// Contact languages and dialects in the context of intercultural communication: materials of reports on 16-19 November 2009. – Moscow: Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, 2010 [E-resource] URL: http://nnov.hse.ru/data/2011/02/14/.pdf (Access date: 23.02.3015) 10. Colectivo de autores: Diccionario Enciclopédico Espasa (en 12 tomos). Madrid, Espasa Calpe, S.A., 1984.

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METAPHORIZATION OF MYTHONYMS AS THE WAY OF A PERSON SECONDARY NOMNATION IN THE SIBERIAN DIALECTS OF TATAR LANGUAGE Radif Rifkatovich Zamaletdinov, Guzel Chahvarovna Faizullina Kazan (Federal) University, the city of Kazan, Kremlevskaya street, 18 (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/10 Received: 14 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 27 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The problems of scientific research is related to the issues of mythonyms metaphorization as the way of a person secondary nomination in the national dialects of the Tatar language. The field records of a distinctive dialect speech of Siberian Tatars living in the Tyumen region and recorded in 2014 were used as a research material. The sem antic content was analyzed concerning the following language units: albasty, aurak, alamatse, yelbegan, matsgay, kupkyn, pitsen. These mythonyms are the elements of Siberian Tatars pagan worldview. The preserved views about the mythical characters demonstrate the "live" processes of culture formation and development in respect of the Tatar population in Western Siberia. In particular, the image of "albasty" is found in many cultures of the Turkic and non Turkic peoples and the image of "alam atse" is found only among the Siberian Tatars. However, each image has its own special interpretation in the outlook of an entire nation as well as of a particular locality people. That is why the language material is strictly differentiated by geographical distribution. The analyzed lexemes, which are the product of metaphor, are not actually described in lexicographical practice. Finally we have come to the conclusion that the basis of a word figurative meaning is the collective image of the mythical character or a specific symptom, such as an appearance, for example. The use of mythology nominative means in their new function of naming structure promotes the development of a word polysemantic structure. The negative connotation is preserved between the values of the same lexeme. The range of research results application is quite wide: from further scientific studies of the secondary nomination of a man in a dialect space of the Tatar language to the reconstruction of the linguistic world image during the preQuranic era. Key words: mythonym, secondary nomination of a man, Siberian Tatars, the linguistic picture of the world, people voices 1. INTRODUCTION One of the strategic objectives of a state is the preservation and the development of languages among the peoples of Russian Federation. Currently, many languages of Russia are on the verge of extinction. According to UNESCO these languages include the language of the Siberian Tatars (the Kipchak group of Turkic languages). The population of one of the largest regions in Russian Federation i.e. Tyumen region has rather mixed picture in its national and cultural composition. Closer to the southern regions of the Tyumen region Turkic tribes lived originally. Most of these tribes made the Tatar nation. The Siberian dialects geographically cover the Tyumen, Omsk, Novosibirsk and Tomsk region. Depending on the settlement of the Siberian Tatars the following dialects are determined: Tobol-Irtysh, Barabinsk and Tomsk. Currently, such works (performed by a group of scholars) as «A Linguo-Mythological Space of the Toponym" Siberia "in Contemporary Slavonic Linguistic Consciousness» [1], «Mytholinguistic Interpretation of Sacral Toponym Astana in Sociocultural Practice of the Siberian Tatars» [2], «European studies of barabin tatar folklore: the role of investigations of the German scientist V.V. Radlov» [3], «Modern problems of textual analysis Turkic-Tatar literary monuments of Western Siberia» actively study the folklore material of these dialects carriers [4]. In this case, the lexical system of Siberian Tatars dialects was not investigated in full. Many issues of a person nomination lexicographic description in dialectological sources remain open till now. In particular, the establishment of relations between of the sam e lexem e within the dialect space. In our opinion, nomination (from Lat. Nominatio - name) is "the formation of linguistic units, characterized by a nominative function, i.e. serving to nominate and isolate the fragments of non-linguistic reality and the formation of the relevant concepts about them in the form of linguistic units meanings - words, combinations of words, phraseologies and proposals" [5]. The subject of the study is the acquiring of metaphorical meaning by mythonyms as a way of a person secondary nomination creation within the dialect space of the Tatar language. The lexical system of Siberian Tatar dialects preserves the ancient foundations, which, due to the territorial isolation of these dialects received a kind of semantic interpretation in the national outlook. The elements of a naive view of the world are revealed in the mythology of the people, which did not lose its relevance even now. The Siberian Tatars not only honor and remember the legacy of their ancestors. They are in the world of good and evil spirits. Even now, the women in childbirth are protected from "albasty" - an evil spirit who kills a child in the womb; village people pass by the house of "matsgay" - the woman, obsessed by an evil spirit and drinking the blood of people and animals; people often see "aurak" - the soul of a man before his death, which warns about the imminent demise and so forth. The mythology of Siberian Tatars absorbed both pagan and Koranic elements, which som etimes overlap and create some complex contradictory images treated in every village in its own way. Obviously, the pagan aspect offers a large gallery of evil spirits than the Koranic one.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study materials are the field records of folk Tatar dialects of the Tyumen region, collected by us during the dialectological expedition of 2014. We used materials lexicographical sources: dialectological and etymological ones, as well as the information from scientific papers concerning the ethnography of the Siberian Tatars. The study uses the following set of the following methods: a descriptive, a comparative and benchmarking, a continuous of material, an observation, a survey. 3. PERSON NAME ALBASTY The modern dialectological dictionaries do not have the lexeme "albasty" [6], [7]. V.V. Radlov identifies two meanings of this lexem e: 1) a house spirit, an evil spirit, a nightmare (in Kazan dialect) and 2) the evil spirit, which causes pain during childbirth (in Kyrgyz, Crimean, Ottoman dialects). Besides, the author and the compiler notes that the Crimean peoples believe that "albasty" takes the liver from a puerperant, and that's why it is portrayed with some liver in his hands [8]. Let's refer to the etymology of the word. There are different and sometimes conflicting opinions about the origin of the lexeme. The researcher of Tatar etymology R.G. Akhmet'yanov describes the word "albasty" as "the evil spirit causing nightmares and delusions" to the common Turkic "albarslyg" - "the master of the house, which make a pressure (in a dream)": the ancient Turkic "ala" - bad, evil + pars, par, bars. The dialects of the Siberian Tatars have the lexeme "albarty" "hard boned" [9]. The encyclopedia "Myths of the World" provides the different point of view, according to which the name of an evil spirit originated from the combination of Iranian "al" - the ancient name of a God and Indo-European "basty" - a spirit, a God (akin to the Russian "devil") [10]. The ethnographic literature about Siberian Tatars word also considers the word "albasty" as a complex one, consisting of "al" - the proper name of this evil spirit and "basty" - from the verb basmak - to press, to strangle [11]. Albasty has a rather common mythical character of many Turkic peoples, which has different interpretations [12], [10]. The West Siberian Tatars also call it "sary chech" - a golden haired girl [10]. According to the beliefs of Siberian Tatars, "albasty" is an evil female spirit of the disease, personified as an old woman with her hair spread and long, the breasts reaching her knees, the hard and sharp fingernails. It's not only the spirit of disease in general, but especially the evil spirit of a woman in childbirth. It attacks pregnant women and causes a great harm to her, crushes, strangles her, trying to kill the child in the womb [11]. Here is an example of the myth recorded in the Tyumen region. Имеш йелға пуйынта палық қаптырып утырған пер кеше күрше аwылның күремце мулласы аптраш в килүен күреп, қалай паруын сураған. Мулла аңа: «Суңқа қалтым, әнә куперцәк өстентә алб асты эцәкләр йуып утыраты. Йартысын ашап та қуйыпты», – тигән. Аwылға парып, сығыт таwышлар килгән өйгә керсәләр, палатан үлгән қатынны күргәннәр (Записано 17.07.2014 Ptitskoye village of Vagaisky region). Translation. They say one man was sitting with a fishing rod on a river bank and saw the clairvoyant mullah hurrying to a nearby village. This man asked the Mulla, why was such a hurry. Mullah told him: "I am late. Albasty washes his guts over there on the bridge, half of which she ate". They saw a dead woman in childbirth when they came into the house. The crying was heard from there. The mythonym "albasty" is the source of a person secondary nomination, which is recorded in the language of Vagaysky and Tobolsk settlem ents. The word "albasty" is used in reference to an ill-bred, an unkempt woman who randomly eats any food (compare: "albarty" - "hardboned"). Thus, "albasty" - 1. An evil female spirit eating the inner content of a woman in childbirth (myth); 2. A rough, an awkward woman who wears any clothes and eats any food. In this case, there is the transfer of meaning according to a collective image. 4. PERSON NAME AURAK The lexicographical sources of a dialectological and an etymological nature have the same interpretation of the lexem e "aurak" - 'a ghost, a spectre' from the Arabic "aruah un" - "a soul" [6], [9], [7]. In V.V. Radlov's dictionary the lexeme "aruak" has a polysemantic structure: 1) the souls of the dead ancestors, a ghost; 2) a skeleton; 3) an invisible force, a blessing, God's protection [8]. According to F.A. Ganiev the suffix -ac / -ak joining the verbal stems, indicating an action expresses the meaning of a person who is the bearer of the attribute specified in the basis: "kilmeshek" - an alien, "aksak" - a lame, "elak" - "a crybaby", "kunak" - "a guest" [13]. Following this logic, we tend to assume that the lexeme "aurak" consists of the verbal stem "auru" "to be ill" and the affix -ak and means the person who is sick. In the myths about "aurak" the central thought is related with a departed the soul of man in front of a terminal illness or after death: Йеңгәм үлде, аурағы керде. Йоқлап йатам. Төн. Мич түбәтә миски утыра. Мискине түрт мәртәбә чиртте. Аурақ йөрите (in Tarsk dialect). Аурақ үләр алтытан йөрите (in Tobolsk dialect) [6]. Тис үләтеген кешенең в ауырағы кәб енкә кереп, пашы ғына күренеп йөрөйтө (the field records in Vagaisk region). It is likely that this argument was the fundamental one in the national word creation. The phraseological fund of any nation is a unique one and valuable for the in-depth studies of his attitude towards the world. Currently, the language of Siberian Tatars has is the phraseological unit "aurak yoklante" - to becom e ill (of a body), literally "a ghost jumped (on the back)". Perhaps, the semantics of the phraseological unit preserve the etymology of the lexeme "aurak", which is based on the verb "to be ill". Compare: "auru, agyryk" - pain, illness, "auruvly, agrykly" - painful [14]. During the field study period of Tyumen Tatars dialects (July-August 2014), we recorded two figurative meanings of the lexeme "aurak" which indicate a person. Aurak. 1. A ghost (a myth); 2. A man approached quietly and unobtrusively. Нимә аурақ пулып йөрөйсөң? 3. A derogatory reference to a man who is much younger, who showed some disrespect to an adult. Син, аурақ, кем итең? The second and the third meanings of the lexeme "aurak" may be unrelated semantically, as they relate to different characteristics of a mythical character - the peculiarity of the movement in space and the nothingness of manifesting himself.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 5. PERSON NAME ALAMATSE The mythonym "alam atse" is a little known character of the Siberian Tatar culture. Some description of the spirit is contained in F.T. Valeyev's book "Siberian Tatars". According to the author, the evil spirit alam atse is not observed among other nations. Alamatse is an old woman with a terrible appearance, with long bony hands and with spread gray hair. Its main occupation is stealing and killing of children. She hunts for children, flying in an iron trough during strong storms [11]. During the field studies of the Tyumen region folk dialects we recorded the following story. Әләмәце тип февраль-март айларынта тышға цықсаң, күс ацмаслық ацы йелле пуранны әйткәннәр. Аның плән оссын цацлы қортқайақ сесне оцороп китәте тип кецгенә палларны тышға цығармау өцөн қурғытқаннар. Шалай уқ орошғанта қотороп китеп, сәрен цацған кешене тә әләмәце тигәннәр. Translation. The snowstorms with strong winds occurring in February and March were called "alamatse". During the storm, young children were not allowed on the street and were frightened with a long-haired old woman who could take them away during this storm. The word "alam atse" is also used in relation to an uncontrolled man, who goes berserk during an argument, who is like poison sprays. In the ancient language "Alambana" is the name of an evil spirit [15]. V.V. Radlov's dictionary contains the lexem e "lämät", which is recorded in the meaning of "distress, misfortune" within the dialect of Tyumen Tatars and "torment" in Barabinsk dialect [8] (compare: әләкләүце – a torturer). Probably the lexem e әләмәце consists of the base әләмәт and the affix -це and means “the one (or something) who brings a misfortune)”. So "alam atse" is 1. The evil spirit, which arrives during a snow storm with strong winds and the storm itself (a myth); 2. An Uncontrolled man enraged during an argument. There is a collective image of a mythical character at the heart of a figurative meaning - an uncontrolled start in a peak condition. 6. NOMINATION OF PERSON YELBEGAN The dialectological dictionaries interpret the lexeme "yelbegan" ("yel" - 'wind') as "a werewolf, an evil power", which is common in Tevrizsky and Tobolsk dialects: Йелбегән йолаланып йөрөйте ғуй / Walks like a yelbegan [6], [7]. Elbegan is a monster with seven heads, an earth spirit with wings who is able to perform a several day flights. Elbegen rarely meets a man, but when they are met it certainly kills and devours him [11]. Siberian Tatars apply the word "yelbegan" in respect of unkempt little girls who make mischieves. There is a phraseological unit “йелбегән цацлы” with unkempt hair [7]. Therefore, the lexeme yelbegan has the following meanings: 1. A flying evil spirit (a monster) with seven heads (a myth); 2. The disapproving reference to mischievous little girls with unkempt hair. There is a collective image of the mythical character at the heart of the figurative meaning - a chaotically moving origin with an expressed head. 7. NOMINATION OF PERSON MATSGAY The analysis of the lexeme "matsgay" in lexicographical sources revealed that it is used in the dialects of Siberian Tatars in two senses. The compilers of dialectological dictionaries interpret this unit as "a glutton, voracious" with the mark Tyumen, Tobolsk dialects [14], [6]; There are the lexemes "alyot" [6], "absa" [14] / "apsa" as the synonyms [8]. The etym ological sources refer "matsgay" to the ancient basis би:җин / bi:ğin, which has six meanings: 1. Monkey; 2. The nam e of the ninth year of the twelfth animal cycle; 3. The nam e of the Pleiades star pattern; 4. an evil spirit (Tyum.); 5. Fish; 6. a ladybug; a water beetle; an insect floating on the water; a slug. In the etymological dictionary of the Tatar language the word "machkay" is interpreted as an old witch [9]. During the field studies of the Tyumen region dialects we recorded another meaning of the word "matsgay" - a greedy man (Small Kondan village of Vagaysky region), which is a derivative and local one. In order to establish the semantic connections between the meanings of the lexeme matsgay let's refer directly to the mythology of Siberian Tatars. The mythonym "matsgay" / "termatsgay" is described as a blood-sucking female evil spirit, presented as a flaming fireball that goes out hunting in the evening or night. The prey of such a spirit is the remnants of blood in the places of cattle slaughtering, and sometimes late street people. The evil spirit returns home to the body through a tube. The next day, a woman the body which has a demon, has a headache, stomachache, and she vomits blood. According to the legends of Siberian Tatars, "matsgay" feels when he is talked about. So it may bring some hurt. In some local settlements of Vagaysky region (the Tyum en area) the taboo words are used as synonyms: "teshle" - a toothed (Tukuz village), "kanatly" - winged, pilot (irony), "kuk irene" - with blue lips (Yurmy village), "otsgyr" - flying, "ut" - fire (Small Condan village). These synonyms point to the different characteristics of an evil spirit: biting, flying, fire, with pale lips. The first part of the word "termatsgay" ("Tere" - alive + matsgay) indicates that it is a living person, unlike "kupkyn". The lexem e "termatsgay" has a contemptuous coloring. According to the info mentioned above it follows that the semantic core is kept at the meaning transfer - "gluttonous, voracious": voracious evil spirit → gluttonous man → greedy man (insatiable in respect of material goods) food (blood) - food - wealth Thus, the semantic content of the lexeme "matsgay" in the dialects of the Siberian Tatars is as follows: 1. A bloodsucking evil spirit (myth); 2. A glutton; 3. A greedy man. 8. NOMINATION OF PERSON KUPKYN With respect to this word the lexicographical sources contain some very poor material. All dialect investigators relate the word "kupkyn" with a ghost: Қупқын иртән қәбергә кереп йата [6], [7]. The verb "kubu" - to wake up, to rise [6] makes the basis, therefore, "kupkyn" literally is the man who rose and woke up. The ethnographic documents provide a very scattered picture of this mythical character. Omsk researchers describe "kupkyn" in the dictionary as "Ubyr" (a werewolf), suggesting that the expression "ubyr-kupkan" serves to indicate the illusory

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 quality and the other world [16]. In general, ethnographers agree that the words "ubyr", "matsgay" and "kupkyn" act as the synonyms [11], [16]. The detailed description of "kupkyn" mythonym includes the field records. в Қупқын шал уқ мәцгәйтән қәб ер тишегеннән оцып цығыуы плән айрылаты. Ут пулып цықса та, кеше пурмысына кереп олло сыйан қылып йөрейте. Аны қәтәртән үлеп, қаны йертә қалған кешенең чаны қырық в көненнәнсен тә тыныцлана алмайты тителәр. Шаның өцөн уғымышлы муллаға туа қылтырып, қаб ер тишегенә аусақ тайақ қақтырып қотылғаннар. Қупқыннарның кеше пулып, өйләренә килүе йә пашға урыннарта оцрауы турынта төрле сүсләр йөрөйте. Термәцгәй шигелле уқ эценеүгә тә, пайлыққа та туймау ғына түгел, әшгәрә ацыулы әм кән арақ эцеп йөрөп, кеше рәнцеткәннәрне қупқын тип әйтәтеләр (Recorded on 25.07.2014 in the village Small Condan of the Vagaisky region). Translation. "Kupkyn" differs from "matsgay" by the fact that it flies out of the hole in the tomb. "Kupkyn" flies out from the grave in the form of fire, but nevertheless takes a human form, which is capable of causing a great harm. They say that the a man's soul after the tragic death with a great loss of blood (literally: the blood left on the ground), even after forty days can not take a rest. Therefore, the evil spirit was got rid of after the reading of a prayer by an invited literate mullah, by nailing an aspen stake in a sepulchral hole. There are different tales that kupkyn appears to household in a hum an form or as found in other places. Kupkyn is not like "termatsgay", an insatiable for food or for wealth, but this is a very angry man who is able to hurt people due to the excessive use of alcoholic beverages. Consequently, kupkyn - is 1. An evil spirit of a tragically died man who murdered his victims by strangulation (myth); 2. A cruel drinking tormentor of his friends and relatives (of a man). There is a collective image of the mythical character at the heart of the meaning transfer - the one who torments his victims. 9. NOMINATION OF PERSON PITSEN In dialectological sources the lexeme "pitsen" (synonyms en, enperi, urman iyase, su pitsen) has two meanings that prevail in Tobolsk dialect: 1. A wood goblin; 2. A brownie [6], [14]. The word dates back to the ancient basis би:җин / bi:ğin (see matsgay). The ethnographers noted the complexity of the image "pitsen" in the mythology of the Siberian Tatars, which incorporated many elements of other demonological beings [16]. Firstly, pitsen is a master of forest, which is presented in the forms of a comely old man with a long staff and a knapsack on his back or as a beautiful woman entering into an affair with a man, as well as various animals [17]. Secondly, a water woman with large breasts and long golden hair, who lives in the river. [16] Thirdly, small and thin dirty spirits who mix the horse manes (the field notes in Vagaisky region). The secondary nomination of a person is associated with the last notion of the mythonym "pitsen". The Vagaisk Tatars call naughty little children with a lean constitution "pitsentsegatsler" (diminutive affix -tsegats + pl -lar). Besides the idioms "pitsen, pit" are used (literally "pitsen" - a face) within the meaning "a man with a small fine thin face" and pitse-pitsen (literally a female pitsen) within the meaning of "a woman who killed her husband". Thus, "pitsen" - 1. A forest or a water spirit which appears in the form of people, animals, little creatures (myth); 2. Diminutive form: naughty little children with a slim constitution. The meaning transfer is performed by appearance - the height and the body volume around. 10. SUMMARY During the study of secondary nominations of a man we came to the following conclusions: 1. The analyzed lexemes are the products of the secondary nomination, which is not actually described in lexicographical practice. As a rule, the basis for a meaning transfer is a collective image of a mythical character. A negative connotation is preserved between the meanings of the sam e lexem e. 2. Taking into account the syntactic functions of nouns, verbs and adjectives (according to N.D. Arutyunova) the subject (albasty, aurak, alamatse, matsgay, pitsen) and predicate (yelbegan, kupkyn) nominations are revealed. "The subject names reflect and represent the objects, indicative names - the relations, the properties of the latter. So the meanings of the first ones are more autonomous and absolute, the meanings of the second are relative and determined by many factors" [19]. 3. The use of nominative means of mythology in their new function of naming promotes the development of polysemantic word structure. 11. CONCLUSION Myth as a component of a language picture of the world is represented in the cultural space of Siberian Tatars by secondary nominations of a person. A negative connotation of lexemes is the result of a hostile evil origin dominance in the naive view of the world, which is expressed predominantly in the female images. The culture of Siberian Tatars condemns such qualities as gluttony, greed, brutality, immorality, temper, intemperance.. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was prepared as the part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FGAOU VPO "K(P)FU" among the leading research and education centers in 2013 - 2020". CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirms that the presented data do not contain any conflict of interests. REFERENCES 1. Karabulatova I.S., Fedorova E.A., Sayfulina F.S. A Linguo-Mythological Space of the Toponym "Siberia" in Contemporary Slavonic Linguistic Consciousness // World Applied Sciences Journal 30 (9): 1134-1138, 2014.

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METHODS OF MODERN SLANG EXPRESSIONS FROM ENGLISH TO TATAR TRANSLATION Elena Valer'evna Varlamova, Gul'shat Rafailevna Safiullina Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya St., 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/11 Received: 04 Feb, 2015 Accepted: 12 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT Current article discusses modern slang expression translation methods from different system languages, namely English to Tatar. Translation methods meeting accuracy and sapidity criteria. On the basis of results received slang expressions (120 units) were selected and translated. The slang expressions considered within this article are subdivided into nominative, verbal, adjective lexical units, and also groups with pragmatical cliches and sentence structure expression were allocated. After data acquisition we planned to carry out slang expressions preparation and transfer in order to include them into lexicographic character works, namely user dictionaries. Thus, English lexicon structure translated into Tatar is extends, and English-Tatar lexicography receives further development as well. Key words: Translation, translation means, English, Tatar, slang expressions, lexicography 1. INTRODUCTION Now, when the Republic of Tatarstan moves forth to international scene in sure rates, international versatile activity repeatedly testifies this, high-quality mastering school students and students English is very timely in order to preserve native Tatar language. General idea of polilingual Tatar and Russian-English community numerous scientific and educational and methodical projects are penetrated and integrated. Currently it is necessary to extend and use the English-Tatar dictionary published in 2014 in KFU Publishing House for school students, as well as to motivate students for studying it. [1] Requirements of modern young students are numerous and various. Modern English slang can be an effective methods of attraction to English. 120 slang expressions were selected as additional material to available dictionary. Slang represents the most considerable volume group of colloquial units. Moreover, this group is characterized by high mobility. [2] Youth slang units are not banned, they differ, as well as phraseological units, by expressiveness, emotionality, judgment, therefore, are easily remembered and re-created. [3, 4, 5] Youth slang social characteristics is no less important, than linguistic one. Slang use in speech allows younger generation native speakers to feel part of special uniform space, to stand apart and communicate by means of coded language. Above-mentioned characteristics allow to assume that translation into other language objective is rather labor-consuming and demands professional approach: linguistics theory knowledge and translation practice experience. Comprehensive analysis and selected 120 slang expressions study (further SE) enable us to start the following most difficult stage, namely, transferring them from colloquial communication naturalness sphere to register sphere, fixing lexicographic plan in text. Importance of correct concept transfer by means of target language was repeatedly noted. [6] Different culture bearers can perceive the same object in reality, action, or concept differently. [7] Any phenomena assessment is based on comparison, which is brought by emotions, motives and cultural environment that reflects speaker's view of the world. [8] Recently interest in different peoples reflection of national identity problem arose in fiction works. [9] It is necessary to consider the corresponding valuable installations and moral ethical standards to reach adequate transfer of source text into target. Current research consists of 120 slang expressions which were analyzed from semantics point of view, structural organization were taken as a basis, structural-grammatical analysis was conducted Only after obtaining exact data on different structural-grammatical types examples, various translation methods were approved, best were chosen and applied. Thus, SE received full characteristic and prelexicographic preparation. Subsequently SE can be put into English-Tatar dictionary. 2. TRANSLATION WAYS AND NATIONAL SAVOUR PRESERVATION PROBLEM Translation plays an important role in society's life and therefore draws attention of literary critics, psychologists, ethnographers and linguists for a long time. On human development various stages different views on translation essence and principles have been expressed, often they were mutually exclusive [10]. Translation process is communication with 2 languages use. Translation is objective and subjective process at the same time. Objectivity of translation process is defined by need of reproduction perhaps more stoutly and more precisely in original text contents translation and it depends on structure and functionally features of both languages. Translation subjectivity is defined by translator qualification-dependency and translators individual features. Each translation is subjective meaning that any speech unit is a result of the person speech act and is subjective. Thus, translation represents subjective realization of objective correlations by translator. Adequate translation, equivalent translation, exact, literal, and free translations are distinguished. Translation which provides pragmatical tasks of translation act at equivalence level, best suitable for purpose achievement, is called adequate translation, with no violations of norms or translation language usage, observing genre and stylistic text type requirements and meeting public and recognized conventional translation standards. Translation reproducing foreign-language original contents on equivalent levels is called equivalent translation.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Translation in which subject and logical part of original contents is equivalent is called close translation; deviations from genre and stylistic standards and usual rules of language use are permitted. Translation reproducing communicative and irrelevant (formal) elements of original is called literal translation; target language standards can be violated here or original valid contents distorted. Translation executed at lower level of equivalence is called liberal (loose) translation, it is less equivalent then current translation act allows. Translation equivalence is real semantic proximity achieved by translator. Its sign is the maximum extent of original contents saving in translation. Translation unit compliance is second language unit which is regularly used for such unit translation. Units of source language which have no regular compliances in target language, are called inequivalent. Inequivalent lexical units compliances are borrowings, compliances - tracing-papers (recreating morphemic word structure or set phrase components), compliances - analogs (are created by target language closest unit selection for inequivalent source language unit), compliances - lexical replacements (are created by inequivalent lexical unit value transfer by means of one of translation transformation types) are considered translation ways, the description being used when it is impossible to create compliance using any of above-described ways [11]. Translation transformations are transformations by means of which it is possible to carry out transition from original units to translation units. Lexical, grammatical and lexical and grammatical transformations are distinguished (the last transformations affect original lexical and grammatical units at the same time, or are inter-level, that is transition from lexical units to grammatical and vice versa). Realities – words (phrase) naming objects characteristic for life, life and culture of one people and alien to another. Usually, they have no exact compliances. Ethnographic realities appear one of the most commonly considered realities group. Issues of current group realities transfer are studied especially fixedly because household items, clothes, foods, etc. give art texts' statements a certain national, regional or local color. Translators choose different ways of reality translation: transcription – transferring reality with graphic means with maximum proximity to original phonetic form; transliteration – transfer at the level of graphemes; neologism introduction (tracing-paper or semi-tracing-paper); approximate translation; the contextual translation – contents transfer by means of transformed context. As a rule, newspaper-inform ational data translation and literary translation are considered different translation types. Main translation function of newspaper and information data is informative. This task explains its accurately organized composite sphere: heading, introduction paragraph (beginning), developed statement. Heading and beginning creation is most rigidly determined. More or less strictly regulated set of used language means is peculiar to these components, and rules of headings and beginnings creation in Russian and English languages differ: we need to remember that when translating. English newspaper-information style features generally lie in use various styles language units: literature-and-written and colloquial. Thus terms, abbreviations, reductions, slang language units, jargons and professionalism, archaisms and, of course, neologisms may appear in newspaper-information style text. Russian journalese is also characterized by differentstyle element combination, but in comparison with English newspaper texts, it was focused on literature-and-written language earlier. Therefore when translating it is necessary to observe proportions between stylistically neutral units and literature-and-written units which sometimes need to be replaced. Journalese is characterized by wide PU use, so-called cliches (steady combinations with erased figurativeness: to throw light, to lay the corner-stone) [12]. Fiction writing characteristics (writer's individual art manner, influence aesthetics of an era, a variety of lexical and grammatical means) and make literary translation issues extrem ely difficult. When translating fiction there is a task - to reproduce an individual singularity of the original text. Often in formal specific language original text element nonequivalence its aesthetic function with formal side change can be reproduced. Along with figurativeness fiction is distinguished by special property - semantic capacity. This property shows in writer's ability to tell more, than set literal word meaning allows, making writer's thoughts and feelings and imagination work [13]. Next fiction characteristic feature is pronounced national coloring contents and form. Close connection between historical situation and images reflecting it is also important. Individual writer style which uses certain public language styles is determined by above-mentioned language parameters. Appeals to philological context demand "difficult" places of classical works which, as a rule, have a set of interpretations and can be clarified only when studying more extended pieces of text [14]. Strict context isn't beyond this text. Wide context concept is connected to facts and phenomena which are not observed in text and nor derived from it. National color preservation problem is closely related to text semantic capacity preservation. With literal and allegoric present in literature text crucial role is played by the meant. National color peculiarity translation issue lies in fiction reflecting certain life-bound reality of specific nation; national language embodies images it in images. Literature of each country offers a number of works on subjects and plots taken from life of other people, but nevertheless they are hall-marked with own nationality [15]. Same goes for translations. As for national color, artistic image in literature two-sided on the one hand there are contents, on the other is the language category. In first case when it concerns literary work plot-and-thematic part, specific translation problem does not arise. In second case, translation complexity can be considerable. The closer the text reflect the national life subject, the "everyday life", stylistically - to folklore, the brighter the national color is shown. Lexical borrowings are applied seldom, only when it shakes well-known realities, culturally - historical realities or dialecticisms on which the author comments. Lexical borrowing technique (transcription and transliteration) is allocated against the native language. 3. ENGLISH SLANG EXPRESSIONS, STRUCTURE-AND-GRAMMAR ANALYSIS We will carry out structure-and-grammar analysis, having divided slang expressions in groups on the basis of their structural organization. Table 1 shows distribution of studied slang expressions in structure-and-grammar types.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Table 1. Structure-and-grammar classification of English slang expressions researched in this article # 1 2 3 4 5

Structure-and-grammar type Nominative SE Verbal SE Adjective SE Pragmatic cliche SE SE with sentence structure Total

Examples:

General quantity 54 32 31 2 1 120

% 45 26.7 25.9 1.6 0.8 100 %

Thus, we observe the following regularity: most widespread group is nouns. For example, verbal and adjective SE groups are almost equal by quantity, which proves their equivalent importance and use in popular speech; it is caused by need to allegorically declare object actions, as well as to give certain estimated characteristic. Pragmatical cliche are barely presented, to their share falls only 1, 6%, which confirms slang expressions' essence: they do not need additional codification. Slang expression with a sentence structure "You piss me off" got the final fixed form due to situational orientation. 4. ENGLISH SLANG EXPRESSIONS SEMANTIC PROPERTIES In slangy style of speech one of the most widespread objects for judgment is a person. Stylistic abasement degree varies from from positive to offensive [16]. Antropocentricity of human nature principle enriches modern English-speaking youth with such expressions as bird (: woman, female. хатын-кыз); lass (: girl, young lady (Traditional Scottish word) – кыз); persons from judgment circle: twit (: idiot, stupid person. ахмак, тиле, сарыкбаш), as well as in many other languages it indicates concept universality, etc. [17]. Among verbal expressions a few characterize conversation mannerblab (: talk, give away secrets серлəрне əйтергə) or its purpose slag someone off (: to say unpleasant things about someone to other people гайб əт таратырга). Often slang expressions are constructed on standard linguistic norms violation. [18] Constant neologism exchange from center to periphery can also back promote introduction of some slang expressions in daily language and even decrease negative estimation to neutral [19]. Adjective brill (: really good, brilliant. бик яхшы, бик шәп, искиткеч), fazed (: worried, disconcerted – борчу, каушап калган, дулкынланган, тынгысыз; unfazed (: cool, calm – тыныч, тыныч канлы, басынкы) can be picked up and enter the neutral register of daily language set by means of communication. Pragmatical cliche, certainly, are often used, paraphrased and repeated, these are already recorded slang expressions created by popular language-bearers [20] Other expressions will either pass into the main register over time, or will depart in outdated slang group. Possibly, its mass distribution to speech is its wide use. For example, cool it (: don't get excited, be more calm, calm down. ясырма, тынычланырга) can quite get neutral coloring over time. 5. WAYS OF TRANSLATING SLANG EXPRESSIONS FROM ENGLISH TO TATAR The most difficult aspect of this problem was and is, in our opinion, translation of unrelated or not closely related language systems expressions. You need to be guided by the following factors way choosing the way of translation: opacity degree of expression internal form(whether one component is obscured or all of them); and phraseological analogs. Considering specific features of SE expedient types of translation the descriptive translation, lexical, and the translation by means of analog. Descriptive translation is meaning transfer by means of variable combination of words. This type of translation is especially convenient when translating terms and expressions, genoprototype for which is realities inherent in culture of these people, or little-known historic facts. Tracing: a literal translation is used when 1) translating inequivalent phraseology which can not be translated by means of other translation types; 2) there is a phraseological unit with same meaning in target language, but its use would lead to national color loss. Inequivalent PU translation is also possible using lexical equivalents. Sometimes the only way to translate a PU is a one-word translation. In case of lexical translation between translated phraseological unit and a monolexeme, as a rule, content plan coincidence is observed: significant-anddenotative meaning, judgment translation is possible using approximate coincidence of connective characteristics. There are differences in expression. As a rule, emotion-and-expression and function-and-style connotations are generally not translated since slang meaning is transferred by means of non-figurative and stylistically neutral lexeme. In number of cases if the monolexeme is figurative and belongs besides to functional style, which can be called initial SE, translation more adequate. It should be noted that in this case intensity of figurativeness decreases. Translation by means of analog is preferable to slang verbal expressions translation. [21] Full analogs – PU identical on significant-and-denominative meaning, with possible coincidence of internal form, with identical connotative coloring and is functional – stylistic accessory at possible coincidence of lexeme structure. The PU structural-grammatical organization, as a rule, is not identical due to languages belonging to different types. For incomplete phraseological analogs adequacy or proximity of meaning, difference of internal form, full distinction of lexical structure, correspondence of connotative characteristic, including identity of functional and stylistic accessory and distinction of structure-and-grammar organization are common. Approximate analogs are characterized by full divergence of lexical structure, internal form, functional and stylistic orientation, structure-and-grammar characteristics, at possible coincidence of connotative coloring with relative or sem antic volume having small deviations. 6. CONCLUSION On the basis of the above-said it is possible to draw a conclusion that slang expressions study from structural organization point of view, providing correct translation way choice, will allow to expand usage of English-Tatar dictionary lexicon and add the considered slang expressions. 7. SUMMARY Thus, the conducted research allows to estimate objectively characteristics of slang expressions, their potential usefulness for enrichment of English part taking into account stylistic features, with abased style marking fixed in

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 lexicographic sources as pejorative. Approbation method revealed preferable translation ways for SE data. On the basis of the above-said it is possible to draw a conclusion on prospects of slang expressions inclusion in the text of English-Tatar dictionary. COMPETITIVE INTERESTS Author confirms that submitted data does not contain competitive interests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is performed according to the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University. REFERENCES 1. English-Tatar Dictionary / G.R. Safiullina. - Kazan': Kazan. un-ty nəshrii͡aty, 2014. – 504. 2. V.V.Khimik. Poetics of base or vernacular as culture phenom ena. Philology and Culture. Sankt-Peterburg: Department of Philosophy Publishing House, SPb, 200. - 272 p. 3. Arsenteva, E.F.,Kayumova, A.R. (2014) Complex modifications of phraseological units and the ways of their translation, Life Science Journal, (11), pp. 502-506. 4. Arsenteva, E.F., Nurullova A.A. (2014) Phraseological units with onomatopoeic components in English and German, Life Science Journal, (11), pp.465-468 5. Ayupova, R.A, Bashirova, M.A., Bezuglova, O.A., Kuznetsova, A.A., Sakhibullina, K.A. (2014) Ornythonym component and phraseological meaning Life Science Journal, (11), pp. 290-293. 6. Galieva A.M., Nagumanova E.F. (2014) An Integrated Analysis of Translations of Tatar Prose into Russian: The Methodology and General Principles Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research (21 (1), pp. 263-267. 7. G.Kh. Gilazetdinova, I.Zh. Edikhanov, A.A. Aminova (2014) Problems of Ethnocultural identity and crosslanguage communication Journal of Language and Literature, Vol. 5. (3), pp. 39-42. 8. Bolgarova R.M., Safonova S.S., Zamaliutdinova E.R. (2014) Comparison in Russian and Tatar lingvocultures: systemic functional and comparative analysis Journal of Language and Literature, Vol. 5. (3), pp. 148-152. 9. Varlamova, E.V. Image of America in USA literature of XX century (III. Anderson, D. Dos Passos, T. Wilder). Diss. Philology Ph.D Kazan' KFU 2010 - P. 8 – -25. 10. Fedorov, A.I. General Translation Theory Basics / A.I. Fedorov. – M., 1983. – 303. 11. Kunin, A.V. Translation correspondence typology in "English-Russian phraseological Dictionary" / A.V. Kunin // Phraseologism and its lexicographical development. – Minsk, 1987. – -125. 12. Shadrin, N.L. Phraseological unit translation and correspondence stylistics. Edited by. ͡ IU .M. Skrebneva / N.L. Shadrin. – Saratov: Saratov University Publishing House, 1991. – 220. 13. Pavlova, N.M. On "expression" and "'emotion" terms correlation and their linguistic essence clarification / N.M. Pavlova // Expression stylistics issues. – Rostov na D., 1987. - P. 47 – -54. 14. Vlakhov, S. Intranslatable in translation / S. Vlakhov, S. Florin. - M.: International Relations, 1980. – 352. 15. Mednikova, Ė.M. Translation Theory and Language Comparison Analysis / E.M. Mednikova. - M.: Moscow University P.H. 1985. – 211. 16. A.G.Fayzullina. German-Russian-Tatar Dictionary of invective lexis. Kazan, Kazan State University Publishing House, 2007. - 42 p. 17. L.R. Nurova Sinomichiskie ryady v snizhennoj leksike (na material leksicheskoh edinits, ob`edinennyh znachenim “intellectual`no nesostoyatel`ny chelovek”).. Aftoreferat…. Philosophy Ph.D. Nizhnij Novgorod, 2002. - 18 p. 18. T.P.Pleschenko, N.V.Fedotova, R.G.Chechet. Speech Style and Culture basics. Minsk, TetraSystems, 1999. 239 p. 19. Yan Dagmar. Russian to German translation statistics for spoken language and varnacular. Aftoreferat…. Philol.Ph.D. Volgograd, 2000. - 18 p. 20. Yunakovskaya A.A. Mass City Culture Spoken Language. (Case study of Omsk City). Studia philologica. Moscow: Languages of Slavic Cultures. 2007. - 167 p. 21. Safiullina G.R. Phraseological units with notable inner form in English and Turkish. Diss. Philology Ph.D Kazan' KSU 2000 - P. 72-74.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

MULLTILINGUALISM AS PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTOR OF CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS (IN TERMS OF YOUNG PEOPLE OF TR) Edward Grigoryevich Volchkov Kazan Federal University, Institute of Psychology and Education, Mezhlauka Street, 1, Kazan, 420021, Tatarstan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/12 Received: 04 Dec, 2014 Accepted: 02 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT This article discusses the role and value of multilingualism as psychological and cultural value orientations. The problem presents a matter of important and topical interest for a multiethnic region as Tatarstan. If the schools of Tatarstan are oriented at targeted tolerance formation of a student on the basis of multilingual model of education then a higher educational establishment does not follow the same pattern. Lack of due multilingual grounding at higher school brings to contradictoriness and multiplicity of interpretation of cultural value orientations among the youth of Tatarstan. We have chosen the methods adapted by G.U. Soldatova [5] «Cultural value differential» for cross-cultural study of cultural value orientations of the Russians and the Tatars of the Tatar Republic. Findings show that interethnic relations among young people carry ambiguous reference. It is evident from analyzing the investigation results that the Russians and the Tatars are not ready for positive interethnic relations with each other, in particular, it is explicitly exhibited among the representatives of Tatar intelligentsia, at time in the past, emigrated from countryside, assimilated into urbanized bilingual environment and educated at municipal higher school. We ague soundly that this factor is indicative of interethnic relation decay. It is obvious that tolerant, goodneighbourly relations that were inherent in schooling has not been formed adequately by higher school’s bilingual environm ent in that section of young people. In conclusion, analyzing multilingualism influence on formation of cultural value orientation of young people, it is important to notice that possible field of applying findings for Tatarstan political and educational institutes in determination of strategy of interpersonal communication aimed at tension reducing in the Republic is favourable at present. The bilingual as well as monolingual Russian-Tatar students (village youth and city dwellers) of 22-25 took place in the experiment. Key words: cultural value orientation, bilinguilism, monolinguilism, tolerance (intolerance), ethnicity, selfconsciousness, socialization 1. INTRODUCTION The problems of multilingualism and interethnic interaction is rather actual problem for the Tatar Republic. In multinational republic implementation of multinational language policy keeps remaining the major task in new social realities. When generating educating systems in the regions of Tatarstan where the representatives of various nations reside, the significant and at the same time complicated task of language problems harmonization arises. In the schools of the Tatar Republic where the nations representatives living in this region study simultaneously the dedicated formation of tolerance of student’s personality influenced by multilingualism is going on. By and large, it is achieved by means of realization of educational multilingual pattern in the republic in which the ethno-cultural component that has, in our view, specific feature is widely represented. Thus, socialization of student’s personality, his formation is going on in multilingual environment and under its persistent tolerant influence in many ways. The role and significance of such education in terms of schooling are proved by E.G. Volchkova’s, Ye.E. Volchkova’s investigations [1]: graduates from school are tolerant, ready for perception of «the different» and for interethnic communication. Unfortunately, this educational pattern, in our opinion, does not have so significant effect afterwards – at higher school. It is disappearing and practically coming to nothing. This pattern partially manifests itself in studying the Tatar language as the second state language. It cannot but affect the formation of misrepresented cultural value orientations of young people of the Tatar Republic. Cultural value orientations of the Tatar young people carry, in our view, contradictory character that lies in diverse influence of multilingualism on them. It has noticeable effect mainly on the youth residing in bilingual as well as multilingual environment. Contradictory character of cultural value orientation is the result of qualitative emotional process of individuals’ self-determination in social space in regard to the other ethnos. It is not only awareness of their ethnic identity but evaluation of it and emotional experience as well. According to L.S. Vygotsky, experience is «a child’s inner attitude toward this or that real moment» [2]. Value orientations is an aspect of people’s normative role-playing behavior. Here it is implied strategic determinants of people having been entrenched in a certain cultural environment for centuries. These definitions are oriented towards the study of common cultural phenomenon in which moral-oriented and problem instructive aspects are singled out[3]. Cultural values take place mostly in realization of the aspect of human activity: its components are more stable, dynamics of changes becomes slower than dynamics of the elements of value orientations. Manifestations of value orientations as well as cultural values are treated at the sam e time as strong factors of motivation of human cultural behavior: they serve as stimuli for gaining various aims. Standards of cultural evaluation, hierarchy of essential goals and choice of their achievement methods become form ed by means of value orientations and cultural values. Forms of realization of stated functions in both cases are performed differently. At the same time, according to L.F. Bayanova, «every culture has cultural

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 norms. A culture representative strives for corresponding to normartive context, but a person targets at transformations of culture that is represented with a unique norm set by him» [4]. 2. RESULTS For hypothesis testing we have carried out a pilot experiment with 60 participants (15 Tatars – bilinguals, 15 Tatars – monolinguals, 15 Russians – bilinguals, 15 Russians – monolinguals). The participants were graduate students (ОЗО) having practical work in the field and representing young group of population. The age of students under consideration was 22-25 years old. Not large sample accounts for by our having conducted the pilot questionnaire survey, necessary for determining on a strategy and tactics for further investigation. For cross-cultural investigation of cultural value orientations of the Russians and the Tatars we have chosen the method adapted by G.U. Soldatova [5] « Cultural value differential». In continuum of psychological universal phenomenon «collectivism – individualism» four groups of value orientations are considered: group (self) orientation, social changes orientation, orientation to interethnic interaction, orientation toward power. We have dwelt only on the third group of value orientations since orientation toward interethnic interaction acts as the most important means of socialization, extends ethnics’ opportunities in knowledge acquisition about peculiarities of their and neighbouring cultures, promotes the development of interethnic understanding. Scale intervals from 1 to 4 was applied for the answers. Quality factor from 0 to 1 is determined by the formulae: Q= (300-3Q1 –Q2+Q3 +3Q4),where Q1– the quality is not explicit; Q2– quality is conveyed poor; Q 3 – average quality conveying качества; Q4 – quality is conveyed to the full. The central rank among ethno social perception is held by images of native and other ethnic groups that present the main meaning of ethnic identity as cognitive motivational core of ethnic self-consciousness and implicitly present individual relations in interethnic contacts. The ethnophor subconsciously finds his position in multiethnic environment and constructs an algorithm of behavior in and out of the group. He creates an image of psychosocial safety and stability of life through the steadiness of his positive ethnoidentity. General results are in table 1. Table 1. Orientation of the young people of Tatarstan to interethnic interaction Indicators

tolerance intolerance warmth coldness compliance rivalry

Bilinguals The Russians about The Tatars about the Tatars the Russians 0,7 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,5 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,1 0,5 0,2

Monolinguals The Russians about The Tatars about the Tatars the Russians 0,8 0,8 0,2 0,2 0,8 0,5 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,4 0,4

3. DISCUSSION On the basis of analysed data that are presented in the table one can state that residing in monolingual environment has relative isolation of rural population from cross-cultural information potraying neighbouring nation in idealized positive light. One can obseve it from the received data: people, living in monolingual surrounding, expressed appreciation of ethnic neighbor. When analyzing the results one can see that the Russians and the Tatars are not ready for positive interethnic interaction with each other, especially it is explicitly expressed by the representatives of the Tatar intelligence emigrated from rural areas in the past, assimilated in urbanized bilingual environment and educated at a municipal higher educational establishment. In our point of view, it is a striking example of a certain decay of the level of interethnic interaction. It is obvious that the bilingual environm ent of higher educational establishment has not formed rather tolerant, good-neighbourly relations inherent in schooling in this group of young people. The same we observe among urban bilingual intelligentsia. They have distance in relation to each other, reluctance of close ethnocontact relationship and some inconsistency. Thus, on the one hand, usual tolerance, peacefulness and warmth to the ethnic neighbor (the Russians) are observed, in reality the Tatars give undervaluation to the Russians due to the ethnic interaction data defining them as distance oriented in relation to the neighbor group. It is the evidence of hidden non-acceptance of principles, everyday values of the Russians and some distance from the neighbor nation. We think that it is connected with so called kindly disposed or flexible ethnocentrism, that means impartial assessment of the group quality, and with an attempt to understand the features of another [6]. In this way, the wider is the spectrum of cultural value orientations of ethnophor, the longer he lives in bilingual surrounding. Multilingual rural intelligentsia is more tolerant to the speaking another language while citizens attitude «with coldness» to the individuals of another nation. The investigation by E.G. Volchkova supports this fact. Thus, the auther notices that «the rural Tatars whose socialization was in monolingual environment manifest their ethnic identification stronger» [7]. The Tatars think that he Russians don’t strive for achieving their goals in different spheres of live activity by which they dem onstrate that the Russians are passive not friendly rivalry [motivation of achieving: complience – 0,1 – rivalry – 0,2]. Rivalry is always an integral part of urbanization. It concerns more the Tatars being in bilingual environment. In the Russians’ opinion, such quality as rivalry is highly expressed in the Tatar nationality. М.Мid wrote «every individual of the group is confident in his own position being different from group position and is a vivid example of bearer of collective values that serve in this case as the source of information about either of the culture » [8]. Inhabitants of villages and towns are inclined to cooperation more than city inhabitants. Unlike the representatives of the Russian and the Tatar bilingual intelligentsia, ethnophors specializing in monolingual environment are drawn more toward cross-cultural communication with the neighboring people. The Russian rural youth gets emotionally ready for interethnic communication with neighboring nation. This factor is indicative of

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 scholarship, high culture and striving for «acceptance of the other culture» and the neighboring nation. Socialized in monolingual environment where there is no cross-cultural relations, the Russian and the Tatar ethnophors do not feel and face with international inner conflicts. These all leads to positive interethnic interaction and relationship within titular ethnic group of Tatarstan. So, we see antagonisms in the character of interethnic interaction among the bilingual and monolingual youth. Moreover, among bilingual young people it is observed the decay and intolerance in their relations [0,2; 0,3], and among the monolinguals we observe the opposite[0,8; 0,4], and, at the same time notice some coldness in relations [0,2; 0,4; 0,3]. Similar coldness we notice in motivation of achieving goals (compliance - rivalry), that indicates to interethnic tolerance [0,4; 0,5]. In other words, cultural value orientations, as well as ethnical identity heavily depend upon not only the nearest surrounding but also the wider[9]. It makes sense to the fact whether a person lives either in polyethnical or monoethnical environm ent. Besides, Phinney argues «that is all significant in situations in which two or more ethnic groups correlate » [10]. 4. SUMMARY 1. Family is the basis of ethnic formation in which socialization by means of the language begins. 2. In the process of socialization a personality forms. Bilingualism broadens the opportunities of acquiring by ethnophor knowledge about features of his native and neighboring culture. 3. Cultural value orientations are clearly realized if a person specializes in polyethnic culture. COMMENDATION The work was performed in terms of implementation «The plan of activities on realization of the Program of competitive recovery of FGAOU VPO « K(P) FU» among the leading world scientific-educational centers for 2013 – 2020». REFERENCES 1. Волчков Э.Г., Волчкова Е.Э. Многоязычная модель образования как условия развития толерантности школьников (на материале республики Татарстан). Реальность этноса. Образование и проблемы межэтнической коммуникации. Материалы IV научно-практической конференции. Санкт-Петербург, 1720 апреля 2002 (стр.322-323) 2. Выготский Л.С., Детская психологи. 1984 соб.соч: в 6 т., т.4. – С. 382 3. Scheff. T.J. Academic Gangs, Crime; Law and Social change / T.J. Scheff// 1995. - №23. – P.157-162. 4. Baynova, L.F. (2011) Hamlet as a reflection of psychological characteristics according to L.S. Vygotsky Voprosy Psikhologii (6), pp. 77-83. 5. Солдатова Г.У. Психология межэтнической напряженности. М., 1998-с.386. 6. Brewer, M.B., Campbell D.T. Ethnocentrism and intergroup attitudes: East African evidence. N. Y., 1976. 7. Volchkov, E.G. The empiric study of ethnic identity of the Tatar (based on the Republic of Tatarstan). Life Sci. J 2014; 11 (9s):129-132] (ISSN:1097-8135).http://www.lifesciencesite.com.24. 8. Mead, M. National Character. In: Kroebe A. K. (ed.). Anthopology Today/ - Chicago, III.: The University of Chicago Press, 1953. – 645 p. 9. Стефаненко Т.Г. Этнопсихология. Учебник М.: аист пресс, 2009.-с.139. 10. Phinney, J.S. Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research // Psychological Bulletin. 1990. Vol. 108. P. 499-514, - С. 501

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MULTI-WORD LEXICAL ENTRIES IN LSP DICTIONARIES: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Elzara Vasilovna Gafiyatova, Marina Ivanovna Solnishkina Department of Contrastive Linguistics and Linguodidactics, Kazan Federal University, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/13 Received: 06 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 01 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The article presents some selected aspects of the work in connection with English Forestry Dictionary covering the field of forestry. The emphasis is on the microstructure of the dictionary. In contrast to existing dictionaries in the field, this is a bilingual print dictionary of non-formal register designed to help the user see English foresters' "world picture", the way the English Forestry sublanguage mirrors the world. The dictionary provides the user with an in-depth treatment of the language used within the selected subject-field. The main principles of compiling the Dictionary are: etimological, thematic, functional. The dictionary entry contains orthoepic information, grammatical information, bibliographic information, definition, phrases, cross-references, illustrative examples, collocations. Key words: LSP dictionaries, professional traditions, corpus analysis, low register, professional discourse 1. INTRODUCTION Over the past few decades, research in such areas as sociolinguistics and lexicography including studies of professional terminology have expanded rapidly. Professional jargons and social groups argot on the other hand are still in the outskirts of the mainstream research. The papers on the topic issued in the last decade are still few [1-6] and the dictionaries are predominantly monolingual [7-13]. The reasons for this– the task being time-consuming and expensive – do not stop those who are ready to spend hours to register, transcribe, define, and present to the reader unique language of the low register professional discourse deprived of censorship. Oral professional communication is regulated by the type of the language, communication stereotypes and the existing paradigm of corporate culture. It is the area where the language development trends and cultural traditions are very well observed, though not regulated by formal guidelines. Professional traditions and stereotypes have been dealt with both in foreign and Russian linguistics [14-16]. Modern sociolinguistics has developed a strong trend aimed at reflecting professional cultures and languages [1,8,11,9], but the research on the ways of representing norms and stereotypes of different professional cultures in the professional sublanguage is far from being completed. “Language is undoubtedly the area of social life where norms matter most” [3]. The norm is regarded by the author as an “authorized setting, regular, generally accepted, obligatory procedure, sample, rule” [17]. It defines the range of “good” and “bad”, sets the boundaries of the approved and disapproved by the society range of referents: activities, objects, their parameters. st Within a professional language, the norm as an invariant category is realized in the norm of the 1 level (standard, nd literary norm, code, high register) and in the norm of the 2 level (substandard, sub-code, low register) [4]. The subprofessional standard norm registered in a number of folklore genres defines the behaviour of a professional personality (both communicative and non-communicative) in different situations of high register communication, e.g. “I chop down trees, I wear high heels, /Suspenders and a bra. /I wish I'd been a girlie/Just like my dear papa [18]. As there are minimum limitations and taboos in substandard communication, it is logical to assum e that it is the substandard that does reflect real pragmatic and linguistic norms and stereotypes of a professional community. A professional standard as an ideology-driven phenom enon reflects values and norms of the society, not the professional community. The language norm as a set of the most stable, traditional language means and usage adopted in a certain society in a certain period of time [19] and a dynamic category changes with the language. Changes and deviations are inevitable consequences of the social life in communities. The development and progress in the social, political and technological system are manifested in the vocabulary of a language. New words are introduced and old ones die out. Unlike the standard norm, the norm of a professional substandard is inconsistent, dynamic and semantically blurry. Norm intension of a professional substandard is a set of adopted rules in a certain professional society stereotypes, parameters of referents [6]. For example, The lumberman's life Is a wearisome one, But some say 't is free from all care; With the ringing of an ax From daylight until dark In the middle of some forest you'll hear” [20]. “There were four classes of tree, roughly mirroring classes in early Irish society. These were the airig fedo (‘nobles of the wood’), the aithig fedo (‘commoners of the wood’), the fodla fedo (‘lower divisions of the wood’) and the losa fedo (‘bushes of the wood’). Which group a tree belonged to depended on its economic importance, usually related to its fruit, timber or size when fully grown”[21]. English Forestry Dictionary is a new type of dictionary comprising the vocabulary used by professional foresters in low register. It contains over 2,000 entries and about 1,500 phrases presented in rich text format articles. The Dictionary includes variety of words, phrases, collocations, and common idioms. In general terms the dictionary is a descriptive one, presenting the vocabulary of the professional language, Language for Specific Purposes, as a system at a particular point of th th time (XX – XXI centuries). The Dictionary macrostructure as the overall structural organization of the volume contains introduction and user guidelines (User's Guide; List of Symbols; List of Abbreviations); body (entries and definitions) organized alphabetically;

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 appendices and additional information (Sayings; Jokes. Sources of lemmata (Lemmata Corpus); Sources of illustrative examples (Illustrutive Corpus)). The Dictionary microstructure as the internal structure of dictionary entry blocks consists of: 1. Headword (lemma, form to be looked up); 2. Orphoepic characteristics (pronunciation); 3. Grammatical information (part of speech category or word class); 4. Lemmata (Corpus references); 5. Functional and stylistic information; 6. Definition (semantic specification – senses and reference); 7. Illustrations (usage with examples); 8. Lemma comprising phaseological units and idioms (collocations, co-occurrence strings); 9. Phaseological units and idioms illustrations; 10. Cross-references to related items, related by sense; 11. Commentaries on etymology (etymological or historical notes). For example, Choker, a length of wire rope with attachments for encircling the end of a log to be yarded, n. ♦Choker setter, a person in a logging operation who places the choker around the log to be hauled to the landing; one who attaches chokers to logs in the woods for the skidding unit; beginning job for novice loggers. The Dictionary exercises functionality to the lookup routine to handle multi-word lexical items, such as compounds or idioms. When verbal phrasemes containing a fixed noun are ordered alphabetically by the noun, the dictionary is still consistent in presenting different forms (i.e., the same category first) in order to facilitate the search in case there are numerous verbal idioms with the same head noun. cut, v. ♦ backcut (felling cut), the last of the three cuts required to fall a tree. Located on the opposite side of the tree from the face and minimally 1″ above the horizontal cut of the face. The 1″ is referred to as stump shot and prevents the tree from kicking back over the stump toward the faller. The backcut must never be continued to a point at which no holding wood remains. Variations of backcutting are discussed in: face-boring backcut, side-boring backcut, and side-notching backcut. The term 'LSP dictionary' is applied to two different types of dictionaries: dictionary of codificated terminology used in formal register of professional communication; dictionary of non-codificated vocabulary practiced in informal register of professional communication. Dictionaries of non-codificated vocabulary differ from all other LSP dictionaries in the lexical stock of the sublanguage they register, i.e. lexical units of the primarily oral or electronic professional discourse not those of the written ones. ♦ clear-cut, an area in which all of the trees have been or will be felled, bucked and skidded in one operation. When all trees in a giv en area are felled. ♦ cut-up, tree or log left standing or suspended with the falling or bucking cuts almost completed. ♦ cutter, one whose primary job is to fall, buck or limb trees before they are moved to the landing area 2. ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK To reveal the ways pragmatic and linguistic norms are verbalized in multi-word entries of an LSP dictionary: 1) The LSP dictionaries analysis of the norm was performed to bring out the definitions by enumeration of senses and definitions of extension. The contextualization of the norm is expected to reveal new connotations in its meaning. 2) Corpus analysis involves the analysis of the occurrences of the direct definition, and definitions of the domains of “the possible” in the Corpus of professional discourse. The aim of the corpus analysis is to collect the definitions and establish the frequency of direct definitions. “Corpus-based technologies provide an opportunity to study real language use in … texts of different types” [22]. This part of the study also reveals the context of direct definitions and the definitions of the domains of “the possible”. Besides, the determination of the frequency of their use and context they are used with is to reveal the changes in norm. The objects of the study are the ways in which the pragmatic and linguistic norms of a professional community are verbalized in multi-word entries of an LSP dictionary. The data are presented by over 2.000 set phrases, collocations, idioms, sayings registered in Russian and English printed and electronic LSP dictionaries [23-28] as well as texts, the collective authors of which are professional personalities (tales, jokes, toasts, songs, myths, legends etc.) or individuals professionally engaged in some area (informal letters, cards, journals, blogs, chats etc.). The authors’ specialized corpus contains over 3.000 illustrations of the above enum erated units functioning in low register professional discourse - texts of various genres of forestry. Professional substandard language demonstrates a wide spectrum of the ways the norm is verbalized: direct definitions, definitions by enumeration of senses, definitions of the domain of “the possible” and definitions of extension. I. Direct definitions of the norm imply definition by demonstrating the referent, defining it either by description, narration or exhibiting. Timing, commences when the axe hits the wood (or when the guns sounds or when the emcee says "GO" - this is dependent on the individual show), and ends when the block is completely severed [29]. The texts of this type of definition depending on the param eters of the object defined may contain elements of description or narration. For example, Oh, tonight the boat is rocky,/And I ain’t got a bunk,/Not a rare of cheering liquor,/Just a turkey full of junk./All I call my life’s possessions,/Is just what I carry `round,/For I’ve blowed the rest on skid-roads,/Of a hundred gyppo towns [25]. Rules from experienced forests say bar or blade, that part of the chain saw upon which the cutting chain travels. Long, thin projection of the chain saw upon which the saw chain travels. Improper use of the bar results in kickbacks and saw cuts. It is the extreme top and bottom of the bar’s nose that is sensitive [30]. II. Definitions by enumeration of senses of the norm are non-systematized enumerations of all senses of a sign in one particular area. E.g. The intension of the term corners is defined by three senses: 1.The extrem e outside position of the holding wood on either side of the tree. 2. Left and right side of the holding wood. 3. Corner of the falling “face”. The substandard adds to the two above a number of senses realized in multi-word entries corner-nipping special technique of partially cutting the extreme outside holding wood corners to prevent root pull, slabbing and alteration of the desired falling direction and corner block, the first block the haulback passes through on its way to the tail block. The definitions of this kind are typical for professional sublanguage and rank the professional vocabulary by the density of its nominations in the sublanguage and their frequency in the discourse. They serve as emotive rate indexes of a referent: the higher the rank the more significant the referent for the language users. E.g. in foresters substandard: exotic forest, a thinned and pruned radiata stand is more aesthetically pleasing than an untended radiata stand [31]. Substandard nominations unlike those of standard are typically secondary nominations of a person, his actions and characteristics, not of an artifact or of a process of production: Timber Beast, forest service personnel (or any establishment types) who invariably side with timber industry. Someone obsessed with denuding woodland of all marketable timber. a logger, a lumberjack.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The nominations reflect professionals’ worldview on a particular referent: Barber chair, a tree that, while in the process of receiving the back cut, splits lengthwise and leaves a vertical piece of wood on top of the stump. The remaining piece sticking up in the air is reminiscent of a chair. III. Defining the domain of “the possible” implies defining the existing links and connections, limiting “the permissible” and “the compulsory”, and “integrating the norm into the common system of order of community activities” [32]. Unfortunately the professional society is not complete without underpayment, hardships and improper attitude: The Timber Beast’s Lament I’m on the boat for the camp With a sick and aching head; I’ve blowed another winter’s stake, And got the jims instead. It seems I’ll never learn the truth That’s written plain as day, It’s the only time they welcome you Is when you make it pay [25]. The research shows that “the so called ‘disorderliness’ has not only its logics and rules but also analogies in history of traditional cultures dating back to antiquity” [33]. At the same time, even in low register communication, direct nominations of errors, death, deceases, traumas, poverty, wars, people or artifacts not meeting the requirements of the community are substituted by euphemisms, for example, beaver-tailing, burying the whole bar of the saw while cutting. This euphemisation mechanism becomes transparent when the semantic structures of a substitute and its correlate – antecedent – are compared. In many cases, it is founded on semantic reduction, or extension, when one or a number of semes are removed from the structure of the denotative component of the meaning of antecedent, sometimes a seme becomes potential Examples include: to cross the lead, intentional or unintentional falling of a tree across the established lead of falling direction. Although crossing the lead may be caused by wind, it generally is a result of improper falling technique. The range of euphemisation instruments of professional substandard includes both syntactic (abbreviation, ellipses) and lexical (metaphor, menonomy, antonomy, synonymy, hyperonymy, pronominalization, etc.) ways: snag, 1. Any standing dead tree or portion thereof; 2. A dead or dying tree that is still standing. Snags must be felled prior to beginning. spike top, a live tree that has a dead barkless top. In many cases professional substandard euphamisation adds not only neutral but positive or ameliorative connotation to the nomination (see the examples above). Disphemisation as the substitution of a more offensive or disparaging word or phrase for one considered less offensive either about the referent or to the audience. The peculiarity of disphemisation in low-register professional communication is that it does not always offend the communication partner due to lower standards of ethics in professional substandard and high frequency of dysphemisms in speech. “In the situation when a professional stress is frequent, there appears a need to ‘absorb emotions’ and as a consequence a spontaneous speech even of highly qualified professionals with a good command of professional terminology is “encrusted” with professional jargonisms” [2]. Low-register disphemisation is typically disguised by mockery: Dead head, a log in the water, either completely submerged or primarily submerged. A sinker log. Before railroads and trucking, most goods came by water. Trees felled, would be cut into log lengths, lashed into log rafts, and floated down river. Some logs would sink. Some logs would only reveal a small portion of itself, resembling a head. The log’s ultimate destination could be a mill for sawing into dimension lumber or a port where they might be shipped elsewhere. widow maker, something that looks innocuous that is, in fact, dangerous. A loose limb or top hanging in a tree that can be dislodged by wind or when struck by a falling tree; the impact of which can cause serious injury or death; cat face, scar or deformed section at the base of a tree caused by rot or fire. (Semi-)closedness and encapsulation of professional communities, long periods of free time, emotional arousal, high risks, violence are pragmatic causes of a number of ironic and sarcastic words coinage in professional communities mockery verbalized in jokes, fables, myths, practical jokes is a special value. Humour, irony and sarcasm serve as denunciators of laziness, self-conceit, violence, underdevelopment, ignorance. Thus, the main instrument the professional substandard uses to define the dom ain of “the possible” is by establishing the lowest limit of nominating the referent (euphemism/dysphemism) and mockery. Ameliorative connotation though possible squirrel, a weight used to swing a boom when the power unit does not have enough drums to do it mechanically. Squirrel tree, a topped tree, guyed if necessary, near the spar tree in which the counter balance (squirrel) of a tree rigged boom is hung etc.) is not typical for professional substandard. IV. The definition of extension implies the division of all notions into three extension categories (mine/ours, alien, and unknown) and matching each notion with the corresponding class. The common attitude of a community is towards encapsulation, a kind of confinement, achieved with the help of the language and behaviour. The range of the ways the attitude is emphasised is vast: pronunciation, gestures, postures, speech (collocations, bastardized language) and the way of life. In other words there is a vast system of means, both linguistic and extra-linguistic, to demonstrate one’s belonging to a community [7]. The belonging to a community is emphasized both consciously and subconsciously. Professional encapsulation is expressed in a tendency to oppose and counteract representatives of other professions. “The lower we descend into professional argot the stronger is the antithesis of ‘we – they’. It is a universal phenom enon verbalized in vernacular in numerous invectives, nominations of ‘aliens’ are abusive and pejorative” [7]. Foresters are traditionally ironic towards tourists in the woods: A virgin forest is where the hand of man has never set foot. A tree never hits an automobile except in self-defense. 3. CONCLUSIONS The research clearly indicates to the predominantly indirect ways of nominating pragmatic and linguistic norms in low-register forestry professional discourse and language. The most frequent ways of defining the borders of “the approved” and “the disapproved” are found in dysphemisms, ironic collocations, and words. The direct ways of verbalizing the norm include rules, regulations, proverbs, and sayings.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The taxonomy of the ways pragmatic norm of professional sublanguage includes: direct definitions, definitions by enumeration of senses, defining dom ain of “the possible”, and definitions of extension. The Corpus analysis shows that the significance of the norm increases in cross-community communication and in cases when a (semi-)closed community tends to eliminate cross-community communication. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is performed according to the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University. REFERENCES 1. Fel'de, O.V. 2011. “Problemy i perspektivy leksikograficheskogo opisanija russkogo professional'nogo substandarta” (Problems and prospects of the lexicographic description of the Russian professional substandard). in Vestnik Cheljabinskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta – Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State University, no. 33, pp. 209-212. 2. Fel'de, O.V. 2011. “Komicheskoe v professional'nom diskurse. Kategorija komicheskogo v aspekte teorii i praktiki rechevogo vozdejstvija” (Humour in professional discourse. The category of humour in the theory and practice of speech influence)”. Rechevoe obshchenie: specializirovannyj vestnik - Speech communication: specialized messenger, no 13 (21), pp. 210 – 211. 3. Hudson, R., 2009. “Norm, Standard, Deviation.” www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/hom e/dick/texts/giessen.doc (accessed March 10, 2014). 4. Korovushkin, V.P. 2009. Osnovy kontrastivnoy sociolektologii. (Fundamentals Of Contrastive Social Dialects Studies. Cherepovets: GOU VPO CSU, Part I. p. 245. 5. Nielsen, S. 2013. “A General Fram ework for Reviewing Dictionaries” in: Multi-disciplinary Lexicography: Traditions and Challenges of the XXIst Century, Ed. by O. Karpova, F. Kartashkova. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 145 – 157. 6. Solnyshkina, M. I. 2005. Professional'nyj morskoj jazyk (Professional language of the Navy). Moscow: Academia. 7. Elistratov, V. 2000. Argo i kul'tura // Slovar' russkogo argo: Materialy 1980–1990-h gg. (Argot and culture. Dictionary of the Russian argot: Materials, 1980-1990.). Moscow. pp. 574 – 692. 8. Solnyshkina, M. I. 2005. Slovar' morskogo jazyka (Dictionary of Naval Language). Moscow, Academia.315 p. 9. Valieva, R. H. 2006. English-Russian dictionary of musical language. Universal and national-specific in the professional sublanguage: on the material of lexicon of Russian and English professional uncodified sublanguage of Music, PhD thesis, TSHU, Kazan, 2006, pp 133-168. 10. Ismaeva, F. H. 2006. Dictionary of professional language of sports. Kazan, KSU, 2006, pp108. 11. Kazachkova, M. B. 2008. Slovar' professional'nogo jazyka aviacii (Dictionary of professional sublanguage of aviation). Odincovo, OSU. 152 p. 12. Korovushkin, V. P. 2000. Slovar' russkogo voennogo zhargona: nestandartnaja leksika i frazeologija vooruzhennyh sil i voenizirovannyh organizacij Rossijskoj imperii, SSSR i Rossijskoj Federacii XVIII – XX vekov (Dictionary of Russian military slang: non-standard lexicon and phraseology of armed forces and militarized organizations of the Russian Empire, the USSR and the Russian Federation of the XVIII-XX centuries). Ekaterinburg Ural University., 372 p. 13. Mochelevskaja, E. V. 2009. Russkij i anglo-russkij slovari professional'nogo podjazyka pozharnoj ohrany. Jetnokul'turnaja markirovannost' edinic professional'nogo podjazyka (na materiale russkogo i anglijskogo variantov pod#jazyka pozharnoj ohrany). Diss. kand. filol. nauk (Ethnocultural markedness of professional sublanguage units (on the material of the Russian and English sublanguage of fire protection service). PhD diss. Kazan. Tatar State University of Humanities and Education. Kazan, pp. 183-220. 14. Shchepanskaja, T. B. 2003. “Antropologija professij (Anthropology of professions)”. Zhurnal sociologii i social'noj antropologii – Magazine of sociology and social anthropology, №.1 (21), pp. 139–161. 15. Cogan, M.L. 1953. “Toward a Definition of Profession/.” in/ Harvard Educational Review. XXIII. Winter, pp.33 – 50. 16. Millerson, G. 1964. The Qualifying Association. London: Routlege and Kegan Paul, pp. 134 – 157. 17. Slovar' russkogo jazyka: v 4 t. pod red. Evgen'eva A. P. (Russian dictionary). Moscow, Polygraph resources., 1999. pp. 508-509. 18. Jones, Terry Palin, Michael /Tomlinson, Fred. "Lumberjack Song" http://www.metrolyrics.com/lumberjack-songlyrics-monty-python.html (accessed February 10, 2014). 19. Krysin, L.P. 1977. Yazyk v sovremennom obshchestve. (Language In Today's Society). Moscow: Prosveshcheniye. p. 192. 20. Songs and Ballads of the Maine Luimberjacks London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press, Harvard University Press, 1925. 175 p. https://archive.org/stream/songsandballadso011106mbp/songsandballadso011 106mbp_djvu.txt (accessed February10, 2014). 21. Brehon Laws, 1999. http://www.forestryfocus.ie/social-environmental-aspects/cultural-heritage/trees-andfolklore/brehon-laws/ (accessed February 10, 2014). 22. Galieva, A.M., Zamaletdinov, R.R., 2014. Tatar Possessive Verbs with the Meaning Component "Part of Plant". Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 21 (1), pp. 229-233. http://www.idosi.org/mejsr/mejsr21%281% 2914/39.pdf (accessed December 5, 2014). 23. The Dictionary of Forestry, 2008. http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/browse/ (accessed March 10, 2014). 24. Forestry, 2004. http://www.alphadictionary.com/directory/Specialty_Dictionaries/Forestry/(accessed May 10, 2014). 25. Timberati, 2014. https://timberati.wordpress.com/tag/forestry-slang (accessed April 21, 2014). 26. Forestry terminology sources, 2015. http://www.fao.org/forestry/terminology/25213/en/ (accessed March 10, 2014).

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 27. Terms used in forestry and logging, 1905. https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1957/6265/ terms%20used%20in%20forestry%20%5Bocr%5D.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed March 10, 2014). 28. Appendix: Glossary of lumberjack jargon, 2014. http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Glossary_of_ lumberjack_jargon (accessed February 10, 2015). 29. The Indian River, 2008. http://www.starinfo.com/ljguide/events/rules.shtml (accessed February 10, 2015). 30. Logging Lingo, 2015. http://www.history.com/shows/ax-men/articles/logging-lingo (accessed February 10, 2015). 31. Kennedy J. J., Sutto W. R. J. 1978. New Zealand Forest Managers - A Subculture? http://www.nzjf.org/ free_issues/nzjf23_2_1978/3fa2a557-10a0-44d2-867b-c8be4c9c3a17.pdf (accessed February 10, 2015). 32. Shuhov, A. Problema singuljarnogo nachala modelirujushhej rekonstrukcii i social'nogo razvitija (Problem of the singular beginning of modeling reconstruction and social development) http://nounivers.narod.ru/ hist/funct.htm (accessed 11 July 2012). 33. Bannikov, K. L. 2000. “V armii, kak na zone: nasilie i unizhenie stali normoy” (In the army, is just like in prison: the violence and humiliation became norm). In Novaja kamchatskaja pravda – New Kamchatka truth, 2000, no. 12. http://www.iks.ru/~nkp/arhiv/html_arhiv/2000/12/12_2.html (accessed 30 March 2000).

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MYTHOLOGIZATION OF HISTORY IN ENGLISH LITERATURE BY THE END OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY (JOHN FOWLES, A. BURGESS) Zulfiyya Rafisovna Zinnatullina, Liliya Fuatovna Khabibullina Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya str., 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/14 Received: 07 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 03 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT At the turn of the century the history issue becomes perhaps the most important one. Mythologization is one of the new approaches that emerged during this literature period. In English literature, the most common forms of mythologization are the use of images and the story components of the known myths and the cryptohistory. The cryptohistory allows the authors to suggest the versions of historical event reasons and implement the postmodern principle of plurality within the historical narrative. Such stories are more common in popular literature; The authors of serious novels use this form to create its own concept of historical development. The fabulousness, the unreliability of depicted reality is traditionally accentuated by these types of works. This article discusses one of the most popular history mythologization forms as an example of the British novels during the late twentieth century: "Maggot" by John Fowles and "Any Old Iron" by Anthony Burgess". Despite the fact that both writers refer to different historical epochs (the 18th century of the novel "Maggot" and the First World War of the novel "Any Old Iron") the works use similar techniques and approaches to history. Key words: English literature, mythologization of history, cryptohistory, J. Fowles, A. Burgess 1. INTRODUCTION At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries the situation of the end of the century and the millennium becomes an unprecedented one and perceived as the "end of history". This is evidenced by numerous statements on the subject from the most authoritative science theorists of the late twentieth century. Such as Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Fredric Jameson, Jacques Derrida, Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama and others. In general, the ideas of these authors may be reduced to the idea, that a classical perception of history as a single process that is objectively reflected in the text of science, is exhausted now. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS M. Foucault points to the erroneous idea of history as a continuous narrative introducing the "gap" concept [1]. J.-F. Lyotard in his work "postmodern condition" (1979) («La condition postmoderne») tells about a modern distrust to all types of "metanarrations" whether it's history, science, religion, etc. Summarizing the views of the French explorer, I. Ilyin writes: "For Lyotard the postmodern age as a whole is characterized by the erosion of faith in "the great metanarratives", in "metastories" legitimizing, uniting and totalizing the concepts of modernity. Today, says Lyotard, we are witnessing the fragmentation, the splitting of the "great stories" and the emergence of many more simple, small, local "stories" [2]. The similar ideas were expressed by the American researcher F. Jameson, who uses the term "dominant codes" [3], but he, unlike Lyotard believes that they retained their influence. In general we may say that the humanities subject of study becomes the very nature of historical narrative, the reliability of which is doubted. Thus the thing is essentially about the adjustment in the "fictional" history and literature. Considering this problem, J. Reinecke shows the relationship between history and literature, which became the subject of attention for American researchers. She writes: By his work "Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe" (1973) Hayden White found in the writings of the XIX century historians the principles of dramatic composition, a story line, the following to the literary styles and genres. And if LaCapra still sees the border between history and literature, White erases it at all. White and La Capra believed that a novel and historical research give a same true picture of the reality. At that a historical novel is certainly more interesting than the works of a historian. Besides, each author of a historical novel, also carries out a kind of research work in the archives with the same historical documents" [4]. It's not a surprise that this debate led to the actualization of a historical novel and its complete transformation. The British kind of historical novel is focused on the fictitious unreliability of the pictured reality. In 1988 this type of novel was named by Linda Hutcheon a "Historiographic Metafiction". J. Reinecke in the dissertation "Historical Novel of postmodernism and the genre traditions" notes that his goal is to shake the existing understanding about the history, based mainly on textual evidence, make the reader doubt. Chronologically, the first such novel is "The French Lieutenant's Woman" by J. Fowles (1969). The researcher T.N. Breeva considering a similar type of the novel by the example from Russian literature proves the possibility of calling this type of a novel as historiosophical one, implying that a postmodern historical novel is characterized primarily by the author's view of history that gets an artistic justification. T.N. Breeva said: "The history as a strategy genre, serves as a formal genre developing principle of a historiosophical novel, involves the consideration of history as a text that is structured by an author's historiosophical concept" [5]. The same researcher considers the problem of the history conceptualization in Russian literature [6]. This definition is quite consistent with the peculiarities of the English and postmodern novel concerning the subject of history.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 3. RESULTS The English postmodern novel, related to the subject of history may be divided conventionally into several varieties of historical narrative. The mythologized history may be considered as the most important type of this kind of narration, within which different types are distinguished. The history mythologization is being developed. The first type goes back to the tradition of modernism, which appeal to the mythological structure and which was one of the most important elements of a story, playing a myth cyclicity. The images and narrative components of the fam ous myths, some mythologems were widely used. At the approaching end of the twentieth century Apocalypse and the image of the world Savior become the important themes. In this respect, the novel of A. Burgess "The End of the World News" (1982) and Graham Swift novel "Waterland" (1983) become interesting. Later a parodic element in this type of literature is enhanced and the reflection on the history image turns from the meaningful to the structural level of the genre. The novel "A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters" by Julian Barnes openly declares its postmodern approach to the understanding of history: «History is not what happened. History is just what historians tell us. There was a pattern, a plan, a movement, expansion, the march of democracy; it is a tapestry, a flow of events, a complex narrative, connected, explicable» [7]. The writer not only declares but demonstrates the fictitious character of the narrative claiming for the title of the Great history and personal history. Barnes novel, like most postmodern texts inevitably becomes a parody. As E. Kolodinskaya noted: "Parody (in its broad sense) is perhaps the main stylistic means of a modern novel, since its purpose is not to create a realistic illusion of past events objective reproduction, but to understand the ways and means of establishing such an illusion. One important elem ent concerning the perception of the past by a modern novel is an ironic study of previous literary facts and the study of the novel genre history" [8], [9]. All this fully applies to Julian Barnes novel the only reality of which is "the words and meanings" [8]. The second type of historical myth-making is the creation of the author's mythologized versions of events, opening "a secret meaning" of well-known events, the hidden motives of contemporary or past development. This trend is often referred to as Cryptohistory. This kind of historical narrative is more common in popular literature, but it is also important for the classic literature. Its peculiarity is explained by the fact that in this variant the historical narrative apparently retains the features of a classic historical novel at the beginning and at the middle of the twentieth century, but it is fundamentally different from it by the presence of a story about a "secret meaning" of the events which are happening or happened before. A striking example of this historical myth-making becomes J. Fowles novel "A Maggot", 1986. Here the author refers to the historical topics, telling about the sect of shakers which was active in England in the XVIIIth century. The main character of the novel, Rebecca, goes through a kind of initiation, and then already outside the plot, according to the author's idea creates a "miraculous child" - Anna. Later this girl becam e the founder of a new religious movement - Shakers - which, according to the story, was developing mainly within the United States area. "Maggot" is a version of the novel, mythologizing history, a variant of alternative history, the novel, showing the transformation of history into the national mythology. By the novel, the writer reconsiders the existing ideas about history and creates his own myth on their basis. Such a myth-making is performed through the sacralization of a national history and a national space. J. Fowles outlines two possible ways of a nation development in his novel. The first one comes from the sects and revolutionaries, combining spiritual, mystical and individualistic components (the novel history of the sect shakers origin is related to it). The second way, the state one is in compliance with the law, the worship of titles and hierarchy (this way is represented by the upper classes of the novel - Mr. Askew and His mercy). The plot is based on a mystical motivation of a new religion origin in England. Mr. Bartholomew and three women, which may be regarded as the goddesses of Celtic mythology (they motivate a "local" membership of a new religion in such a way), help Rebecca, a former prostitute, create their religious theory that, on the one hand, is based on the Christian worldview of the heroine, and on the pagan imagery and rituals on the other hand. J. Fowles turns England into a special place, the place of a true religion origin, like Jerusalem or Mecca. The motive of a trip becomes the way of a national space inclusion in the novel. On the one hand, the characters are in the way as make the spatial movements, and on the other hand, it's the Path as the characters are transformed spiritually. The motif of a path determines not only the obligatory presence of a biblical context in the work, which immediately transfers it into a mythological plan, but an association with a literary tradition established in the XVIII century and based on the motif of the way («The Pilgrim's Progress» by John Bunyan, "The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer). The path of the characters in a novel represents the movement of the characters beyond the historical time and space and the transfer of their destinies in a mystical plan. London becomes the most important center of the novel historical time and space, the city of sin and vice, where heroes go. Stonehenge becomes the connection of the historic and mythologizing plan in the novel. In John Fowles novel "Maggot" this image is presented in the terms of official history and from the point of view of an alternate history. In addition to traditional, J. Fowles introduces in his novel another version of the Stonehenge origin associated with Celtic mythology, the consistency of which is realized through the plot (see [10] for detailed information). Most of the novel characters are associated with the characters of Celtic mythology, and the connection of Christian and Celtic plans provides the special nature of a new faith as the religion supported by ancient local cults, which provides it with a double meaning as a national religion. Thus, in his novel "Maggot" George Fowles refers to the mythologized historical image of England, introducing it through the synthesis of the Quakers sect history and Celtic mythology. This allows to update a messianic function the English nation in the novel, claiming the new religion as the only correct and consistent one. At that the writer connects it with the beliefs of the ancient Celts, which again emphasizes the exclusivity of the English land and the nation as the homeland of a new cult. Another modern accent of Fowles historical stylization provides the significance for female characters, and the simulation of a classic historical narrative creates the effect of authenticity. A. Burgess novel "Any Old Iron" (1987), which appeals to a broad literary tradition, primarily English one may also be attributed to this group. The theme of the "Iron Age" and its completion due to the efforts of the hero refers a reader to the popular literature, mainly to the fantasy genre. The plot developed on the basis of "one family history" appeals to the epic tradition of the XIXth and the XXth centuries. At the formal level Burgess avoids any experim ents, limiting the novelty of his work by content. The plot outline of the novel almost allegorically represents the situation in the world, as it is seen by the author. A. Burgess remains faithful to the principle of the most significant events of the era display, so the subject of the Russian

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Revolution, the World War II, the history of the state of Israel foundation is the background against which a private story 1 unfolds, which determined according to the author, the fates of the world, and put an end to the century of wars . The narrator, who is Jewish, provides the narrative with the illusion of impartiality (similar to Serenus Cateblom in the novel "Doctor Faustus". He also introduces the topic of terrorism. The ideological hero of the novel is Reginald Jones, the carrier of the British national mentality. At that the Russian and Welsh origins of his character, as well as in the characters of his brother and sister are significant and are regarded as very close. The Welsh component of the novel provides a link with the ancient mystical eras. At that the nationalistic context becomes the subject of the author's irony. The Russian component represents the most dramatic moments of the twentieth century history. The messianic function of Britain in the world history is marked by the role of the hero, the savior of the world, which has to be played by Reginald Jones. Two Johns brothers, the descendants of a Russian and a Welshman, find and then steal from the Hermitage (preventing the Soviet Union from the beginning of the third world war) and then destroy Excálibur - the Arthur's sword. According to another version, that was the sword of Mars, which belonged (before it became the Arthur's sword) to Attila, the Rom an Flavius Aetius and the King of Britain Ambrosius Aurelianus. This story is considered as the "internal" reason of the USSR and the worldwide events. The personal history of the Jones family, inscribed by the author in the world history, becomes a mythologized ine through the mystical image of the sword, symbolizing the "Iron Age", the model in the XXth century history. The messianic role of Britain role in the world becomes the key ideological model, embodied in a great number of more or less mythological narratives in the literature of the second half of the twentieth century [11]. 4. CONCLUSION Thus, various forms of history mythologization remain the important means of historical issues presentation in modern literature until the end of the twentieth century. The connection of mythological and historical elements, which takes place in the literature of the twentieth century takes on new forms by the end of the century, implementing the idea of postmodern doubt on the reliability of the historical narrative. The deliberate history mythologization in fiction transfers into the sphere of conscious the process of past events interpreting, which remained previously in the creative unconscious. This transition contributes to the history demythologization, which is one of the dominant trends in contemporary culture. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirms that the presented data do not contain any conflict of interests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is performed according to the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University. 1

The end of "Iron Age" is historically associated with the end of the "Cold War" resulting from the changes in the Soviet Union. REFERENCES 1. Foucault M. Nietzsche, la genealogie, I'histoire // Hommage a Jean.Hyppolile".- P.,1971. - P.145-173. URL: http://www.nietzsche.ru/look/xxb/fuko/ (Date of appeal: 25.10.2014). 2. Ilyin I.P., 1996. Poststructuralism. Deconstruction. Postmodernism. M.: Intrada, 213 p. 3. Jameson, F., 1981. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 4. Reinecke J.S., 2002. The historical novel of postmodernism and the traditions of the genre. Ph.D. thesis. M. 105 p. 5. Breeva T.N., 2010. National myth in the Russian historiosophical novel of XX-XXI centuries. Kazan: Kazan. state. univ. 36 p. 6. T.N. Breeva. Conceptualisation of history in V.Sharov's novel "before and at the time". Journal of Language and Literature 2014; 5(3), 115-120. DOI: 10.7813/jll.2014/5-3/21 7. Julian Barnes, 2005. A History of the World in 10 1/2 Chapters. 76 p. URL: file:///E:/%D0%97%D1%83%D0% BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F/Downloads/barnes_julian_a_history_of_the_world_in_10_and_a_hal f_chapte.pdf (Date of appeal: 25.10.2014). 8. Kolodinskaya E.V., 2004. The historical past as a subject of utterance: modern English prose and a postmodernist historiography (G. Swift, J. Barnes). Ph.D. abstract 10.01.03., M. http://cheloveknauka.com/v/ 39087/a#?page=10. (Date of appeal: 22.10.2014). 9. Bezmel'nitsyna S.S., 2013. Precedent text parody within the speech aspect of an individual author // The Journal of Leningrad State Univ. named after A. S. Pushkin. V. 1. № 1. p. 209-215. 10. Zinnatullina Z.R., 2013. The development of the English national character features in John Fowles novel "Maggot" // Philology, art history and cultural studies: development trends": proceedings of the international scientific-practical conference (April 15, 2013). Novosibirsk: SiBAC. p. 205-211. URL: http://sibac.info/ index.php/2009-07-01-10-21-16/7480----------lr. (Date of appeal: 25.10.2014). 11. Breeva T.N., Khabibullina L.F., 2009. National myth in Russian and English literature. Kazan: TGGPU. p. 503-594.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 ON THE ISSUE OF STUDYING THE AESTHETICAL RESOURCES OF THE LANGUAGE (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF THE GENDER CATEGORY OF THE RUSSIAN SUBSTANTIVES) Nadezhda Yuryevna Murzina, Gulshat Akhmatkhananovna Hayrutdinova Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya str., 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/15 Received: 02 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 03 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The paper is dedicated to one of the topical issues of the modern linguistics – aesthetical resources of the linguistic units used in the fiction literature. However, this issue still remains under investigated and disputable. The morphologic category of the substantive gender has also been not completely covered from the perspective of description of its th th aesthetical capacities which determined our reference to this problematic. The literary works of the 19 -20 centuries were used as the material for analysis. As the main linguistic methods we used: the descriptive-analytical, semantic-stylistic, distributive, method of component analysis. During the study the author’s interpretation of the aesthetic potential of linguistic units has been developed suggesting orientation towards the aesthetical as the most common, comprehensive category of aesthetics. On the basis of this concept the aesthetic options of the grammar gender of substantives have been studied. The aspects of analysis of substantive lexemes as aesthetically-relevant elements of a literary text have been specified. There were determined the factors existing in the language that facilitate the fulfillment of the aesthetic potencies of the grammar gender of substantives. The results obtained confirm: aesthetic resources of the gender category are rather wide and various, substantives considered from the perspective of the relevant grammar attribute are used not only as constructional elem ents of a text but also as linguistic means participating in formation of the basic categories of a literary work as a complete aesthetic object. Keywords: literary text, aesthetical resources of the linguistic units, the category of gender of Russian substantives, aspects of analyzes of aesthetic potential of the grammar gender, fulfillment of aesthetic potencies of the gender category 1. INTRODUCTION Investigation of aesthetic potential of a language including its morphologic subsystem constitutes one of the complicated tasks of philology since analysis of a linguistic identity with its values represents one of the topical trends of the modern linguistic science. Aesthetic resources of linguistic units used in fiction have been the object of regard of a number of linguists; however, many issues relating to this area of scientific surveys are still far from being finally resolved. In the sphere of linguistic knowledge there are still no scientifically substantiated conclusions that would allow answering the following questions: 1) what the essence of the concept ‘aesthetically resources of linguistic units’ is b) which factors determine the aesthetic effect of the linguistic units on the recipient; c) what the aspects of studying the aesthetic resources of linguistic elements are; d) in which way it is possible to comprehensively describe languages representing different systems as well as compare them within the frameworks of the problem specified, etc. The lack of integral approach to the study of the problem raises concerns in researchers. The understanding of aesthetics of linguistic units from the specified pride perspective suggests not only the use of the main linguistic conceptual terminological research tools but also of wider information of humanitarian nature – relating to theory and history of literature, aesthetics. Thus, analysis of the problem from a linguist’s perspective allows gaining insight into all inherent linguistic mechanisms of creation of aesthetic effects. Involvement of scientific information from the area of literary studies allows considering the basic categories of a literary work in terms of their relation to the language. Consequently, the use of the integral analysis of linguistic units suggesting description of the language of a literary work as the language of art is determined by the specifics of the subject of the study itself. The issue of the aesthetic capabilities of linguistic units from the perspective of their level of organization is also relevant. In this regard it should be mentioned that the most frequent attempts to cover particular aspects of the problem under consideration were made in respect of elements of the lexical, syntax and phonetic subsystems of the Russian language. Morphologic means of the language are the most underinvestigated ones from the perspective of fulfillment of their aesthetic resources. Moreover, the attitude to this problem on the part of different researchers due to inconsistency of their reasoning does not promote to creation of a clear idea of aesthetic capabilities of the morphological subsystem. A number of researches rather guardedly assess the capabilities of morphological units within the context considered or even withhold the morphological means the ability to possess aesthetic functions. The result of such traditional approach to evaluation of stylistic resources of the morphologic subsystem shall be considered to be the incompleteness of representation thereof in the existing classifications of stylistic approaches. The review of linguistic works showed that the issue of aesthetic resources of morphologic means of the Russian language has not gained complete comprehensive coverage. The issue of aesthetics of linguistic units in whole also remains under investigated and disputable. Still there is no commonly accepted definition of the term ‘aesthetics of linguistic units’. Getting to know the studies of researchers on this subject revealed a lot of different approaches to solution of the issue. The range of opinions is rather diverse: from the widest approach to understanding of aesthetics of linguistic units when the content of the term is almost brought to naught to relatively narrow interpretations. Quite common is the viewpoint of researches (for example, G.O.Vinokur, A.I. Gorshkov, L.A.Novikov, G.G.Shpet) according to which aesthetic functions of linguistic means are determined by their figurative capabilities. According to L.A.Novikov, this is to a great extent determined by the value of an aesthetic sign which represents a complex verbal and

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 cogitative process of interaction of the direct and figurative meanings, sudden closure and release thereof, overlapping creating literary diversity. ‘The essence of the aesthetic sign meaning is expression of the special, individual-unique, topical ad hoc’. By interacting with sem antics of other units, a word as an aesthetically relevant of a literary work is the carrier of not only intellectual and emotive information but the structure and idea of the whole as well [1]. According to D. N. Shmelev. the aesthetic function of linguistic units is implemented in the cases when the speaker or writer: a) evaluates the method of expression used by him; b) uses the figurative capabilities of a language; c) draws attention to the phonetic patterns of the speech; d) actualizes the linguistic motivation of the idioms [2]. L. I. Donetskih believes that the aesthetic meaning of a linguistic unit is not a one-dimensional but a multidimensional concept divided into types and forms. There are different approaches to the typology of this concept: one may take into account the types of lexical meanings of a word, the character of actualizators, genre of a literary work, etc. By characterizing the aesthetic properties of linguistic units the researcher’s attention is focused primarily on their lexical semantics; the aesthetically relevant attributes of a word distinguished as the basic ones are: suddenness, novelty, individual uniqueness [3]. According to V. P. Moskvin, the aesthetic function of a language is related to expression of em otions of delight and gloat, to the ability of the speech to attract us by its beauty [4]. In most studies of the last 10-15 years (for exam ple, [5; 6; 7]) the aesthetic properties of linguistic units are also considered in the context of representation of the category of beautiful or within the context of the issue of figurativeness of a literary text. Reference to the studies of the related content is of interest. A close relationship to the issue of the linguistic aesthetics is demonstrated by the studies of functioning of linguistic units in a text (ref., for example, [8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13]). However, despite the increased attention of linguists to the issue under consideration still there is no such a conceptual approach to investigating thereof established that could be supported by most of the scientific society. The problem of aesthetic resources of the grammar gender of substantives based on the single concept of description of the linguistic units’ aesthetics has also not being set by researchers yet which determined our reference to this subject. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS th

The material used for research included literary sources – prosaic and poetic works primarily of the 19 and 20th centuries. The methods of the study conducted by us were determined by the integral approach to analysis of linguistic units. As the main linguistic methods we used: the descriptive-analytical, semantic-stylistic, distributive, method of component analysis. 3. RESULT In our opinion, analysis of aesthetic capabilities of linguistic units including substantives with account for their belonging to a particular grammar gender requires the use of the integrative approach. Its theoretical basis shall be formed not only by works on linguistics but also the related scientific areas: aesthetics, literature studies, psychology. We believe that within the frameworks of the approach specified the most appropriate method is the wide understanding of aesthetic resources of linguistic units suggesting orientation towards the aesthetic category. As is known, it was established as an independent category relatively lately - in the 20th century. This category represents the general that is peculiar to more specific modifications thereof: beautiful, exalted, tragic, comic. We believe that the aesthetic resources are peculiar to those linguistic units that may exert aesthetic effect on a person as an addressee of the communication. The essence of aesthetic effect of linguistic units being elem ents of a literary work consists in the fact that by getting acquainted with a piece of verbal art a reader gets a spiritual pleasing experience, i. e., experiences a sensual-rational feeling the main components of which are aesthetic pleasure, feeling the joy, completeness of being. Such a state is also determined by the attributes of linguistic units themselves and specifics of the use thereof, namely the novelty, figurativeness, flexibility, relatedness to the entire literary work as a complete aesthetic object, ability to completely and accurately embody the conceptual-literary intention of the author. The aesthetics of the language of a literary work is predetermined by aesthetic capabilities of a linguistic system. We suggest that the aesthetics of linguistic system elem ents including the morphological means is determined by a set of factors that include: - a number of attributes of a language as a complex dynamic system; - the law of asymmetry of a linguistic sign; - the national specifics of a language determining the basic principles of modeling the world in the linguistic consciousness of the speakers, originality of units of each language level, ability of a linguistic unit to be associated with any other sequences of other units based on the criterion of sem antic or formal similarity; - inner regularities of the language development (antinomy of the speaker and listener, system and standard, code and text, regularity and expressivity); - the range of the image-emotional, stylistic capacities, namely the inventory as well as potential capacities of the phonostylistics means; variety and diversity of the lexical-phraseological fund of the language in whole and image-emotional units in particular; degree of development, flexibility of grammar structures (the system of grammar oppositions, maturity of the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships, transposition options). Within the context of actualization of morphological aesthetic resources, in our opinion, the following actors are the most relevant ones: existence in the modern Russian language of elements particular to the grammar system of the archaic period (the declension of nouns, within the system of classes of verbs, conjugation, etc.); the law of asymmetry of a linguistic sign (shown in particular in the phenomenon of transitivity of parts of the speech); ability of the grammar unit to be associated with sequences of other units as dem onstration of the national originality of the language; antinomy of the system and standard, regularity and expressivity acting as inner regularities of the language development, options of the grammar variability and synonymy. Implementation of aesthetic resources of morphologic units as elements of other linguistic levels also depends on the particular traditions of their use; specifics of development of literary processes within the particular society; originality of the mythos-poetic component of the national mentality; the nature of development of the linguistic competence of the language speakers, their artistic-aesthetic tastes, preferences, etc. [14].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Determination of aesthetic capacities of morphologic means being the issue of an integral, interdisciplinary nature is aligned with the sphere of linguistics within which the approaches to the description of grammar that arose at the end of the th 20 century and aimed at analyzing its international character and creativity were formed. The system study of morphologic units based on the aesthetic categories in close relationship to the main aesthetic categories characterizes the new approach to the study of the Russian grammar in terms of description of its aesthetic resources. In this regard the morphologic category of the substantive gender is of interest since it is traditionally considered as a three-term non-inflectional category featuring syntactic relevance. This thesis is confirmed by many years of tradition of the study of expressiveness of the grammar gender of substantives within the frameworks of the grammar stylistics, poetic morphology, etc. Analysis of aesthetic potential of the substantive gender may be performed based on a number of criteria. Among which are the study of the factors (prerequisites) existing in the language that facilitate the implementation of the aesthetic capacities of the substantive gender; analysis of actualization of the gender resources with regard to the presentation of the particular aesthetic category (for example, comic, exalted), creation of a literary image, the use of figures of speech as a technique of compositional organization of a literary text. In this paper we consider the first of the mentioned research aspects. 1. Aesthetic capacities are peculiar to substantives featuring inconsistency between the external part of the sign and the translated semantic part. The following shall be referred to such lexemes: male substantives with a zero ending like a) человек, врач, фотограф, редактор (a man, a doctor, a photograph, an editor) that nominate both the male and female persons; b) words of common gender (тихоня, лежебока, бродяга) (a goody-goody, a couch potato, street people); c) female nouns used in figurative meaning to denote males (баба, жаба, тряпка, шляпа) (a woman, a fish face, a nincompoop, a loser). Different techniques of use of such words in a literary text cause comic response of a reader. Besides, these substantives may act as speech characteristic of a character. t 2. Aesthetic realization of some substantives is determined by their gender variability. It is known that in the 18 - the beginning of the 20th century quite a large number of substantives was used now in one now in the other gender. In some substantives such alterations in gender have been preserved until now: рельс – рельса (a rail, m – f), жираф – жирафа (a giraffe, m – f). However, in the modern Russian language variability of nouns related to the gender category fades away gradually. Many nouns that back in the day fell within the area of gender variability are used in the form of a single gender. However, alterations in the gender of such substantives as облако, лебедь, жираф (a cloud, a swan, a giraffe, etc.) are one of the factors determining the aesthetically relevant use thereof in a literary text, for exam ple: And the glory was floating like a swan / through a golden smoke (А. Akhmatova. ‘A string of quatrains’). The analysis shows: in this fragment of the texts like in most of other cases the main load in terms of realization of aesthetic capacities is carried by the units of the lexical linguistic level. At the sam e time the role of the grammar means cannot be denied: due to the use of the female substantive лебедь (a swan) the identity of the grammar execution of an object and image being compared is emphasized which enhances the image-illustrative properties of a poetic text. 3. Aesthetic understanding from the perspective of the grammar gender may be applied to homonymy of the root morphemes of substantives belonging to different gender groups: гранат – граната (a pomegranate – a grenade), еж – ежевика (a hedgehog – a blackberry), осел – оса (a donkey – a wasp), пастор – паста (a pastor – a paste), селезень селезенка (a cock duck – a spleen), etc. It makes sense to consider the linguistic units approximated in a text – usually the male and female nouns – as quasi-gender correlates facilitating the expression of the author’s emotiveness (mostly comical one), creation of unexpected associations and solutions by means of imitating the achievement of the gender identity according to the biological sex. 4. The next prerequisite allowing implementing aesthetic capacities of the gender category is the similarity of the substantive flections referring to different gender groups (uncle – aunt, day - night). Homonymy of endings of the male and female nouns may, for example, be played upon as the result of the intentional connection of such lexemes as part of an allusion or alogism as aesthetically relevant techniques of narrative-compositional organization of poetic diction. 5. Another relevant factor is the semantic heterogeneity of linguistic units constituting the gender groups of substantives. It is referred to two groups of substantives - male and female. In each of the mentioned grammar groups there are, firstly, lexemes incorporating the denotative component of the gender meaning that is related to indication of the gender of a living creature, and, secondly, words that do not include this component. The semantic heterogeneity in each group of the subject-related lexemes upon presence of their equivalence from the perspective of relatedness to the same gender determines the possibility of the aesthetic use of these linguistic units. The literary texts contain a lot of examples confirming this thesis: There is a town with a wax wall, / With a chamber from titles and illuminations, / Where the widows Eyelashes live / Together with the portress – kind Freckle…(N. Klyuev ‘The White Tale’); And in the room where the table rules / there is a stove – silver lioness (B.Akhmadullina. ‘It is about time, goodbye, my rock…’); he was staring at his aspen, such a beauty, staring and trying to remember what the connection between it and the remote tractor roaring was. (V. Below. ‘Commonplace’). As is known, the inanimate female nouns ресница (eyelash), родинка (freckle), печь (stove), осина (aspen) in the system of the language do not have the denotative component of the grammatical meaning of a gender. However, in the fiction language due to intentional approximation thereof to the animate female nouns featuring the semantic attribute of a gender such words gain a quasi-denotative component with the corresponding meaning which attach such properties as brightness, clearness, demonstrativeness and realism. 6. Another factor determining the aesthetic use of the nouns is the absence of the gender correlates in a significant number of both male and female nouns (for example, президент, a president, a sergeant, a whale, a crucian carp; a manicurist, a shark, a squirrel, a fly). Lacunarity of the grammatical system of the Russian language within the specified context simulates the word-creative activity of the writers in cases when the necessity of the differentiated denotation of a person or an animal specimen of a particular gender arises. During the word-creating process the occasional female nouns are most frequently formed that are created on the basis of the existing word-forming patterns (a stem of a male noun + corresponding affix). For example: агрессорка (from the male noun агрессор (aggressor)) [А.Voznesenski], властелинша (from the word властелин (lord)) [N. Zabolotski], палачиха (from палач (executor) [I.Annenski], пекариха (from пекарь (baker)) [V. Astafyev], фотографша, фотографиня (from фотограф (photographer) [V. Aksenov]; бекасиха (from бекас (snipe)) [М. Prishvin], комариха (from комар (mosquito) [D. Prigov], коршунница (from коршун (kite) [О. Mandelshtam], рачица (from рак crayfish ) [S. Mikhalkov], соловьиха (from соловей (nightingale)) [B. Kornilov], etc.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 A smaller group of neologisms is represented by male nouns formed from the female substantives: нянь (occasional derivative from the female noun няня (nurse)) [V. Mayakovski], посудомой (from the word посудомойка (washer-up)) [М. Mishin]; куропат (from the substantive куропатка (partridge)) [А. Ivanov], кукух (from кукушка (cuckoo)) [А.Levin], лягух (from лягушка (frog)) [V.Sosnora]. Analysis of the works of the Russian literature shows that the occasional gender correlates due to their novelty and expressivity along with the other linguistic units directly participate in the implementation of the author's intention. By means of using the words under consideration, in particular, the author's emotional attitude to the literature characters is expressed, for example: By the end of the day gathered the friends of Emma, Stella and Agrippina that were accompanying the malicious photographers (фотографинь). (V. Aksenov. ‘Say raisin’). 4. SUMMARY One of the aspects of our study was determination of prerequisites existing in the language itself that facilitate the implementation of the aesthetic resources of grammatical gender. Analysis of the linguistic units within this context allows establishing that the following peculiarities of the grammatical system of the Russian language may be considered as the specified prerequisites: - the presence of nouns featuring inconsistency between the external part of the sign and the translated sem antic part thereof (from this perspective the high aesthetic productivity is typical for male substantives with a zero ending like человек, врач (a man, a doctor); words of common gender); - gender variability as one of the distinctive features of historical or modern in the language of some object lexemes (облако –облак; (a cloud), лебедь (male) – лебедь (female) – a swan; жираф – жирафа (a giraffe); - homonymy of root morphemes in the nouns of different genders (пастор – паста (pastor – paste), осел – оса (donkey – wasp)); - similarity of the noun flections belonging to different gender groups (дядя – тетя (uncle - aunt, день – ночь (day – night) ; - heterogeneity of composition of the substantive gender groups from the perspective of their grammatical meaning; - absence of correlates by the criterion ‘gender – sex’ in some object lexemes. The results obtained during the study allow summarizing the following: analysis of substantives from the perspective of their grammatical gender attribute has proved the appropriateness of interpretation of aesthetic resources of linguistic units (including morphological means) proposed by us, the possibility of the use thereof by describing the language of a literature work as a complete aesthetic object. The study of the morphological category of substantive gender allows stating that the aesthetic resources of the morphological gender category are rather wide and diverse which allows using the grammatical linguistic units not only as constructional elements of a text but also as linguistic means participating in formation of a particular aesthetic category, in formation of the systems of images, in the compositional organization of a literary work. The results of analysis of the aesthetic potential of the Russian morphological units may be used as the basis for further studies of the aesthetic capacities of different languages which is necessary for the development of the issues of comparative statistics, theory of translation as the basis for improvem ent of the translating activity. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirms that the data provided does not constitute a conflict of interests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The paper was prepared within the frameworks of implementation of the “Plan of measures on implementation of the Program of improving the competitiveness of the FSAEI HVE “K(P)FU” among the leading international research-educational centers for the years 2013 – 2020. REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Novikov L. A., 1999. Meaning of an aesthetic sign // Philological sciences. - № 5, P. 87. Shmelev D. N., 1964. Word and image. – М.: Nauka, PP. 101-102. Donetskikh L. I., 1982. Aesthetic functions of a word. – Kishinev: Shtiintsa, P. 34. Moskvin V. P., 2006. Expressive means of the modern Russian language: Tropes and figures of speech. General and specific classifications. Dictionary of terms. – М.: LENAND: P. 5. Krasilnikova E. V., 2000. Aesthetic properties of the colloquial language // Fortunatovsky collection: records of the scientific conference / edited by E. V. Krasilnikova. – М.: Editorial URSS, PP. 176-180. Lelis Е.I., 2000. Aesthetic functions of the key words (based on the novels by A.P.Chekhov): abstract of the thesis of the candidate of philological sciences. - Kazan, 21 p. Matveyeva E. N., 2009. Communication determined aesthetic meaning of a word in poetry (based on the poems by Igor Severyanin): abstract of the thesis of the candidate of philological sciences. – Barnaul, 17 p. Remchukova E. N., 1999. Concerning the breach of the standard in the area of functioning of grammatical forms // Works of the Russian and Slavic philology. Linguistics. New Series. II. Pragmatic aspect of the research. – Tartu, PP. 203-214. Zakirova O. V., 2007. Qualitative adjectives as means of creation of images of characters in the novel by L. N. Tolstoy “War and Peace’: abstract of the thesis of the candidate of philological sciences. – Kazan, 22 p. Firbas F.,1970. On the Interplay of Means of Functional Sentence Perspective // Actes du X Congres International des Linguistes. Bucares, pp. 741-745. Fernandez J.W., 1977. The Performance of Ritual Metaphors // Sapir J.D., Grocker J.C. The Social Use of Metaphor, Essays on the Anthropology of Rhetoric. Philadelphia, pp 100-131. Simpson D., 1979. Irony and authority in Romantic poetry. London, 267 p. Abdullina L.R., Ageeva A.V., SmirnovaE.A., 2014. The Evolution of the ‘Comment’ Genre: Theoretical Aspect // World Applied Sciences Journal. IDOSI, 29(3), pp 354-358. Hayrutdinova G. A., 2009. Aesthetic resources of morphological means of the Russian language: abstract of the thesis of the doctor of philological sciences. – Kazan, P. 16.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

PHONETIC ADAPTATION OF ARABIC VOWELS IN MEDIEVAL TURKIC LANGUAGES MONUMENTS Rosa Zupharova Khaphizova, Ilvera Irphanivna Salakhova, Fanuza Shakurovna Nuriyeva Federal State Autonomous Educational Establishment of Higher Education «Kazan (Privolzh'ye) Federal University», Kazan, Tatarstan Street 2 (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/16 Received: 16 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 27 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The article describes peculiarities of arabisms in Turkic languages texts of the Middle Ages that represent a considerable lexical layer. The study of Arabic loan words allows to present the origins of the Tatar literary language and reveals a number of linguistic processes of functioning arabisms in Turkic languages texts. On the basis of rich language material the main mechanisms of adaptation of Arabic graphemes for the transferring vowel phonemes have been revealed and exposed. The process of adaptation of Arabic graphemes that transmit long and short vowels to the Tatar language norms has been shown. Preserving mainly orthographic norms of the Arabic language is observed in grapho-phonetic presentation of Arabic loan words in literary works. Grapho-phonetic variation of certain lexemes is a result of their adaptation to the system of the Turko-Tatar language. Hamza alif in arabisms is used in all positions but in Turkic words it is fixed only in anlaute. The grapheme ‫ و‬can transfer either the long sound [у], such as in the Arabic language, or the long phonem es [о], [ө], [ү], that are inherent in the Tatar language. In orthography of the graphem es transferring short vowels (харакаты / kharakats) their omission is mainly observed. Only in single texts, for example, in «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari the alternate vowels fatkha, damme and kyasra are preserved. The study of phonetic mastering of arabisms has allowed to expose a number of linguistic processes. A clear link between the level of functional activity and the degree of adaptation of arabisms in the texts of Turko-Tatar monuments is shown in the article. Interpretation of linguistic facts when analyzing grapho-phonetic adoption of arabisms contributes a new material to the theory of graphic arts. Key words: medieval, arabisms, arabographic, Turkic languages, vowels, adaptation 1. INTRODUCTION After most Turkic peoples’ converting to Islam the Arabic graphics had been serving for official document log and state correspondence as well as scientific and literary works for almost one thousand years. To reconstruct the history of developing the Turkic languages and literary norms one needs to apply comprehensive linguistic analysis of written monuments rich in Arabic borrowed words, that are integral cultural layer of the Tatar people and literary language. These are the Turko-Tatar monuments to which the literary work by Mahmud al-Bulgari «Nahj al-Faradis» belongs, that was written in 1358 in the town of Saray and played significant role in cultural life of Povolzh’ye peoples. Text is a contamination of religio-ethical studies with artistic form of evocation. In the language of literary works that combines literary norm and popular-colloquial forms the worldview of the Middle Ages is reflected. The study of the arabisms functioning in the text « Nahj al-Faradis » affords an opportunity to unfold the process of functioning of the Arabic graphem es and their adaptation to the Turkic Languages environment. Functioning of the Arabic loanwords in the contemporary Tatar language has been studied in details in the works of I. Sh. Avkhadiyev, G.M. Ishmukhammetov, М.I. Makhmutov, I.I. Siraziyev, А.Sh. Yusupova [1, 2]. Let us note that there are few works devoting to the analysis of arabisms in the Turkic Language monuments of the Middle Ages. In spite of the fact that in multiple-aspect studies on description of medieval monuments the Arabic loanwords came into view of such specialists in Turkic philology as S. Ye. Маlоv, E.N. Nadzhip, F. Sh. Nuriyeva, А.N. Samoylovich, E.I. Fazylov, V. Kh. Khakov, Ya. Ekman and others, the study had fragmentary character [3, 4]. The source of the study is the representative list of the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari, rewritten in 1360 [5]. The article aims at describing the process of mastering the Arabic graphemes and revealing the specific character of their transfer and mechanisms of adaptation in the literary work « Nahj al-Faradis » by Mahmud al-Bulgari. The Arabic loanwords in the text « Nahj al-Faradis » represent a considerable layer of text lexis: in the monument there are 1127 lexemes of Turkic, 894 – of Arabic and 252 – Persian origin, that is, general quantity of lexical units contains 39% of the Arabic words. The Turko-Tatar lexis of the literary monument «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari in the phonetic aspect has been studied by F. Sh. Nuriyeva [6, 7, 8]. But in the Tatar language study there have been no special works devoted to the investigation of the adaptation of Arabic graphemes in Arabic loanwords in the Turkic language text till present days. It is well-known that the Tatar and Arabic languages refer to different language families that differ from each other at all levels including phonetic one. The main difference of orthoepy norms is in that the law of synharmonism is inherent in the Tatar language and in the Arabic language it is absent. Besides, the long and short vowels have distinctive meaning in the Arabic language and in the Tatar language this feature is not observed. The vowel system in the Arabic language is transferred by the three graphem es ‫ا‬, ‫( و‬уау/wow) and ‫(ي‬йа/ya) for designating long vowels and by diacritical signs (alternate vowels) -fatkha, damme and kyasra for the transfer of shortness of the sam e vowels. The vowel system in the Tatar language is wider than in the Arabic language, and is represented by nine vowels: [а],[ə], [у], [ү], [е (э)], [о], [ө], [ы], [и].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 This incompatibility of grapheme and phonem e have been pointed at in the works by the scholars of arabographic Turkic languages monuments I.А. Abdullin, А.К. Bоrоvkоv, А. Zaynochkovsky, А.Kh. Маnnаpоvа, E.N. Nadzhip, F.Sh. Nuriyeva, F.М. Khisam ova and others [9, 10]. When interpreting arabographic text the investigator needs to make decisions of a number of tasks, first of all, of those concerning the theory of graphics, especially in adaptation of an alphabet of one language to the demands of the other. In this respect L.R. Zinder writes: «… adopting the alphabet of the other language, scriveners usually proceed from phonological system of the native language and choose individual graphemes by leaning on sound associations. But these graphemes do not always correspond to phonemic system as the main principle of graphics is violated – monosemantic reflection of the sound part of the language» [11]. The possibility to transfer several phonemes by a grapheme violates the phonetic principle of writing. In such cases designation of one phoneme by combination of two or several graphemes for adequate grapho-phonemes transfer is assumed. Methods of research. For the purpose of complex analysis of the Arabic loanwords in the medieval Turkic language monuments the following linguistic methods have been applied: descriptive which has a number of methods of linguistic research, and also the methods of classification and systematization; comparative historical, contrastive methods of research. The elements of etymological analysis that allow to establish the origin of a word and eliminate possibility of misinterpretation have also been applied. 2. FUNCTIONING OF THE GRAPHEMES THAT TRANSFER LONG VOWELS Functioning of the grapheme ‫( ا‬alif). In the Arabic language the letter alif - ‫ ا‬does not express any sound singly. Alif is to be attended by special alternate vowels in order to transfer a sound. In Arabic borrowings that function in the works “Nahj al-Faradis” by Mahmud al-Bulgari, the grapheme alif may stand in all positions peculiar for the Arabic language: 1. in anlaute it serves «stand» for hamza and alternate vowels: fatha, kyasra or damma, combined with hamza and harakatams, transfer the short vowels [а] or [ə], [у], [и], depending on harakat. Here, hamza vocalized with damme or fatha is placed above alif and vocalized with kyasra – below alif. а) ‫( أ‬Hamza alif, vocalized with fatkha) denotes [а] – wide non- labialized short back vowel and [ə] – wide nonlabialized short front vowel, depending on adjacent consonant either soft or hard. In Arabic loanwords of the monument «Nahj al-Faradis» it occurs in the following positions: In anlaute: ‫[ أ ﺛَر ﻗﯾﻠدي‬əсəр кылды] – пленил / captured [5]‫[ أوّ ل‬əүўəл] – первый / first [5]; ْ‫[ أﻣر‬əмер] – приказ / command [5];‫أﻗْرﺑَﺎ‬ ِ [ақрибā] – родные, родственники / relatives [5]; in inlaute: ‫[ ﺗﺄﺧِﯾر‬тə҆ хы̄йр] – опоздание / late arrival [5]; ٌ‫ﻣ ﱢُﺄذن‬ [мөʼəззин] –призывающий на молитву / calling to prayer [5];ٌ‫[ ﻣُﺄﺟﱠ ل‬мөʼəҗҗəл] –отсроченный / delayed [5]; ‫[ ﺟُرْ أت‬җөр҆ əт] – смелость / courage [5]; ٌ‫[ ﺗ َِﺄرﯾﺦ‬таʼрӣх] –история / history [5]. In the arabographic Turkic textsُ ‫( أ‬Hamza alif, vocalized with fatha) can transfer either [а] – wide non- labialized short back vowel or [ə] – wide non- labialized short front vowel, depending on adjacent consonant either soft or hard. б)ُ ‫ ( أ‬hamza alif, vocalized with damme) is expressed in the Arabic language by short back high vowel [у]. In the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» it occurs in anlaute of the Arabic words, for example:‫ أ[ ُ ْﺳ ْﺗَﺎذﻻر‬остāзлāр] – учителя / teachers [5]; ّ‫[اﻟﻣؤﻣِﻧﯾﻧَﺄم‬өммел-мөэʼминӣн] ْ – мать правоверных / the mother of the faithful [5];‫[أ ُ ﻣَرَ ا ُء‬өмəрāʼ] – эмиры / emirs[5]; ‫[ أﺟْ رَ ﺳﻰ‬өҗрəсе] – его плата, гонорар / his pay, fee [5]. In the arabographic Turkic texts the functionُ ‫ أ‬of hamza alif, vocalized with damme is extended and used for transferring not only short phonem e [у], but also short [о], [ө], [ү], depending on the adjacent consonant either soft or hard. в) ‫(إ‬hamza alif, vocalized with kyasra) transfers short [и] –the front high vowel. In the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» the graphem e ‫ إ‬occurs in anlaute of the Arabic words that are masdarams of IV line and nouns in the very Arabic language. For example:‫[ ْإﺧﻼص‬ихлāс] – искренность / sincerity [5]; ‫[إ ِﻛْ رَ ام‬икрāм] – щедрость / generosity, чествование / celebration in honour of[5]; ‫[إﯾﻣﺎن‬ӣмāн] – вера в Аллаха / trusting in Allah [5]; ْ‫[ إ ﺑْﻠﯾس‬иблӣс] – Иблис (сатана) / Iblis (satan)[5]. Having retraced the use of the grapheme hamza alif, we can state that in the arabisms of the literary work «Nahj alFaradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari it is actively used in all positions, and in the Turkic languages – in anlaute one only. Functioning of the grapheme ‫( –آ‬alif mudd). Alif mudd in the Arabic language is a means of extension of the hamza alif vocalized with fatkha. It transfers super-long vowels: [ā] – wide non- labialized short back vowel or [ə] – wide nonlabialized short front vowel, depending on the adjacent consonant either hard or soft. In Arabic loanwords of the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» the letter ‫ آ‬occurs in the following positions: in anlaute: ُ‫[آدَ م‬āдəм] – Адам / Adam[5]; ْ‫[ آ ﯾَت‬āйəт] – аят / ayah [5]; ْ‫[ آﻣﯾن‬āмӣн] – Аминь / Amen [5]; ‫[ آ َﻣﻧّﺎ‬əмəннə] – мы уверовали / we came to believe[5]; ْ‫[آﺧرت‬āхыйрəт] – загробная жизнь / postexistence [5]; in inlaute: ُ‫Ⱪ[ﻗ ُرْ آن‬ор҆ əн] – Коран/ the Koran[5]. It should be emphasized that in the Arabic language alif mudd –‫ آ‬expresses grammatical and semantic meanings. Alif mudd is also recorded in anlaute of the Turkic languages vocabulary, but in this position it does not carry any charge of super-length but conveys only the short vowels [а] or [ə]:‫آت‬ ْ [ат] – имя / name [5]; ‫[ ْآز‬аз] – мало/ few [5];‫آواز‬ ْ [аўāз] – звук / sound [5]. In the manuscript «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari the synonymic writing ‫أ~آ‬: ‫[ آﺗﻠﯾﻎ‬атлы̄ғ] – по имени / by name[5]; ‫[ أﺗﻠﯾﻎ‬атлы̄ғ] – по имени / by name [5] can also be found. This fact proves that in the Turkic text alif mudd–‫ آ‬loses the functions of the Arabic language, and acquires new, distinctive from the source language (that is, Arabic) meaning. Functioning of the grapheme ‫و‬. In the Arabic language the grapheme ‫و‬in inlaute and auslaute renders the vowel phoneme [у] – labialized long back vowel. In the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» ‫و‬is actively used: –in inlaute: ‫ُوز‬ ْ ‫[ َﻋﺟ‬ғаҗȳз] – старуха / old man [5]; ْ‫[ ﻣَﺷْ ﮭُور‬мəшһүр] –известный / known[5]; ْ‫[ ﻣَﺟْ ﻧ ُون‬мəҗнүн] – сумасшедший / mad [5]; ‫[ ﻧورا ﻧ ِﻰ‬нȳрāни] – светлый / light[5]; ‫[ ﯾوﺳف‬йосыф] – Иосиф / Joseph [5]; –in auslaute:‫[ﻋَﻔ ُو‬ғафȳ] – прощение / forgiveness [5]; ‫[أﺑو ذرﻧﻰ‬əбȳ зарны] – Абу Зара / Abu Zara [5]. In arabographic Turkic languages texts, the grapheme ‫( و‬уау/ wow) can transfer either long sound [у], such as in the Arabic language, or the phonem es [о], [ө], [ү]. The functional extension of the grapheme in transferring phonem es occurs. ‫( و‬уау/wow) in inlaute and auslaute can also be stand for hamza, if final hamza is preceded by damme, for example: ٌ‫[ ﺳُؤال‬cө ҆əл] – вопрос / question [5];‫[ ﻣُؤ ِﻣ ٌن‬мө ҆эмин] – уверовавший / accepted to [5];‫[ ﻟؤﻟ ُؤأﺑو‬əбȳ лө ҆ элөэ ҆ ] – Абу Лю-лю / Albu Lyu-lyu [5]. In transcribing «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari we adhered to the opinion that the grapheme ‫(و‬уау/ wow) in the Arabic words adapted to the Turkic languages texts and began adapting to being pronounced in the Turkic languages environm ent.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Functioning of the grapheme ‫( ي‬йа/ya). In the Arabic language the grapheme ‫ي‬conveys long vowel phonemes [и] – long non-labialized front mid vowel and [ы] – long non-labialized back mid vowel, depending on the adjacent consonant either it is soft or hard, in inlaute and auslaute of the Arabic borrowings only after the consonant, vocalized with kyasra. The grapheme ‫(ي‬йай/yai) in the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari is actively used in both Arabic and Turkic words. In inlaute of the Arabic loanwords: ْ‫[ ﺷﮭﯾد‬шаһӣд] –павший за веру/ killed for faith [5]; ‫[ ﺟَ ِزﯾرَ ه‬җəзӣра] – остров / island [5], ْ‫[ زَ ﻧْﺟِ ﯾر‬зəнҗӣр] – цепь/chain [5]; ‫[ َﺑﺧِﯾل‬бəхы̄йл] – жадный / greedy[5], ‫[ ﻗَﺻِ ﯾدَه‬қасы̄йдə] – поэма/ poem [5], ‫[ َﻓﻘ ِﯾ ْﮫ‬фəқы̄йһ] – знаток мусульманского права /expert in moslem law [5]; ‫[ ﻓَﺿِ ﯾل‬фазы̄йл] – достойный, превосходный / deserving, excellent[5]. In auslaute:‫[ ﻟ َﺣْ ﻣَﺎ ﻧِﻰ‬лəхмāнӣ] – тучный / obese [5]; ‫[ﯾﻌﻧﻲ‬йəғнӣ] – то есть, значит / that is, it means[5]; ‫[ﺟﺎري‬җāрӣ] – текущий, действующий / current, in effect[5]; ‫[ﯾﮭودي‬йəһүдӣ] – еврей / Hebrew [5]; ‫[ ﻗَﺎﺿﻲ‬қāзы̄й ] – судья / judge [5]; ‫ﻋَﺎﺻﻲ‬ [ғāсы̄й] – неповинующийся, грешный / disobedient, sinful [5]. ‫(ي‬йа/ya) also in inlaute may be a stand for hamza, though ‫(ي‬йай/yai) as a stand, in the Arabic language is written without diacritical marks: ٌ‫[ ﺳَﺎﺋ ِل‬сə ҆ил] – спрашивающий / enquirer [5], ُ ‫[ ﺟَ ﺑْرَ ﺋﯾل‬җəбраʼӣл] – Гавриил / Gabriel [5]. Mahmud al-Bulgari in his work used ‫(ي‬йай/yai) with hamza rightly in arabisms, in terms of the Arabic literary language: without diacritical marks. Only in one case, the proper nam e ‫( ﻋﺎﺋﺷﺔ‬Аиша/Aisha) is written with diacritical marks and without hamza through the whole text: ‫ –ﻋﺎﯾﺷﮫ‬Аиша/ Aisha [5]. One can state that the author adapted hamza to the norms of the Turko-Tatar language of that time and substituted it for ‫(ي‬йа) for easy reading. In the Turkic text the grapheme ‫(ي‬йа/ya) with soft consonants may transfer the sound[е]. For example: ‫دِرّ ﺳﯾﻧﻰ‬ [диррəсене] – свой кнут / one’s knout[5], ٌ‫[ ﻣِﺳْ ﻛﯾن‬мескēн] – бедный, несчастный/ poor, misarable[5]. This fact indicates the adaptation of the Arabic loanwords to the orthoepic norms of the Turko-Tatar language. 3. THE GRAPHEMES RENDERING SHORT VOWELS The Istanbul list «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari is vocalized. The ink colour of the alternate vowels differs from the ink colour of the very text. The researchers of the Istanbul list believe that harakats may be placed later. Harakats or the vowels fatkha, damme and kyasra are actively used for rendering the short vowels in the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari and can be found only in inlaute and auslaute. Functioning of the vowel_ˊ (fatkha). The alternate vowel fatkha, being in inlaute and auslaute of the Arabic loanwords, refers to short vowels [а] – wide non-labialized short back vowel and [ə] – wide non-labialized short front vowel, depending on the consonant either hard or soft. In the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari fatkha is actively used. Let us give the examples: in inlaute: ٌ‫[ ﻋَ رَ ق‬ғарақ] – пот / sweat[5]; ‫ﻗطرَ ة‬ ْ [қатра] – капля / drop[5]; ‫[ ﺻِ رَ اط‬сыйрāт] – рел./ rel.: прямая дорога, путь / long way, wayfaring [5]; ‫[ َﻣدَد‬мəдəд] – срок / term [5]; ْ‫[ َﯾﻣَن‬йəмəн] – Йемен / Yemen [5]; ْ‫[ ﺳَ ﺑَب‬сəбəб] –причина / reason[5]. In auslaute of the Arabic loanwords in the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari fatkha is found in the verbs of the past tense, in combination with set expressions: ‫[رَ ﺿِ ﻲَ ﷲ ﻋﻧﮫ‬радыйə Аллаһу ғанһу] – Аллах был доволен им / Allah was satisfied with him[5]; ‫[إن ﺷﺎ َء ﷲ‬ин шāʼ Аллаһу] – если пожелает Аллах / if Allah wish[5]; and in the first word of idaf which is preceded by the vocative particle ‫ﯾﺎ‬: ِ ‫[ﯾﺎ رﺳول َ ﷲ‬йə расȳлə Аллāһи] – о, пророк Аллаха/oh, the Prophet of Allah [5]. In the Turkic words of the monument fatkha is found only in inlaute as in auslaute of the Turkic words it does not render any grammatical meaning like in the Arabic language. The adaptation of fatkha to the Turko-Tatar language takes place. Functioning of the vowel _ ́ (damme). The vowel damme is used in inlaute and auslaute of the Arabic loanwords and renders the sound [у] – labialized short front back vowel, in the very Arabic language. But in the arabographic Turko-Tatar text containing soft consonants,such as ‫ب‬, ,‫ ت‬,‫ ث‬,‫ ج‬, ‫ ح‬,‫ د‬, ‫ز ذ‬, ,‫ ش‬,‫ف س‬, ,‫ ك‬,‫ ل‬,‫ م‬,‫ ن‬,‫ه‬ ,‫ ي و‬damme may be rendered both as [у], and [о], [ө], [ү], [е].́ But if damme and such hard consonants as ‫خ‬, ‫ر‬, ‫ص‬, ‫ض‬, ‫ط‬, ‫ظ‬, ‫ع‬, ‫غ‬,‫ق‬, are adjacent then it is pronounced either as [у], or [о]. Let us consider the following examples: in inlaute: ْ‫[ ﻗ ُرَ ﯾْش‬қорəйш] – курайш [5]; ْ‫[ﺗواﺿُﻊ‬тəвāзығ] – скромность/ modesty [5]; ‫[ﻣُﻌﻠ ّ ْم‬мөғаллим] – учитель/teacher [5]; ‫[ ﻣُﺻْ َطﻔَﻰ‬мостафа] – избранный, отборный /selected [5]; ْ‫[ ﻣُﻧﺎﺳب‬мөнəсип] – соответствующий/ appropriate [5];‫ك‬ ْ ‫[ ﺗَ َﻣ ﱡﺳ‬тəмəссүк] – опора/support [5]; ْ‫[ ﺗَﻌَﺟﱡ ب‬тəғаҗҗеб] – удивление / astonishment [5]; ْ‫ﺣُﺳد‬ [хөсед] – зависть/envy [5]. In auslaute damme in the script is preserved mainly in the first word of the Arabic idaph: ‫ك اﻟﻣوت‬ ُ ‫[ﻣﻠ‬мəлəкелмəүт] – ангел смерти/ angel of death [5];‫[ﻛﻼم ُ ﷲ‬кəлəмуЛлāһ] – речь Аллаха/sermons of Allah (the Koran) [5]; or in combination with set expressions : ‫[اﻟﺣﻣ ُد‬əлхəмду лиЛлəһи] – слава Аллаху/ glory to Allah [5];‫[ﺧﺎﻟد ﺑنُ اﻟوﻟﯾد‬хāлид ибнул вəлӣд] – Халид сын Валида / Halid, the Valid’s son[5]. Damme in auslaute, in the Arabic language, renders the grammatical meanings. In the Arabic loanwords of the text «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari damme is preserved in inlaute and auslaute, but in the Turkic words damme is fixed only in inlaute, as it does not have any grammatical meaning in auslaute of the Turkic words. Therefore, in the Turkic text the function of kyasra converges: the adaptation of damme to the Turko-Tatar language occurs. Functioning of the vowel (kyasra). The vowel kyasra is used in auslaute of the Arabic loanwords and conveys the phonemes [и] – front vowel of high rise and [ы] – non-labialized vowel of mid rise, their distinctive feature is in hard and soft consonants. For example: in inlaute:‫[ ﺷَﺎﻋِرﻻر‬шāғыйрлəр] – поэты / poets[5]; ٌ‫[ ﻋِ ﻧَﺎن‬ғыйнəн] – повод, узда / bridle[5]; ‫[ ِﻧﺎ‬бинā] ‫ﺑ‬ – здание, строение / building[5]; ٌ‫[ ﺣِﺟَ ﺎب‬хиҗāб] –покрывало / coverlet [5]. In auslaut: kyasra is preserved in the script mainly in combination with the Arabic set expressions: ِ ‫[اﻟﺣﻣد‬əлхəмду лиЛлəһи] – слава Аллаху/ glory to Allah [5]; ‫[ ﺻﻠّﻰ ﷲ ﻋﻠﯾﮫ ِ وﺳﻠ ّم‬салла Аллāһу ғалəйһи ўə сəллəм] – пусть Аллах молится за него и приветствует его / let Allah pray for him and greet him [5];ِ ‫[وﷲ‬ўаЛлāһи] – клянусь Аллахом / swear on Allah [5]; ‫ﯾﺎ‬ ِ ‫[رﺳو َل ﷲ‬йə расȳлə Аллāһи] – о, пророк Аллаха/ oh, the prophet of Allah [5]. In auslaute of the Arabic nominal parts of speech kyasra expresses the grammatical meaning of the genitive case. In Arabic loanwords of the text «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari kyasra is preserved in inlaute and auslaute, and in the Turkic words it is found only in inlaute position, as in auslaute of the Turkic words it has no grammatical meaning. Thus, in the Turkic text the range of phonemes rendered by the grapheme kyasra extends, but the function of kyasra in auslaute converges if compared with the Arabic literary language. The adaptation of kyasra to the Tatar language occurs.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 4. SUMMARY The study of patterns of functioning of the Arabic graphemes transferring the vowel phonem es in the arabographic Turkic language text has shown that in the literary work «Nahj al-Faradis» the spelling of the Arabic loanwords is correctly rendered if to consider orthography of the Arabic literary language. Mahmud al-Bulgari and the copyists of the script «Nahj al-Faradis» were precise about rendering written graphemes that indicate long and short vowels. In the Arabic language hamza alif ( ‫أ‬or ‫ )إ‬indicates short vowels [а], [ə], [у], [и]. In the Turkic text, besides listed phonem es above, hamza alif is used to transfer [о], [ө] и [ү]. That is, in the Turkic text the functions of hamza alif extend. Alif mudd - ‫آ‬, in the Arabic language in anlaute and inlaute of the words denotes superlong [а] or [ə], depending on the adjacent consonant either hard or soft. In the Turkic text alif mudd – in anlaute indicates short, and in inlaute short, more rarely – long vowels [а] and [ə]. That is, length of the phonemes [а] and [ə], rendered by the graphem e alif mudd ‫ آ‬in the Turkic text, differs from that in the source language. It should be emphasized that in the Arabic language alif mudd – ‫آ‬ expresses grammatical and semantic meanings, and in the Turkic words it does not convey any meaning. In the manuscript «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari the variations ‫ أ~آ‬are also fixed. It proves that in the Turkic text alif mudd- ‫ آ‬loses its functions peculiar to the Arabic language and acquires new functions, that are distinctive from the source language (Arabic). The grapheme ‫ و‬indicates only one vowel phoneme [у] in the Arabic language. And in the Turkic text the grapheme ‫و‬ may indicate the phonemes [у],[о], [ө] and [ү]. The possibility of displaying the sounds by the grapheme ‫ و‬is more broader in the Turkic text than in the Arabic language. The grapheme ‫(ي‬йа/ya) in the Arabic language renders long vowels of the phonem es [и] – non- labialized front vowel of mid rise and [ы] – non- labialized back vowel of mid rise. In the Turkic text the functions of this graphem e is broader and, besides the phonem es [и] – non- labialized front vowel of mid rise and [ы] – non- labialized back vowel of mid rise, it also transfers the phoneme [е]. The functions of the grapheme ‫ ي‬are broader in the Turkic text than in the Arabic language. The vowels fatkha, damme and kyasra are actively used for indicating short vowels in the Istanbul list of the text «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari. If in the arabisms the vowels fatkha, damme and kyasra are used in inlaute and auslaute then in the Turkic words they are found only in inlaute as they do not convey any grammatical meaning in auslaute of the Turkic words like in the Arabic language. The grammatical function of the vowels in the Turkic text is restricted and the vowel adaptation to the Turko-Tatar language occurs. In the Turkic text the grapheme kyasra, besides the phonemes [и] – front vowel of high rise and [ы] – non- labialized vowel of mid rise with soft consonants, may also transfer the sound [е]. Therefore, in the Turkic text the number of the phonem es displayed by the grapheme kyasra extends. The adaptation of the graphem e kyasra to the Turko-Tatar language is observed. 5. CONCLUSION Thus, these indicators corroborate that the Arabic three graphemes indicating vowel phonemes have adapted to the norms of the Tatar language and extended functions for displaying six more phonemes. On the basis of all the stated above, one draws a conclusion about availability of the suggested method, possibility of its application when studying the monuments of the Old Tatar literary language. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author asserts that the represented data do not contain the conflict of interests. COMMENDATION The work was performed in terms of implementation «The plan of activities on realization of the Program of competitive recovery of FGAOU VPO « K (P) FU» among the leading world scientific-educational centers for 2013 – 2020». REFERENCES 1. Yusupova, A.S., Galiullina, G.R., Denmukhametova, E.N. Representation of national mentality in Turkic-Tatar vocabulary. Life Science J 2014; 11(7):506-508] (ISSN: 1097-8135). 2. Zamaletdinov, R.R., Yusupov, F.Y., Karabulatova, I. S., Yusupov, А.F., Khusnutdinov, D.H. The formation of Tatars ethnic groups in the Southern Urals and Trans Urals region // Life Science Journal, 2014. - № 11(11s). S. 214-217. (ISSN:1097-8135) 3. Khisamova, F. M. The native language and the fortunes of the nation//Tatarica,– 2013–№1, P. 23–35. 4. Yusupova, N.M., Yusupov, A.F. Tatar SUFI poetry of the XVI-XIX centuries: peculiarities, world models and symbolic// Life Science Journal, 2014. - № 11 (11). - P. 598-601.(ISSN:1097-8135) 5. Eckman, Janos. Nehcül-Feradis. - Ankara, 1956. - P. 444. 6. Nurieva, F.Sh. Language attribution of the written monuments of the Golden Horde Age. Contemporary study of Turkic languages. Department of education and science of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Turkic Academy. Astana.-2011.- P..208. 7. Nurieva, F.Sh.Formation and functioning of the Turko-Tatar literary language of the Golden Horde. Dissertation for a degree of D. of Philology.- Kazan, 2004.- P.409. 8. Nurieva, F.Sh. «Nahj al-Faradis» by Mahmud al-Bulgari. – Kazan: Fan, 1999. – 188 p. 9. Nurieva, F.Sh. Literary Language of the Golden Horde: Norms and Variations // Life Science Jornal.2014,10(11),С.713 – 717. 10. Salakhova, I.I. The graphemes rendering the consonant phonemes in the Arabic loanwords and their reflection in the Turko-Tatar literary works of the Golden Horde «Nahj al-Faradis» (1358)// In the world of scientific discoveries. — Krasnoyarsk.- 2014. —P.183-200. 11. Zinder, L. R. Collected problems on general linguistics / L. R. Zvegintsev. – L.: Leningrad University Press, 1957. – P. 308.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

PHONETIC, GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL FEATURES OF SOUTHERN AMERICAN ENGLISH ON THE EXAMPLE OF “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD” BY HARPER LEE Oksana Vladimirovna Shemshurenko, Natalya Anantolyevna Deputatova, Zubayda Albertovna Biktagirova Kazan Federal University, Kazan Kremlevskaya str., 18 (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/17 Received: 09 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 06 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT In the USA an extensive material on regional types of pronunciation has been collected in the fields of sociolinguistics and dialectology while the variability of English speech on the territory of the United States of America remains practically unexplored. In this article the extralinguistic features, namely, territorial peculiarities of the southern dialect are considered in combination with the features of the dialect of the South Mountain region and the dialect of South Coast area on the example of the work “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee. We study phonetic, grammatical and lexical peculiarities of the southern dialect. The examples from the book enable us to see the specific nature of the dialect of the Southern United States. We have also compared phonetic, lexical and grammatical features of this dialect with the literary English language and see huge differences. Having analyzed the grammatical peculiarities of the southern dialect, for example, we conclude that the most common grammatical error of the local population is the incorrect formation of general questions, the use of tense forms of verbs and the absence of auxiliary verbs in the sentences. Key words: variability, extra-linguistic features, dialect 1. INTRODUCTION In this article we have considered the variability of Southern English in the USA in response to territorial remoteness, which forms language`s structure and functional using. Any language is perceived as a nation`s cultural phenomena. Variability as a feature of language`s system is the brightest demonstration of its evolution and takes place on every language level (phonetic, grammatical and lexical), conforming to the specificity of every level [1]. The purpose of this work is studying of speech`s variability (including phonetic, grammatical and lexical levels) according to its extra-linguistic features, specifically, territorial remoteness [2]. Territorial isolation is inherent in each representative of a particular region. Everyone knows that the speech of the British living in London specifically differs from the speech of the inhabitants of Bristol, Edinburgh and Cardiff, and the speech of the New Yorkers differs from the characteristics of the speech from Sydney and Auckland [3]. While writing this article the following methods were used: theoretical analysis of literature sources; descriptive method; method of classification; structural and semantic method; comparative analysis method. Data for study of Southern American English and its` grammatical features was the novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee. The main principles and conclusions of this research can be used for practical purposes - for teaching students majoring in linguistics and interpretation. In addition, the results of this research can be taken into account for the elaboration of theoretical courses in Sociolinguistics and Theoretical Grammar. At the present stage of development the variability of speech is of great interest to linguists. It should be noted that the variability of speech is influenced by extra-linguistic factors such as territorial isolation, social stratification of speakers and different spheres of human activity and the situations [4]. We will consider extra-linguistic, specifically, territorial features of Southern American English based on the novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee. Geographically this dialect extends to the following states: Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, West Virginia, Virginia, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland and Delaware [5]. K.Salvuchchi classification is adopted as the basis in the article since it closely reflects the variability of the territorial United States.Tthis classification synthesizes the results of linguistic researches of such prominent linguists as Hans Kurata, Charles Thomas, Raven McDavid, Fredrik Cassidy, Craig Carver and William Labov [6]. After analyzing the text of the work we will distinguish phonetic, grammatical and lexical features of the Southern dialect and compare them with the peculiarities of the given dialect [7]. 2. PHONETIC FEATURES The downgrading of sound /ŋ/ in the end of the word ending with "-ing". There are 405 examples of it in the text that confirm this feature. For example: “Nothin’, just sittin’ and readin’- but they didn’t want me with ’em" [8]. “They say he never got over his weddin’ ” [8]. “Seemed like every time I passed by yonder she’d have some little somethin’ for me to do– choppin’, kindlin’, totin’ water for her” [8]. The downgrading of sound /ð/ in the word “them” – “`em”. There are 139 examples in the text. For example: “He spends his time doin’ things that wouldn't get done if nobody did ’em” [8]. “So it took an eight-year-old child to bring ’em to their senses, didn’t it?’ said Atticus” [8].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The downgrading of sound /d/ in the word “and”. There are 93 examples in the text. For example: “Yes you will, you’ll watch the back end of the lot and Dill’s gonna watch the front of the house an’ up the street, an’ if anybody comes he’ll ring the bell” [8]. “I hate you an’ despise you an’ hope you die tomorrow!” [8]. “Jem’n meain’t ever in the house unless it’s rainin” [8]. Shortening of constructions “it is/ that is/ this is/ what is”till “`s”. The given construction can be met in the text 16 times. For example: “’s not any funnier ’n yours” [8]. “’s matter?” [8]. “’s what everybody at school says” [8]. The downgrading of the sound /ә/ in such words as “around” /əˈraund/, “about” /əˈbaut/, “attention” /əˈtenʃən/, “afraid” /əˈfreɪd/, “appreciate” /əˈpriːʃieɪt/. Such feature of sound reduction in the beginning of the word can be met 15 times. For example: “Let’s go ’round in back again” [8]. “I’m ’bout to perish,’ said Dill” [8]. “He sneaked out of the house - turn ’round - sneaked up, an’ went like this!” [8]. “Don’t pay no ’tentionto Lula, she’s contentious because Rever and Sykes threatened to church her” [8]. “Don’t be ’fraid of anybody here, as long as you tell the truth” [8]. “They- they ’preciatewhat you did, Mr. Finch” [8]. The word “no” /nou/is pronounced as /nɑː/. The word “naw” can be met in the text 13 times. For example: “Naw, don’t anybody much but us pass by there, unless it’s some grown person’s -” [8]. “Naw sir, he’s in the twitchin’ stage, Mr. Heck” [8]. Replacement of the comparative pronoun for `n. There are 11 examples in the text. For example: “Your name's longer 'n you are” [8]. “’s not any funnier’n yours” [8]. The pronunciation of the word before as /fɔːr/ instead of the right variant /biˈfɔːr/. In the text word “fore” can be met 7 times. For example: “You all get in outa that hot sun’fore you fry alive!” [8]. “You all get in outa that hot sun’fore you fry alive!” [8]. The downgrading of the sound /æ/ in the words can /kæn/. The word “c’n” can be met in the text 5 times. For example: “You c’npush” [8]. “They c’ngo loose and rape up the country side for all of’em who run this county care,’ was one obscure observation we met head on from a skinny gentleman when he passed us” [8]. The pronunciation of the phrase your company /jɔːrˈkʌmpəni/ as /jɔˈkʌmpni/. For example: “That boy’s yo’ comp’ny and if he wants to eat up the table cloth you let him, you hear?” [8]. “They call me Burris’t home” [8]. There is a reduction of sound /æ/ in the phrase at home /æthoum/, the result is /thoum/. “What fer, missus?” [8]. In the given example we can see the pronunciation of the phrase as /ˈwɑːtfә/, which has the difference with the correct variant - /ˈwɑːtˈfɔːr/. “Report and be damned to ye!” [8]. In this example the word you /juː/ is pronounced as /jiː/. “Huh, sir?” [8]. In this example the word how /hau/ is pronounced as /hә/. “Mis’sippiturns ’em loose a day later” [8]. In this example we can see the wrong pronunciation of the state as /misˈsipi/. The right variant is /misiˈsipi/. ‘Yawl’ /jɑːl/ is pronounced correctly as /ju: ɑːl/. “Yawl hush,’ growled Jem, ‘you act like you believe in Hot Steams” [8]. “We were ’specially glad to have you all here,’ said Rever end Sykes” [8]. In this example we can see the downgrading of the sound /i/ in the word especially /ɪˈspeʃəli/ till /ˈspeʃәli/. “…the Missouri Compromise was what licked us, but if I had to go through it again I’d walk every step of the way there an’ every step back jist like I did before an’ furthermore we’d whip ’em this time...” [8]. In this example the word "just" /dʒʌst/ has a wrong pronunciation as /dʒɪst/. “’d you bring me a book? ’d you know Aunty’s here?” [8]. In this example we can see /dju/ instead of /did ju/. Here the downgrading of first sounds in the word did do /d/ can be seen. “That's m’name, cap’n,’ said the witness” [8]. In this example the downgrading of sounds can be seen - /mneim/ instead of /maɪneim/, and /ˈkӕpn/ instead of /ˈkӕptən/. “Well, Mayella was raisin’ this holy racket so I dropped m’load and run as fast as I could but I run into th’ fence, but when I got distangled I run up to th’ window and I seen -’ Mr. Ewell’s face grew scarlet” [8]. In this sentence we can see the downgrading of the sound in the phrase my load /mɑɪ loud/ - /mloud/, and in the article "the" /ðə/ till /ð/. “He hit me agin an’ agin-” [8]. In this case the word "again" /əˈɡen/ is pronounced as /әˈɡɪn/. “Seb’m,’ she said, and I wondered if they were all like the specimen I had seen the first day I started to school” [8]. In this example the word "seven" /ˈsevən/ is pronounced as /ˈsebm/. “Two year- three year- dun no” [8]. In this example the phrase “I don’t know” /aɪdountnou/ is pronounced as /duˈnou/. “He does toll able, ’cept when-” [8]. In this example we can see the downgrading of first sounds in the word except /ɪkˈsept/ till /sept/. “She said she sho’ had” [8]. In this example we can see the downgrading of the sound in the word should /ʃud/ till /ʃu/. “’dyou hear what that cousin of mine did the other day, the one who likes to go fishing?” [8]. In this example we can see the downgrading of the sound in the phrase did you /did juː/ till /dj uː/ [9]. 3. GRAMMATICAL FEATURES After analyzing grammatical features of Southern American dialect on the basis of the novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee, it may be noted that from the grammatical point the brightest feature is incorrect structures of general question. The example from the text: “Touch the house, that all?” [8]. The correct variant: “Touch the house, is that all?” “That clear?” [8]. In this sentence the verb "to be" is absent. The correct variant is “Is that clear?” “Anybody want some hot chocolate?’ he asked” [8]. In this sentence the auxiliary verb "does" is absent, as an indefinite pronoun "anybody" has a form of third person singular. The right variant is “Does anybody want some hot chocolate?” “You gonna give m e a chance to tell you?” [8]. Earlier we have investigated lexical features of the southern dialect, and we know, that the word "gonna" means "going to". That is why in this case when we make a general question, the Present Continuous should be used. So the correct variant is “Are you going to give me a chance to tell you?” “You goin’ to court this morning?’ asked Jem” [8]. In this sentence in the structure of the general question, the verb "to be" is absent. The correct variant is “Are you going to court this morning?” The next grammatical feature of the southern dialect is incorrect structure of general questions + incorrect using of time forms. “Ever hear about him, Walter?” [8]. In this sentence Present Perfect should be used. The right variant of this sentence is “Have you ever heard about him, Walter?”

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 “Sleep, Little Three-Eye?” [8]. In this sentence Present Continuous should be used, because the action is happening at the moment. The correct variant of this sentence is “Are you sleeping, Little Three-Eye?” In the sentence “Do better if you go over it instead of under it,’ I said” [8] we can see incorrect usage of the phrase “do better” instead of the correct variant “it would be better”. “Tell it to us,’ he said” [8]. In this sentence we can see the incorrect usage of the verb "to tell" with the preposition "to", because the construction “to tell somebody something” is stable. The correct variant is “‘Tell it us,’ he said”. “I know for a fact don’t anybody go by there…” [8]. In this sentence we can see incorrect usage of the negative particle "don`t" with the indefinite pronoun in third person singular. In this case the auxiliary verb "doesn`t" should be used. The correct variant of this sentence is “I know for a fact doesn’t anybody go by there.” “I wants to know why you bringin’ white chillun to nigger church” [8]. In this sentence we cannot use the verb "to want" with the personal ending "-s", because the personal pronoun "I" is the first person singular. The auxiliary verb "are" is omitted in the phrase “you bringin’”, because the Present Continuous is implied. Before the phrase “nigger church” the definite article "the" is omitted. Taking into account lexical deviations from the literary English the correct variant of this sentence is “I want to know why you are bringing white children to the church for Negroes.” “They’s my comp’ny,’ said Calpurnia” [8] In the given sentence we can see the incorrect usage of the verb "to be" with personal pronoun of the third person plural "they", which is followed by the auxiliary verb "are", not by "is". The correct variant of this sentence is “They’re my company.” “Yeah, an’ I reckon you’s comp’ny at the Finch house durin’ the week” [8]. In this sentence, we can see the incorrect usage of the verb "to be" with the pronoun of the second person singular "you", which is followed by "are", not by "is". The correct variant of this sentence is “Yeah, and I reckon you’re the company at the Finch house during the week.” “On Saturdays, armed with our nickels, when Jem permitted me to accompany him (he was now positively allergic to my presence when in public), we would squirm our way through sweating sidewalk crowds and sometimes hear, ‘There’s his chillun,” or, “Yonder’s some Finches” [8]. In this sentence, we can see the incorrect usage of the construction “there is/ there are”. As far as “his chillun” (plural noun) the construction "there are" should be used, not "there is". In the phrase “Yonder’s some Finches” we can see the incorrect usage of the verb "to be", because “Finches” is plural noun and is followed by the verb "are", not by "is". “There was several niggers around” [8]. In this sentence, we can see the incorrect usage of the construction “there was/ there were”. As far as “niggers”, (plural noun) the construction "there were" should be used, not "there was". Taking into account English rules the correct variant is “There were several negroes around.” “Can you come look?” [8]. In this sentence we can see that two verbs have no connection between each other. There are two possible variants of this sentence: “Can you come to look?” or “Can you come and look?” “I sawed who he was, all right” [8]. In this sentence we can see the incorrect usage of the verb "to see" in the Past Simple form. The correct variant is “I saw who he was, all right.” “I works pretty steady for him all year round, he’s got a lot of pecan trees’n things” [8]. In this sentence, we can see the incorrect usage of the Present Simple Tense, because personal pronoun "I" (first person singular) is followed by the verb "work", but not "works". “She says what her papa do to her don’t count” [8]. In this sentence the word "papa" ( noun, third person, singular) must be followed by the verb "does" but not "do". The correct variant is "doesn`t count" but not "don`t count" because there is the object "what" (third person singular). The correct variant of this sentence is “She says what her papa does to her doesn’t count”. “How you mean?” [8] In this sentence we can see the incorrect form of the special question. The correct variant is “What do you mean?” “I got somethin’ to say,’ she said” [8]. In this sentence we can see the incorrect usage of the phrase "to have got", that`s why the correct variant is “I’ve got something to say”. “Anything hapennin’, Scout?’ he asked as we went by” [8]. In this sentence, we can see the incorrect usage of the tense form and the incorrect order in the structure of the general question. Instead of the Present Continuous Tense, Past Simple should be used because the action happened in the past. The correct variant is “Did anything happen?” [10] 4. LEXICAL FEATURES Ain’t is the contraction for such constructions as “am not”, “is not”, “has not”, “have not” in the Colloquial English. In some dialects this construction replaces following constructions - “do not”, “does not”, “did not”. As Cambridge English Dictionary says: “The use of ain’t was widespread in the 18th century, typically as a contraction for am not. It is still perfectly normal in many dialects and informal speech in both Britain and North America. Today, however, it does not form part of Standard English and should never be used in formal or written contexts” [11]. There are 145 examples from the source-book where “ain’t” is used. For example: “It is a scary place though, ain’t it?” I said” [8]. “Atticus ain’t ever whipped me since I can remember” [8]. To reckon = to think, or to believe. It can be met in the text 66 times. For example: “Why, if we didn’t have prosecutors - well, we couldn’t have defense attorneys, I reckon” [8]. “Reckon you’re at the stage now where you don’t kill flies and mosquitoes now, I reckon,’ I said” [8]. Gonna / gotta = going to. There are 51 exam ples with using the word “gonna” and 8 examples with “gotta”. For example: “You gonna run out on a dare?’ asked Dill” [8]. “You haven’t even seen this town, but all you gotta do is step back inside the courthouse” [8]. Suh = sir can be met 41 times in the text. For example: “Yes suh, I had to serve ’cause I couldn’t pay the fine” [8]. Yonder = over there can be met in the text 34 times. For example: “He’s out yonder in the kitchen” [11, P.92]. ].“Bob Ewell’s lyin’ on the ground under that tree down yonder with a kitchen knife stuck up under his ribs” [8]. Oughta = ought to (expresses the oughtness). This expression can be met in the text 20 times. For example: “My folks said your daddy was a disgrace an’ that nigger oughta hang from the water-tank!” [8]. “Anybody who went up to the house once oughta not to still run every time he passes it,’ I said to the clouds above” [8]. Wanta / wanna = want to. The word “wanta” can be met in the text 18 times. For example: “You don’t have to learn much out of books that way - it’s like if you wanta learn about cows, you go milk one, see?” [8]. “If you don’t throw it all up. Jem,’ I said, ‘I wanna ask you something” [8].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 ’da = could. The given construction can be met in the text 13 times. For example: “Just think, Scout,’ he said, ‘if you’d just turned around, you’da seen him.” [8]. “Uh, uh, uh, who’da thought of a mad dog in February?” [8]. Hafta = haveto (expresses obligation) can be met in the text 11 times. For example: “You haftaknow about cows, they’re a big part of life in Maycomb County” [8]. “That doesn’t mean you haftatalk that way when you know better,’ said Jem” [8]. Nome = no, Ma’am (polite disagreement or denial towards women) can be met in the text 11 times. For exam ple: “Nome thank you ma’am,’ he drawled softly” [8]. “Miss Maudie’s hand touched mine and I answered mildly enough, ‘Nome, just a lady” [8]. Chiffarobe = wardrobe can be met in the text 11 times. For example: “I said, ‘Come here, nigger, and bust up this chiffarobe for me, I gotta nickel for you” [8]. Outa = outcof (indicates movement beyond som ething) can be met in the text 10 times. For example: “You don’t have to touch her, all you have to do is make her afraid, an’ if assault ain’t enough to keep you locked up awhile, I’ll get you in on the Ladies’ Law, so get outa my sight!” [8]. “Ain’t neither, it’ll take the taste outa my mouth” [8]. Yessum = yes, Ma’am (polite expressing of agreement or approval towards women) can be met in the text 9 times. For example: “Yessum, he’s alive. Did he scare you someway?” [8]. Chillun = children can be met in the text 9 times. For example: “I want stock now why you bringin’ white chillum to nigger church” [8]. Lemme = let me can be met in the text 7 times. For example: “Lemme tell you somethin’ now, Billy,’ a third said, ‘you know the court appointed him to defend this nigger” [8]. Looka! = look out! can be met in the text 7 times. For example: “Looka yonder!” [8]. Whatcha / whaddya = what do you/ what are you. The word “whatcha” can be met in the text 6 times. For exam ple: “Love him, whatcha mean?” [8]. “In the sudden silence that followed, Miss Stephanie Crawford called from across the room, ‘Whatcha going to be when you grow up, Jean Louise?” [5], “Whaddy amean?” [8]. Sorta = sort of can be met in the text 4 times. For example: “Then I sorta fainted an’ then extthing I knew Mr. Tate was pullin’ me up off the floor and leadin’ me to the water bucket” [8]. Haint = ghost in the text can be met 4 times. For example: “Ain’t you scared of haints?” [8]. Gimme = give me can be met in the text 3 times. For example: “Well, in the first place you never stopped to gimme a chance to tell you my side of it - you just lit right into me” [8]. Mighta = might have (expresses assumption, doubt, uncertainty) can be met in the text 3 times. For example: “He says as far as he can trace back the Finches we ain’t, but for all he knows we mighta come straight out of Ethiopia durin’ the Old Testament” [8]. Wadn’t = wasn’t (denial of actions in the past tense) can be met in the text 3 times. For example: “Papa told me to do it while he was off in the woods but I wadn’t feelin’ strong enough then, so he came by -” [8]. Offa = of can be met in the text 2 times. For example: “Then I sorta fainted an’ the next thing I knew Mr. Tate was pullin’ me up offa the floor and leadin’ me to the water bucket” [8]. Hidy do! = Good morning/ afternoon/ evening! can be met in the text 2 times. For example: “Hidydo, Mr. Nathan,’ he said” [8]. “Hidy do, Mr. Arthur,’ I would say, as if I had said it every afternoon of my life” [8]. Trot-line = fishing rod. For example: “Their sister Alexandra was the Finch who remained at the Landing: she married a taciturn man who spent most of his time lying in a hammock by the river wondering if his trot-lines were full” [8]. Flivver = old car. For example: “One night, in an excessive spurt of high spirits, the boys backed around the square in a borrowed flivver, resisted arrest by Maycomb’s ancient beadle, Mr. Conner, and locked him in the courthouse out house” [8]. Thataway = of that way. For example: “That old Mr. Gilmer doin’ him thataway, talking so hateful to him -” [8]. Metcha = meet you. For example: “Yeah. Gladto’ve metcha, Mr. Raymond, and thanks for the drink, it was mighty settlin” [8]. My stars! = Oh my Goodness! For example: “My stars, Dill!” [8]. “Gracious child, I was raveling a thread, wasn’t even thinking about your father…” [8]. My hind foot - expression for denying som ething. For example: “Beautiful my hind foot!” [8]. Gee minetti! = Jesus Christ! (expresses a frightening, surprise, annoying, anger). For example: “Gee minetti, Jem,’ I said, when Atticus had gone, ‘they're funny folks” [8]. To skeeter = to roll over. For example: “The tire bumped on gravel, skeetered across the road, crashed into a barrier and popped me like a cork onto pavement” [8]. A spell = a little bit. For example: “I figure if he’d come out and sit a spell with us he might feel better” [8]. Trap = mouth. For example: “Scout, I’m tellin’ you for the last time, shut your trap or go home” [8]. Hoodooing = magic, or witchcraft. For example: “Before I remembered that there was no such thing as hoodooing, I shrieked and threw them down” [8]. Since Appomattox = from times immemorial. For exam ple: “Hasn’t snowed in Maycomb since Appomattox” [8]. It means that there hadn’t been snowing in Maycomb town since 1865, because exactly in that year there was a Battle of Appom attox Court House. It was the last major battle during Civil War in USA (1861-1865). Jim-dandy job = perfect job. For example: “He seemed surprised when he saw most of the back yard in the front yard, but he said we had done a jim-dandy job” [8]. Hon = honey, my dear. For exam ple: “‘Hurry, hon,’ said Atticus” [8]. To stove up = to get tired with. For example: “Mr. Avery’ll be in bed for a week – he’s right stove up” [8]. Booksack = satchel. For example: “Francis had requested a pair of knee-pants, a red leather booksack, five shirts and an untied bow tie” [8]. To run somebody = to disgrace somebody. For example: “He’s runnin’ the family, that’s why he’s doin” [8]. To romp on = to slap. For example: “Atticus, she told me how I should have treated her…oh dear, I’m so sorry I romped on her” [8]. ‘uns = children. For example: “Helen’s got three little ’uns and she can’t go out to work…” [8]. Jee-crawling-hova! = Oh, myGod! For example: “Jee-crawling-hova, Jem! Who do you think you are?” [8] To shinny up = to get drunk, or to get tight. For example: “...know how they do when they get shinnied up” [8]. You’re damn tooting = I assure you that. For example: “From a different direction, another voice cut crisply through the night: ‘You’re damn tootin’ they won’t” [8].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Ma = mother. For example: “Well, if I ain’t I can’t do nothing about it now, her ma’s dead,’ was the answer” [8]. Slap year = whole year. For example: “She says: ‘Took me a slap year to save seb’m nickels, but I done it” [8] Thin-hided = sniveler, or weeper. For example: “You aren’t thin-hided; it just makes you sick, doesn’t it?” [8]. Yappy = untidy. For example: “Jem says, ‘She means they’re yappy, Scout” [8]. Hisself = himself. For example: “Yes ma’am, Miss Gates, I reckon they don’t have sense enough to wash themselves, I don’t reckon an idiot could keep hisself clean” [8]. 5. RESULTS Every person perceives the surrounding environm ent through the prism of notions. A complex of these notions forms the worldview, based on national culture. A person can think and present his outlook by means of national language units [12]. After analyzing all lexical features of Southern American English based on the novel "To Kill a Mocking bird" we can make the following diagram.

Fig. 1. Lexical features of Southern American English on the example of the novel "To Kill a Mocking bird". On this diagram, we can see the frequency percentage of the words used that are typical for Southern American English. Such words as ain’t, reckon, yonder are the markers of this dialect. After analyzing all phonetic features of Southern American English based on the novel "To Kill a Mockingbird" we can make the following diagram.

Fig. 2. The phonetic features of Southern American English based on the novel "To Kill a Mockingbird".

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 On this diagram, we can see the frequency percentage of the phonetic features that are typical for Southern American English. After analyzing the grammatical features of the Southern dialect based on the novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” we can make a conclusion that the most widespread mistakes of the locals are incorrect forms of general questions, usage of temporary forms of verbs and absence of auxiliary verbs in sentences. The examples taken from the works of Harper Lee, helped us to see the specifics of the dialect of the South of the United States of America. According to M. Sattarova et al “any of the modern dialectological research is not complete if its results have not got detailed lingual, geographical and areal interpretation” [8]. We were able to compare the phonetic, grammatical and lexical features of the dialect with English literature and see huge differences. Considering this fact, we can assume that the worldview and personal experience of native speakers, as well as the perception of widely-known writers, can change over time and are purely a subjective point of view [13]. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work was prepared as part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FSAEI VPO" K (R) FU "among the world's leading scientific and educational centers for 2013 - 2020.".4 CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The authors confirm that the data do not contain any conflict of interest. REFERENCES 1. Cheshire J. Variation in an English dialect. A sociolinguistic study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. - 142 p. 2. Bernstein C. Grammatical Features of Southern speech: Yall, Might could, and fixin to. English in the Southern United States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. – 203 p. 3. Cassidy F., Houston Hall J. Dictionary of American Regional English. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. – 457 p. 4. Labov W., Ash S., Boberg C. The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton-de Gruter, 2006. – 237 p. 5. Hazen K., Fluharty E. Linguistic Diversity in the South: changing Codes, Practices and Ideology. University of Georgia Press, 2004. – 141 p. rd 6. Collins B.S., Mees E.M. Practical phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students. 3 edition. Routledge, 2013. – 330 p. 7. Herman L., Herman S. The New England Dialect. American Dialects: A Manual for Actors, Directors, and Writers. Routledge, 1997. – 176 p. 8. Lee H. To Kill a Mockingbird. St.P.: Antologia, 2004. - 306 с. 9. Deputatova N.A. Biktagirova Z.A. Territorial isolation as an extra-linguistic peculiarity of the variability of speech (on the material of the work of Harper Lee “TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD”) // Modern problems of science and education. – 2014. – № 4 -URL: www.science-education.ru/118-13881 10. Chambers J.K., Trudgill P. Dialectology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. - 224 p. 11. Yusupova A.Sh., Galiullina G.R., Denmukhametova E.N. Representation of national mentality in Turkic-Tatar vocabulary / Life Science Journal. – 2014 – 11(7) – p. 506-508. 12. Sattarova M.R., Zamaletdinov R.R., Nurmukhametova R.S. Variants of phoneme /a/ in Tatar lingual areal / Life Science Journal. – 2014 – 11(10) – p. 657-660. 13. Biktagirova Z.A., Deputatova N.A. Comparative study of concepts “beauty/schonheit” (based on multipleresponse free associations of Americans and Germans) / Journal of Language and Literature. - 2014- № 5(3) p. 121-125.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

PHOTO-SHARING COMMUNITIES DISCOURSE: STRATEGIES AND LANGUAGE Oksana Yur’evna Amurskaya, Marina Ivanovna Solnyshkina Kazan Federal University, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/18 Received: 16 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 14 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The article reports on the results of the research aimed at describing graphic, lexical and pragmatic means used in commentaries on photos posted to Russian and German websites “Yandex.Photos” (htpp://www.fotki.yandex.ru/), “Photo.Life” (htpp://www.lifeisphoto.ru/), “Photo.Sight” (htpp:// www.photosight.ru/), “fotocommunity.de” (www.fotocommunity.de/). Theoretically, a lot of contemporary studies in computer-mediated communication do not include the linguistic research of photo sites, although this type of computer-mediated is gaining popularity in our country and abroad, alongside with twitter-communication, studies of youtube, sms- studies and other new media. While some studies indicate that linguists are not much involved in studying pictures, others suggest that the research of Flickr.com and other world-wide known photo-sharing platforms (for ex, Ipernity.com, Yandex photos) could reveal, which strategies users commonly prefer, expressing their comments to photos and which linguistic means they use to express (verbalize) their thoughts, ideas and emotions. The semantic lexical analysis of the replies was applied to reveal the borrowings and colloquial expressions. On the pragmatic level the research is based on the speech act theory to reveal the speech acts and to classify them. The study revealed that commenting on photographs, Russian and German users select one or more of the three communicative strategies: rational, emotional and creative with the emotional being predominant. Empirical evidence confirms, that the three communicative strategies (rational, emotional, creative) realized in a number of speech acts (compliment, advice, congratulation, compliment etc.) differ in linguistic means, levels of representations and concepts implied. Key words: photo-sharing websites, photo commentaries, photo-sites users discourse, strategies, speech acts 1. INTRODUCTION The publicly available archived records of Internet virtual communities are being analyzed for a wide variety of research questions [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7] but similarities and differences in the ways Russians and Germans comment on photographs posted on websites have not been studied. The research was conducted to test the hypothesis that photo commentaries made by Russians contain more generalization and references to abstracts notions, while Germans prefer commenting on the quality and content of the latter. We are particularly interested in the following:  What strategies prevail in the commentaries studied?  In which way Russian photo commentaries differ from Germans ones? 2. MATHERIALS AND METHODS Technical possibilities to communicate with peers online resulted in appearing a huge number of new virtual communities and Internet globalization. Photo-sharing websites as platforms where am ateur and professional photographers upload their works and comment on works of others have recently become popular (http://instagram.com, https://www.flickr.com/ etc.). The data analyzed were collected from the following Russian and German photo-sites: “Yandex.Photos” (htpp://www.fotki.yandex.ru/), “Photo.Life” (htpp://www.lifeisphoto.ru/), “Photo.Sight” (htpp:// www.photosight.ru/), “fotocommunity.de” (www.fotocommunity.de/). “Photo.Sight” founded in 1999 and specializing in art photography is one of the biggest photo-sharing website communities on the Russian Internet with the collection of 3.5 billion pictures uniting 8000 users who monthly add 35000 photographs (htpp://www.facebook.com/photosight.ru/info) 700 000 users visit the website every month and comment on the pictures uploaded by its registered members. “Yandex.Photos” founded in 2007 is another popular free photo-hosting of the “Yandex” corporation, the users of which participate in photo competitions, upload and discuss photographs. “Photo.Life” began functioning in 2007 and by now has 63973 registered authors. The German “fotocommunity.de” (www.fotocommunity.de/) founded in 2001 supporting five languages is at the moment one of the largest European photo-sharing websites. The number of photos added daily by its members exceeds 9000, on average 6000 commentaries are posted and 450 amateur photographers get registered there daily. Based on the layout of the website, photo-site texts are classified into captions and commentaries. Captions are made in the photograph either by the contributing photographer (the author (s)) of the photo or (after the photo is uploaded) by anybody else (the critic(s)). Commentaries on the photograph are classified into primary, done by the critic(s), and secondary – done either by another critic/critics or the author. While referring to either authors or critics without distinguishing them, we use the term users. The data under study are presented by the total of 2548 commentaries (1312 in Russian and 1236 in German) downloaded from the photosites indicated above. The analysis was pursued on the commentaries made on 28 (20 Russian and 8 German) photos of different genres (landscape, portrait, urban landscapes) from 2010 to 2014. The photo-models of

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 the photos discussed are people (adults and children), animals (wild and domestic), natural phenomena and artifacts. Each photograph received on average 94 commentaries either from ‘critics’ (primary and secondary) or ‘authors’ (secondary). A set of NVIVO10 (qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo_add-ons.aspx) was selected for the study: NCapture was used to extract the data from the websites and save it in PDF format, node coding was applied to organize the selected data into nodes. Pragmatic analysis and Speech Act Theory were applied to classify the types of strategies (rational, emotional, creatie) selected and users’ commentaries (congratulations, direct and indirect compliments, acts of advice and wish) [8; 9; 10]. 3. LITERATURE REVIEW Internet-mediated discourse is viewed differently by modern scholars. In a number of works it is interpreted as a new type of discourse different from both written and oral, as a new speech formation [1; 2]. The German scholars [11; 12; 13; 14] specify CMC as a form of communicative interaction, mediated by a certain channel and as a form of speech. According to S. Herring, the mode of CMC as a communicative medium, is neither simply speech-like nor simply written-like. As both written and spoken discourse CMC is affected by the numerous social structural and social situational factors which surround and define the communication taking place [11]. At the moment photo-sites are examined alongside with other cyber media (SMS-communication, Twitter, blogs, e-mail-communication, chat-communication etc.) [1; 15]. The main problems studied and discussed are as follows: virtual communities and small groups communication [3], electronic genres, their classification and origin [4], speech strategies and tactics in computer virtual environment [5], overlapping of computer and other modern discourses [6], terminology problems in computer-mediated communication (CMC) [2]. Among the less investigated areas in CMC are the following: Internet dialects, the role of Internet in preservation of languages and dialects, gender differences in computer discourse [7] etc. Photo-sites users discourse has been the object of few sociolinguistic and pragmatic studies in modern linguistics [16; 17; 18; 15]. A popular theory in German linguistics, “Bildlinguistik” (linguistics of pictures), studies images (photos and pictorial reproductions) in correlation with the texts followed and communicative environment of a speaker [16]. One of the first researchers to address the picture-text correlation problem was a German scholar Christina Mueller [17] who suggested an original classification of photo captions (Germ.“Notizen”) based on their source (videoclips, hyperlinks to other websites and photo-sharing sites, notes, photos) and reference to the photo. She distinguishes between captions and commentaries on photos done by ‘critics’ stressing that commentaries are longer (average maximum 50000 characters) compared to captions (Notizen) (maximum 300 characters) and more comprehensive and use complex sentences. By ‘comprehensive’ the linguist means that the users give more information in commentaries compared to notes. She uses the term ‘note art’ to define creativeness of caption authors, and touches upon the problem of captions diversity and similarity on Flickr (https://www.flickr.com/). Carmen Perez-Sabater conducted a study of openings and closings of commentaries in Facebook corpus [18]. The research, aim ed at observing how users’ first language and culture influence the style and register of the commentary made in English, resulted in the conclusion that non-native speakers typically prefer to express their views in a more formal style. Her research has confirmed S.J.Yates’ earlier hypothesis that "it is not technology which determines the form and content of CMC but the set of literacy practices which the users bring to the medium" [19]. T.I.Popova [15] was the first to introduce the Russian photosites discourse (Yandex Fotki (https://fotki.yandex.ru), Photo Life (http://www.lifeisphoto.ru) and Club Foto.ru (http://club.foto.ru)) and classify communicative strategies of Russian photosites users based on their speech behaviour types after K.F.Sedov’s taxonomy of personalities (Sedov, 2002) specifying rational, emotional and creative strategies. The rational strategy implies assessment of a photograph parameters, recommendations to the photographer, and in some cases possible (potential) discussions on general values associated with the photograph (family, friendship, love etc). T.I.Popova argues that the emotional strategy users tend to comment on photos only to avoid discussing abstract notions. Their commentaries convey (non)verbal expressions of their feelings about a photograph (delight, envy, admiration etc.) and its emotional assessment. In a number of cases users refer to their personal experience, typically focusing on the place, colours, etc. of a photo. ‘Emotional critics’ evaluate the artistic merit of a photo, discuss its resemblance with a real life referent and use comparisons belonging to the same subject area (e.g. a lake – a puddle, a swamp). The creative strategy users express their ideas indirectly, often ironically and in some cases their communicative aim is to flirt or argue attempting to start interpersonal relationships. In a number of cases such users are referred to as “trolls” or “flooders”, as they prefer the phatic type of communication thus amplifying the partner’s opinion. The subject area of their commentaries is also considered to be of artistic merit of a photograph and its social context. In some cases they imitate substandard speech (including vernacular), use cut-in remarks similar to those of stage plays, and wear the so-called “speech masks” distancing their real “self” from the Internet identity [15]. 4. STAGES OF ANALYSIS The analysis consists of three stages enumerated with Roman figures below: I. Collecting and extracting photographs and commentaries from a number of websites (htpp://www.fotki.yandex.ru/), “Photo.Life” (htpp://www.lifeisphoto.ru/), “Photo.Sight” (htpp:// www.photosight.ru/), “fotocommunity.de” (www.fotocommunity.de/)) were conducted with the help of NVIVO10. The data summarized consist of two types: photos (typically provided with a caption/captions) and commentaries. E.g. the photo in Figure 1 (Islandskiy slonik Icelandic Elephant) was followed by 45 commentaries, while the photo in Figure 2 (Haus1) was followed by only one commentary.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

Fig. 1. Islandskiy slonik (Icelandic Elephant) (personal browsing)

Fig. 2. Haus1 (personal browsing)

The range of photo models is wide and include people (family members, couples, children, self-portraits, groups of people, mothers with children), dom estic animals, events (Family day, parenting, shopping etc.), natural and urban phenomena (landscapes, cliffs, ice, ports etc.). Some models provoke a number of individual, national and ethnocultural associations and generalizations. The Russian models arising reminisces include May barbecues, Russian folklore, arts, parodies on Soviet poems, mythology, phraseology, Latin sayings. In cases of the kind Russian commentaries contain numerous intertextual inclusions. Germans 1 on the contrary only in few cases refer to precedent phenomena. E.g.: G773 Erinnert an ein uraltes Lufthansa Werbemotiv sehr gelungen und verdient in die Galerie eingezogen. Mein Glueckwunsch!!! Reminds me of an old Lufthansa advertising motif - very well done and deserves being moved into the gallery. My congratulations! As we see the comment contains a reference to a historic object – an old Lufthansa advertisement shared by the German users community (fotocommunity.outdoor, see http://rutranslate.livejournal.com/2533.html). As we see in the examples below the discussions followed are far beyond the photo model and address culturespecific concepts. E.g. R625 Сказочно красиво!!! (Сейчас расхвалим. Хозяину понравится и скажет: такая "корова" нужна самому, передумает продавать)))) (Fairy-like beautiful!!! (Ready to praise it. The master is going to love it and say, that he needs “the cow” himself, and in the long run he is sure to change his mind and keep “the cow”)))) [Skazochno krasivo!!! (Sejchas rashvalim. Hozjainu ponravitsja i skazhet: takaja "korova" nuzhna samomu , peredumaet prodavat'))))]. R624 Продается!... Баба - Яга!... Телефон №13-31(Sale! …A wicked witch!..Phone №13-31) [Prodaetsja!... Baba - Jaga!... Telefon #13-31]. In R625 the reference is to a popular 1980-s Soviet cartoon based on a poem written by S.Mihalkov (http://my.mail.ru/mail/natacha200910/video/1703/3148.html), while in R624 the precedent name is that of a typical character of Russian fairy tales Baba-Jaga, an ugly witch living in a forest. In two German examples (G1007, G773) ’critics’ demonstrate the associations evoked by the photographs. G1007 Fantastisch, Andreas! Wie ein guter, heisser Tee am Abend eines kalten Wintertags. Fantastic, Andreas! Like a good, hot tea in the evening of a cold winter day. G984 Oh ja, es strahlt eine tiefe Ruhe aus. Im ersten Moment verlockte es mich, mit den Schneeschuhen am Bach Richtung Sonne zu stapfen. Aber das wuerde leider die optische Stille durchloechern. (Oh yes, it (the photo) breathes out peace. At first, it tempted me to trudge in snowshoes to the brook towards the sun. But unfortunately that would perforate the visual silence. ) II. Russian (1312) and German (1236) commentaries were described and classified based on their level of language presentation (structure). The range of structural parameters used in commentaries is presented in Table 1. Table 1. The Diversity of Linguistic Means (level of presentation) №

Level of presentation

Russian

German

1. 2.

paragraphic word

R 258 ++ R1012 Фантазия!!!! (Fantasy!!!!)

3.

phrase

R1021 Интересный снимок! (Interesnyy snimok!) (An interesting shot!)

G796 tolles Landschaftsbild !!! (a great landscape photo!!!)

4.

sentence

R1003 Он выпил море!!! :) (On vypil more!!! :)) (He has drunk the sea !!! :))

G860 Winter ist schön! das hier beweist es! (Winter is beautiful! This proves it!)

5.

text

R1244 Отличная работа! Ушла прочь заботаСозерцаешь -

G863 Das wirkt fast schon malerisch. Eine eher selten gesehene Szenerie, so knapp vor dem Sandsturm hängt aber schon ordentlich Sand in der Luft.

2

(Fantaziya!!!!)

+/G800... ein Traum! (a dream!)

1

All commentaries studied are marked with an index containing a letter (‘R’ for Russian commentaries, ‘G’ for German commentaries) and a number in the file. 2 “+” typically means approval and praise, thus supporting the author, while ”–“ is used to demonstrate negative evaluation.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Расслабляешься, 1 Отдыхаешь.... (Otlichnaja rabota! Ushla proch' zabotaSozercaesh' Rasslabljaesh'sja, Otdyhaesh'....) (Good job! Worries be gone –contemplating – relaxing, Resting..)

Finde ich mal eine interessante Landschaftsaufnahme. Pro (This looks almost like a painting. A rarely-seen scene, just before the sandstorm, the sand is neatly placed in the air. I find it’s an interesting landscape shot.pro)

A photograph may receive up to 250 commentaries depending on the interest demonstrated by critics. E.g., Figure 3 (below) was commented 159 times, while Figure 4 Spiegel was commented 218 times. III. Based on the critics’ strategies the commentaries registered were classified into rational (A), emotional (B) and creative (C) (see Fig.3, 4).

Fig. 3. Папа,а нафига тебе эта бленда?... (Papa,a nafiga tebe jeta blenda?...) (Daddy, why the hell do you need this lens hood?) (personal browsing) Commentary A. Rational Strategy (R82):... да уж, новейшая система испытания объективов L серии...;)!!! (:... da uzh, novejshaja sistema ispytanija obektivov L serii...;) (... Yeah, the latest testing system of L series lenses...;) !!!) Commentary B. Emotional Strategy (R124 ): Великолепный кадр! ( Velikolepnyj kadr!) (Great shot!) Commentary C. Creative Strategy(R56): Сам такоу,как меня бежжубого выставлять,так горазд:))) (Sam takou,kak menja bezhzhubogo vystavljat',tak gorazd:))) (look at yourshshelf inshtead of poshting a photograpph of a toooththlessh me:))))

Fig. 4. Spiegel (Mirror) (personal browsing)

Commentary A. Rational Strategy (G23):Klasse Gestaltung...perspektive. (Great design... perspective).

Commentary B. Emotional Strategy (G1037): mag ich sehr ! ( I like it a lot!) Commentary C. Creative Strategy(G1220): ganz und gar WUNDER.bar!!! (totally WONDER.ful!!!)

3.a. Rational Strategy The Rational strategy as stated above implies assessment of professional features of a photograph, its reference to a special category and recommendations to the photographer (Popova et al., 2012). E.g.: R1187 технический вопрос, если можно:софт-фокус, как реализован? :) (tehnicheskij vopros, esli mozhno:softfokus, kak realizovan? :)) a technical question, if you permit: how did you carry out soft-focus?) G646.. mir gefaellt Vieles im Portfolio... klare Linie I like many things in the portfolio... clear line In the commentaries above (R1187, G646) ’critics’ specify technical characteristics (soft-focus, clear line) of the photograph. ’Critics’ comment on and criticize some elements of the photograph, the image and the model’s resemblance to real objects. E.g.: G732 Der Flieger oben ist an der falschen Stelle. Das gibt dem Bild einenlinksdrall... Ausserdem erscheint mir der Schweif des Flugzeugs unglaubwuerdig. 1) die trails haben mehr Abstand 2) sie sind nicht so deutlich, das kommt erst nach einiger Zeit. The aircraft above is in the wrong place. This gives the image a left twist... Besides, it seems to me that the tail of the aircraft appears unbelievable. 1) the trails have more space 2) they are not that clear, this comes only with time. ‘das‘ (‘this’) in the commentary probably means the skill or experience gained in proper time. In most cases the criticism is accompanied by some positive evaluation of the professional sides of the photograph, combining critical aspects and recommendations to ’the author’. Grammatically it is expressed by subjunctive mood (Conditional mood (Uslovnoe nakloneniye in Russian, Konjunktiv I in Germ an). In the following example the criticism is aimed at the photograph model only: G436 Phantastische Ausleuchtung, Stimmung, Gestaltung, Styling.. wenn nur - pardon - das Model nicht solch einen leicht bedepperten Ausdruck haette... man stelle sich an seiner Stelle eine ausdrucksstarke Frau mit intellektueller, charismatischer Aura vor! Trotzdem: ein Traum-Bild... Hut ab! (Fantastic lighting, mood, design, styling.. if only - pardon - the model didn’t have such a dazed look... just imagine in her place an expressive woman with intellectual, charismatic aura! Nevertheless, a dream-image... hats off!).

1

In all cases the authors preserved the spelling, punctuation and layout of the original commentaries.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 To dilute the criticism ’the critic’ in the example above (G436) uses the borrowed lexeme “pardon”. German ’critics’ apply a number of borrowed words in their commentaries to verbalize their evaluation of the photograph. E.g.: G629 Unique und cool im besten Sinne des Wortes! unique and cool in the best sense of the word! ’The critic’ in the commentary below (G498) refers to emoticons with the same purpose – to temper criticism. The modal word leider (unfortunately) is also applied in the sam e function. E.g.: G498 Wie suess und ausdrucksstark!!! Sollte man etwas Kritisches schreiben wollen, dann fiele mir nur eine Winzigkeit auf, die mich minimal stoert: das Fingerchen, das durch die Knie lukt ;-) Sehr schoene Arbeit! LG Tine P.S.: Hoffe, die Kleine hat keine kalten Fuesse bekommen... ;-) (How sweet and expressive! If you want to write something critical, then I would only mention a tiny thing that bothers me minimal: the fingers that lurks through the knees;-) Very nice work! LG Tine PS: Hope the little one has not got cold feet...;-)) R765 Эта картинка понравилась (в отличие от той, что с царём, от той уж очень веяло клубной самодеятельностью:). А тут всё здорово, даже нарочито бутафорские сарафаны и прочие кокошники *вписались*!) +Х! (Jeta kartinka ponravilas' (v otlichie ot toj, chto s carjom, ot toj uzh ochen' vejalo klubnoj samodejatel'nost'ju:). A tut vsjo zdorovo, dazhe narochito butaforskie sarafany i prochie kokoshniki *vpisalis'*! +H! I like this picture, (apart from the one with the tsar, reminded me of an amateur club :). And everything is great here, even deliberately fake sundresses and other head-band (a kind of a head-dress worn by Russian women) *fit *!)+H!) G1226 Gratulation. Ein geniales Bild. Leider liegt der Fokus zu sehr auf den Tuerrahmen. Das Gesicht ist unscharf. (Congratulations. A brilliant image. Unfortunately, the focus is too much on the door fram e. The face is blurred). The strategy of ’the critic’ in this commentary can be defined as rational as it contains certain indications to the imperfections of the picture. The Rational strategy on Russian sites is exemplified in direct compliments and advice. In German sites it is verbalised in the form of both direct and indirect compliments, advice, congratulation and wish. Table 2. The Rational strategy of Russian and German photosite users Speech acts

Russian

German

Direct compliment

R 1215 Свет мягкий и обработка, обе воздушны, парят)) Прекрасное фото) (Svet mjagkij i obrabotka, obe vozdushny, parjat)) Prekrasnoe foto)) gentle light and editing, both are airy, hovering)

G 823 Wunderbare...tolle sanfte Farben, eine feine Spiegelung...einfach schön! Wonderful... great soft colors, a fine reflection... simply beautiful G 646.. mir gefaellt Vieles im Portfolio... klare Linie (I like many things in the portfolio... clear line)

Indirect compliment

R 1279 Какой чудесный *сибиряк* и как ведь классно подыграл фотографу! С фотографа причитается!) (Kakoj chudesnyj *sibirjak* i kak ved' klassno podygral fotografu! S fotografa prichitaetsja!)) what a nice Siberian cat and how masterfully he played to the photographer! The photographer ows him).

1

congratulation

advice

G 1190 Wirklich kaum zu glauben. Glückwunsch zum Stern! (Really hard to believe. Congratulations on the star!) gratuliere! (my congratulations!) R 693 ВАУ! Роскошно! Я бы, правда немного скадрировал. Но и так шикарно! (VAU! Roskoshno! YA by, pravda nemnogo skadriroval. No i tak shikarno! Wow! Posh! I would cut it a bit, but it’s chic anyway!) R773 Сказочная получилась картинка, нравиться, но вот баян неуместен, лучше гусли. (Skazochnaja poluchilas' kartinka, nravit'sja, no vot bajan neumesten, luchshe gusli. The picture is fairy-like, appeals to me, but the bayan does not fit here, gusli would fit much more)

wish

G 369 Eine wunderbare Landschaftsaufnahme, diese klaren Farben und Bildgestaltung, ein Traum. (a wonderful picture of a landscape, clear colours and perspective, a dream).

G 498 Wie suess und ausdrucksstark!!! Sollte man etwas Kritisches schreiben wollen, dann fiele mir nur eine Winzigkeit auf, die mich minimal stцrt: das Fingerchen, das durch die Knie lukt ;-) Sehr schoene Arbeit! LG Tine P.S.: Hoffe, die Kleine hat keine kalten Fuessee bekommen... ;-) (How sweet and expressive! If you want to write something critical, then I would only mention a tiny thing that bothers me minimal: the fingers that lurks through the knees;-) Very nice work! LG Tine PS: Hope the little one has not got cold feet...;-))

G 121 Quadratischer Schnitt hätte mir hier noch besser gefallen. Pro (I would prefer a square cut. Pro)

G 870 Andreas, du verstehst es perfekt, kurze, praegnante Texte zu deinen fantastischen Bildern zu verfassen. Ich wünsche dir weiterhin tolles Licht und Stimmungen fuer weitere fantastische Stimmungsfotos. (Andreas, you understand it perfectly well, how to write short, concise text to your fantastic pictures. I wish you great light and mood for the other fantastic mood photorgaphs of you).

In indirect compliments as in R 714 the critic’s admiration does not target the model ( hereby the cat), as it may seem at first sight, but the photographer [8]. A number of commentaries are classified as mixed as they contain more than one type of either speech acts or strategy. E.g. R714 Все-таки природа - лучший скульптор. Такие виды! Ну и отображение (в смысле фото) на уровне (Vse-taki priroda - luchshij skul'ptor. Takie vidy! Nu i otobrazhenie (v smysle foto) na urovne. Nature is still the best sculptor! Such landscapes! And the image (I mean photograph) is of high quality). The commentary on R714 contains elem ents of rational strategy expressed in a direct compliment (Nature is still the best sculptor!! And the image (I mean photograph) is of high quality) and emotional strategy realized in admiration (Such landscapes). In the German language a wish is commonly combined with congratulations and expressed with “Glückwunsch” (lit. “a wish of happiness”), “wünschen“ (v. to wish) (e.g. G 870).

1

The reference is to the cat standing on its rear paws between ice-floats in the photograph.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 3.b. Emotional strategy The emotional strategy implies verbalization of the critics’ emotional responses to photos or models. The range of positive em otions is wide and include fascination, empathy, curiosity, joy, contentment, wonder, excitement. Few negative emotions (regret, disapproval etc.) are realized in speech acts of wish and advice. Emotional commentaries are typically viewers’ first impressions on the models, verbalized either with meliorative lexemes or graphic signs of approval (e.g. + or ! ). These signs are in some cases reduplicated, that reinforces the expression of the users’ emotions (see Table 1). On the pragmatic level the speech acts of compliment and congratulation are is applied as a part of emotional strategy (see Table 3). The Emotional strategy is exemplified on Russian and German sites in both direct and indirect compliments and congratulations. Table 3. The emotional strategy of Russian and German photosite users Speech acts Direct Compliment Indirect Compliment

Congratulation

Russian

German

R 695 чудесная работа! (chudesnaya rabota! A good job!) R884 Малаца гимнастка :) Понравилось фото.. и гимнастка :) (Malatsa gimnastka :) Ponravilos' foto.. i gimnastka :) A great gymnast! Enjoyed the photograph and liked the gymnast!)

G 807 Die ganze Serie ist echt traumhaft - mein Kompliment! (The whole series is really fantastic - my compliments!) G1188 Was ist hier los? Jetzt ziehen ja wirkliche Galeriebilder in die Galerie ein. (What is going on here? Now real gallery images appear in the gallery)

R682 Здорово! Поздравляю отличный кадр! (Zdorovo ! Pozdravlyayu otlichnyy kadr ! Cool! Congratulations, great shot!)

G1190 Wirklich kaum zu glauben. Glückwunsch zum Stern! (Really hard to believe. Congratulations on the star!) gratuliere! (my congratulations!)

The most common speech act in studied Russian photo-sites is a complim ent (15%), verbalized both directly and indirectly. Janet Holmes defines a compliment as “a speech act which explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker, usually the person addressed, for some good (possession, characteristic, skill, etc.) which is positively valued by the speaker and the hearer [8]. A compliment is verbalized in the data summarized both directly and indirectly. A direct compliment is evaluates the object directly and positively (e.g.R 695, G 807). Indirect compliments are disguised in question formulas, rhetorical questions, notices of changes in addressee’s appearance or his or her life in general (e.g. R1164). A number of commentaries combine compliments and indirect advice: admiration for the author’s work is followed by suggestions for improvement (e.g. R693 and G498). Congratulation as in R682 and G1190 above are realizing a stereotypical intention of the speakers to express his emotional state and get a positive emotional response from the listener. In G1188 ’the critic’ intends to compliment ’the author’ and the photograph, but starts with a rhetorical question, not mentioning the photograph itself demonstrating that ’the critic’ has noticed positive changes in the gallery. The events like receiving a star or inclusion into the gallery are followed by congratulation (e.g. G 1190). The speech act of congratulation is often combined with the expression of the opinion of ’the critic’ as a reply to the previous comment. E.g. G137 gratuliere! diese unmengen contras, manchmal denke ich hier wirklich falsch zu sein (Congratulations! These numerous contras, sometimes I think I do not belong here) G140 Diese Unmenge an Contras sind ein Zeichen von Meinungsfreiheit. Glückwunsch zu Bild und Galerieeinzug. (These numerous contras indicate the freedom of expression. Congratulations on the photograph and gallery intake). 3.c. Creative strategy The creative strategy is realized in a number of phenomena: irony, language game, phatic genres (e.g., flirt), “speech mask of a representative of a subculture”. ’Critics’ pursuing the creative strategy tend to use more colloquialisms, clichés, citations and ironical remarks keeping some distance from their real ‘selves’ (Popova et al., 2012). Among the most frequent markers of the creative strategy in the data studied are rhym ed commentaries are capitalized word(s) or letters in a word. E.g..: R442 ЧУдный портрет замечательного человека, Надюш!.. (ChUdnyj portret zamechatel'nogj cheloveka, Nadjush! It’s a WONDERful portrait of a nice person, Nadjush! (addressing a lady called Nadya with a diminutive counterpart – Nadyusha). G1220 ganz und gar WUNDER.bar!!! lg totally WONDER.ful!!!) G 995 groSSARTig. Glueckwunsch! (Great. Happy wishes!) In the first exam ple the rhymed comment contributed to the humour of the situation. In the second example the word “art” is capitalized, the photograph is regarded by ’the critic’ as belonging to “high art”. The use of graphic symbols as a part of a language game can be traced in the words marked with an asterisk (e.g.*) and a diminutive suffix. E.g..: G 590 Glueckwunsch zum *chen (congratulations on a star). Asterisk also serves a decorative function. E.g..: G 19 *G*R*A*N*D*I*O*S. (grandiose) The Creative strategy is exemplified on Russian sites in direct and indirect compliments. In German sites it is presented only in the form of a wish.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Table 4. The creative strategy of Russian and German photosite users Speech acts Direct compliment

Indirect compliment

Creative strategy Russian R979 Сейчас улетит с лебедями :) Красота... (Seychas uletit s lebedyami :) Krasota... Then she’ll fly with the swans It’s beautiful…)

German

R1164 Почему ЦВЕТОК ? Я вижу здесь три ЦВЕТКА ! (Pochemu TSVETOK ? YA vizhu zdes' tri TSVETKA ! Why FLOWER? I see three 1 FLOWERS here )

wish

G995 groSSARTig. Glueckwunsch (Great. Happy wishes!)

5. CONCLUSION The range of Russian and German photo-models on the selected websites is similar (landscapes, cityscapes, countryside, individuals etc.), but the cultural differences revealed are many. Commenting on photographs, Russian and German users select one or more of the three communicative strategies: rational, emotional and creative with the emotional being predominant. The speech acts range is quite limited and include congratulation, wish, advice and compliment ( direct and indirect) used to express admiration, criticism, regret etc. A compliment (direct and indirect) is the most widely presented in all studied strategies in both languages. The speech act of wish is not presented in the Russian data. Compliment and advice are typical for Russian and German websites users but the strategy and linguistic means selected culture-specific. Congratulation is less characteristic in Russian commentaries and German ’critics’ are more inclined to criticism than Russians. The list of objects of criticism includes: technical characteristics of a photograph, correlation between the image and its referent. German ’critics’ try to soften their criticism using subjunctive mood and modal words, both natie (“leider”) and borrowed (“pardon”) and emoticons. Criticism is typically accompanied by positive evaluation of som e of the photographer’s work. Advice is less common and typically preceded by a compliment on both Russian and in German websites. Critics present their interpretation of the picture going far beyond the scope of what they see. Reduplication of graphic symbols and lexemes is often applied to reinforce the effect. Isolated use of graphic symbols is frequent in both Russian and German photosites. One of the essential aspects of Russian photosites are inter-textual inclusions in users’ discourse. As inter-textual ethnocultural and national ‘islands’ are many and always recognized though sources are seldom mentioned we may conclude that Russian users share views on a number of concepts. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The authors confirm that the submitted data is free of conflict of interest. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work was prepared as part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FSAEI VPO" K (R) FU "among the world's leading scientific and educational centers for 2013 - 2020. REFERENCES 1. Abdullina, L.R., Ageeva, A.V. and Smirnova E.A., 2014. The Evolution of the "Comment" Genre: Theoretical Aspect. World Applied Sciences Journal, 29 (3): 354-358. 2. Kolokoltseva, T.N. and O.V.Lutovinova, 2012. Internet-kommunikatsiya kak novaya rechevaya formatsiya.Moskva: Flinta, ISBN 978-5-9765-1310-5, Pages: 328. 3. Döring N., 2003. Sozialpsychologie des Internet. Die Bedeutung des Internet für Kommunikationsprozesse, Identitäten, soziale Beziehungen und Gruppen. Göttingen : Hogrefe, ISBN-3-8017-1466-7, Pages: 662. 4. Goroshko, Ye.I., Ye.A. Zemlyakova, and T.L. Polyakova, 2012. Zhanry 2.0: problem a tipologii i kategorizatsii (na primere kommunikativnogo servisa «Tvitter»). J.Zhanry rechi., Vol.8: 344-357. 5. Ryzhkov, M.S. , 2010. Rechevyye strategii uchastnikov sinkhronnogo internet-diskursa (na materiale russko- i angloyazychnykh chatov). Master Thesis, Voronezh State University, Russia. 6. Kochetova, L.A., 2012. Dinamika reklamnoy kommunikatsii: ot traditsionnoy modeli k interaktivnoy. Internetkommunikatsiya kak novaya rechevaya formatsiya. Moskva: 255-271. 7. Kapidzic, S. and S. C. Herring, 2011. Gender, communication, and self-presentation in teen chatrooms revisited: Have patterns changed? J. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(1): 39-59. 8. Holmes J., 1998. Complimenting – a Positive Politeness Strategy.https://aggslanguage.wordpress.com/gender-interaction-theory- %E2%80%93-holmes-tannencameron-defrancisco/ 9. Searle, J. R., 1975. A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts, J. Language, Mind, and Knowledge, Minneapolis, 7: 344-369. http://www.mcps.umn.edu/assets/pdf/7.8_searle.pdf. 10. Trofimova, N.A., 2008. Ekspressivnyye rechevyye aktyyu Semanticheskiy, pragmaticheskiy, grammaticheskiy analiz. Sankt-Peterburg: BBM, ISBN 978-5-9651-0284-6, Pages: 376. 11. Herring S., 2011. Computer–Mediated Discourse. http://odur.let.rug.nl/redeker/herring.pdf 12. Werry, C.M. , 1996. Linguistic and interactional features of Internet Relay Chat, S. C. Herring (ed.). John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam / Philadelphia, pp. 47-63. 13. Runkehl J., P. Schlobinski and T. Siever, 1998. Sprache und Kommunikation im Internet. Überblick und Analysen. http://www.mediensprache.net/archiv/pubs/3-531-13267-9.pdf.

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The reference is to two young ladies metaphorically called flowers and a real flower.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 14. Wilde E., 2002. Zwischen Mündlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit: Die Chat–Kommunikation aus linguistischer Sicht. http://www.chat-bibliography.de/papers/wilde.pdf 15. Popova, T.I., I. M Voznesenskaya, D. V. Kolesova, and V. M. Savotina, 2012. Internet-prostranstvo-rechevoy portret pol'zovatelya. Sankt-Peterburg: Eydos, ISBN 978-5-904745-21-9, Pages: 224. 16. Klemm, M. and H.Stoeckl, 2011. Bildlinguistik –Standortbestimmung, Uberblick, Forschungsdesiderate. Bildlinguistik. Berlin: Erich Schmidt: 7-18. 17. Müller, Chr., 2012. Kommunikation im Bild: Notizen in Fotocommunities. Entwicklungen im web 2.0. Frankfurt am Main: 49-73. 18. Perez-Sabater C., 2012. The Linguistics of Social Networking: A Study of Writing Conventions on Facebook. Linguistik Online, Issue 6. https://bop.unibe.ch/linguistik-online/article/view/257/347 19. Yates S.J., J.Orlikowski, J.Wanda, 1992. "Genres of Organizational Communication: A Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media". J. Academy of Management Review, 17 (2): 299–326.

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PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS AS THE WAY OF TATAR LANGUAGE PERSON REPRESENTATION Firuza Ramzelovna Sibgaeva Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Kremlevskaya street, 18 (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/19 Received: 18 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 13 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The modern world dictates the search for new approaches concerning the study of language and culture, where a person as a carrier of a particular culture and speaking a particular language, is considered in close relationship with a culture and language carrier. The hum an factor is involved in linguistic studies as the phenomenon of national language identity and as an important component of the national mentality. The following techniques were used during the study: descriptive and comparative analysis, and the methods of sem antic, conceptual and linguistic-cultural analysis. The modern Tatar linguistics demonstrates a great interest for the consideration of a language as a kind of cultural code for separate linguistic and cultural communities. Phraseological units, being the cultural heritage of people, reflect all aspects of the Tatar people life, its past and present, its views and beliefs, character, psychology, lifestyle, including the spatial orientation. An ethno-linguistic, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and lingvocultural approaches occupy a special place in the representation of a language personality in modern linguistics. One of the main sources at linguistic and cultural representation of a language personality is phraseology. The phraseological units of Tatar language reveal the ways of the Tatar language personality representation. The m ain attention in the article is paid to the analysis of Tatar language phraseology units as the way of Tatar language personality representation, which makes it possible to identify universal and linguistic specifics. Also it allows to explore deeper the system of Tatar people thinking. Key words: Linguistic and cultural description, linguistic personality, representation, language picture of the world, national-cultural component, phraseological unit, contextual analysis, mentality 1. INTRODUCTION The modern world activates the research according to an anthropocentric study of consciousness. More and more attention is paid to the study of linguistics in language personality and its representation. The science considers a language personality as a particular carrier of a language linguistic units, operating by the rules of language and speech activity, which has a universal and personal cultural experience. A language personality correlates with the culture and is the carrier of a national origin, has an overall picture of the world with the language personalities of its people. The purpose of this paper is a comprehensive study of phraseology as the way of the Tatar language personality representation. During the study aimed to determine the characteristics of the people through a language, through the prism of national mentality, the main category of research is the problem of "language and culture", "language and identity", "language and ethnicity" study. In modern linguistics the opinion that a language and culture form and organize a linguistic person mentality, where a language is considered as the means of cultural values determination becomes more and more important. The article is relevant as it reveals the reflection of a personality in phraseologisms within the diversity of its manifestations, which may be justified by the inadequacy of existing research approaches to the study of the Tatar language personality implementation method through phraseological units. Since the object of our study is the representation of a linguistic personality, the methodological basis is made by the works, concerning the theory of linguistic relativity by Sapir-Whorf, Y.N. Karaulov, N.D. Arutunov, V.M. Mokienko et al. The linguistic and cross-cultural theory of speech and the "background theory" is considered in the works written by E.M. Vereshchagin, V.G. Kostomarov, G.D. Gachev, V.V. Vorobyov. In contrast to Indo-European and Slavic linguistic science, which during the last decade, had a great number of works devoted linguistic and cultural research concerning the languages of peoples living within the territory of Russian Federation. In this regard, the studires of such linguists as Z.H. Bizheva, R.M. Valieva, Zh.H. Gerkogotova, A.I. Gelyaeva, I.R. Mokaeva, Z.M. Raemguzhina, G.M. Kuchmenova, G.V. Gafarova, T.A. Kildibekova, R.H. Khairullina, Z.R. Tsrimova et al. should be noted which are conducted on the basis of Adygei, Balkar, Bashkir, Kabardian and Kazakh languages. Over the last decade the Tatar linguistics developed monographs, thesis works devoted to the linguistics study, the key concepts of the national language picture in the world. The results of research are reflected in the works written by R.R. Zamaletdinov, E.M. Ziangirov, E.N. Gilyazeva, A.Sh. Vasilova, L.R. Garipova, G.R. Galiullina, G.I. Ziatdinova, F.H. Hasanova, D.H. Khusnutdinova and others. 2. METHODS OF STUDY In order to perform a comprehensive analysis of phraseology as the way of Tatar language personality representation the following methods were used: descriptive, comparative and the methods of semantic, conceptual and linguistic-cultural analysis. The descriptive method was used during the study of technique system used to characterize the language phenom ena at this stage of its development; this is the method of simultaneous analysis. The methodology of phraseological unit descriptive study, reflecting the national character of a language person, helps to define clearly the scope and the content of the test expressions.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 An objective description of the national marked language space, taking into account the uniqueness of the world understanding processes, was used at the determination of its constituent entities in linguistic theoretical studies and in a language personality description as the subject of linguistics. Also the different means of phraseological units representation and interpretation were used, relevant for the language approach as the subject of study since the linguistic interpretation is recognized as the most significant one in the linguoculturological description of a language personality. The comparative method as a scientific means was successfully used in experimental and theoretical study of phraseology as a way of the Tatar language personality representation. 3. MAIN PART The content of the Tatar language personality is manifested in phraseological units as the definition of a person's nature various traits. The phraseological units related to this thematic group make quite a numerous, an active and a typical series of phraseology. Idioms as the way of the Tatar language personality representation are characterized by a developed system of values, images and the means of expression [1]. The idioms were analyzed according to the evaluation component of a phraseological meaning. It is the component (disapproving and approving evaluation) included in the meaning of phraseology is the main means of a Tatar language personality representation. The subjective evaluation element of phraseological value may be explained by differential reaction of people on the positive and negative effects and is an integral one in the semantic structure of phraseological units. There is a positive, a negative and a neutral components of idiomatic meaning, which are based on a blame, an approval or the lack of clearly expressed relation as the statement of socially established evaluation of a phenomenon [2, 3]. Thus, the phraseological units denoting the character of a Tatar language personality were combined into 3 main groups: a positive evaluation, a negative and a neutral evaluation of an estimated value. The representation of a Tatar language personality within identified groups indicates a general pattern, the similarities between the phraseological microsystems of phraseological units. 1. The phraseological units expressing the negative traits of a Tatar language personality. This group includes the idioms with negative subjective evaluation component of an idiom atic value, i.e. the FU with the meaning that causes a blame as the statement of the established character traits evaluation of a Tatar language personality. In the Tatar linguistics they make up the largest group. An overall semantic asymmetry of a phraseological system may be explained by a more acute and differentiated em otional and verbal and cogitative reaction of people towards the negative phenomena, as well as the reaction characteristic of stressful, i.e., sharply negative emotional states, the trend towards the use of ready-made speech forms, including the stable verbal units. At the present stage there is a shift towards negative values. The distribution of phraseological units into phraseological semantic subgroups was based on their identification by separate lexem es, phrases, or the detailed descriptions in lexicographical sources, the presence of general integral semes in their semantics [4: 271; 5: 77]. For example, there are the phraseological units of some sem antic subgroups with a negative evaluation: 1) duplicity, hypocrisy: ikeyaqlipeke (two-faced Janus); ikeyozlebulu (be duplicitous); buretireseyabingansariq (a wolf in sheep's clothing); 2) meanness: etcan (dog's soul); yukhayilan (viper in bosom); qarakunel (black soul); 3) arrogance, conceit: boyergetayanu (double teapot), borinnikukkechoyu / borinkuteru (nose up); borinbelenkuksuqalau (nose up), korektensenekbulgan (from rags to riches); 4) cruelty, ruthlessness, callousness: tashyorek / begir (heart of stone), bozkebesalqin (cold as ice), timerilektenileu (pass through an iron sieve), qati qulli (stern); 5) talkativeness, boastfulness: borchaq sibu / shyttyru (liar), ozin tel (big mouth); chibaqsiz telefon (chatterbox), kuzge toten ciberu (splurge); 6) greed: tuymas tamaq (insatiable throat (bottomless pit), saran ike tuler (miser pays twice), ach kuz (envious eyes); 7) impudence, shamelessness: oyati qachqan (lost to shame), oyatsiz yoz (shameless mug), oyatsiz bebek (shameless eyes); cunning, flattery: bozga atlandiru (cheat), qart tolke (old fox); yukha yilan (cunning); 8) cowardice: quyan can (rabbit hearted); usaq yafragiday qaltirau (tremble like a leaf); chech ure toru (one's hair stands on end), cani botina toshu (have heart at heels); 9) rudeness, incontinence, temper: bazar ebise (fishwife), qizu qanli (hot blood); qaynar yorekle (warm heart); 10) sarcasm, tendency to gossip: tele avizina siymau (sharp tongue); tel satu (talk bullshit), tel tegermene (utter chatterbox), tel chayqau (gossip), aguli tel (poisonous tongue); tel charlau (shoot the shit), usal telle (vicious tongue); 11) lightheadedness: bashinda cil uynau (air-minded), ike de uylap qaramau (without any thought), ike donya - ber morca (half-seas-over); 12) indecision: ucim bozavi (neither fish; flesh nor fowl), ber ayagin quyganchi, ikenchesen et ashiy (betwixt and between); stubbornness: chuyin bash (cast iron noggin), kire ishekak (stubborn as a mule), uz kiresene qatu (be stubborn); propensity to steal: kese qaragi (pickpocket); shuq qul (dishonest); molestation: tigenek kebek yabishu (stick like a limpet), saru qaynatu, kuz koyege bulip yoru (not to be welcome); indifference: ike donya - ber morca (three sheets in the wind), ike donya - ber kendi (not to care a cuss), artinnan yanip kilse de, kurmeu (not to care a cuss), qalin tirele (thickskin); fussiness, pettiness: tirnaq astinnan ker ezleu (nitpick), pelesh bashtan bet tabu (look for a reason to find a fault). 2. Phraseological units expressing the positive traits of the Tatar language personality character. This group includes the idioms with a positive subjective evaluation component of an idiom atic value, i.e. the idioms with the meanings which are welcome as the statement of an established social evaluation concerning certain character traits. Their number is much smaller than the number of phraseological units with a negative evaluation. Let's consider separately some subgroups of phraseological units with a positive assessment. The following are the most numerous ones: 1) courage: belalebash (trouble-maker); tavishlibash (temperamental); batir kellele (bold head); tugerek bash (round head); toshepqalgannardantugel (not a cowardly dozen); kechkene bulsa da / toshkene (small rain lays great dust ); 2) self-restraint, calm: khinsiyirikebektinach (quiet / unflappable as an elephant / boa); qorichyorekle, timeryorekle (steel (iron) nerves, heart); 3) sincerity: achik kunelle (open heart), iskebishtiyen (old coin); 4) honesty: chistakunelle, shistanamusli (with a clear conscience); chistaqulli (not a sticky-fingered); 5) determination, strength of character, reliability: qatichiklevek (hard nut); chiniqqankholiqli (tough boiled); ishanichlitayanich (reliable support); kochleikhtiyarli (iron will); 6) diligence: eshkeqatibulu, eshkeqatiqullibulu (hardworking hand); indirsugu (work tirelessly); 7) generosity: altinyorekle, zuryorekle (big heart, a heart of

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 gold); kinkunelle (with an open heart); izgekunelle (good soul, holy soul); 8) cheerfulness: alkuzlekashaqarau (look through rose-colored glasses); kondebeyrem, kondetuy; eshtenbeyremyasau (celebrate). 3. Phraseological units of a neutral assessm ent concerning the nature of a Tatar language personality. This group includes the idioms with neutral subjective evaluation component with idiomatic meanings [6: 32; 7: 698]. These idioms so not have a pronounced approval or disapproval. The group of idioms with a neutral evaluation is the smallest one of among three selected phraseological groups. The idioms with the adjectives of this group may have a neutral meaning [8: 216; 9; 10: 22], which does not depend on the surrounding context, such as: 1) a "passive" virtue (about people, who do not hurt, but who do not want any good); 2) a trustful person; naively (heart) - someone who is naive and gullible; 3) sugatoshkenchebesh, baltasisugatoshkendeybulu (hardball, old stager). The other phraseological units of a neutral evaluation, on the contrary, depend on the context. Depending on the context their meaning may acquire various shades of a positive or a negative evaluation. For example: seyerkeshe (a strange person, an eccentric); yuashberen / sariq (meek as a lamb (sheep)); qurqaqquyan, qotanquyan (careful, scared crow). 4. CONCLUSION Thus, the Tatar language has a shift of phraseological units active use expressing a person's character negative traits. This fact may be explained presumably by the fact that the Tatar people, as one of the Turkic peoples representatives, where the most severe problem is the negative attitude to something negative, terrible, deviant. On this basis, a linguistic person of the Tatar people expresses his negative reaction through differentiated emotional verbal and cogitative phenom ena. The qualitative analysis of phraseological unit subgroups with the adjectives, describing the features the Tatar language personality character, showed an uneven distribution of idioms. The Tatar language does not have the phraseological units with the meaning of "chutzpah". Such traits as diligence, optimism, honesty are reflected most widely in the phraseology of the Tatar language. The groups of phraseological units expressing such qualities as "hypocrisy", "talkativeness", "flattery", "sarcasm", "courage", "kindness" and others. According to these studies, one may assume that these traits of the Tatar language personality are blamed or encouraged by the Tatars. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirm that the presented data do not contain any conflict of interests.. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was prepared as the part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FGAOU VPO "K(P)FU" among the leading research and education centers in 2013 - 2020". REFERENCES 1. V.N. Teliya, Russian phraseology. Semantic, pragmatic, linguistic and cultural aspects. M.: Shkola "Languages of Russian Culture", 1996, pp. 58-80. 2. G.K.Gizatova, O.G. Ivanova. The role of national historical consciousness for the formation of identity // Scientific records of Kazan university. Humanities series. 2011. Vol. 153, book 1. p. 42-51. 3. L.K. Bayramova. Axiological idioms about happiness // Scientific records of Kazan university. Humanities series. 2006. Vol. 148, book 2. p. 53-68. 4. F.R. Sibgaeva, R.R. Salakhova, Space in a world view of poetic phraseology of the Tatar language // Journal of Language and Literature 2014; 5(3), 271-274. 5. R.R. Zam aletdinov, G.F. Zamaletdinova. About the role of proverbs during the study of national and cultural features concerning a language consciousness. Bulletin TGGPU, 2010. 2 (20). p. 73-78. 6. G.R. Galiullina, Dialogue of cultures in onomastic space of the contemporary multiethniccity // Philology and Culture, 2012. 2 (28): 32-35. 7. G.R. Galiullina, A.S. Yusupova European linguistic borrowings in the Tatar sprachraum (by written sources of the XIX - XX centures) // Life Scince Journal, 2014. 11 (10). P. 697-700. 8. R.R. Zamaletdinov, F.Y.Yusupov, I.S.Karabulatova, А.F Yusupov, D.K. Khusnutdinov, The formation of Tatars ethnic groups in the Southern Urals and Trans Urals region // Life Science Journal, 2014. № 11(11s).S. 214-217. 9. L.K. Bayramova. Sources of Slavic and East phraseology: Textbooks concerning a special course of Slavic and Eastern phraseology, Kazan: Alma-Lit, 2007. 49 p. 10. R.M. Bolgarova, E.A. Islamova. Color terms in the linguistic consciousness of pupils (results of the associative experiment) // Philology. Theory and Practice, Tambov: Gramota, 2014. № 10 (40): 3 parts. Part I, p. 22-26.

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RUSSIAN PROVEB CORPORA OF THE 18TH CENTURY: VARIATION PROBLEM Denis Andreyevich Martiyanov, Kamil Rakhimovich Galiullin Kazan (Privolzhskiy) Federal University Kremlyovskaya Street, 18, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/20 Received: 04 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 25 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The article is dedicated to the results of comprehensive analysis of the variation problem in Russian proverb and th saying corpora of the 18 century, first and foremost, in the collected proverbs of the former Petrovskaya gallery dated to the th first quarter of the 18 century. The problem of variation has been considered at various levels (word form, word, proverb level). The article describes the reflection principles of entry unit variants in «The Dictionary of the Russian Proverbs and th th Sayings at the turn of the 17 – 18 Centuries» that has been compiled by the authors on the basis of Kazan university computer corpus of the Russian proverbs and sayings. The dictionary has been presented in two forms: paper books and Internet entry located at the site «Kazan federal university linguograraphic corpora» (http://klf.kpfu.ru). In the dictionary the variants are reflected not only in the basic part – concordance, but in inverse and frequency wordlists. In both dictionary versions special consideration is given to the principles of presentation of reference articles that make it possible to preserve all the reflected lexeme variants in the collected texts. Quantitative features are represented in the article: distribution of entry units that have part of speech variants and other quantitative data. We have applied comparative analysis on the basis of data of the principal historical dictionaries of th the Russian language, primarily « the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 18 Century», and a number of variants not stated in lexicographic sources have been analyzed. The present study allows to draw a conclusion on high historic-lexicographic significance of collected Russian th proverbs of the 18 century. Key words: corpus linguistics, proverbs and sayings, dictionary, variant, lemma, concordance 1. INTRODUCTION Corpus linguistics is at present one of the most developing field of applied linguistics. One of the most wellknown Russian projects of this school – National corpora of the Russian language – represents inquiry and communications system based on collected Russian texts of 500 million words long by electronic means. Besides the common corpus, the special corpora have been developed which target at the texts of a certain time period, region and genre [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The example of this kind of corpora is the Russian proverbs and sayings corpora of the18th century developed at Applied Linguistics chair of Kazan Federal University. The acute problem of the corpora is in the problem of variation that is represented at various levels: word forms, words, proverbs. 2. VARIATION OF PROVERBS AND SAYINGS th

In collected proverbs of the 18 century we encounter the variants of paroimic units with substitution, metaplasm, individual words disambiguation, for example, in the collected proverbs of Petovskaya Gallery: Без притчи века не изживешь / Без притчи веку не изживешь; Добро тово учить, кто слушает / Хорошо тово учить, кто слушает; Язык голову кормит, он же и до смерти [доводит] / Езык голову кормит; Жаль кулака, да бить дурака / Хотя жаль кулака, а бить дурака and other examples. The problem of variation of proverbs and sayings is more actual when compiling paroimic dictionaries [6, 7], as in this case, it is essential to choose how to present paroimia variations: either to combine them or to represent each unit in. Variation can be found within one collection as well as in different collections and published works. This factor determines a way of presentation of materials of various published works of collected proverbs. Thus, for th example, one of the principal source of dictionary-text corpora of Russian proverbs and sayings of the 18 century is «The Collection of 4291 Ancient Russian Proverbs». Three published works from this Collection are known: the first two published works - dated to the year 1770. ( the date of re-editing of the second work is not pointed out), the third one is dated to the year 1787. The authors of the three published works are not known, but in bibliographic reference books there, as a rule, the name Anton Alekseyevich Barsov (1730 – 1791), the Russian scholar-linguist, philosopher, translator, and public figure, professor of Moscow University is indicated as a compiler. The second edition contains a list of errors at the back of the book. Unfortunately, it is not known the name of an author from this list. But the comparative analysis has revealed that these correction data in the third Collection are not taken into account, besides evident misprints, that allows to com e to conclusion on the fact that the third edition was reprinted from the first one not from the second. th th Collections in manuscripts dated to 17 -18 centuries had been edited time and again: th th 1) In the year 1880 the collection «Manuscript Collection of the 17 -18 centuries» in the fourth edition «To Monuments of the Ancient Script » was published; in 1899 this collection under the title «Manuscript Collected Proverbs, th th th Sayings of the Petrovsky century (17 -18 centuries)» was edited by P.К. Simоny in 66 volume of the Collection belonging to the department of the Russian language and literature of the Emperor Academy of Sciences.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 2) The collected proverbs by V.N. Таtishchеv were published in three versions. In 1961 it was prepared two collections for edition, independently. G.G. Shapovalova edited the collected proverbs in the book «Proverbs, Sayings, th th Riddles in Manuscript Collections of the 17 -18 centuries», and F.М. Gоlоvenchenko – in Proceedings of Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 2000 the edition by F.М. Gоlоvenchenko was republished in the collection of his selected works «Russian Philology». In the year 2004 in Perm the book titled «Many words hurt more than swords: proverbs and sayings of the Russian people, collected by V.N. Таtishchеv» was published by the advertising agency «Style-МG» in «From the works by V.N. Таtishchеv». th The more detailed description of the Russian proverbs and sayings of the 18 century is presented in [8, 9]. When compiling the language dictionary of proverbs and sayings it becomes more important the problem of variation of words, lexical units, as in lemmatization for every word form fixed in text of the analyzed collection it is essential to restructure initial word form. 3. VARIATION OF ENTRY UNITS OF THE DICTIONARY In this article we analyze different aspects of the problem of variation on the material of «The Language Dictionary of th the Russian Proverbs and Sayings of the 17 century end – first half of the 18th century» [10]–paroimographic description of th the Сollected proverbs of the former Petrovskaya gallery (hereinafter – СPG), dated to the first quarter of the 18 century. The main part of the Dictionary is concordance which presents alphabetical (rather – alphabetical - frequency) word index with contexts and references and reflects all the cases of using all words (appellative and onim) in СPG. The reference book contains all the elem ents of the context, alphabetical family, word change category, explanatory, comparative, historical, frequency dictionary, as well as the dictionary of variants and и proper names. Concordance includes 1933 basic articles that contain several information areas. The entry unit of the Dictionary is a lemma, a word in its initial (dictionary) form. In printed version of the dictionary the entry unit is given as: а) capital letters, if a word is found in СPG in its initial form and in the form similar to the initial, for example: КОТЕЛ ← КОТЕЛ: Без ума голова котел #2:22 ▲ С18: К. СЛУЖБА ← СЛУЖБА: Красная нужда – дворянская служба#10:13 ▲ С17: С. … б) small letters, if an initial form is represented, for example: дружба ← ДРУЖБЕ: Шут в дружбе неверен #25:11 ▲ С18: Д. кровля ← КРОВЛЮ: Чужую кровлю кроешь, а своя каплет #24:29 ▲ С18: К. If the variants as basic lemma are available the variant corresponding, as a rule, to contemporary word spelling is chosen. In С 18[11] such variation is called strong аnd lemma is a form-representative for a number of variants. Variations of entry unit are represented after the entry unit, their marker is a forward slash ( / ) before, and half-dark Rom an type, for example: княгиня / КНЯИНЯ (2) ← КНЯИНЕ: Княине дитя, кошке котя – таково ж дитя #10:11 Δ КНЯИНЯ: Князю княиня, боярину Марина, а всякому своя Катерина #10:9 ▲ С18: К. / К. … When highlighting the entry units we based on the data of the basic historical dictionaries («The Dictionary of the th th th Russian language the 18 century», «The Dictionary of the Russian language the 11 – 17 centuries») and extra lexicographical sources («The Dictionary of the Russian Academy», «Explanatory Dictionary of the Vivid Great Russian th Language» by V.I. Dahl and others.). «The Dictionary of the Russian language the 18 century» registers the word and its variants. A variant is understood by the compilers as «modification of the word form при with semantics identity (lexical and grammatical)» [11]. Lemma variants that are excluded from contemporary language are represented if : а) they are found in the text in the initial form and in the form similar to initial, for example: бабий / БАБЕЙ (2) ← БАБЕЙ: Бабей огород недолго летен #2:20 Δ БАБЬИ: Басни бабьи а дурак то 1 любит #2:19 ▲ С18: Б. / Б. (ст. баба ) больно / БОЛНО (2) ← БОЛНО: Что совою опечь, что печью осову–всей болно #24:15 Δ БОЛЬНО: И голка маленька, да больно уколет #9:21 ▲ С18: Б. б) they were restored on the basis of word forms represented in СPG when variations are represented on the word basis, for example: калачник / калашник ← КАЛАШНИКА: У калашника дрождей не укупишь #19:2 ▲ С18: К. / К. … корабль / карабль ← КАРАБЛЯМ: Потоп караблям, песок жеравлям #15:56 ▲ С18: К. / К. Here it should be noted that in cases when the modern standard form of a word is not reflected in sources С18, it is put into the dictionary corpus (in broken brackets) and then it is referred to actual fixed variant, for example: . here Ало. One of the principal elements of the dictionary articles of our dictionary is reference information area, where (together with the other data) the other variants of entry units are given. As a rule, the references of the variants presented only in the analyzed text are given, for example: сбойство / ЗБОЙСТВО ← ЗБОЙСТВО: Женское збойство и на свинье не объехать #7:20 ▲ С17: С. / З. If the variants that are not found in СPG are presented in the source, usually they are not found in reference area as well, and their availability in the source is marked by three dots, for example: ЗНАТЬСЯ ← ЗНАТЬСЯ: Знаться с кумою – ростаться с женою #8:39 ▲ С18: З. … If in the source the variant not reflected in CPG is placed as the first one then it is the first to be represented then that one represented in CPG, for example: ВЕТЮТИН ← ВЕТЮТИН: Что ветютин – ни очей, ниречей #24:9 ▲ С18: ветютень / В. … 'дикий голубь' In concordance not only the principal dictionary articles are presented but reference ones as well, including 191 references of variants of entry units, for example: куды = куда лехко = легко Variant references the difference of which is only the final part are not given as in overwhelming majority of cases, in the dictionary they are placed alongside, for example: а) verbs ending in "-ти" instead of "-ть"; "-чи" instead of "-чь"; "-тца" instead of "-ться", for example:

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 ЗНАТЬ / ЗНАТИ зажечь / ЗАЖЕЧИ жениться / ЖЕНИТЦА б) adjectives ending in "-ой" instead "-ый" or "-ий"; "-ей" instead "-ий", for example: богатый / БОГАТОЙ всякий / ВСЯКОЙ девичий / ДЕВИЧЕЙ This approach is adhered by the compilers of С18: «Reference article are not given for the variants of the following regular types: morphological variants — adjective inflexion in -ый | -ой, infinitive -ть | -ти, -ти | -ть, inflexion of collective nouns and action nouns in -ье | -ие, -ья | -ия; orthographic variants — not unvoiced consonants in prefixes из-, воз-, раз-, низ-, без-, черезbefore unvoiced consonants » [11]. More detailed description of micro- and macro structure of paper dictionary version is presented in [10]. The internetversion located at the site «Kazan Lingua graphic Fund» of the Kazan Federal University portal (http://klf.kpfu.ru) is regarded as basic and perspective, as it allows to make changes and supplements into the dictionary efficiently. The importance of the internet-dictionaries has been noted by the scholars more then once [12, 13]. In the version of the internet-dictionaries there are slight distinctions from the paper version. The dictionary articles are represented in the form of the table that is divided into the following columns: 1) Running number, 2) lexical form, 3) text form, 4) variants of an entry unit, 5) reference area, 6) isonyms, 7) frequency (for lexical and text forms), 8) number of characters, 9) number of letters. Presentation of entry units in the internet –version is rather different from the paper version of the dictionary. So, in the column «Lexical form» the variant of the entry unit that is congenial to the Russian language of the studied period is presented. The rest variants are put into column №4. The developed system of reference dictionaries of internet-version articles allows to find this or that lexical unit by its contemporary orthographic aspect. Thus, for example, on request кукушка reference retrieval system will not identify the searched results in the corpus of the main articles but on pressing «Retrieved in reference articles» the user will see the reference article on the display in a new panel: кукушка = кокушка The lemma кокушка is an active hyperlink, on pressing which the substantive dictionary article with contextual use of the lexem e will be displayed to the user: Ночная кокушка денную перекокует и Вы менял кокушку на ястребца. Thus, applying this reference retrieval system with variants, we solve two problems: 1) to the most preserve the orthographic th and grammatical features of an original text, 2) give an opportunity to a reader to use variants fixed in the texts dated to 18 century instead of a contemporary(usual for him) variant. In the dictionary the variation of the entry units can be found not only in concordance but in the other parts of the dictionary: 1) In inverse word index the words having variants are marked by slashes; the number of these slashes corresponds to the number of variants. Variants are marked with a sign of equality (=). The words with asterisk indicate the words that can be found in CPG in the initial form or the form similar to the initial one (for example, the form of the accusative case is for a part of nouns). The fragment of an inverse index: = мяхкий худенький // маленький беленький / голенький 2) In frequency (to be more precise – frequency-alphabetical) word index the variants of lemmas are represented after forward slash. Here is the following fragm ent: ли / ль (14) слово (14) старый / старой (14) богатый / богатой (13) жена (13) 4. TYPES OF VARIANTS In individual cases the variants that are standard also in contemporary Russian and stated in explanatory dictionaries are registered in the Collection, for example: БЫ / Б, В / ВО, ДАЛЕКО / ДАЛЕЧЕ, ЖЕ / Ж, ЛИ / ЛЬ, О / ОБ, С / СО. In most cases these variants are absent in contemporary dictionaries and their em erging in the texts of collections is determined by living phonetic processes that relate to positional and combinatorial sound changes. In variants that are present in texts of the Collection the strings with the following alternants are there: а / о: алтарь / олтарь, батька / батько, даровой / доровой, доплатить / доплотить, дубрава / ДУБРОВА, карета / корета, палата / ПОЛАТА, раздуться / роздуться, разинуть / розинуть, размышлять / розмышлять, разойтись / розойтись, разорваться / розорваться, расправа / росправа, расстаться / РОСТАТЬСЯ, расступиться / роступиться, растерять / ростерять, расти / рости, расход / РОСХОД, скачок / СКОЧОК, сравнять / сровнять г / х: легко / ЛЕХКО, мягкий / мяхкий, мягко / МЯХКО д / 0: СЕРДЦЕ / СЕРЦЕ

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No. 2. 2015 д / т: БУДТО / БУТТО, водка / вотка, догадка / догатка, дядька / ДЯТКА, идти / ИТТИ, лодка / лотка, находка / нахотка, погудка / ПОГУТКА, походка / ПОХОТКА, редька / РЕТЬКА, Федька / ФЕТКА, ягодка / яготка, тетрадь / тетрать, тд женитьба / ЖЕНИДЬБА ж / ш: бумажка / бумашка, денежка / ДЕНЕШКА, ложка / лошка, ярыжка / ярышка, гуж / ГУШ, ЖЕ / Ж / ШЬ. з / с: везти / ВЕСТЬ, глаз / ГЛАС, гузка / ГУСКА, ИЗ / ИС, лезть / ЛЕСТЬ, сказка / СКАСКА, слезка / слеска и / ы: игрушка / ыгрушка, ИГУМЕН / ыгумен, избыток / ызбыток, скрипка / скрыпка, скрипучий / скрыпячий кх: К / Х, КРЕСТЬЯНИН / ХРЕСТЬЯНИН, КТО / ХТО, никто / НИХТО о / а: аромат / арамат, корабль / карабль, ночевать / НАЧЕВАТЬ, рождать / раждать, скомороший / скамароший, собака / САБАКА с / з: С /З, сбой / ЗБОЙ, сбойство / ЗБОЙСТВО, сбоку / ЗБОКУ, сглупать / зглупать, сгодиться / згодиться, сгореть / згореть, сделать / зделать сч / щ: счастливый / ЩАСТЛИВОЙ, счет / ЩОТ, считаться / щитаться т / 0: свистнуть / свиснуть, стлать / СЛАТЬ, хвастливый / хвасливый тца / ться: волочиться / ВОЛОЧИТЦА, жениться / ЖЕНИТЦА, зазреться / ЗАЗРЕТЦА, лениться / ЛЕНИТЦА, мучиться / МУЧИТЦА, набраться / НАБРАТЦА, находиться / НАХОДИТЦА, одеться / ОДЕТЦА, поводиться / ПОВОДИТЦА, подраться / ПОДРАТЦА, садиться / САДИТЦА, стыдиться / СТЫДИТЦА, тешиться / ТЕШИТЦА, удержаться / УДЕРЖАТЦА, укрыться / УКРЫТЦА, учиться / УЧИТЦА ть / ти: ЗНАТЬ / ЗНАТИ, ИМЕТЬ / ИМЕТИ, плескать / ПЛЕСКАТИ, поймать / ПОИМАТИ, собирать / СОБИРАТИ, СПАТЬ / СПАТИ, ТЕРПЕТЬ / ТЕРПЕТИ у / ю: ничуть / НИЧЮТЬ, чужой / чюжой, чуять / чюять ч / ш:встречник / встрешник, калачник / калашник, непрочный / непрошный, ЧТО / ШТО, яблочный / яблошный чь / чи: зажечь / ЗАЖЕЧИ ь // 0: батька / батько / батко, больно / БОЛНО, больной / болной, горький / горкий, горько / ГОРКО, деньга / ДЕНГА, деньги / ДЕНГИ, довольно / ДОВОЛНО, дядька / ДЯТКА, маленький / МАЛЕНЬКОЙ / маленкий, неприятельский / неприятелский, ПЛЕШЬ / ПЛЕШ, польза / полза, похвальба / ПОХВАЛБА, сильный / силный, стрельба / СТРЕЛБА, тюрьма / ТЮРМА, Федька / ФЕТКА, цельба / ЦЕЛБА. В некоторых случаях такое графическое чередование передает твердость / мягкость согласного. э / е: эдакий / ЕДАКОЙ, этот / етот There do not appear to be sufficient reasons for highlighting ending variants of adjectives in detached group: ий / ей: бабий / БАБЕЙ, вдовий / ВДОВЕЙ, волчий / ВОЛЧЕЙ, девичий / ДЕВИЧЕЙ, исподний / ИСПОДНЕЙ, коровий / КОРОВЕЙ, лисий / ЛИСЕЙ, передний / ПЕРЕДНЕЙ, рыбий / РЫБЕЙ, середний / СЕРЕДНЕЙ, соболий / СОБОЛЕЙ, хороший / ХОРОШЕЙ ий / ой: всякий / ВСЯКОЙ, голенький / ГОЛЕНЬКОЙ, земский/ЗЕМСКОЙ, маленький / МАЛЕНЬКОЙ, озерский / ОЗЕРСКОЙ, эдакий / ЕДАКОЙ Some cases of morphological variants such as related to gender feature of the noun are noted: берлога / берлог, кроха / КРОХ, ужин / УЖИНА. A number of variants stated in the collected proverbs are absent in «The Dictionary of the Russian Language of the th 18 century» (in the list they are highlighted by half-dark type, in brackets there the similar units to be compared with are stated, in С18):аромат / арамат (compare: корабль / карабль, ночевать / начевать); больно / болно, больной / болной, довольно / доволно (compare: горький / горкий, горько / горко, деньга / денга, деньги / денги);гуж / гуш, денежка / денешка (compare: ложка / лошка); даровой / доровой, доплатить / доплотить (compare: алтарь / олтарь, дубрава / дуброва, карета / корета); зажечь / зажечи (знать / знати, иметь / имети); лодка / лотка(ср.: будто / бутто, водка / вотка, догадка / догатка, находка / нахотка); ноготь / ногодь (женитьба / женидьба) and some other examples. In compiling language dictionaries of proverbs and sayings solid and separate spelling of some lexical units cause the most difficulties as it has effects on highlighting the units and their linguo graphic description. In the texts of the studied collections the variation at word form level is also noted. For example, the word forms ЛЮДЕМ and ЛЮДЯМ are dative forms of the noun ЛЮДИ. In our case such cases are not combined within dictionary article, each form is defined individually in its alphabetical place among the word forms:: ЛЮДИ (21) ← ЛЮДЕЙ (4): Али я хуже людей, что везде стоя пью #1:17 ● Жить тихо, да от людей лихо #7:27 ● Лгать – так людей обегать #11:30 ● Мы про людей вечеринку сидим, а люди про нас и ночь не спят #12:1 Δ ЛЮДЕМ (2): Людем не верит, да сам мелет #11:9 ● Чево сам не любишь – и людем не желай #24:5 Δ ЛЮДИ (9): Для щей люди женятца, а для мяса замуж ходят #5:45 ● И тем люди не шутят #9:5 ● Люди молотить, а мы замки колотить #11:24 ● Люди пировать, а мы горевать #11:22 ● Люди пьют – так честь да хвала, а мы попьем – так стыд да беда #11:13 ● Люди спать, а они жялвей искать #11:17 ● Люди ступают –ничють ни слышать, а мы как ни ступим, так стукнем #11:12 ● Мы про людей вечеринку сидим, а люди про нас и ночь не спят #12:1 ● Тем люди не играют, от чего умирают #18:5 Δ ЛЮДЬМИ: Шутки шутить – то людьми замутить #25:2 Δ ЛЮДЯМ: Беда ходит не по лесу – по людям #2:10 Δ ЛЮДЯХ (4): В людях Ананья, а дома не найдешь #3:25 ● В людях Илья, а дома свинья #3:33 ● В людях ты "радуйся царица", а дома "не рыдай, мене мати" #3:15 ● На людях и смерть красна #13:63 ▲ С18: Л. … 5. QUANTITATIVE FEATURES Variants are noted in 245 of 1933 entry units of concordance in all that account for 12,67%. Ten of them have 2 variants, thus, the total variant quantity is – 254. The analysis of distribution of appellants according to parts of speech has shown that 85% presents the three most used parts of speech: nouns – 85 units (34,69%) adjectives – 61 units (24,9%) verbs – 63 units (25,71%). Besides, the following parts of speech had the variants: pronouns and adverbs – 14 units (5,71%) comparative – 4 units (1,63%): БОЛЕЕ / БОЛЕ, больше / БОЛЬШИ, далее / ДАЛЕ, лучше / ЛУТЧЕ

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 noun – 1 unit (0,41%): двое / ДВОЯ syntactic parts of speech – 17 units (6,94%). Among the nouns there 3 onims that have variants are presented:Антип / АНТИПА (Антипа не липа – и луб содрав, не покрылся), Федька / ФЕТКА (Фетка, что ретька, а хвост не таков), Филипп / ФИЛИП (Филип и в конопле не укрылся). In collection texts there the cases of using both lemma variants for 36 units are noted (14,69%), for example: НОГОТЬ / НОГОДЬ (2) ← НОГОДЬ: Ногодь увяз – всей птице пропасть #15:57 Δ НОГОТЬ: Нос слокоть, а ума с ноготь #13:126 ▲ С18: Н. … ОБЫЧАЙ / ОБЫЧЕЙ (3) ← ОБЫЧАЙ (2): Жуку нора за обычай #7:23 ● Обычай не клетка – не переставишь #14:7 Δ ОБЫЧЕЙ: Волку зима за обычей #3:46 ▲ С17: О. For 72 units (29,39%) both variants of the entry unit are restored, for example: бумажка / бумашка ← БУМАШКУ: Клей на бумашку, а игла на рубашку #10:63 ▲ С18: Б. / Б. непрочный / непрошный ← НЕПРОШНАЯ: Непрошная хоромина – овин #13:25 ▲ С18: Н. / Н. For 137 lexemes (55,92%) one of the variants of the entry unit has been restored on the basis of word forms, in so doing, in all cases, besides one, the first («up-to-dated»)variant has been restored, for example: вдовий / ВДОВЕЙ ← ВДОВЕЙ: На вдовей двор хотя щепку перебрось–и то ей прибыль #13:52 ▲ С18: В. / В. … журавль / ЖЕРАВЛЬ (3) ← ЖЕРАВЛЬ: Жеравль межи не знает, и через ступает #7:22 Δ ЖЕРАВЛЯМ: Потоп караблям, песок жеравлям #15:56 Δ ЖУРАВЛЯ: Не сули в небе журавля – дай синицу в руки #13:17 ▲ С18: Ж. / Ж. … An exception is the lemma игумен, the contemporary form of which is stated in the texts of СPG (Каков игумен, таковы и братья; Убог монастырь – сам игумен воду возит), and the second variant – ыгумен – has been restored on the basis of the word form ыгумнах (Не всем чернцам в ыгумнах быть). 6. CONCLUSION In the course of our research it has been proved that the problem of variation is one of the principal problems in th analyzing the Russian proverbs corpus of the 18 century. Analysis of all the words having entry units variations allows to supplem ent the articles of «The Dictionary of the th Russian Dictionary of the 18 century» in the way of reflection of lexical units variation. Involvement of quantitative data (overall quantity of variants, their part of speech distribution and so on) enlarges the idea of occurrence and nature of usage of either variants. The practical part of the article, where the systematized list of alternants with their use is presented, clearly demonstrates the variety of variants in corpus. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author assert that the represented data do not contain the conflict of interests. COMMENDATIONS The work was performed in terms of implementation «The plan of activities on realization of the Program of competitive recovery FGAOU VPO « K(P) FU» among the leading world scientific-educational centers for 2013 – 2020». REFERENCES 1. Galiullin, K., Gizatullina, A., Gorobets, E., Karimullina, G., Karimullina R., Martyanov, D. Corpus-Based Regiolect Studies: Kazan Region. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 2014. Vol. 8773. Speech and Computer. Pp. 169-175. 2. Zholobov, O. The corpus of the Old Russian copies of the Paraenesis of Ephraem Syrus: BAN 31.7.2. In: Russian Linguistics, vol. 35 (3), pp. 361-380 (2011) 3. Galieva, A., Nagumanova, E. An Integrated Analysis of Translations of Tatar Prose into Russian: The Methodology and General Principles. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 21 (1): 263-267, 2014 4. Sitchinava, D.V., Kachinskaya, I.B. The Dialectal Subcorpus within the Russian National Corpus: Today and tomorrow. In: Komp'juternaja Lingvistikai Intellektual'nye Tehnologii. Pp. 620-628 (2014) 5. Galliulin, К. Complex Dictionary-Textual Internet-Corpus (on Materials of the Russian and Tatar Languages) / К. Galiullin, Е. Gorobets, G. Karimullina, R. Karimullina, А. Gizatullina, D. Martiyanov // SPECOM 2011: The 14th International Conference "Speech and Computer" (27 – 30 September 2011, Kazan, Russia): Proceedings. – Moscow, 2011. - P. 447 - 449. 6. Karimullina, V.М. Great Dictionary of the Russian Proverbs: about 70 000 proverbs / V.М. Mokiyenko, Т.G. Nikitina, Е.К. Nikolayeva – М.: OLMA Media Group, 2010. 7. Mokiyenko, V.М. Great Dictionary of the Russian Proverbs / V.М. Mokiyenko, Т.G. Nikitina. – М.: OLMA Media Group, 2008. 8. Martiyanov, D.А. Collected Russian Proverbs and Sayings of the beginning of the First-Half XVIII century as Historical-лLexicological Source: dissertation. … Candidate of Philological Sciences. / D.А. Martiyanov. – Kazan, 2012. Dissertation 9. Martiyanov, D.А. Collected Russian Proverbs and Sayings of the beginning of the First-Half XVIII century: linguistic informativity / D.А. Martiyanov // Memoirs of Kazan University. Series «Humanities». – 2011. – V. 153. – B. 6. – P. 67 – 73. 10. Galiullin, К.R. Dictionary of the Russian Proverbs and Sayings of the end XVII – the First-Half XVIII centuries: Collected Proverbs of Petrovskaya Gallery / К.R. Galiullin, D.А. Martiyanov. – Kazan: Kazan State University, 2006. 11. С 18 – Словарь русского языка XVIII века. – Issue. 1–20. – L. / S-Pb.: Science, 1984–2013. 12. Galiullin, К.R. The Internet-Linguography: The Russian Text Descriptive Dictionaries / К.R. Galiullin // The Problems of History, Philology, Culture.- Issue. 2(24).- Magnitogorsk; Novosibirsk: Analit, 2009.- P.635-639. 13. Galiullin, К.R. Linguography and Texts: Inventory Language Manuals / К.R. Galiullin, R.N. Karimullina // Memoirs of Kazan University. Series «Humanities»..– 2009.–V.151.– Book.3.– P.222-229.

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SEMANTIC VALENCY OF LEXICAL UNIT "WIND" IN BELIEFS OF RUSSIAN AND CHINESE LANGUAGES Liliya Rashidovna Muharlyamova, Geng Jie, Naila Nurihanovna Fattakhova Kazan (Privolzhye) Federal University, Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communication, Kazan, 18 Kremlevskaya str. (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/21 Received: 11 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 18 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT Analysis of the paremiological fund of language is increasingly interesting to researchers. Comparative and contrastive proverbs study of languages with different systems helps better define people’s mental characteristics. The problems of this scientific research is related to issues of semantics and modeling of proverbs connected with sign "wind" in the languages of different systems. Authors analyzed the semantics and functioning of proverbs connected with lexical unit "wind" in Russian and Chinese languages. Having analyzed the collected linguistic material the authors made a conclusion that wind of same direction brings different weather, so in Russia eastern winds are long-lasting and dry, while in China eastern winds bring rain or cold weather. By the time characteristics in context of paremiological funds of languages with different systems lexical unit wind can be characterized by months (January, May), seasons (summer, autumn), time of the day (morning and evening). In both compared languages the beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" show constant intersection of notions of time and space, however, in Russian language the wing is more influenced by space and in Chinese paremiological fond notion wind is more influenced by time. Paremiological fund of the Russian language distinguishes the absence of proverbs connected with sign "wind" is characterized with respect to months of the year. Key words: wind, proverb, paremiological fund, semantics, Russian language, Chinese language 1. INTRODUCTION Lifestyle, culture, mental peculiarities affect ethno-linguistic culture of world. Its features are formed by universal and unique national concepts [1].In recent years, researchers are increasingly paying attention to the paremiological fund of language in particular the object of various studies are proverbs. The study of proverbs, signs and beliefs helps to study languages more deeply and fully to understand the culture, traditions and mental peculiarities of speakers of a language [2]. Problems of research in the field of signs are reflected in the works by such scholars as N.N. Fattahova, M. A. Kulkova, K. R. Vagneri, etc. who analyzed the semantics and the functioning of the people's beliefs in different languages. Dictionary of Russian language by S.I. Ozhegov gives the following definition of "sign": "a phenomenon, an event that is popularly considered to be prognostic of something." [3]. Great Dictionary by S.A. Kuznetsov gives the following definition to the sign: "according to superstitious notions: a sign prognosing predicting something; Usually plural.: signs. Continuing beliefs of people passed from generation to generation, various signs pointing to the coming weather phenom ena "[4]. Chzhen Tao, Chzhao Yunhua in his work "Language picture of the world and its expression in the Russian folk beliefs" describe signs as follows: "... the word" примета " is a derivative of the verb" примечать (take notice) ", that is to catch unclear, and even, hidden and even secret sacred connection of phenomena and events in human life, and the life of plants, anim als, and the whole cosmos as a whole ". [5] Currently popular superstitions are determined by N.N. Fattakhova as ancient folk sayings based on associative representations of archaic man, but also as "constantly evolving folk genre, showing features of its functioning in the modern use of speech as a means of expression of prohibition, permit, warning, instruction, advice, etc." [6]. According to M.A. Kulkova "people's beliefs are stable structures that are usually expressed in the form of weather phenomena or agriculture forecast on the basis of ethnic group empirical experience formed as a result of long-term interaction with the environment" [7]. Thus, scientists are of the opinion that prediction is a main function of beliefs. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS As it is well known the beliefs are divided into superstitious and weather. In our research, we consider the weather beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" in different systems of Russian and Chinese languages. Wind can usually is characterized by direction with respect to the cardinal directions (east, west, southwest, etc.), time (spring, summer, January, May etc.) and quality (strong, weak, warm, hot, etc.). The paremiological fund of Russian language has lots of beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind", the most frequent variation is "West wind": West wind blows – the weather will become cold; West wind blows – there will be raining hard; West wind is a sign of bad weather; If the rain is brought by western wind, it will be long; West winds are the nest for rains [8, 9]. As can be seen from the examples, the wind from the west portends bad weather, rainy and cold weather. East wind in the beliefs of the Russian language may be a sign of dry, good weather: East wind brings no rain. East gusty wind whistling – the winter will be long and cold; Wind from the east during the summer brings drought; East wind from the sunrise in summer – the winter will be cold and in the summer for a long good weather and bad weather: If in winter wind blows from the east – there will be cold; East wind howls - the winter will be long and cold [8, 9]. If the south wind is warm it mainly forecasts dry weather: Southern wind brings warm weather; South wind blows for a few days – it will not rain; South wind on Luka’s day - good harvest of spring crops; north-west wind - to wet summer, east wind brings - disease (new diseases); south wind at Isaacius day – the wind will be long and snowy, northern wind predicts

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 frosty and cold weather: North wind - Boreas - blows from the height; cold and dry, with no rain, it does not disperse the clouds but binds them; If the wind blew from the north side the winter will be very cold; The wind from the north of Moscow the summer will be cool; Wind blowing from north, and no clouds –to frost knocks [8, 9]. In Chinese beliefs the most frequent are "easterlies" that predict rainy or cold weather: 东风 大, 天 要 下 (east wind blowing strongly – it will be raining); 东风 急, 备 斗笠 (if the wind is harsh -it will be raining); 东风吹 , 寒潮 来(east wind brings cold); 东风吹, 谷子 堆满 仓 (east wind is blowing to good harvest);东 风雨 , 西风 晴 (east wind brings rain and west wind brings clear weather); Westerly winds bring clear weather, even dry: 西风 多 晴天 (west wind brings clear weather); 西风 和 北方, 天 会有 旱情 (west and north winds bring drought), 西风 打死 苗 (west wind brings dry weather); 西风 一 大片, 天气 必 大旱 (west wind blows hard – there will be a drought); 西风 来, 天 放晴, 东风 来, 阴 沉沉 (west wind brings clear weather, east wind brings gloomy weather); south winds bring warm weather: 南风 暖 来 北 风寒 , 东风 湿 来 西风 干 (south wind are warm, northeen winds are cold, eastern winds are wet, western winds are dry); 南风 发热 北 风冷 (southern winds bring warm northern winds bring cold); northern winds brings rain, cold, frost, snow: 北风 起 , 要 下雨 (north wind blows – it will be raining); 北 风吹, 雨雪 归, 秋后 北风 干 到底 (northern winds brings rain and snow, north wing after fall the weather will be drys); 北风 下雨 南风 晴 (northern winds bring rain, southern winds bring clear weather) [10]. By the time characteristics of the wind in paremiological fund of analyzed Russian and Chinese languages can be characterized by months (January, May), seasons (summer, autumn), time of the day (morning and evening). In the result of analysis of the collected material we cam e to the conclusion that in paremiological fund of Chinese language contains more beliefs with time characteristics than Russian language. At the same beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" characterized in respect the part of the day constitute the majority of this kind: Night wind send the rain in the afternoon; If the fresh morning breeze increases during the day and weakens in the evening – the weather will remain clear; Obednik (daily wind) blows at the day and ceases till evening; 早 刮 东风 不 雨 , 晚 刮 东风 不 晴 (morning eastern winds bring clear weather, evening eastern winds bring rain); 朝东 夜 西 好 晴天 (morning eastern winds bring fair weather); 晚上 西风 是 晴天 (western wind blows in the evening- weather will be fair); 早 风 有 雨夜 风 晴, 半夜 吹 风雨 淋淋 (morning winds bring rain, and the evening winds bring clear weather); 早起 风 下午 息 ,下午 起风 七日 七, 晚上 起风 当日 息 (wind blows from the morning – ceases to the dinner); 早 发 大风 夜 落雨 , 夜 发 大风 天大 晴 (strong wind at the morning brings rain, at night - to clear weather); 早 风 有 雨夜 风 晴, 半夜 吹 风雨 淋淋 (morning winds bring rain, and the evening will bring clear weather); 早起 风 下午 息, 下午 起风 七日 七, 晚上 起风 当日 息 (wind blows from the morning – ceases to the dinner); 早上 刮 东风, 太阳 红 彤彤 (east wind from the morning brings clear weather); 早 刮 东风 不 雨 , 晚 刮 东风 不 晴 (morning eastern winds bring clear weather, evening eastern winds bring rain); 晚上 西风 是晴天 (evening wind is blowing from the west - to the clear weather) [10]. Beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind", characterized by their relation to seasons of the year are presented in smaller quantity: Winter wind helps frost: brings cold; spring wind from dark side, autumn -from light side. Spring wind breaks buds on the trees; 春风 到, 雨 即 到 (spring breeze blowing – it will be raining); 春风 是 回暖 之 风, 秋风 是 变 寒 之 风 (spring winds bring warmth, autumn winds bring cold);春风 发, 连夜 雨 (spring wind blows – the weather will be bad); 春风 不 刮, 草 木 不 发 (windless spring is a sign that there will not be any fresh new buds and herbs); 秋风 起, 天气 凉 (autumn wind blowing, the weather gets colder) ; 一场 秋风 一场 寒 (autumn wind brings cold); 秋后 起风 阵阵 寒 (autumn winds blow - the weather gets cold); 秋风 大, 春雨 多 (autumn winds are strong, the spring will be rainy); 秋风 少 , 冬雪 少 (autumn winds are rare, there will not be lots of snow in winter); 夏 刮风 , 井底 干;秋 刮风, 水 连天 (summer winds blow – the weather will be dry, autumn winds blow - to rain); 夏天 风 大 天 必 旱 , 冬天 风 大 必 寒冷 (Summer winds blow – the weather will be dry, strong winter winds – the weather will be frosty); 冬 风 紧, 要 下雪 (winter winds are harsh – there will be much snow); 春 发 东风 连 夜 月 (spring wind blows from the east – the weather will be bad); 春季 东风 起, 立刻 就 下雨 (spring breeze from the east it will be raining); 秋 里 北风 晴 (autumn wind blows from the north – the weather will be sunny); 秋 发 北风, 晴更多 (northern autumn winds bring clear weather); 秋季 南 风雨 淋淋 (autumn winds blow from the south - the weather will be rainy ); 夏西 风 , 雨 祖宗 (summer wind blowing from the west – the weather will be rainy); 夏 发 西, 打 马 送蓑衣 (summer winds from the west bring rain); 夏季 西风, 洪水 涌上 (summer western winds blow – there will be flood); 冬 东风, 雪花 白 蓬蓬 (winter wind blowing from the east bring snow); 冬 东风 下雪 (winter eastern winds bring snow); 冬天 刮 东风, 会 下 棉花 雪 (winter winds blowing from the east bring snow); 冬 发 东风, 白雪 纷纷 (winter winds blowing from the east bring white snow). [10] However, in the Russian paremiological fund does not include beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" characterized with respect to months, while in the Chinese language such signs are widely represented, with the most frequent winds are in June: 六月 北风 起, 必有 连 阴雨 (Northern wind blows in June – the weather will be bad); 六月 北风 当 日 雨, 好似 娘亲 看 闺女 (Northern wind blows in June – is will be raining that day); 六月 北风 贵 如 金, 一天 北风 十天 阴 (June northern wind is precious as gold, one windy day in June - ten days of bad weather); 六月 北风 及时 雨 (June northern wind brings rain); 六月 北 风雨 绵绵, 八月 北风 当天 坏 (Northern wind blows in June – the weather will be bad) ; 六月 发 北 风, 坐在 楼上 钓 虾 公 (if in June the wind is blowing from the north – it will be raining); 六月 翻 北风, 水浸 冬 岳 宫 (June northerly winds will bring long rains); 六月 南风遍地 干 (Southern wind in June brings dry weather); 六月 南风 海 也 干 (Southern wind in June brings drought); 六月 南风 井底 干 (Southern wind in June brings dryness); 六月 南风 起,晒 衣 好 天 气 (June southern winds bring bright weather) [10]. On the basis of of the collected material analysis we can also distinguish the following groups of signs connected with lexical unit "wind": according to the temperature (warm / 暖, cold / 凉, hot / 烧, frosty / 冻): Turn your side to the warm wind; Warm wind at Evdokia’s day is a sign of warm and wet summer; If the wind is cold - the summer will be cold, and if the wind is warm, south - the summer will be warm; If warm wind is blowing at Fedul’s day - open your windows – the house will be warm without heating; If the wind is strong and hot – the weather will be rainy; 东风 凉 , 浇 倒 墙 (cold wind from the east brings rain); 南风 冻, 水浸 洞 (cold wind from the south brings rain); 南 风凉 , 无 风 无 雨 就是 霜 (cold wind from the south brings

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No. 2. 2015 hoarfrost); 南 风冷 有 雨, 南风 烧 有 风 (cold south wind brings rain, hot south wind brings winds); 北 风寒, 天气冷 (frozen north wind brings cold weather ); 北风 寒冷 , 天气 晴 (frozen north wind brings clear weather); 冷 南风 是 旱天 (cold south wind brings dry weather) [8, 9, 10]; according to speed and force of the wind (strong / 紧, heavy / 大, weak / 小, light / 轻): In a strong wind it is quiet in the forest and dangerously in the field; If marine crustaceans crawl out of the water soon it will be a strong wind; Strong wind during rain predicts good weather; Strong wind after quiet weather – it will be very windy; Light wind on Holy Thursday there will be plenty of berries, fruits and nuts, Strong wind is most often at the fifth day of the new moon; Strong winds at rain bring good weather; Weak wind is a sign that the rain will stop soon; If at weak wind the pressure drops very quickly there will be short-term good weather; 东风 紧, 天 不 晴 (strong east wind brings rainy weather); 东风 刮 得紧, 下雨 靠 得 稳 (strong wind blowing from the east brings rain);南风 紧, 风 停 雨 来临 (strong southern wind brings rain); 南 风吹 得紧 , 未来 寒风 又 细雨 (strong wind from the south brings cold and rainy weather); 东风 轻 , 下雨 松 (eastern light wind rarely brings rain, strong eastern wind brings rain); 风 大 夜 无 露 (strong wind - no dew at night); 南风 风 小 是 旱天 (small wind from the south – brings dry weather); 风 小 星 明夜 有 霜 (if the wind is light and the stars are bright, there will be frost); 东风 大, 大雨 下 (strong wind from the east brings heavy rain); 南风 急 , 戴 斗笠 (sharp south wind soon brings rain); 南 风刮大 必有 雨 , 北 风 刮 大 必 是 晴 (Harsh south wind - it will rain hard, harsh north wind brings fine weather); 北风 大, 好 晴天 (strong north wind brings clear weather); 西风 一 大片 , 天气 必 大旱 (Strong wind from the west brings drought) [8, 9, 10]; at presence or absence of moisture (damp / 湿, dry / 干): If in a rainy day the damp wind blows- from the south the weather will be bad; 东风 湿 , 南风 干, 西风 热 , 北 风寒 (east wind is damp, south wind is dry, western wind is hot, northern wind is cold); 西风 干, 南风 暖 (Wind from the west is dry, wind from the south is warm); 旱 风 树上 叫 , 雨 风 地上 扫 (dry wind brings hot weather, moist wind – brings rainy weather) [8, 9, 10]. 3. CONCLUSIONS Wind can usually be characterized by direction with respect to the cardinal points (east, west, southwest, etc.), time (spring, summer, January, May, etc.) and quality (strong, weak, warm, hot, etc.). By the time characteristics of the wind in paremiological fund of Russian and Chinese languages with different structures under consideration can be characterized in relation to months (January, May), seasons (summer, autumn), part of the day (morning and evening). Also signs connected with lexical unit "wind" can be classified into groups according to temperature, speed, strength of the wind and the presence or absence of moisture. Having analyzed the beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" in Russian and Chinese languages with different structures we came to the following conclusions. In paremiological Fund of the Russian language the beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" are represented in smaller quantity in comparison to such in the paremiological fund of Chinese language, while in the Russian language the most frequent variation is "west wind" and in Chinese language the most frequent variation is “eastern wind".In Russian paremiological fund the majority of beliefs connected with lexical unit "wind" are characterized with respect to parts of the day. In paremiological fund of the Russian language western wind predicts bad, rainy and cold weather in the paremiological fund of Chinese language western wind predicts clear, even dry weather. Within the terms of Russian language proverbs eastern wind brings dry, fine and bad weather, and in the proverbs of the Chinese language eastern wind brings rainy or cold weather. In paremiological funds of both languages northern winds are cold, frosty and southern winds bring – warm and dry weather. Russian paremiological fund doesn’t contain signs connected with lexical unit "wind" characterized with respect to months, while in the Chinese language such signs are widely represented, with the most frequently used are signs connected with wind in June. 4. SUMMARY Thus, depending on the different climatic conditions the same direction the wind brings different weather, for example in Russia eastern winds are long lasting and dry, while in China, eastern winds bring rain or cold weather. In both languages the notions of time and space constantly cross, but the Russian language the quality of wind is more influenced by space and in Chinese – by time. For example, in paremiological Fund of the Russian language there are no signs connected with lexical unit "wind", characterized with respect to months. This shows the attitude of the Chinese and Russian people to time and space: For the Russian people the space is more important than time and it is "microreal"; for the Chinese people the time is more important than space and it is "macro-long” [11]. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The author confirms that the data do not contain any conflict of interest. THANKS This work was prepared as part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FGAOU VPO" K(P)FU " among the world's leading research and education centers for 2013 - 2020.". REFERENCES 1. Ramzia M. Bolgarova, Svetlana S. Safonova, Elmira R. Zamaliutdinova. Comparison in Russian and Tatar linguocultures: systemic functional and comparative analysis. Journal of Language and Literature in 2014; 5 (3), 148-152.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 2. Tarasova Fanuza Harisovna, Mukharlyamova Liliya Rashidovna. Modelling of phraseosemantic groups in the system of the Tatar, Russian and English paroemias (on the examples of proverbs and sayings with "food" component). Journal of Language and Literature 2014; 5 (3), 196-202. 3. Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of Russian language: 80 000 words and idiomatic expressions / S.I. Ozhegov, N.Y. Shvedova. - M.: OOO "ITI Technologies", 2003. - 944 p. 4. Great Dictionary of Russian Language / Under. Ed. of S.A. Kuznetsov. SPb., 2000. – 1536p. 5. Zheng Tao, Zhao Yonghua Language picture of the world and its expression in Russian folk beliefs // Russian language abroad. № 2. 2002. - P. 104-107. 6. Fattakhova N.N. Folk beliefs in languages with different structures: monograph / N.N. Fattakhova, M.A. Kulkova. - Kazan: FLINTA: Science, 2013. – 248p. 7. Nailya Fattakhova, Mariya Kulkova The Formation of Paroemiology in Russia and Germany World Applied Sciences Journal 31 (5): 935-939, 2014. 8. Peoples menologion: proverbs, sayings, signs, beliefs about the seasons and weather / Comp. Ryzhenkov G.D. - M.: Sovremennik. 1991. -127 p. 9. Yermolov A.S. Peoples agriculture wisdom in proverbs, sayings and beliefs. -M.: Institute of Russian civilization, 2013. -880 p. 10. Great collection of Chinese weather signs/ Ed. Ren Guoyu, Zeng Jinxing, Wang Feng Ang. - Beijing, 2012. – 489p. 11. Cong Yaping Linguistic features of Russian and Chinese folk tales in the national-cultural aspect // Bulletin of the University of Perm. A series of Russian and foreign philology. - No.1 (17) - 2012. - P.67-75.

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SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS IN RUSSIAN AND TURKIC LANGUAGES Dinara Irekovna Rahimova, Zulfiya Firdinatovna Yusupova Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya str., 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/22 Received: 10 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 15 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The article discusses the semantics and pragm atics of demonstrative pronouns in Russian and Turkish (in particular Tatar) languages, taking into account the fact that the Russian language is referred to inflectional and Tatar to agglutinative kinds. Theoretical prerequisites for this work are the main points of modern linguistics, functional grammar, comparative typology, psycholinguistics, linguistics. During this research we used such techniques as comparison, analysis, synthesis, classification, translation. Authors analyzed the semantic and functional features of demonstrative pronouns on the material examples of the works of M.Y. Lermontov, M.A. Sholokhov, K.G. Paustovsky, G. Apsalyamov and others. According to the authors, the demonstrative pronouns of compared languages constitute the core of the sem antic class of pronominal words and serve to highlight among others of a particular object, attribute, quantity. Used without nouns pronouns этот (this )and тот (that ) become substantivised. Generalization, relativity and demonstrativeness of the pronouns are closely linked to situational specific because their value is determined only by context. The comparative analysis of the factual material allowed to identify a variety of ways to express demonstrative pronouns: In our view such a variety of Tatar language forms equivalents to Russian pronouns provokes the appearance of an incorrect use of pronouns in coherent speech of students. Key words: sem antics, pragm atics, demonstrative pronouns, Russian, Turkic languages, Tatar language, comparative typology, linguodidactics 1. INTRODUCTION One of the urgent problems of modern linguistics is a comparative study of languages with different structures. This is of interest not only in science but also in the practical aspect. Comparative study of languages creates a solid base for building linguistic methods for teaching Russian language for bilinguals (Z.F. Yusupova [1], Van Assche [2], K.M. Healey [3], R.F. Mukhametshina [5], L. Z. Shakirova [6], M.M. Shakurova [7] et al.], as the process of comparing two unrelated languages (eg. Russian and Tatar) reveals both similarities and differences, identifies internal laws of their development, discusses the relationship and interaction of these languages. Considering national specificity of language and culture of each nation in the inter-ethnic and cross-cultural communication is now a prerequisite for successful language study (Z.F. Yusupova [4], D. I. Rahimova [8], N.N. Fattakhova [9], and others.). According to Z.M. Valiullina, studies on the comparative-typological analysis of different languages systems are relevant to methods of teaching Russian as a second language [10]. "At present, in linguistics, there are intensely discussed such problems as the essence of conceptual side of linguistic sign, the semantic bases of word usage and collocability. In the opinion of investigators, in the last decades there is a revived interest to the problems of deep-seated consistencies of the linguistic mechanism, at that, the problems, connected with the methods and methodology of study of the word lexical meaning cam e to the foreground »[11]. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Comparative-typological analysis of dem onstrative pronouns in Russian and Tatar languages was conducted in accordance with their semantics and pragmatics. Here we have used such methods of investigation, as a comparison, analysis, synthesis, classification, translation. As linguistic material we used examples of works by M.Yu. Lermontov, M.A. Sholokhov, K.G. Paustovsky, G. Apsalyamov and others. Pronouns are not particularly unique categorical values and grammatical features different from other parts of speech (excluding private data). They are based on the categorical values of noun, adjective, numeral, adverbs and have a number of common morphological and syntactic features combine all these properties. Pronominal words have common high degree of generality of meaning. For exam ple, the pronoun кто (who )can point to any anim ate object; pronoun он (he/it) on any subject - and animate and inanimate; pronoun я (I) - a person acting at the same time speaking, etc. The second semantic property of the pronouns is their relativity and demonstration, ie the ability to point to the object, feature or number only in relation to another object, feature or number. Thus, pronoun я (I) refers to the person speaking and acting in relation to another person, the other person is designated by the pronoun ты (you). Pronouns кто (who) and что ( what)express the categorical meaning of nouns - case and animation categories кто (who) and inanimate что (that). Generalization, relativity and demonstration functions of pronouns are closely linked to situational specific because their value is determined only in the context. According to modern research, "pronouns is a unique semantic class of words. Their lexical semantics having no nominative character refers to the basic concepts of physical and mental world "[12]. 3. RESULTS Dem onstration, and specification of belonging, is a universal language category. It is considered that the demonstrative pronouns express the semantics of pronominal words as a special part of speech. Demonstrative pronouns are used to highlight among others of a particular object, feature, quantity (V.V. Babaytseva [13] M.I. Otkupschikova [14]

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 O.N. Seliverstova [15] N.A. Yanko- Trinitskaya [16] Actual [17], N.Y. Shvedova [18] and others.]. In addition with heplp of pronouns an attention may be drawn to the fact, as will be discussed later (introducing function), and facts that was discussed earlier (anaphoric function). This category includes the words, тот, этот, такой, таков, столько (that, this, such, so long). Demonstrative pronouns constitute semantic core class of pronominal words. They serve to highlight a particular object, featur, quantity among others. In Russian and Tatar languages with the help of such pronouns an attention can be drawn to events that will be discussed later (anticipating function), and may express reference to the events discussed earlier (anaphoric function) To this category belong words, этот, тот, такой, таков, столько; бу, шушы, теге, ул, шул, шундый, андый, мондый, шулчаклы, шулкадәр (this, that, such, such as):1)Стояла необыкновенная тишина, и с того берега было все ясно слышно. [19] – Искиткечтынлык һәм теге ярданбарысы да ачыкишетелепторды; (It was an unusual silence, and everything was all clearly audible from that side). 2) Все знают эти простые цветы, похожие на маленькое солнце с золотыми лепестками-лучами. [19] – Һәркембугади, таҗлары-нурлары белән кечкенәкояшкаохшаган чәчәкләрне белә. (Everybody knows these simple flowers, like a small sun with golden petal rays) In Russian and Tatar dem onstrative pronouns are used in conjunction with the nouns to which they are attributes. In Russian language at the sam e time dem onstrative pronoun, agreeing with the noun may change number, case and gender, and it does not change in the Tatar language: бу– это, эта, этот, эти (this,these); шул– тот, та, то, те (that). For example: 1) Этот теплый дождь расшевелил и ёжика, спавшего всю зиму в кусту. [19]Буҗылы яңгыр кыш буе куаклыктайоклаганкерпене дәуятты; (This warm rain woke up the hedgehog sleeping in the bush for all the winter.)2) Действительно, тот зимний вечер в последний день девятнадцатого века не был похож на все остальные.[19]– Чынлап та, унтугызынчыгасырның шул соңгыкышкы киче башка кичләргәохшамаганиде. (Indeed this winter night in the last day of the twentieth century was not like all the other days). Dem onstrative pronouns can be used without a noun. At the sam e time they get substantivised which is typical for both languages: 1) На миг меня очаровало что-то родное, очень знакомое, будто я видел это когда-то в детстве. [19] – Бермизгелгә мине якын, биктанышбулган нәрсәдер сокландырды, әйтерсең лә мин анны кайчандырбалачакта күргән идем; (For a moment I was fascinated by something familiar, very familiar, as if I had seen that when I was a child). 2) И рыбам, и птицам, и зверям, и травам... для жизни необходимы зоны спокойствия. Позаботиться об этом может только человек. [19] – Балыкларга, кошларга, җәнлекләргә яшәу өчентынычлыкзонасыкирәк. Бухакта бары тик кеше генәкайгырта ала. (Fish and birds, beasts and grasses... need tranquility zones for living. Only man can take care of that). Variability of demonstrative pronouns is a grammatical phenomena peculiar only to Russian language. This results in the erroneous use of dem onstrative pronouns in speech of students arising under the influence of norms of the native language, «Этот книга интересная»; «Такой погода обычно бывает ранней весной»; «Тот встреча запомнилась Пьеру Безухову»; «Этот озеро находится в глубине леса» etc. In Russian, the dem onstrative pronoun “столько”(that much ) is inflected only for cases, and in the nominative and accusative cases the pronoun controls the nouns, the rest cases – concords with it: столько книг, стольких книг, стольким книгам, столько книг, столькими книгами, о стольких книгах. In the Tatar language identical pronoun шулкадәр, (шулчаклы ) the pronoun does not decline. Without taking into account the specifics of Russian pronouns declension many students use it incorrectly: “Столько людям пришлось пройти через испытания»;«О столько солдатах писали как о героях” The proposal dem onstrative pronouns can act as subject, object and definitions. Establishing equivalents of demonstrative pronouns of native language into Russian language facilitates the perception of these words in the minds of students. Let us discuss some ways of translation of demonstrative pronouns of Tatar language into Russian: 1. The pronoun шушы is translated as pronoun то (that) : Менә шушы алсу-ак томанлы иртә, сандуначлы әрәмәлек, тып-тын буа һәм узенең шунда ак балык кебек уйнап су керуләре буген таң белегендә Галина Петровнаның исенә төште. [20]– Сегодня на рассвете Галине Петровне ярко вспомнилось то бело-розовое туманное утро, соловьи, тихая вода у плотины и то, как она купалась в ней[19]. (Today at dawn Galina vividly remembered that white and pink misty morning, nightingales, quiet water at the dam and how she was bathing in it [19]. 2. The equivalent of pronoun бу is то (that) : Бу төн гомергәонытылмаслыкбулып Әбузәр Таһировның хәтеренә сеңепкалдыһәм менәегермеелдан соң искә төшкәч тә, улкалтырап ките.[20]– Эта ночь на всю жизнь врезалась в память Абузара Гиреевича, даже спустя двадцать лет он не мог забыть малейшие детали[19]. (This is the night of a lifetime haunting for Abuzar Gireevich, even twenty years later he could not forget the slightest detail) 3. The pronoun ул in Tatar language is personally-index and therefore acts as a demonstrative pronoun [22]. It can be translated by the pronoun это (this) : Рус халкыһәм татар халкыарасындагыдуслыкныңтамыры тирән. Улчыныккандуслык, какшамасдуслык.[19]– Дружба между русским и татарским народом имеет глубокие корни. Это стойкая и надежная дружба. ( The friendship between the Russian and Tatar people has deep roots. This persistent and reliable friendship). 4. Pronouns шундый, андый, мондый can be translated into Russian by pronoun такой (such): Әбузәр Гиреевичның йөзешундый көләч, әйтерсеңул бары тик алматурындагынауйлый.[20]– У Абузара Гиреевича такое веселое лицо, словно он только о яблоках и думает[21]. (Abuzar Gireevich a cheerful face, as if he only thinks about apples ). In contrast to the ways of translation of Tatar pronouns in Russian given above, we analyzed the works by M.J. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time" («Безнеңзаман герое») and M. Sholokhov "Quiet Don" («Тын Дон»), translated from Russian into Tatar, showed the following possible ways of translation of Russian demonstrative pronouns into Tatar: 1. The demonstrative pronoun тот ( that) can be translated with pronouns теге, шул, ул:: Я думал о той молодой женщине, с родинкой на щеке, про которую говорил мне доктор. [23] – Мин доктор сөйләгән теге минлеяшьхатынтурындауйладым [24]; I was thinking of that young woman with a mole on her cheek, about which the doctor told me; Прячась за разлапистой вербой, Григорий видел, как широкими саженками матрос доспевал к той стороне [25]– Киңтармаклыөянкеартынаяшеренгән Григорий матросныңколачларынкаерып сала-сала, теге яккаќитеп килуен курде [26].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 (Hiding behind a spreading willow, Gregory saw a sailor hiring to the other side with wide steps). Dem onstrative pronoun тот (та)(that) can be translated by a noun: Княжна подошла к своей матери и рассказала ей все; та отыскала меня в толпе и благодарила [23] – Княжна анасыянынабарып, аңа бөтенесен сөйләде: анасы мине халыкарасыннанэзләп табып рәхмәт укыды [24]; The princess went up to her mother and told her everything; she found me in the crowd and thanked ) – Детишки вцепились в подол побелевшей Ильиничны. А та, как стояла возле печи, так и присела на лавку...[25]– Балалар төсе качкан Ильиничнаныңитәгенәсарылдылар. Ә әбиләре мичбуендаторганҗирдән лыпитепэскәмиягәутырды [26]. The children clung to the hem of whitened Ilinichna. And she, standing by the oven, set down on the bench... 3. Demonstrative pronoun этот (that) can be translated by pronoun бу: За моею тележкою четверка быков тащила другую, как ни в чём не бывало, несмотря на то, что она была сверху накладена. Это обстоятельство меня удивило [23]– Минем арттан дуртугез икенчеарбаны гәрчәул тубәсенәкадәр тутырылганбулса да, берниурынына курмичә, өстерииде. Бу хәл мине гаҗәпләндерде [24];After mine cart four oxen dragged the other one, as if nothing happened, despite the fact that she was heaped. That fact surprised me ; Дарья улыбнулась, и в этой улыбке... на секунду Наталья увидела прежнюю Дарью [25] – Дарья елмаепкуйды, һәм буелмаюдан Наталья әувәлге наян Дарьяны курде [26]; Daria smiled, and in that smile... for a moment Natalia saw old Daria ; with pronoun шушы: Кой-где из-под снега выглядывали кустарники, но ни один сухой листик не шевелился, и весело было слышать среди этого мертвого сна природы фырканье усталой почтовой тройки и неровное побрякиванье русского колокольчика. [23] – Кайберурыннарда кар астыннанкуаклыклар куренә, ләкинбер генә коры яфрак та селкенми, һәм табигатьнең шушыулепйоклавыэчендәталчыккан почта тройкасыныңпошкыруын, дугадагы рус кыңгырауларыныңтигезсезчыңлавы ишетелуе куңеллеиде [24] (Here and there the bushes looked out of the snow, but none of the dry leafs moved, and it was fun to hear am ong the dead sleep of nature the snort of tired postal triples and uneven jingle of Russian bell) ; pronoun ул: В этот день Кудинов, обойдя приглашением Мелехова, созвал в штабе строго секретное совещание.[25]– Ул көнне Кудинов, Мелиховтан башка гына, штабтабикяшертенкиңәшмә җыйды [26];(this day Kudinov, without invitation of Melehov, convened strictly secret meeting at the headquarters)]; with pronoun моны: Сажая княжну в карету, я быстро прижал её маленькую ручку к губам своим. Было темно, и никто не мог этого видеть. [23] – Княжнаныкаретагаутыртканда, мин аныңкечкенәкулынтиз генәиреннәренәкитерепкыстым. Караңгыиде, һәм беркемдәмоны курәалмады [24] (Helping princess to get into the carriage, I quickly pressed her little hand to my lips. It was dark, and no one could see it.) 4. Demonstrative pronoun такой (such) may be translated with pronoun шундый: Зашел разговор о лошадях, и Печорин начал расхваливать лошадь Казбича: уж такая она резвая, красивая, словно серна... [23]– Атлартурында суз чыккач, Печорин Казбичныңатынмактыйбашлады, улшундыйелгыр, матур, әйтерсең, серна иде... [24]; (The talk was about horses, and Pechorin began to praise the horse of Kazbich: it was so quick, beautiful, like a gazelle) ; with pronoun мондый: И точно такую панораму вряд ли где еще удастся мне видеть: под нами лежала Койшаурская долина [23] – Һәм чыннан да, мондыйпанораманы мин тагынкайдабулса да курәалырмынмыикән: безнеңастыбыздаКойшауртугаеята [24]; (Nowhere else could I see such panorama: below us laid Koyshaurskaya Valley ) ; with pronoun андый: Его слова врезались у меня в памяти, потому что в первый раз я слышал такие вещи от двадцатипятилетнего человека [23]– Аның сузләре минем куңелемәкерепутырды, чөнки мин егермебишяшьлеккешедән андый сузләрнеберенчетапкыришеттем [24] (His words etched in my memory, because it was the first time I heard such a thing from a man of twenty-five years). 4. CONCLUSION Comparative analysis of the factual material revealed a variety of ways to translate dem onstrative pronouns. In our view such a variety of equivalents of Tatar language forms to Russian pronouns provokes the erroneous use of pronouns in coherent speech of students. Pronouns тот ( that) and этот (this) differ from each other by expressed spatial attributes: Этот(this) indicates the subject that is closer to the speaker, and тот( that) - at the subject that is more distant from the point of view of the speaker. Used without nouns, pronouns тот ( that) and этот(this) get substantivised. Inability to relate the demonstrative of the previous context to the word to which it points at results in such kind of speech errors : «Пущин навестил Пушкина в Михайловском, а этот был рад видеть лицейского друга»; «Комната поэта была небольшой, но в той комнате помещались кровать, шкаф, стол, тумбочка для книг»" (“Pushin visited Pushkin at St. Michael, and this was glad to see his lyceum friend"; "The poet’s room was small, but that room had a bed, wardrobe, desk, bedside table for the books" and others). Therefore, in addition to teaching demonstrative pronouns pronunciation and spelling issues a great attention should be paid to the particular use of these words. So, we must show that the demonstrative pronoun may point at a single word in the text and at a separate statem ent. For example: Знаете ли вы, что многие птицы получили свое название по их крику или по цвету оперения? Иногда об этом нетрудно догадаться.[19]. (Did you know that many birds get their name on their cries or the color of feathers? Sometimes this is easy to guess. [19]. In this example pronoun об этом (this) expresses the subordinate part of the previous sentence and helps to avoid unnecessary repetition. Dem onstrative pronouns тот, такой, этот (that, such, this) changes in the sam e way as full adjectives - case, number and gender. In the comparable languages demonstrative pronouns are used to highlight a particular object, feature, quantity among others. In Russian and Tatar languages demonstrative pronouns used in conjunction with nouns are their definitions. In Russian language demonstrative pronoun, agreeing with the noun, is changed in number, case and gender, and in the Tatar language pronoun is not changed. The variability of demonstrative pronouns is a grammatical phenom ena peculiar to the Russian language. In Russian, the demonstrative pronoun “столько”(that much ) is inflected only for cases, and in the nominative and accusative cases the pronoun controls the nouns, the rest cases – concords with it: столько книг, стольким книгам, столькими книгами и т.д. (so many books, so many books, so many books), etc. In the Tatar language identical pronoun шулкадәр, (шулчаклы ) the pronoun does not decline. Thus, the comparison of demonstrative pronouns of Russian and Tatar languages revealed specific features at the level of semantics and pragmatics, which is not only linguistic, but also the methodological basis of teaching a second language, which directly affects the selection of educational material, system of exercises and choice of methods and education techniques. CONFLICT OF INTEREST

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The authors acknowledge that the data provided do not contain any conflict of interest THANKS This work was prepared as part of the "Action Plan for the implementation of the Programme of improving the competitiveness of FGAOU VPO" K(P)FU " among the world's leading research and education centers for 2013 - 2020.". REFERENCES 1. Yusupova, ZF, 2014. Ways to overcome the cross-language interference at teaching Turkic-speaking attendance in Russian language. Life Science Journal.11 (7).366-369. DOI: 10.7537 / j.issn.11.7.097-8135 2. Van Assche, E., Duyck, W., Hartsuiker, RJ, & Diependaele, K., 2009. Does bilingualism change nativelanguage reading? Cognate effects in a sentence context. Psychological Science, 20: 923-927. 3. Healey, KM, Campbell, KL, Hasher, L., & Ossher, L., 2010. Direct evidence for the role of inhibition in resolving interference in memory. Psychological Science, 21: 1464-1470. 4. Yusupova ZF, 2015. Gross language interferetion in teaching of the Russian language as non-native. DateViews 01.02.2015www.bilingual-online.net/ 5. Mukhametshina RF, Galimullina AF, 2014.Inculcation of Bimental personality in context of cultural dialogue (as exemplified by Tatarstan Schools) // Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, Volume 20, Issue 12, pp. 2135-2138 6. Shakirova L.Z., 2009.Lingvometology: historiographical aspekt. Kazan: Magarif, 159 p. 7. Shakurova M.M., Mirzagitov R.H., 2014.Linguistic analysis of Tatar language textbooks for non-Russian students // Life Science Journal, Volume 11, Issue 10, pp. 674-677 8. Rahimova D. I., 2015.Special aspects of translation gam e names from Russian into English in Nabokov's novel "The Defence" // Philology and Culture. - Kazan: Kazan university. № 1 (39). P. 80-83. 9. Fattakhova N., Kulkova M., 2014.The Formation of Paroemiology in Russia and Germany // World Applied Sciences Journal, Volume 31, Issue 5, pp. 935-939. 10. Valiullina Z.M., 1983.Comparative grammar of Russian and Tatar languages. -Kazan: Tat. book publishing house, 152p. 11. Rakhim ova D.I., 2014.The Game Space and its Attributive Characteristic in the Novel "The Defence" by VV Nabokov. Journal of Language and Literature; 5 (3), 343-346. DOI: 10.7813 / jll.2014 / 5-3 / 58. 12. Russian Language. Encyclopedia. 2003. /ed. by Y.N. Karaulova. - M.: Scientific publishing house "Great Russian Encyclopedia". 703 p. 13. Babaytseva V.V. 2014 pronoun это (this) and its functional homonyms: monograph. M.: FLINTA: Science, 168 p. 14. Otkupschikova M.I., 1984.Pronouns of modern Russian language in the structural-sem antic aspect: tutorial. L.: Published by Leningrad State University, 87p. 15. Seliverstova O.N., 1988. Pronouns in language and speech. M.: Nauka, 151p. 16. Janko-Trinitskaya N.A.-1982. Semantics of demonstrative pronouns // Russian language at school, №2. P.74-79. 17. Actual problems of modern linguistics: Manual, 2013 / comp. L.N. Churilina. M.: FLINTA: Science, 416 p. 18. Shvedova N.Y., 1998. Pronouns and meaning. Class of Russian pronouns and semantic space opened by them. M.: Azbukovnik, 176 p. 19. Paustovsky K.G., 1997.Golden Rose: Works in 6 volumes. M.: State. Publishing house of literature, 1997. Vol.2. P. 608-658. 20. Əпсəлəмов Г. Ак чəчəклəр,2009 // Сайланмаəсəрлəр: 6 томда. – Казан: Татарстан китап нəшрияты. 2 том. 523 б. 21. A. Absalyamov White flowers, 2010 / Translation by K. Gorbunov. Kazan: Magarif. 554 p. 22. The Tatar grammar: In 3 volumes.: Morphology., 1997. Kazan: Tatknigoizdat. V.2. 397 p. 23. M. Y Lermontov, 2010.Hero of our time. Cheboksary: Chuvashiya.book publishing house 168p. 24. Лермонтов М.Ю., 2009 Безнеңзаман герое // Сайланмаəсəрлəр / К.Басыйров тəрҗемəсе. Казан: Татарстан китап нəшрияты. 422 б. 25. M.A. Sholokhov, Quiet Don 2009: A Novel in 4 books // Coll. Vol.: 8 v.. - M.: State publishing house for literature, b.4., Vol.5. 502 p. 26. Шолохов М.А. Тын Дон., 2009 / ГарифАхунов тəрҗемəсе. – Казан: Татарстан китап нəшрияты, 4-нче китап.504 б.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

SPECIFIC FEATURES OF TEACHING LEGAL VOCABULARY IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES Leylya Ruslanovna Mukhametzianova, Olga Andreevna Bezuglova, Anastasiya Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova Kazan (Privolzhye) Federa; University, city of Kazan, Tatarstan Street, 2 (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/23 Received: 09 Feb, 2015 Accepted: 14 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT Introduction of foreign specialized vocabulary into educational program for students of language specialties is a prerequisite for formation of spacious mind of students and language fluency in various areas of human activities. In particular, it is subject to legal vocabulary, since in everyday life people often face such tasks as filling contracts, applications and other documentation forms. This article is dedicated to study of role and place of legal vocabulary in educational process. We have demonstrated the need for teaching these lexical units to students of language specialties; we have suggested lexical minimum and methods and forms of work in foreign classes. In the course of our study we used such methods as analysis and synthesis of theoretical sources, analysis of learning and teaching literature and working programs on foreign language, method of selection of legal vocabulary from legal texts and specialized lexicographical sources. Performed study has shown that there is a need in widening of legal vocabulary’s subject matter, which is taught in English classes, in particular, by adding such branches of law as contractual law, law of trusts, succession law etc, as well as improvement of teaching method for studying legal vocabulary. The main task of modernization of methods is widening of areas of legal vocabulary’s practical application in classes of foreign language. Key words: terminological system, legal vocabulary, legal term, juridical interpretation 1. INTRODUCTION Education is one of the most important and vast spheres of human activities, which is closely connected with all other areas of social life. Economical and spiritual development of the country directly depends on ability of educational system to constantly improve itself in training highly qualified specialists, who are able to satisfy society’s needs in various areas of activities, including international relations. That’s why scientific researches, conducted in educational sphere, never lose their topicality. Active implementation of international scientific, technical and educational projects makes linguistic skills one of prerequisites for successful professional activity. Legal vocabulary, as a term system, is one of language’s key components for professional aims. Besides, legal vocabulary, juridical language, differs from other term systems by a wide range of spheres of application. Since legal system is quite flexible and reserve the possibility of introducing new terms and widening the meanings of existing ones, in jurisprudence accurate interpretation and knowledge of structural peculiarities of the whole term system are very important. 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Legal vocabulary as an object of study in non-linguistic higher educational institutes was studied in the works of such scientists as Aleksandrova E.V. [1], Varlam ova T.V. [2], Kuznetsova Yu.A. [3], Kucheryavaya T.L. [4], Stupnikova L.V. [5], Madhubala Bava Harji, Zhinoos Kamal Alavi1, Krishnaveni Letchumanan [6], Panadda Pratoomrat, Krich Rajprasit [7], Wenzhong Zhu, Xuping Deng1, Jingyi Li[8]. Researches Anisimova A.G., Arkhipova M.A. in their article “English-language legal terms: optimization of educational process” examine main special characteristics of legal vocabulary, and also study and prove system character of legal terminology [9]. Hsiao Hou in his article “Teaching Specialized Vocabulary by Integrating a Corpus-Based Approach: Implications for ESP Course Design at the University Level” considers the possibility to use language frame while introducing special lexical units in university foreign language classes [10]. If the problems of teaching professionally aimed vocabulary in non-linguistic higher educational institute are paid much attention by resource specialists in linguistics, introduction of such lexical units into educational program of linguistic specialties’ students hasn’t been studied independently until recently, which proves thematic justification. 3. LEGAL VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE UNIVERSITIES According to Aleksandrova E.V., specific character of English legal vocabulary lies in a large amount of lexical nests, legal lexical units that were borrowed from other languages, in particular, from Latin and French, a large number of Latinisms, short and monosyllabic words, a huge amount of polysemantic words and significant amount of specific terms that were rooted in common-literary language [1]. Legal vocabulary represents quite complex and indistinct notion. Relating to socio-political terminology, it includes legal vocabulary itself or terminology of law, and terminology of jurisprudence. Within the frameworks of this article we are interested terminology of law, since this is a terminology of legislation, rule-making and regulatory enforcement, which is applied in various areas of knowledge. Terminology of jurisprudence is not of interest in this aspect, since its aim is to describe jurisprudence as a science and is not of practical value for linguistic university graduate.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 According to Anisomova A.G. and Arkhipova M.A., terminology favours creation of consolidated information area for international scientific communication [9]. According to Pigolkin A.S., legal term in a word or word combination, which is used in legislation, and which is a generalized name of legal notion. Legal term has accurate and specific meaning and is characterized by notional monosemy and functional stability [11]. Should terminology studies be limited by one part of speech is a question that is still open in modern terminology. Averbukh K.Ya. states that term’s morphologic structure may be different. According to him, in spite of the fact that all nonsubstantive forms of representation of special notions became results of initial terms’ transformation, they also may be ranked as terms. On his opinion, prerequisite for giving terminological status to any word is presence of stable connection with the special notion being denoted [12]. Zuieva A.V. offers including verbal forms, adjectives and adverbs into legal terminology complex (along with substantives, which form nucleus of terminological system) of English legal vocabulary [13]. Leichik V.V. also doesn’t see any reasons for depriving verbs, adjectives and adverbs of terminological status [14]. According to Zuieva I.V., one of the main requirements to application of legal vocabulary of systematicity and unity. For unity of legal vocabulary it is necessary that one and the same term is used for denomination of specific notion in normative text, while at denomination of different notions, different terms are used [13]. Traditionally, legal vocabulary also includes professionalisms, Latinisms and idioms. Idioms combine phraseological meaning with lexical meanings of each of its components [15]. Specific character of legal vocabulary is to the full extent manifests in legal phraseology – fixed collocations («joint stock association», «pretrial detention» and others). With its help accuracy of legislative language is reached. It is unmistakable that in the process of training students of linguistic higher educational establishments in specialties Philology and Pedagogic education, in addition to generally used vocabulary, a lot of attention is paid to special linguistic, literary and methodic vocabulary. We set ourselves a task to define a role and place of legal vocabulary in the course of studying foreign lexical units in linguistic university. For this we find it rational to analyze manuals and training materials that are included in the list of main recommended references in working programs for disciplines “Foreign language”, “Practical course of foreign language”, “English for special use” and “Business foreign (English) language” in Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communication of KFU [16]. Among training manuals that form main recommended references in the course of training bachelors of linguistic speciality, in many cases “Proficiency Masterclass: Student’s Book” by Kathy Gude is mentioned [17]. This textbook pays quite a lot of attention to learning special vocabulary that refers to various areas of human life and activities, including legal one. The tenth module of the manual named “Taking liberties”, touches upon such spheres of legal relationships as civil and criminal law, court proceedings, life of prisoners in jail. The textbook contains universal legal vocabulary, related to Declaration on Human Rights and circumstances of conducting court processing in Great Britain. For studying of legal vocabulary and terminology the following types of exercises are used in the manual: writing essay, word transformation, multiple choice, filling in the gaps, reading and working with texts etc. In general, “Proficiency Master class: Student’s Book” by Kathy Gude, oriented at advanced level students, contains copious lexical and methodical material of legal topic. Other manual, recommended for usage in classes of foreign language in Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communication of KFU – “English. Upgrade Your English” includes legally oriented section “Crime and punishment”. In this section the following topics are regarded: death penalty, detective stories, types of crimes etc. Here there are a lot of exercises with filling in the gaps, translating from Russian to English, paraphrasing and working with texts. It should be noted that this manual is aimed at complex developm ent of skills in all types of speech activity that base on repetitions and enhancing knowledge of normative English grammar and learning and activation of new lexical units, as well as development of professional competences, needed in common and professional situations [18, 19]. Another manual, which is often used in foreign language classes in higher educational establishments is “Practical course of foreign language” under the general editorship of Arakin V.D. Fourth course of this manual [20] contains a volumetric text, extracted from “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee, which serves as a base for introduction and work-out of legal vocabulary on the following topics: court proceedings, types of crimes and punishments. The manual also contains section for discussion “Courts and trials”, in the fram eworks of which legal vocabulary is classified into seven groups: Courts, Cases, Offences, Participants of the legal procedure, Legal procedure, Penalties or sentences, A court-room. This allow to structure legal lexical units being studied, by singling out universal concepts and circumstances of American and British legal systems. The most frequently used exercises contain tasks on completing the sentences, translating text into English, filling in the gaps, paraphrasing etc. Thus, analysis of training manuals and textbooks, used as main and additional literature in Institute of Philology and Intercultural Communication of KFU, showed that the sphere of teaching legal vocabulary in English classes if limited by such topics as: human rights, types of crimes and punishments, court proceedings, and also main generic terms of juridical vocabulary (law, lawyer, court, crime, sentence etc..) In all manuals legal vocabulary is mainly introducef through texts, represented by fragments of popular detective stories. As for types if speech activity, reading and speaking prevail here. In our opinion, teaching legal vocabulary, presented in manuals for linguistic universities, requires improvement in terms of its actualization in accordance with modern requirements of society, as well as extending diversity of approaches to introduction and reinforcing lexis. Thus, we offer lexical minimum that includes such juridical branches as contractual law, law of trusts, succession law and other branches, vocabulary of which is the most topical at the moment. The majority of scientists mentioned systematicity as one of the key characteristics of legal terminology: vocabulary is fixed not only in terminological dictionaries, but also in legislative acts, and it has a strict hierarchy. However, branches of English law are less divided, and they were not enough classified. According to A.Kh. Saidov, the lack of strongly marked division of English law into branches may be explained by mainly two factors. First, all courts have common jurisdiction, i.e. they may hear various cases: in private law and in public law, civil, commercial, criminal ones. In this case unified jurisdiction favours merging of branches of law. Second, there are no branch codes in England, and English lawyer considers law as a uniform one [21]. In a wide sense, it is possible to detach branches of civil and public law in English law. Such branches as contractual law, law of trusts, family law and tort law were mainly developed on the base of civil law, criminal, constitutional and international laws are usually referred to public law. All “branches” of English law have applicative character; they are aimed at solution of specific juridical tasks, which reflects on vocabulary, used within the frameworks of each branch.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Basing on classification of branches of English law, made by V.V. Alimov [22], we offer the following lexical minimum, which should be mastered by graduates of linguistic universities in order to be competitive on labour market: Table 1. Required minimum of legal vocabulary Law of Contracts

Law of Torts

agent, collective agreement, company seal, conditions, consumer, employment contract, franchising, joint venture, parent company, service contract, shareholders' agreement, subject to contract, trademark, unfair terms, bankruptcy, guarantee, landlord, legal duty, tenancy, de facto, de jure, to be legally bound, real offer, acceptance, parties, consideration, legal principal, contractor, breach of contract, party in breach, award, damages, remedy, suit, contractual relationship, act of god, consumer, costs, terms wrongful act, trespass, sue, nuisance, negligence, wrongdoing, employers, liability act

Law of Trusts

trust, trustee, legal owner, beneficiary, law of equity, impose trust, private trust, proceeds, public trust, charitable trust, solicitor

Probate Law

will, settlements, probate fees, probate, majority, legacy, issue, heir, guardianship, guardian, beneficiary, estate, property, death certificate, estate taxes venue, spouse, subpoena, reconciliation, petition, plaintiff, marital property, jurisdiction, defendant, discovery, child support guidelines, dissolution, adoption, adoptive parent, matrimonial relationship, marital status steal, theft, thief, crime, criminal, blackmail, blackmailer, bribery, bribe, burglary, burglar, burgle, drug dealing, drug dealer, sell drugs, fraud, commit fraud, hijacking, highjack, hijack, kidnap, kidnapping, kidnapper, mug, mugger, mugging, murder, murderer, rape, rapist, robbery, rob, robber, smuggle, smuggling, smuggler, terrorist, terrorist, vandal, vandalism, vandalize, capital punishment, convicted, sentence, verdict, penalty, punishment, capital punishment, presumption of innocence, prosecutor, punishable, witness, criminal prosecution, evidence, charge with, investigate, question, acquit, life sentence, community service, fine, death penalty, capital punishment, trial courts, common pleas courts, municipal and county, courts, mayors’ courts, courts of appeals, the State Supreme Court, The Federal courts, district courts, the US Supreme Court, juvenile court, felony, misdemeanour, murder, manslaughter, homicide, rape, assault, arson, robbery, burglary, kidnapping, embezzlement, bribery, forgery, fraud, swindling, perjury, slander, blackmail, abuse of power, disorderly conduct, speeding, petty offence, house-breaking, shoplifting, mugging, contempt of court, subpoena appellate, impeachment, quorum, republic, suffrage, welfare, abolish, administration, admission, admonish, advocate, affairs, amendment, association, attorney-general, autonomy, authorize, authorities, authority, ballot, board, Budgetary, budgeting, cabinet, campaign, censorship, chairperson, chief justice, chief secretary, citizenship, civil, civilian, civil society, coexistence, Commander-in-Chief, committee confederation, constitution, council, council of ministers, court of appeal, currency, declaration, decentralization, delegate, democracy, department, domicile, election, petition, electoral roll, enactment, entity, exploitation, federation, federal, feudalism, foreign affairs, franchise, freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of opinion and expression, government, high court, house of representatives, jeopardize, judgment, judiciary, jurisdiction, justice, justifiable, kingdom, law and order, lawful, legacy legal representation, legislation, legislative, legislature, legitimacy, liability, liable, license, licensing, majority, marginalized, measure, minister, monitoring, morality, mother tongue, multilingual, nation, national anthem, national assembly, national language, nationality, naturalized citizenship, neutrality, non-discrimination, oath, official language, ombudsman, opposition, origin, parliament, parliamentary, partisan, permit, policy, practice, preamble, prime minister, privilege, proceedings, proclamation, province, pursue, recognize, reconciliation, referendum, region, religious denomination, representation, reservations, responsibility, revenue, right to privacy, secular, secret ballot, senator, senate, servitude, slavery, state of emergency, statute, supreme court, taxation, tenure of office, tribunal, unconstitutional, violate warrant fundamental norm, state practice, treaty, general international law, regional international law, resolutions of international organizations, international tribunals, peaceful settlement, arbitration, voluntary submission, negotiation, fundamental error, excess of power, legal person, non-self-governing territory, colony, protectorate, multinational corporation, international organization, nongovernmental organization, responsibility for acts violating international law, responsibility for acts not violating international law, civil war, diplomatic protection, naturalization, nondiscrimination, foreign property, foreign investor, expropriation, nationalization, international crimes, common heritage of mankind, common heritage of humanity, occupation, territorial dispute, civil aviation, air defense zone, self-defense, act of aggression, collective measures, sanctions, blockade, Hague Conventions, Geneva Conventions, Geneva Protocols, international humanitarian law, Red Cross/Red Crescent, medical corps, civilian, military operations, cross-border transactions, international transactions, market economy, free (open) trade, fixed exchange rate, floating exchange rate, goods, services, imported goods, domestic goods, safety standard, over-use, renewable resource, nonrenewable resource, national/domestic/municipal law

Family Law

Criminal Law

Constitutional Law

International Law

4. METHODS AND FORMS OF TEACHING LEGAL TERMS IN ENGLISH CLASSES Among existing methods and forms of teaching new lexical units, it is necessary to select those that would allow to maximum effect introduce, work out and reinforce legal vocabulary. This is not an easy task, considering narrow focus of specialization. Studied lexical units are not used in everyday life, and thus, it is rarely used in speech. That’s why there is a necessity to create and select speech situations, in which this vocabulary could be practiced. Nevertheless, it is required to define techniques that would allow performing this task as smoothly as possible. First of all, we should note that vocabulary expansion is nothing but mastering connections and nets, established between the words. If we speak about generally used vocabulary, it is mastered the most efficiently, when connections and nets are diverse and broad. The broader connection is, the more “flexible” are the students who are taught new lexical units. However, while studying highly specialized terms, one needs to consider that this type of vocabulary is not so flexible and it is typically present in set expressions (collocations), it has strict phrase structure and is components are almost irreplaceable, when it comes to word combinations. It is obvious that not all general methods and forms of teaching vocabulary are applicable for teaching highly specialized terms. Though, teaching legal terms is not possible without basic knowledge of English, which functions as a base for obtaining new knowledge. Having studies the process of teaching new lexical material, we have singled out the following principles of teaching highly specialized terms: the principle of visualization, principle of concentration of lexical material, principle of stage-bystage formation of lexical skills, principle of engagement of all types of speaking activities in the process of learning terms, principle of differentiated approach, based on the aims of learning highly specialized terms, principle of comparison of legal terms in the context of various linguistic cultures. Getting started with terms and familiarization of students with this section, it is important to draw the line between particularly professional legal terminology (specific lexical units, used exclusively in jurisprudence, like: plaintiff, probate, subpoena etc.) and quasi-professional lexical units (the words, which are known by rather wide range of people and even are used in everyday life, like: plaintiff, probate, subpoena etc.) It is important to provide and control acquisition of legal terms not only in productive types of oral activities (speaking and writing), but also in perceptive ones (listening and reading). It means that students must understand legal terms aurally and recognize them in text, at this they should understand the meaning of obtained information as accurately as possible.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The teacher needs to correctly form students’ skills of dialogic communication, in the course of which learnt terms could be successfully used. Here one needs to take psychological and pedagogical factor and individual abilities of students into account in order to find ways for overcoming inevitably occurring difficulties per each type of oral activity. Considering the fact that according to individual psychological peculiarities of perception of new material people are divided into auditory learners, visual learners, kinesthetic learners and discrete learners, information may be introduced through all perceptional canals, if this is possible in the course of educational process. For example, if the student id an auditory learner, it doesn’t mean that other sensory organs are not active at the moment, thus, we may in parallel present him with visual picture as well. Engaging more perceptional canals, we develop student’s ways of perception of new information, and it means that probability and efficiency of its understanding and digestion increases significantly. Currently language training method contains various approaches and techniques of introducing new lexical material, but not all of these methods are suitable for introducing legal terms. Thus, having done a thorough-going evaluation, we have singled our the following methods: The method of introducing new terms in context. In this situation the contexts encourages the student to understand the meaning of the world on his/her own, without using bilingual dictionary. By means of it, we achieve one of the most important aims of teaching new lexical material – formation of lexical unit’s image in learnt language without using intermediate language, which is represented by native language of the student. It should be noted that the majority of terms and terminological word combinations are limited in lexical combinability and are set expressions (collocations), components of which are also irreplaceable. Considering this factor, we find it necessary to teach students legal terms in word combinations, in order they initially form skills of correct usage and combination of legal terms in the sentences. Associative method. The essence of this method lies in building associative links between the material being learnt and already mastered material, i.e., correlation of legal term that was unknown before or several morphemes of it with words that are consonant or similar in spelling to the ones from Russian or English. Mukhametzianova L.R. and Shayakhmetova L.Kh. in their study dedicated to usage of associative experiment in the process of formation of foreign communicative competence note that interdependence and interconnection of words in native language and the language that is being studied may function at more advanced level as well, which implies development of so-called “contextual guess” in students, formedness of which may be tested by means of associative experiment [23]. Interactive method. In this case it is implied that each and all students are involved into study process, that they interact and try to find common correct understanding of the new term. Fakhrutdinova R.A., Yarmakeev I.E and Fakhrutdinova R.R. in their article mention an important function of this method, which consists in collective digestion and acquisition of knowledge, development of cognitive activity and coordinated decision of the tests set [24]. Application of informational and multimedia resources. At the moment the Internet offers a huge amount of video and audio material, a lot of multimedia resources that offer introducing and working out new vocabulary. However, one shouldn’t forget that today teachers have a possibility to independently develop an electronic educational resource for students, which would include only the inform ation, required at the course. Electronic resource may be divided into targeted topics, may be combined with other various methods of introducing material, like, for instance, contextual method. Though, advantage of this method is first of all in constant access to information and exercises. Students have opportunity to work remotely, having access to the Internet. The most part of work is made on individual basis, though such resource may be used for in-class learning. This resource may contain additional information and other contexts of using legal terms, exercises for immediate workout of skills of using new lexical unit. Also it is very important that students’ interest is maintained, their enthusiasm is used to draw attention to new inform ation, what is favoured by new technologies and multimedia resources. Efficiency of teaching legal terms in many ways depends on selected strategy. J.Bruner was one of the first scientists who started speaking about strategies. He described this concept as a way of getting, digestion and usage of information, which, in its turn, leads to achievement of some results [25]. We may detach the following strategies among the main ones:  Strategies that are based on memorization (establishment of logical connections, repetition of lexical material);  Strategies of cognitive character (practical application of language material, analysis, synthesis, structure of received and give information);  Strategies of contextual guess (reasoning, overcoming difficulties that appear because of lack of knowledge, especially in the course of reading and listening);  Strategies of emotional action (creation of certain emotional disposition);  Strategies of social interaction (formation of requests, referral for help, collective work). Individual strategies of teaching legal terms may also be used, in which self-education takes a key place. The pupil has equal rights in organization of educational process, which endows him/her with responsibility for the result and motivates for independent continuation of learning lexical units of this type. Basing on above-mentioned strategies, we have singled out the most effective techniques of memorization of legal terms:  Comparison and contrasting technique;  Material’s semantization;  Repetition;  Establishing connections between the material being learnt and already mastered material;  key words for memorization;  Associative technique;  Grouping terms according to its meaning/topic;  Search for similar terms in foreign and native languages;  Usage of terms in unusual context;  Usage if technical means (computer, the Internet, multimedia resources and programs) Among the most efficient means of consolidation of legal vocabulary we may make a note of role play method, in which students are given with roles and situation, the plot of which should be developed by them, using offered terms and sticking to style, rules and norms of the language in question. Some exam ples: court session, dialogue of an attorney with his client etc.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The next method is called “method of cases”. Students are offered with legal task, situation or problem, which must be studied out by them and find possible ways out, using as much legal term as it is possible. This method may also include role play method, if it is necessary, though it is not an obligatory component of “method of cases”. There is another effective method, which lies in immersing into artificially created situation, where students need to perform the task, connected with problems that one may face in everyday life, but which requires knowledge of legal terms. It could be filling in applications, legal documentation, contracts, letter heads etc. Thus, there are a lot of methodic approaches to introduction, working out and consolidation of legal vocabulary in foreign language classes. Here a great role is played by teacher’s competence. 5. CONCLUSION In modern conditions linguistic university graduate should not only master the norms of spoken foreign language, since the range of professions, in which he/she may apply his/her knowledge and skills, is constantly growing and is not limited by teaching foreign language or working as a translator. There is a growing importance of business contacts of specialists from various areas and various countries. The graduate may use an opportunity to continue education abroad, to work in international organizations, which in its turn implies formation of skills of reading and understanding of legal texts (articles, descriptions, job adverts, business correspondence etc. in foreign language), writing business letters, filling in the documents and letter heads. Thus, in order to be competitive oat labour market and be ready to modern conditions of globalization, the graduate should master at a high level not only generally used vocabulary, but the legal one as well. Requirements, set to the graduate of linguistic university are directed into correct usage of lexical means of the language that express legislative will, particularly, building normative grammar constructions, using legal terms, idioms, words and abbreviations. Analysis of textbooks has demonstrated that subject matter of legal vocabulary, learnt at English classes, required widening and inclusion such law branches as contractual law, law of trusts, succession law etc. On the other hand, training procedure for teaching legal vocabulary also requires improvem ents in terms of increasing a number of areas of its application in foreign language classes. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirms that data presented doesn’t contain any conflict of interest. CREDITS The work has been prepared within the framework of “Action sheet on implementation of Program of competitive recovery of Federal Autonomous Educational Establishment for Higher Vocational Education “K(P)FU” among world leading academic centers in 2013-2020”. REFERENCES 1. Aleksandrova E.V. Method of formation of professionally oriented lexical competence in students of legal specialties. Thesis of PhD in Pedagogic sciences. М., 2009. 179 p. 2. Varlamova T.V. Legal terminology as an object of study and base for professionally speaking competence of MVD university graduates // Psycho-pedagogy in law enforcement bodies No.1 / 2008 P. 55-58 3. Kuznetsova Yu.A. Problems of teaching specialized unofficial and conversational vocabulary in law higher educational establishment // Professionally oriented teaching of foreign language and translation in higher educational establishments: Material of international conference, held on 25-26 of March, 2008. – М.: Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, 2008. P. 145-149. 4. Kucheryavaya T.L. Problems of professionally oriented foreign language teaching in students of non-linguistic specialties // Theory and practice of education in modern world: materials of international scientific conference (Saint-Petersburg, February, 2012) – Saint-Petersburg, Renome, 2012. – P. 336-337 5. Stupnikova L.V. Optimization of mastering legal terminology while teaching English discourse to students of legal schools // Russian Bulletin of external economics. No.12. 2011 – P. 89-93. 6. Madhubala Bava Harji, Zhinoos Kam al Alavi1, Krishnaveni Letchumanan. Captioned Instructional Video: Effects on Content Comprehension, Vocabulary Acquisition and Language Proficiency // English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 5; 2014. 7. Panadda Pratoomrat, Krich Rajprasit. Providing Business English Instruction: Thai Instructors’ Practices and Students’ Perceptions // English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 9; 2014. 8. Wenzhong Zhu1, Xuping Deng1, Jingyi Li. A Case Study on Teaching Business Courses in English or Bilingualism with Guangwai as an Example.English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 9; 2014. 9. Anisimova A.G., Arkhipova M.A. English legal terms: optimization of education process // Bulletin of Moscow State Institute for International Relations, No. 4 (37). – М, 2014. – P.294-299. 10. Hsiao-I Hou. Teaching Specialized Vocabulary by Integrating a Corpus-Based Approach: Impliations for ESP Course Design at the University Level. English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 5; 2014. 11. Pigolkin A.S. The language of law / Pigolkin A.S. Pigolkin. – Moscow, 1990. – 256 p. 12. Averbukh K.Ya. General theory of term. – М.: Publishing house of Moscow State Regional University, 2006. – 252 p. 13. Zuieva I.V. Peculiarities of usage of English legal terminology // University readings. – PSLU, 2010. 14. Leichik V.M. Terminology studies. Subhect, methods, structure / V.M. Leichik. – М.: 2006, –300 p. 15. Roza Allyametdinovna Ayupova, Maryam Anasovna Bashirova, Olga Andreevna Bezuglova, Anastasia Aleksandrovna Kuznetsova, Kadrie Azatovna Sakhibullina. Ornythonym component and phraseological meaning. Life Science Journal 2014;11(11). pp. 290-293. 16. Taught disciplines at foreign languages and intercultural communications chair http://kpfu.ru/philologyculture/struktura-instituta/otdelenie-romano-germanskoj-filologii/kafedry/kafedra-inostrannyhyazykov/prepodavaemye-discipliny

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 17. Kathy Gude. Proficiency masterclass: student's book / Kathy Gude, Michael Duckworth.—[Oxford etc.]: Oxford University Press, 2009.—183 c 18. Denisenko A.O. English language. Upgrade Your English: teaching manual. In 2 parts. Part 2 / A.O. Denisenko, Moscow State Institute of international relations of Russian MID. English language chair. No.4 – М.: Moscow State Institute for International Relations, 2011, 219 p. // http://www.bibliorossica.com/book.html?currBookId= 7197 th 19. Practical course of English. The 4 grade: teaching manual for university students / [V.D. Arakin et al.]; under th the editorship of V.D. Arakin – the 5 edition, revised and enlarged. - М.: Gumanitar. Publishing house VLADOS, 2006. – 351 p. 20. Saidov A.Kh. Comparative jurisprudence. Main legal system of the present day / A.Kh. Saidov. – М.: Yurist, 2003. – 448 p. th 21. Alimov V.V. Legal translation: practical course. English: Teaching manual. The 5 edition. – М.: Publishing house “LIBROCOM”, 2010. – 160 p. 22. Leilya Mukham etzyanova & Leysan Shayakhm etova. Application of Associative Experiment in Forming the Foreign Communicative Competence. English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 12; 2014 23. Rezida A. Fahrutdinova, Iskander E. Yarmakeev & Rifat R. Fakhrutdinov. The Formation of Students’ Foreign Language Communicative Competence during the Learning Process of the English Language through Interactive Learning Technologies (The Study on the Basis of Kazan Federal University). English Language Teaching; Vol. 7, No. 12; 2014 24. J. Bruner. Psychology of cognition. / J. Bruner. М.: Progress, 1977.– 412 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

SUMMARIZED LINGUOGRAPHIC CORPUS OF THE TATAR LANGUAGE: ARCHITECTURE, STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES Karimullina Guzel Nurutdinovna, Karimullina Rezeda Nurutdinovna Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University, 18 Kremlevskaya St., Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/24 Received: 14 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 16 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The article gives general characteristic of a summarized linguographic corpus of the Tatar language with the sources including more then 360 various dictionaries. Some of them are represented by a considerable number of works (bilingual, terminological and other), a number of dictionaries are represented as an exclusive edition (dictionaries of abbreviations etc.), individual types of linguistic reference books have appeared quite recently (autonomous dictionaries of the writer’s language). Linguographic corpus of the Tatar language which is being created in Kazan University according to the Government Program “Preservation, study and development of the national languages of the Republic of Tatarstan and other languages of the Republic of Tatarstan for years 2014-2020” consists of 3 main components (modules): “Sources”, “Linguographic characteristics (attributes, parameters)”, “Vocabulary”. The “Sources” module provides a user with a variety of information about macrostructure of a dictionary, its target auditory, volume of vocabulary etc. The “Linguographic characteristics (attributes, parameters)” module is mainly aimed at provision of a user with information on content of the dictionaries as well as at dem onstration of fullness of a parameter and the nature and methods of representation. The “Vocabulary” module is designed for combining and description of the vocabulary material of the source dictionaries of the Summarized corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries. Information potential of the corpus allows usage of the presented materials at different stages of linguographic activity (design, composition, expert evaluation, editing of a linguistic reference book) as well as improvement of quality of the dictionaries being composed. Key words: summarized corpus, linguography, dictionary, the Tatar language, information potential 1. INTRODUCTION The last decades are characterized by rapid development of linguography which is an area of linguistics dealing with theory and practice of dictionaries (linguistic reference books) composition [1]. There have been and are being composed a lot of various types of dictionaries in the Tatar linguography which is due to the growing social demand for linguistic reference books [2, 3]. The modern science has a need in diversified interpretation of experience of theoretical and practical linguography, in a system atized analysis of the existing linguographic sources and of information presented in the dictionaries as well as in consequent elaboration of recommendations for the dictionaries improvement, in determining the ways and methods of elimination of deficiencies contained in the dictionaries. The Tatar linguorgaphy offers various types of linguistic reference books [4, 5]. Some of them amount to considerable quantities: bilingual (Russian-Tatar and Tatar-Russian), terminological, phraseological, dictionaries of borrowings, orthological; a number of dictionaries have only one edition: inverse dictionary, dictionaries of abbreviations. Some types of dictionaries have appeared quite recently, namely autonomous dictionaries of the writer’s language in the form of concordances were published no sooner then in the beginning of the XXI century. Some types of the Tatar linguistic reference books are still not existent (for exam ple historical, frequency dictionaries, associative dictionary, dictionary of paronyms etc.). Different registering linguistic reference books which describe materials of the dictionaries are intended to play an important role in scientific and information support of a variety of areas of the Tatar and comparative linguistics inclusive of linguography. By no means were all of the issues in the sphere of theory and specifically of practice of the Tatar linguography resolved to the full extent which undoubtedly affects the quality and usefulness of the dictionaries being prepared. In this respect the modern Tatar linguography requires systematized description of materials contained in the existing dictionaries. Analysis of the current Tatar dictionaries has revealed that the vocabulary of a present-day Tatar standard language was not represented to the right degree (to the full extent). This makes reasonable actual need in creation of a corpus of materials from various dictionary sources. Importance of this task is determined by the current status of the Tatar language as one of two official languages in the Republic of Tatarstan. The programs of implementation of the “Law on the languages of the peoples of the Republic of Tatarstan” state the necessity to enlarge the inventory of the Tatar language reference books and to compose the Tatar language dictionaries of various types. 2. LEXICOGRAPHIC CORPUS OF THE TATAR LANGUAGE DICTIONARIES: GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC In order to solve the set task there has been taken the decision to create a Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries which would describe all linguistic units which were documented in the Tatar language dictionaries. The present investigation is a part of a complex of projects included into the Government program “Preservation, study and development of the national languages of the Republic of Tatarstan and other languages of the Republic of Tatarstan for years 2014-2020”.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 The Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries is designed for accumulation of data contained in the Tatar language dictionaries of the second half of the XX and the beginning of the XXI century and is being developed as a multifunctional informational linguographic system which arranges and structures dictionary data in a special way allowing manipulations with the mentioned data (or their components), systematization, comparison and selection of material as consistent with the set tasks. The Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries consists of three main information modules which are the system components having some inherent value: - the “Sources” module, - the “Linguographic characteristics (attributes, parameters)” module, - the “Vocabulary” module. 3. THE “SOURCES” MODULE The “Sources” module provides a user with a variety of information about macrostructure of a dictionary, its target auditory, volume of vocabulary etc. This stage involves all of the general dictionaries of the second half of the XX and the beginning of the XXI century which reflect the materials of the Tatar standard language (except for terminological, dialectological, encyclopedic, onomastic and students’ dictionaries) and which are mentioned in the bibliographic reference book “Tatar linguography: dictionaries of years 1951-2008” (Kazan, 2011) [6] as linguographic sources for the Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries. The above reference book is one of the main components of the “Sources” module of the Summarized Corpus of dictionaries. A computerized version gives an opportunity to supplement it quickly and effectively with new inform ation zones and data on the Tatar language dictionaries already published or being published. Every dictionary is described according to a special scheme consisting of the following paragraphs:  Complete bibliographic description with an indication of all authors, number of pages; in case of bilingual titles or two title pages (in the Russian and the Tatar languages) the description with use of the source language com es first.  Bibliographic data (ISBN, UDC, LBC, author mark, dictionary size in printed sheets, dictionary format, number of printed copies)  Synopsis.  Dictionary structure.  Size of vocabulary.  Dictionary entry samples (as a rule a fragment of the fist page of the dictionary vocabulary is shown). The “Sources” module of the Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries allows to analyze (select) the linguistic reference books based on various attributes; for example: by the number of languages – mono-, bi-, multilingual, by language orientation – monoscopal, biscopal, by selection of units – general and special etc. In the Tatar linguistics classification of dictionaries by types is scarcely represented which prevents the Tatar linguistic reference books from being provided with sufficiently full and adequate characteristic and description. We are not aware of existence of special papers dedicated to typology of the Tatar linguistic reference books. Usually the review of the types of dictionaries was given in the Tatar language textbooks, bibliographic indices [7, 8, 9] and individual Tatar dictionaries. In quite considerable number of cases segregation of different types of linguistic reference books has extremely single-sided nature, many dictionaries may be classified as belonging to different types but are described in the context of one and the same type. For example, in the existing dictionary indices a) the “Explanatory dictionaries” section includes not only the Tatar language explanatory dictionary but also “Explanatory dictionary and reference book in physics, chemistry and chemical engineering in the Russian, Tatar and English languages”, however the similar linguistic reference books (for instance, “Pedagogy explanatory dictionary”, “Shorter Russian-Tatar explanatory dictionary of medical terms (with equivalents in the English, German, French and Latin languages)” etc.) are mentioned in the “Terminological dictionaries” section; b) the “Terminological dictionaries” section includes onomasticons: a dictionary of hydronyms, a dictionary of microtoponyms, a dictionary of personal names, a dictionary of word-formative elem ents; c) “Pocket Tatar-Russian and Russian-Tatar dictionary” was included to the “Pocket dictionaries” section but was not mentioned in the “Bilingual dictionaries” section; d) the dictionaries of hydronyms and mycrotoponyms were included to the “Thematic dictionaries” section while the dictionary of personal names was not referred to any of the groups. 4. THE “LINGUOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (ATTRIBUTES, PARAMETERS)” MODULE The principal task of the “Linguographic characteristics (attributes, parameters)” module is to provide a user with information which is contained in the dictionaries, to demonstrate fullness of a parameter and the nature and methods of representation. In the Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries a user can get a description of the methods of expression of every parameter as well as select the necessary dictionary and obtain its param etric representation (a list of the parameters documented in it and the methods of representation). It is important to note that this component, i.e. parametric characteristic of a linguistic reference book, is absent in bibliographic indices. Based on the parametric representation one can understand what kind of information is contained in this dictionary, what are the methods of its representation. The parametric representation is accompanied by illustrative dictionary entries in which the areas of realization of a particular parameter are outlined. “Parameter” as a linguistic term for the first time was considered by Yu.N. Karaulov in his work “Linguistic construction and formal language thesaurus” [10]. In the course of analysis we used a system of param eters developed for the lynguographic corpus and allowing description of various types of information contained in the dictionaries (for more details see [11]). The system includes 25 parameters: ANTONYMS [AN]. Indication of antonyms of a word. MEANING [ME]. Textual description of a word meaning, availability of a definition. INFLEXION [IN]. Inflexion characteristic of a word.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 ILLUSTRATION [IL]. Visual image explaining a word semantics. WORD ETYMOLOGY [WE]. A word historical and etymological information. FOREIGN-LANGUAGE EQUIVALENT [FE]. Translation to other languages, foreign-language equivalents. CULTURE-ORIENTED LINGUISTICS [COL]. Linguistic and cultural information about a word, short description of culture-specific concepts. POLYSEMY [PS]. Indication of a word polysemy. MORPHOLOGY [MPH]. Morphologic characteristic of a word. MORPHEMIC DIVISION [MD]. Specification of a morphemic composition of a word. SPELLING [SP]. Written image of a word. HOMONYMS [HOM]. Indication of homonyms of a word. SPECIFIC NATURE OF USE [SU]. Stylistic, expressive characteristic of a word, sphere of use. PARONYMS [PS]. Indication of paronyms of a word. PROVERBS AND SAYINGS [PRO] Indication of paremiaes where a title unit is used. PRONUNCIATION [PR]. Audio presentation of a word which is communicated through a transcription. EXAMPLES OF USE [EU]. A phrase, a sentence where a title unit is used. SYNONYMS [SY]. Indication of synonyms of a word. WORD-FORMATION [WF]. Data on a word which was used in formation of a title unit, on words formed with use of the TU, on conjugate words with regard to the TU. SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTIC [SCH]. Explains syntactic properties of a word. THEMA [THE]. Thematic characteristic of a word. ACCENT [ACC]. Information on place and nature of a word accent. USAGE [US]. Information of frequency of use, usage of a word. PHRASEOLOGY [PHR]. Indication of phraseological units where a title unit is used. PART OF SPEECH [PoS]. Specification of a word belonging to a definite part of speech. Such classification is based on the following principles: 1. A parameter should characterize a linguographic unit but not structural features of a dictionary. 2. A parameter should characterize a linguographic unit and a unit of language with due account for its linguistic peculiarities. Each parameter can be described in more detail given its structure and specific supplementary data. In addition the parameters have various methods of representation in the dictionaries (metalinguistic means). For example the parameter of meaning (ME) is being represented through 1) a foreign-language equivalent, 2) an interpretation, 3) an explanation and a supplement, 4) a picture, 5) illustrative examples; the morphologic param eter (MPH) for different parts of speech is being communicated in a number of ways: the substantives may be accompanied with specification of a gender, the verbs with specification of an aspect/ transitivity/non-transitivity, the num erals and the pronouns with specification of a category etc. In a dictionary a parameter may be given for all units (an “A” label in a table of param eters) of for a group of units (a “G” label in a table of parameters). Parameter 04-ТР(88…04 ↑. ОО: words (title units -TU), phrases (like бетте!, rarely); word combinations (all units AU), phraseological units (PHU (AU)

AN

ME 1 A

IN G

IL

WE

FE 1 A

COL

PS G

MPH 1 G

MD

SP A

HOM G

SU G

PA PRO PR EU SY WF SCH THE ACC US PHR PoS G A G A nd ME – explained by means of a foreign-language equivalent; explanations are given for a part of units (see абый, 2 mean.); labels “fig.” and “dir.” are given for the units with direct or figurative meaning (see абынырга); IN – case forms are given for the pronouns (see мин); FE – if a unit is translated with use of a different part of speech (noun, adj., adv.) it is provided with the sign // (see абзац); SP – variants of spelling are given for some words (see ашамсак); SU – for individual units stylistic, terminological or nd special labels are given like folk., myth., colloq. (see адђм, 2 mean.; адђми) etc.; SCH – for impersonal verbs imper. label is nd specified (see љшетергђ, 2 mean.); for individual units the translated (Russian) part contains declension questions (see бизергђ); ACC – is given for all words in Russian; accent for Tatar words is shown when the accent falls on any syllable except the last one (see ђмма); PHR – is given within a dictionary entry after ◊ sign (see агач); PoS – direct specification of a part of speech.

Information on param eters gives an opportunity to find out what kind of data on a dictionary unit, to what extent and of what type is given in the dictionaries as well as to make observations and conclusions as to informative fullness and quality of the existing Tatar linguographic sources. Thus for example the ME parameter is a principal parameter for explanatory dictionaries. In the course of analysis it was revealed that this parameter is not equally represented within one dictionary. For instance in [04-ТР(88…04)↑ (hereinafter the indices from the dictionaries contained in the bibliographic reference book “Tatar linguography: dictionaries of 1951-2008” (Kazan, 2011) [6]) are given]: доллар dollar (monetary unit), but compare to франк franc; əлүчə cherry plum (a tree and a fruit), милəүшə violet (a flower) , but compare to кольраби kohlrabi, кыртым safflower, лиана liana etc. As a rule the HOM parameter is represented in monolingual explanatory and unabridged bilingual dictionaries. This parameter is the principal one for the dictionaries of homonyms. In the course of analysis of this parameter there were revealed some deficiencies and non-conformities contained in the dictionaries. For exam ple in “Tatar-Russian and RussianTatar school dictionary: (for Russian-speaking students)” [08-ТР_РТ_шк.] a number of units are presented as monosem antic or polysemantic however in “School dictionary of the Tatar language omonyms” [97-ТР_омон_шк_Саф.] the same author mentions them as hom onyms. In the linguographic sources synonyms (the SY parameter) are represented as referenced entries, for example: in [98-ТР_антропон_Сат.] – Бүләк . Синонимнары: Гата, Зайд, Нәфил ; Кашкарбай . Синонимнары: Бүребай, Чанбай. The words having close meaning are marked with compare label after which the unit with the meaning close to the meaning of the word is stated, for instance: капкыч ;.чагышт.: тәм ; чолдор ; чагышт.: лапы I, 2. .

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 5. THE “VOCABULARY” MODULE The “Vocabulary” module is designed for combining and description of the vocabulary material of the source dictionaries of the Summarized Corpus of Tatar language dictionaries. A summarized vocabulary is a basis of this module. The summarized vocabulary of the modern Tatar standard language will allow obtaining miscellaneous inform ation on a word: accentologic, morphologic (of a part of speech), data on the type of representation of hom onymic and polysemantic units in various dictionaries. The “Vocabulary” module may provide miscellaneous information on composition of vocabulary of the sources in the form of quantitative characteristics or a list of words:  In regard of one dictionary – а) all words docum ented in a dictionary inclusive of an alphabetical listing of the sources units where the words are arranged not according to the alphabet: b) title units of main and referenced dictionary entries; c) intra-entry words (all of them or some of their types in accordance with the characteristics shown in the Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries); d) homonyms; e) words represented in a dictionary in other then the root form; f) words having any formal signs for example definite letters, combination of letters, morphemes etc.  In regard of two or more dictionaries (in addition to the data specified in the paragraph above) – а) unified vocabulary; б) words common for the sources under consideration; в) lexical units documented in one source (sources) and absent in other source (sources). The module materials give an opportunity to reveal errors, omissions within the dictionaries content, to provide recommendations for the compilers and experts of the linguographic reference books. The materials of the corresponding linguographic classes are not always taken into account in the course of selecting a vocabulary for a linguistic reference book, sometimes allowance is made for the minimum two-component linguographic classes (for example of antonymic nature); more details are given in [5, 11]. The results of comparative analysis of the dictionaries within the Summarized Corpus show that the dictionary “Let’s speak Tatar: Tatar-Russian and Russian-Tatar dictionary” [98-ТР_РТ_Хар.] contains алтын but doesn’t contain кљмеш, contains аю but doesn’t contain тљлке, куян, contains гасыр but doesn’t contain ел, contains књп, тиз, яхшы but doesn’t contain ђз, ђкрен, начар. The book “Basic Tatar-Russian and Russian-Tatar dictionary for secondary school students” [08ТР_РТ_шк_Саф (97…08)↑] in the Tatar-Russian part has тљнлђ, кљндез, кич белђн, but does not have иртђн; the nam es of only two months (октябрь, гыйнвар) were given, the rest 10 are absent. Quite often derivative words in the dictionaries are given without the commonly used initial lexical units; namely “Tatar-Russian, Russian-Tatar school dictionary” [08-ТР_РТ_шк.] contains бозлы but does not contain боз; contains велосипедчы, тракторчы, футболчы, фокусчы but does not contain велосипед, трактор, футбол, фокус, contains егермелђп but does not contain егерме unit etc. The results of data comparison from the Tatar language dictionaries revealed omissions of various types of units, fro example [05-Т_толк] does not contain: гөнаһсыз (contained in 66-ТР, 07-ТР_1,2), җырчы (contained in 77-Т_толк(77-81), 07ТР_1,2), йөзләп (contained in 77-Т_толк(77-81), 66-ТР), калу (contained in 77-Т_толк (77-81), 66-ТР, 07-ТР_1,2), моңсу (contained in 77-Т_толк(77-81), 07-ТР_1,2), сүнмәс (contained in 66-ТР, 07-ТР_1,2), унлап (contained in 77-Т_толк(77-81), 07ТР_1,2), учлап (contained in 66-ТР, 07-ТР_1,2), эчерү (contained in 66-ТР, 07-ТР_1,2) etc. Therefore the summarized dictionary will allow comparison of its vocabulary with vocabulary of the source dictionaries, revelation of omissions in the dictionaries which is of high significance for compiling of vocabularies for the dictionaries being in the process of preparation and for supplementing and improvement of the republished Tatar language dictionaries. The materials represented in the summarized vocabulary of the Tatar language dictionaries will provide inform ation for analysis and investigation of a wide range of phenomena and cases. 6. CONCLUSION Comprehensive registration and consolidated description of materials of the sources within the Summarized Corpus of the Tatar language dictionaries will provide a user with an opportunity to obtain information about structure and content of the linguistic reference books, about the degree of representation of definite units in the same, to reveal omissions in the linguographic sources as well as to get data on specific characteristics of such units, their system interconnections (accentology, a part of speech, polysemy, hom onymy, synonymy, antonymy). High scientific and information potential of the Summarized Corpus, ample opportunities of work with data included in it make it a multifunctional and effective tool for creation and expert evaluation of various types of dictionaries and a basic source for linguographic activity at the different stages of the same. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author confirms that the presented data do not contain any conflict of interests. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The work is performed according to the “Action Plan for implementation of the Program of Competitive Growth of the Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education “Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University” among the leading world research and educational centers for years 2013-2020”. REFERENCES 1. Computer linguography / scientific editorship. N.K. Zamov, K.R. Galiullin. – Kazan: Publishing House of Kazan University, 1995.– 119 p. (Online edition.: http://old.kpfu.ru/f10/publications/1995/K1.php). 2. Galiullin K., Gizatullina A., Gorobets E., Karimullina G., Karimullina R., Martyanov D.: Corpus-Based Regiolect Studies: Kazan Region. In: Lecture Notes in Computer Science, рp. 169-175, vol. 8773. Speech and Computer (2014) 3. Galiullin, K., Gorobets, E., Karimullina, G., Karimullina, R.: Computational Corpus of Tatar Proverbs and Sayings: Electronic Database of Paremias. In: Phraseology in Multilingual Society, pp. 350–362. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne (2014)

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 4. Yusupova A.Sh.: Tatar Language Dictionaries of XIX Century as a Unified.-World Applied Sciences Journal 30 (2): 186-190 (2014) 5. Karimullina R.N. Bilingual Tatar linguography of the second half of the XX – the beginning of the XXI century: thesis of … Cand. Sc. (Philology)/ R.N. Karimullina.- Kazan, 2011.- 253 p. 6. Tatar linguography: dictionaries of 1951-2008: bibliographic reference book / compiler R.N. Karimullina; scientific editorship of K.R. Galiullin.- Kazan: Kazan University, 2011.- 528 p. 7. Minullin K. Татар теле – сњзлеклђрдђ: библиографик күрсəткеч = Tatar language in dictionaries: bibliographic index [1801-1998] / K. Minnullin, R. Valiullin; scientific editorship of A.R. Rakhimov.- Kazan: Master Line, 1998.- 56 б. 8. Хəкимҗан Ф.С. Татар тел белеме библиографиясе (1981-1997) / Ф.С.Хəкимҗан, Т.Х.Хəйретдинова.Казан: Татар дəүлəт гуманитар ин-ты нəшр., 1998.- 204 б. 9. Yakupova G.K. Bibliographic reference for Tatar linguistics (1778-1980) / G. Yakupova; editorial staff.: Sh.N. Asylgaraev, L.T. Makhmutova (executive editor), T.Kh. Khairutdinova.- Kazan: Tatar Book Publishing House, 1988.- 136 с. 10. Karaulov Yu.N. Linguistic construction and formal language thesaurus / Yu.N. Karaulov.- М.: Nauka, 1981.366 p. 11. Galiullin K.R. Russian and Tatar linguography: scientific and information support: thesis of … Cand. Sc. (Philology) / K.R. Galiullin.- Kazan, 2000.- 343 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

TATAR LANGUAGE NON-DERIVATIVE VERBS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Vilyuza Robertovna Gafarova, Gulshat Raisovna Galiullina Institute of philology and intercultural communication, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, 18 Kremlyovskaya str. (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/25 Received: 06 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 03 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The article deals with structure of modern non-derivative verbs of Tatar language and describes reasons of historically derivative words conversion into non-derivative ones. The authors have highlighted the fact that it is a historical tradition that in Turkic languages only monosyllabic verbs are really root, and disyllabic and trisyllabic verbs are the result of complication of monosyllabic ones. The article involves using of methods of external and internal reconstruction, comparative and relative comparative methods, and also etymological, word-formative and morphemic analysis. In the course of language evolution derived stems components lost their initial meaning and combined into an integral whole. In some cases the first or the second component lost its meaning, and in other cases both ones lost their meanings. Tatar language has lots of affixes which are an integral part of a stem, and nowadays these morphemes do not exist individually. Analysis of Tatar active lexicon has allowed to draw the conclusion that derivative words conversion into non-derivative ones is explained by such changes as de-etymologization and substitution. Despite the fact that de-etymologization is characteristic of inflectional languages, in agglutinative Tatar language de-etymologization affects etymologically composite words. The authors found several reasons of de-etymologization: archaization of a word and complete death of a root; death of an affix, phonetic changes connected with it, and also cases of semantic de-etymologization. Upon analysis the authors found that in the course of substitution morphemic structure of words was preserved. Tatar language distinguishes itself due to som e morphogenetic affixes transition into word-formative affixes composition. Owing to etymologic analysis, the authors has drawn the conclusion that monosyllableness of verb roots in Turkic languages is confirmed by Tatar language too. Nonderivative disyllabic and trisyllabic verbs are historically derivative words composed with affixes and independent roots. Nowadays they are considered to be indecomposable lexical units. System analysis of Tatar language indecomposable verbs allowed to reveal historical and modern word structure, and also to demonstrate evolution of individual affixal elements in the language. It has been found that studied phenomena date back to different chronological stages of structural grammatical changes of the language. Full de-etym ologization is older. The research results will be useful for relative comparative study of languages, for finding of initial roots of Turkic languages. Key words: Tatar language, root, stem, monosyllabic verbs, non-derivative verbs, disyllabic and trisyllabic roots, affixes, de-etymologization, substitution 1. INTRODUCTION The problem of root structure has been always in the centre of Turkology researchers’ attention. Historical changes in word structure were analyzed in works of M. Melioranskiy [1], G.I. Ramstedt [2], C. Brockelm ann [3], N.A. Baskakov [4], A.N. Kononov [5], A.M. Shcherbak [6], K. Musayev [7], A.T. Kaidarov [8], A.V. Dybo [9] etc. In modern linguistics som e aspects of a Turkic root are in the picture of foreign monographs too [10, 11]. As far back as in 1900 P.M. Melioranskiy noted that in Turkic languages roots were originally monosyllabic [1]. G.I. Ramstedt, on the contrary, believed that in Turkic languages most of roots of words (including verbs) were historically disyllabic [2]. Famous German scientists C. Brockelmann took up the position that since olden times Turkic languages have had several types of roots, including monosyllabic, disyllabic and trisyllabic, mostly of disputable origin [3]. Nowadays many Altaists and Turkologists believe in initial roots monosyllableness (N.A. Baskakov [4], A.N. Kononov [5], A.T. Kaidarov [8], E.V., T.M.Garipov [12], F.M. Khisamova [13] etc.). The history of studying of roots and stems of Tatar language began with works of V.A. Bogoroditskiy [14]. It is represented in different aspects in researches of such authors as K.M. Musayev [7], A.V. Dybo [9], F.M. Khisamova [13], A.G. Shaikhulov [15], R.G. Akhmetianov [16], F.Sh. Nurieva [17], M. Oner [18] etc. Notwithstanding the fact that there are quite a lot of researches on Turkic languages in linguistics, diachronic synchronic approach to study of non-derivative roots and stems of Tatar verbs has not got due attention. This article is dedicated to study and analysis of structure of modern non-derivative verb roots, and also forms of buildup of a Tatar verb stem in historical perspective. The work’s purpose is to single out “obscured” roots in composition of indecomposable verbs, that became the stem for creation of derivative units, and to reveal main reasons of conversion of historically derivative words into non-derivative ones. Verb roots monosyllableness will be hereafter a reference point in our approach to analysis of derivative verbs with some word-formative affixes. System analysis of Tatar language indecomposable verbs will allow to reveal historical and modern word structure, and to demonstrate evolution of som e affixal elements in the language. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials for analysis and conclusions illustrations were taken from Tatar language dialect dictionaries [19], Tatar language definition dictionaries [20, 21], Turkic languages etymologic dictionaries [16, 22, 23].

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 For materials analysis we used: comparative method, method of external and internal reconstruction, relative comparative, and also etymologic, word-formative and morphemic analysis. In the course of research of disyllabic and trisyllabic non-derivative verbs we revealed presumptive historical roots and affixal elements. 3. RESULTS In modern Tatar language monosyllabic, di- and trisyllabic words are all roots by structure. Tatar language nonderivative disyllabic and trisyllabic verbs are historically derivative, and at the synchronic stage of language evolution they lost meaning of the first or the second component. Prominent Tatar linguist F.M. Khisamova also mentions this: “a word root in Turkic languages is an undividable, minimal, but quite independent part of a word, bearing a lexical meaning, but in historical perspective it can be derivative” [13]. As have been said before, only monosyllabic verbs are historically really root. In the course of language evolution derivative stems components lost initial meaning and combined into an integral whole. In some cases the first or the second component lost its meaning, and in other cases both ones lost their meanings. For example, Tatar language has lots of affixes which are an integral part of a stem, and nowadays there are no such stems without these affixes, and no affixes without these stems. The result of language historical evolution is changes influencing their phono-, morphemic structure, morphological characteristics and lexical meaning, therefore creating new units with already changes structure. Factual material analysis gives ground for asserting that in Tatar language derivative words conversion into nonderivative ones are explained by such changes as de-etymologization and substitution. De-etymologization is a lexico-morphological phenomenon lying in obscuring of initial structure of a word due to blurring of morphological distinction between its components, i.e. as a result of transformation of a stem which were dividable before into an undividable root [24]. This phenom enon is most frequently observed in inflectional languages, but in Tatar language (which is an agglutinative language) de-etymologization affects etymologically complex words. Let us single out main reasons of de-etymologization in Tatar language. The most distinctive reason is archaization of a word and/or complete death of a root. For example, lexical units (existing in Tatar literary language active vocabulary) атла- 'to pace', сула- 'to breathe', сайла- 'to choose', сапла- 'to thread', тыңла- 'to listen', тәпәлә- 'to beat' are root words, though there is a clear affix –ла in them, which is the most productive among verb-formative affixes. Ат,сул,сай, сап,тың, тәпә were historically roots, but in modern language they are not used as independent roots and have no lexical meaning without affix –ла. Атла- 'to pace' from noun ат'pace'>ə: тле – атла derivative verb with affix –ла from а‫٭‬: т - а‫٭‬: д - ә‫٭‬: д'pace' or recurring action form from а‫٭‬: т - а‫٭‬: д - ә‫٭‬: д'to pace', 'to step'[12]; сайла- 'to choose' from secondary root сай/сайы 'count' (Crimean, Azerbaijani, Turkish), going back to ancient verb *сā-'to choose', 'to count'[6]; сапла-'to thread' – derivative verb with affix –ла отсап 'thread', which is observed in Khalaj and Azerbaijani languages [6]; сула- 'to breathe' - derivative verb with affix –ла from ancient root сыу 'hard breathing in' (Chagatai) [16]; тәпәлә- 'to beat' from noun тәпә'head', which is preserved in Siberian Tatars dialect,Yakut and Altai languages; тыңла-'to listen', 'to obey' from noun*тың 'listening', 'eavesdropping ', 'sound' [6]; алда-'to fool', 'to deceive'. Ancient root of word *a:л 'cunning', 'deceit ', element –да plays the role of an affix [6]. In modern Tatar literary language a:л 'cunning' is not used independently, but in Turkish, Chagatai, Uigur languages it has been preserved with the meaning 'cunning', and element -да, having lost here its word-formative capability, transformed into a phonetic formant. In a certain historical period they merged together and formed a simple word; озай-'to lengthen' from noun оз'length', 'height' (Khakas) [16]; соклан- 'to wonder' from noun soq 'greedy', 'envious' [22, 23](Kirghiz, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kumyk); сына- 'to test' from noun сын 'test' (Kirghiz) [23]. Ancient roots of these verbs are not observed in modern Tatar language independently, from whence these disyllabic words are perceived as simple. However, some roots which are considered to be dead in modern language are popular in Tatar dialects. For example, in word сырла-'to ornam ent' we can mark out a root сыр 'paint', preserved in Mishar dialect. In modern Tatar language сыр is used in the noun meaning 'line'. Words сызла-'to be sick','to whimper'; сыкра- 'to whimper'; елыш- 'to nestle' are also secondary roots, because they are subject to decomposition. Their etymologic roots are preserved in Siberian Tatars dialect: сыс 'bone ache', 'body pain'; сык 'moan'; йыл-'to move'. De-etymologization is also the result of the fact that an affix stops being separate and merges with a root, i.e. affix’s death occurs. For instance, word сугар-'to give to drink' is formed from noun су 'water'. In this word ancient monosyllabic root су is preserved in modern Tatar literary language in unchanged form, and affix -гар is now a dead formant and plays the role of indecomposable complex. Башкар-'to execute' from noun баш 'head', 'main'; искәр-'to take note' from noun ис'notion'; коткар-'to save' from noun кот 'happiness' [23]; эшкәр(т)- 'to process' from noun эш'to work'; кабыз- 'to ignite' from verb кап- 'to grasp', 'to light'[23]. Affixes’ dead forms have ceased to take part in word formation long ago and have merged with root so closely that an inseparable morphologic unity has been formed; it is perceived as some kind of a new root. Their separation from a secondary root composition threatens with breakup of its structure and misunderstanding of its semantics at the modern stage of language evolution [12]. In modern Tatar language among desemantized affixes we can mention formants -кар/-кәр, -гыз/-гез, сәт-. Affixes can lose their meaning also due to such lexico-semantical phenomena as lexicalization, creation of figurative meanings, cases of metaphorical usage of word forms. When a figurative meaning is created, an affix lose its meaning. In course of words de-etymologization som e phonetic phenomena occur; they are systematized on the basis of facts in the following way: а) drop out of a sound or sounds:

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Word кыйна-'to punish', 'to beat' is not considered to be a derivative one, because word кыйын 'suffering', being a root, with adding affix -а lost vowel sound ы and transformed into the form кыйн, having no independent meaning. Also we can mention here word ялкыт-'to tire' from verb ялык- 'to get tired', which goes back to adjective который ял 'lazy'. Next examples demonstrate drop out of a sound л. Verb китер-'to bring' in the full phonetic variant is килтер- 'to bring' and goes back to verb кил- 'to come'. Тутыр- 'to fill' in Bashkir and dialects of Tatar language comes out in the form of a verb тултыр- 'to fill', which goes back to verb тул- 'to fill';үтер- 'to kill' from verb үл- 'to die', where –тыр/-тер is a word-formative affix. Урла-'to steal', 'to snatch' – a phonetically more complete form of this verb is угырла- 'to steal', the stem goes back to noun угыр 'thief'. б) interchange of sounds: Борчы-'to disturb' from noun боз- 'to spoil'; in this case we can see interchange of phonem es р~з; адаш-'to stray' – a derivative verb with affix –ашот of the ancient root *аз- 'to stray'; сөйлә- 'to speak', 'to tell' from noun *сő:з 'word'. In this case we can see interchange з~й; йомша- 'to mellow', 'to relax' from noun йом'feather', 'crumb'. In modern language noun root is preserved in the form йон'feather'; кауша- 'to be embarrassed', 'to be lost' from adjective как 'dry'/'to dry oneself'; эндәш-'to respond', 'to call' – derivative verb with affix –шот of verb өндә- 'to invoke', which goes back to ancient root – noun өн 'voice'. Due to phonetical changes the boundaries between initial morphemic members are effaced, and as a result of such phenom ena the structure of a word becomes obscure. We can observe cases of sem antic de-etymologization accompanied by revision of word’s meaning in general or narrowing of lexical meaning. Meanings of many words stepped considerably aside from meaning of producing initial stem, and they began to be used in figurative meaning. Som etimes the connection between a new formation and its previous stem (and also words with the same root) can be broken. For instance, verb өйлән- 'to marry' descended from noun өй 'house', literally 'to acquire house', root and stem lost semantic connections, and nowadays verb stem structure is perceived as a non-derivative one. The Siberian Tatars dialect has a verb өйлә- 'to be in a house'; билә- 'to possess' - derivative verb with affix –ләот of ancient root би 'prince', 'master'; төпче-'to inquire thoroughly' - derivative verb with affix –че of ancient root төп 'bottom', 'foundation'; ташы- 'to bear' - derivative verb with affix –ы from noun таш 'stone' (associative similarity of weight); ташла- 'to throw', 'to throw away', 'to leave', 'to direct' - derivative verb with affix –ла from таш 'stone'; кыста- 'to persuade'– secondary verb from ancient root якыс- 'to squeeze', 'to press'; кызык- 'to take interest', 'to envy' derivative verb with affix –ык from кыз- 'to become inflammable'; өстә- 'to increase', 'to add' derivative verb with affix –ә from өст 'top'. As a result of stems acquiring figurative meanings, productive affixes become non-productive or stop functioning. In som e stems we can observe phonologic and semantic changes simultaneously. For exam ple, word кауша-'to be lost', 'to be embarrassed' is formed from adjective как 'dry' with the help of affix -ша. Morphemic construction of a word in the course of substitution remains the same in a quantitative sense, only one link in a word-formative chain changes – meaning and character of an affix, i.e. its functions. A root morpheme as such in a word does not change, it just begins to play another role. In Tatar language its process is observed in conversion of some morphogenetic affixes into word-formative ones. As an example we can mention cautionary affixes which can take part in creation of verbs and change their lexical meaning:булыш-'to help' from verb бул- 'to be';кичер- 'to forgive' from verb кич- 'to go by'. Sometimes cautionary affixes help to create derivative verbs which are not directly connected to the meaning of producing stems: тыгыл-'to get blocked' from verb тык- 'to shove', тартыш- 'to wrangle','to argue' from verb тарт- 'to pull', алыш- 'to fight' from verb ал- 'to take'. In the course of words using these verbs have gained figurative meaning that is not connected with word-formative process. Their metaphorical meaning has been generated as a result of word’s sem antic evolution. In modern Tatar literary language, in parallel with them, we can observe verbs in cautionary meaning: баутартышты-'helped to pull a rope', эшкә тыгылу- 'to meddle in some affairs',чөгендералышу- 'to help gather in beet'. 4. CONCLUSION We believe that the popular Turkology idea, that the Turkic word structure is first of all monosyllabic, is well grounded; in modern literary language, in dialects and subdialects of Tatar language it is easy to ascertain further derivativeness of several dozens of disyllabic verb stems, for example: ар-/ары- 'to get tired', чер-/чере- 'to rot', кор-/коры'to run dry'. All analyzed non-derivative words, judging by etymologic analysis, were created with the help of independent roots and affixes, because in the composition of indecomposable verbs we can observe etymologic roots and affixal elem ents. Among affixes we can see both originally word-formative and morphogenetic (for instance, cautionary) ones. In the course of a long historical evolution of language structure of som e words underwent de-etymologization, i.e. the initial mophemic members boundaries were effaced. Word’s archaization is the main reason of de-etymologization, it is observed in most of stems. Some historical roots, which are not used in language now, are popular in Tatar dialects and in modern Turkic languages. Semantic and phonetic changes in words are not as numerous as root’s death. Verbs-parallels, created due to substitution, are rarer in Tatar language. We can state that such phenomena as de-etymologization (full, semasiological, phonetic) and verbs-parallels refer to different chronologic stages of the language’s structural grammatical evolution. According to the article authors’ opinion, full de-etymologization is an older phenomenon. Whereas verbs-parallels are more modern. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The authors confirm that the presented data are free of conflict of interests. ACKNOWLEGEMENT The work was prepared within the frames of implementation of “Plan of measures on execution of the Program of competitive recovery of FSAEI HVE `K(V)FU` among leading world scientific educational centres for 2013 – 2020”.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 REFERENCES 1. Melioranskiy P.M. Arabian philologists about Turkish language. – St. Petersburg: Printing office of imperial Academy of Sciences, 1900. - P. LXII. 2. Ramstedt G.I. Introduction to Altai linguistics. – Moscow: Publishing house of Oriental literature, 1957. - 254 p. 3. Carl Brockelm ann. Osttürkische Grammatik der islamischenLiteratur-SprachenMittelasiens. — Leiden, 1954, VIII, 429 S. 4. Baskakov N.A. Historico-typological morphology of Turkish languages. - Moscow: Science, 1979. - 207 p. 5. Kononov A.N. Grammar of language of Turkic runic memorials of VII-IX centuries. - Leningrad: Science, 1980. - 225 p. 6. Shcherbak A.M. Essays on comparative m orphology of Turkic languages: a verb. - Leningrad: Science, 1981. 183 p. 7. Musayev K.M. Lexicology of Turkic languages. – Moscow: Science, 1984. - 228 p. 8. Kaidarov A.T. Structure of monosyllabic roots and stems in Kazakh language. – Alma-Ata: Science, 1986. 327 p. 9. Dybo A.V., 2003. An Etymological dictionary of the Altaic languages. Vol. 1-3. Leiden, pp: 2096. 10. Marcel Erdal. A Grammar of Old Turkic.Leiden, 2004.573 с. 11. Тypology of Quantification: On Quantifiers and Quantification in Finnish and Languages Spoken in the Central Volga–Kama Region. // Editors: Pirkko Suihkonen & Valery Solovyev) / Gulshat Galiullina, Alfiya Yusupova, Gul'nara Mansurova. - University of Helsinki. - LINCOM Studies in Language Typology 28: Muenich, 2013. – 400 pp. 12. Garipov T.M. Bashkir nominal word formation. - Ufa,1959. - 223p. 13. Khisamova F.M. Crucial tasks of research of word composition in Tatar language in the context of development of Tatar morphemes structural functional computer model. – URL: old.kpfu.ru›conf/LENCA2/321.pdf. 14. Bogoroditskiy V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics: with a view to other Turkic languages. – Kazan: Tatizdat, 1953. – 219 p. 15. Shaikhulov A.G. Monosyllabic root stems in Kypchak languages of Urals-Volga region: in 2 parts. Part 1. - Ufa: Eastern University, 2000. - 212 p. 16. Akhmetyanov R.G. Concise historico-etymologic dictionary of Tatar language. - Kazan: Tatar Book House, 2001.- 272 p. 17. Nurieva F. Sh. Literary language of the Golden Horde: norms and variations // Life Science Journal 2014; 11(10). – Р. 713-717. http://www.lifesciencesite.com 18. Oner M. Some attempts to research the present-day vocabulary of the Kipchak languages // Tatarica, №1, 2013. – Р. 36-69. 19. Tumasheva D.G. Dictionary of Siberian Tatars dialects. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 1992. 256 p. 20. Explanatory dictionary of Tatar language: in 3 volumes. - Kazan: Tatar Book House, 1977, 1979, 1981. 21. Explanatory dictionary of Tatar language.- Kazan: Tatar Book House, 2005.- 848p. 22. Ancient Turkic dictionary / edited by V.M. Nadelyayev, D.M. Nasilov, E.R. Tenishev, A.M. Shcherbak. – Leningrad: Science, 1969. - 676 p. 23. Yegorov V.G. Etymologic dictionary of Chuvash language. – Cheboksary: Chuvash Book House, 1964. - 355 p. nd 24. Linguistics. Big encyclopaedic dictionary./ Chief editor V.N. Yartseva. – 2 edition – Moscow: Big Russian encyclopaedia, 2000. –688p.

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THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE TATAR JOURNALISM: ITS PROGRESS AND LOSSES Vasil Zagitovich Garifullin, Lyailya Rashitovna Sabirova Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskaya Street, 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/26 Received: 11 Jan, 2015 Accepted: 15 Mar, 2015 ABSTRACT The article is dedicated to the review of the Tatar journalism, starting with that of the period of its emergence to our time. The major historical events having impact on the inception and growth of the Tatar language periodical press are listed. At the beginning of ХХ century a ramified system of national newspapers and journals representing the interests of all sections of the population, different political parties and movements emerged. Business and specialized publications succeeded in this system. The article also retraces the dynamics of the abundance of mass media in Tatar in different historical periods. After revolutionary events of 1917 the domain of the Tatar journalism sharply became narrow, only newspapers and journals propagating communist ideology were being issued. But influenced by democratic changes at the end of ХХ century lots of new mass media that promoted political pluralism and a problem-subject variety emerged again. Quantitative analysis of the current Russian-language and Tatar-language media of the Republic of Tatarstan demonstrates deep imbalance of these indicators not in favour of the national print and electronic publications. The issues of functioning current media in Tatar have been raised in this work. The most acute problems are the decrease of audience size, subject limitation, low efficiency, the thesis of necessity of the regional and national development at the expense of government assistance. Key words: the Tatar journalism, journalist, journalism history, periodical press 1. INTRODUCTION The Tatar journalism is celebrating its one-hundred and tenth anniversary in 2015. For the last years the stable system of the Tatar mass media of one national media space has formed. The occurrence of such stable information space is one of the essential conditions in prosperous socio-economic and spiritual advance of the people. It is this segment of social life of the Tatar people in which for the last century the most dynamic alterations has taken place, and consequences of its wide broadcasting have played the leading role in all aspects of the people’s life. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS Along side with system approach the authors have applied both general scientific (observation, comparativecontrastive method), general philological (structure method) and individual specific methods – special philological methods of investigation: comparative, problem-chronological, logical and others. The method of documents content analysis, method of typological analysis have been applied. The prospective study will be on the basis of works by scholars belonging to different generations. The present issue have been partially highlighted in a number of publications and monographs by Ph.I. Agzamov[1], R.U. Amirkhanov [2-3], М. Askarov [4], М.Kh. Gainullin [5], A. Ph. Galiyakhmetova [6], Ph. Yu. Gaffarova [7-8], U. I. Gimadeyev [9], А.I. Yemeliyanov [10], R.Ph. Маrdаnоv [11], М.B. Маrdiyeva [12], R.М. Nurullina [14-15], I.G. Ramiyev[16], Ph. Z. Yakhin [17] and many others. In the meantime it should be noted that many works on the Tatar journalism history concern only separate aspects of tremendous heritage, for example, specifics of using the Tatar language in periodical press of different periods [18–20]. 3. RESULTS In early ХХ century, as a consequence of revolutionary events, the Tatar people’s need and dream of many years came true: in September 2, 1905 in Saint-Petersburg the first number of the first national newspaper «Nur» («The Ray») was issued. After this event every year dozens of new periodicals had been issued. During 1905 - 1917 years about 120 newspapers and journals in the Tatar language had been on-stream in 17 Russian cities at different times [16]. Among them there were periodicals of various political orientation. A great number of specialized newspapers and journals had been published. For example, in Samara there had been published a journal «Икътисад» («The Economics») that was remarkable for serious analyticity and wide circle of the authors-economists. There had been more than ten different satirical periodicals in number. In periodical press acute and burning questions of socio-political and socio-economic aspects of the Tatar people’s life had been raised. The authors of periodicals were truly devoted to the people writers and journalists. The most outstanding names as Gabdulla Tukai, Gayaz Iskhaki, Phatikh Amirkhan, Sharif Kamal, Galiagar Kamal, Phatikh Karimi, Riza Phakhrutdinov, Galimdzhan Ibragimov, Sagit Rameyev, Kamil Motyigi, Phuad Tuktarov and others were among them. Those prominent figures laid the foundation for journalistic traditions that had been developing until the socialist revolution and, then, stalinist repressions annihilated pick of the nation and its culture. The revolutionary events of 1917 gave a powerful incentive to the press development: in 1917-1918 years 66 newspapers of different political parties were issued, army, district and other kinds of publications appeared. At the beginning of their ruling the Bolshevik party signed the resolution about necessity of consolidation and development of the press in the

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Turkic languages. For example, due to a centerpiece of the resolution of the seventh congress of Bolsheviks new central periodicals had appeared in Moscow. However, shortly afterwards the Bolshevik government pursued their own policy of narrowing activity of periodical press in the Tatar language. Gradually, the non-Bolshevik press stopped being published, just ideologized newspapers and journals had left. As a result, only about 20 newspapers and journals in Tatar had been issued by1927. That was the lowest indicator after the revolution of 1917 and the result of the first wave of the mass stalinist repressions against periodical press [21]. In early thirties, during industrialization and collectivization, generation of regions, collective farms, state farms, machine and technique stations, new types of periodicals in the Tatar language sprang up: regional, large-circulation newspapers. But central, acentric, oblast issues were closed. Step-by-step the whole system of the Tatar periodical press arisen in the middle of 20s was destroyed. All-Russian national newspapers issued in Moscow were closed. The newspapers ceased to be issued in Penza, Sverdlovsk, Kuybyshev. At that period of time more powerful ideologizing of newspapers and journals occurred. They generally dealt with praise of party policy and search for « public enemies». The distinctive dividing line in the history of the Tatar journalism was the Great Patriotic War. At that stage many newspapers and journals were closed up [22]. Most journalists changed their clothes for military overcoats. Many of them continued to write with pen and owing to that fact 16 army newspapers had been issued at the front. Noted writers and journalists contributed to those periodicals: Musa Jahlil, Gadel Kutuy, Phatikh Karim, Riza Ishmurat, Aphzal Shamov, Sharaph Mudarris, Mustay Karim, Abdula Akhmet and many others. The front-line press played the role of no small importance in mobilization and arousing patriotic enthusiasm of the soldiers and officers [23]. At the same time on the other side of the front, in Germany, newspapers «The Idel-Ural» and «The Messenger of German Tatars » were published in the Tatar language for army prisoners [24-25]. 1946 was the year of the peak in increasing the size of the Tatar periodic press after the war: more than 120 newspapers and journals had been issued. After that, when the army periodicals ceased to be published and the periodicals closed at the beginning of the war began to be issued again only in Ufa and Tobol’sk, their size substantially decreased. In early 60s of ХХ century, when in the USSR territorial and industrial administrations emerged, the Tatar national press recovered again. New editions had been published in Gorkovskaya, Ul’yanovskaya, Kuybyshevskaya oblasts. All that had been continued not long for during stagnation years, in 70-80s years the number of newspapers and journals decreased again and consisted of about 80 titles, though major ones belonged to the regional press of prescriptive character. Subject uniformity, restricted circle of aroused problems, political one-sidedness and ideological tint distinguished the periodic press of the soviet time, since 20s years till 90s years of ХХ century. The materials about success in production, about socialist competition, decision implementing of the governing communist party, struggle against world imperialism and capitalism prevailed in the columns of the press. News and all-Union and international developments were highlighted through the materials of the central press and Moscow bureau of information. The Tatar press, on the whole, worked not for the sake of nation’s development but for preservation of the existing regime and its praising, as well as all journalism of the USSR. th All in all, the democratic reforms had a good effect on the development of Tatar journalism in Russia at the 20 century end. New newspapers, journals, FM-radio stations, the Internet-publications, satellite television and radio broadcasting company «Таtаrstаn – a new age», satellite TV channel of the World Service «BТV-Planet» emerged. The stable system of the Tatar language mass media considering interests of various population groups has been formed today in Tatarstan. At the same time, if to compare quantitative characteristics of the Russian and Tatar languages periodicals, one can find out great disbalance of these indicators not in favor of the national mass media. In the Republic of Tatarstan there have been registered 742 mass media. Federal, republican, municipal and corporate mass media are published through the territory of distribution, state and non-state (private, corporate) newspapers and journals coexist. Of them 124 newspapers and 32 journals are issued in the Tatar language, 14 radio- and 10 TV channels go on the air, 32 radio-programs and 44 TV channels and 2 information agencies work[26]. The Tatar language mass media function not only in the Republic of Tatarstan, but also in Russia and even abroad. The Tatar language print media of the Republic of Tatarstan in Tatar have intergraded into tabloids since 90s years of ХХ century, and for the last ten years one can observe the inverse process – tabloids’ intergrading into qualoids. There is no a distinguished boundary between classical journalistic genres in publications, at the same time in the Tatar periodic press a number of publications pretending to their own genre distinctness - media texts have emerged. One notes a certain subject limitedness of the Tatar language publications where financial and economic, business and law problems have not been highlighted enough. In this regard, further developm ent and Russian regional press reformation via improving professional skills of the journalists is needed. State financing of more significant social projects might help to develop the system of regional publications [27]. Dynamics of Quantity of Print Media in the Tatar Language

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Even the central republican newspapers and journals in Tatar have got scanty circulations: they have dropped tenfold in comparison with the soviet period. There are no applied special publications. Present-day network mass media are slowly developing. It is explained primarily by narrowing spheres of using the Tatar language. Among the reasons one can also designate the lower degree of efficiency and analyticity of the Tatar language periodicals in comparison with the Russian language ones. 4. CONCLUSION The main historical periods of change of the Tatar people are reflected, like in mirror, in the periodic press in the Tatar language. At different historical periods, even in the years of strict tsarist censorship and communist ideology, the Tatar journalism adhered to basic orientation – service to the people’s interests. The main subject areas of activities of the Tatar language mass media are: - current information about daily life, mode of life of the Tatar people; - discussion of the most burning and acute questions of all socio-political and socio-economic aspects of life; - culture and education subject area aimed at moral consolidation of the nation. The Tatar mass media have considerably contributed to the development of national culture and the preservation of the Tatar people identity is a significant factor of the self-assertion. Celebrating their future anniversary, the journalists of national publications of Tatarstan should think not only about the problems of returning former qualitative and quantitative indicators but also up-to-date forms of potential audience building. It will be not superfluous to conduct social and market researches for the purpose of revealing the needed kinds and types of publications, their subject areas and subject areas of already existing periodicals, and also forms and means of the materials presentation in the Tatar language that might promote the progress of public awareness and harmonization of interethnic relations. CONFLICT OF INTERESTS The author asserts that the represented data do not contain the conflict of interests. COMMENDATION The work was performed in terms of implementation «The plan of activities on realization of the Program of competitive recovery of FGAOU VPO « K (P) FU» among the leading world scientific-educational centers for 2013 – 2020». REFERENCES 1. Agzamov, F.I. Tukay – a journalist. – Kazan: Татар.кит. нəшр., 1986. – 271 б. 2. Amirkhanov, R.U. The Tatar democratic press (1905–1907 years). – М.: Sience, 1988. – 191 p. 3. Amirkhanov, R.U. The Tatar pre-revolutionary press in the context of «the East – the West» (in terms of Russian culture development). – Kazan: The Таtаr publishing house, 2002. – 239 p. 4. Askarov, М.А. the Newspaper «Казан мохбире» («The Kazan Messenger») and its role in the development of Tatar political journalism in early ХХ century: author's abstract of dissertation … PhD. – Kazan, 2005. – 23 p. 5. Gaynullin, М.Kh. The Tatar literature and social and political journalism in early ХХ century. – Kazan: The Таtаr publishing house, 1983. – 352 p. 6. Galiyakhmetova, А.F. Literary material in the children’s magazines of the early XX century: author's abstract of dissertation… PhD. – Kazan, 2004. – 28 p. 7. Gaffarova, F. Yu. ƏхмəдһадиМаксуди (АхматхадиМаксуди). – Казан: Мастер Лайн, 2002. – 51 б. 8. Gaffarova, F. Yu. ҺадиМаксудиһəм «Йолдыз» газетасы (АхматхадиМаксуди и газета «Йолдыз)// Шəһри Казан. – 1993. – 2 окт. 9. Гыймадиев Y. Сатира коралы белəн. (Сила сатирического слова) – Казан: Татар.кит.нəшр., 1977. – 214 б. 10. Yemeliyanov, А.I. The content of Tatar-Muslim periodical press for 1913 in retrospect. – Kazan: Central press, 1914. –29 p. 11. Mardanov, R.F. The journal «Shura» (1908–1917): problems of literature. – Kazan: Рухият, 2001. – 151 p. 12. Мəрдиева М.Б. Татар журналистика сытарих ыбуенчаочерклар. (The essays on the history of the Tatar journalism) – Казан: КДУ, 2003. – 132 б. 13. Newspapers and journals in the Tatar language (1905–1985) / R.М. Nurullina. – Kazan: Kazan State University, 1989. – 94 p. 14. Nurullina, R.M. Татарчавакытлыматбугаттарихыннан (1905–07 еллардадемократикгазеталар) (From the history of the Tatar periodic press (democratic newspapers 1905–07 years)). – Казан: Идел-Пресс, 2002. – 70 б. 15. Nurullina, R.M. Тарихязакалəмем. (Пишу историю).– Казан: КДУ, 2009. – 335 б. 16. Ramiyev, I. The album of the Tatar periodic press (1905-1925). – Kazan, 1926. – 232 p. 17. Yakhin, F. Kh. The Tatar literature of the periodic press of Uralsk (1905–1907 years). – Kazan: The Tatar Publishing House, 1992. – 126 p. 18. Sabirov, К.S. About the language of periodicals of the soviet period // Conf. – 50-years of the USSR. – Kazan, 1972. – P. 18–19. 19. Mukhametshin, F.М. Lexico-grammatical peculiarities of the newspaper «Nur»: author's abstract of dissertation … PhD. – Kazan, 2007. – 171 p. 20. Minnullin B. К. The language of the newspaper «Борхане Таракки» (1906–1911): author's abstract of dissertation … PhD. – Kazan, 2010. –26 p. 21. Nasyrov, T.M. Repressions against non- Bolshevik Tatar press in 1917–1919 years// The history of that country. – 2000. – № 4. – P. 170-179. 22. Khayrutdinov, S. К. Tataria press in the years of the Great home war (1941–1945): author's abstract of dissertation … PhD. – Kazan, 1989. – 213 p.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 23. Aynutdinov, A.K. The chronicle of heroic deed: Historical sketch according to front newspapers. – Kazan: The Tatar Publishing House, 1984. – 112 p. 24. Nasyrov, Т.М. The Tatar emigrant press // Гасырлар авазы (Echo of ages). – 2004. – № 2. – P. 117-128. 25. Galyamutdinov, А.I. The journal «Милли юл» (1928-1939 years) in the system of Tatar emigrant press: author's abstract of dissertation … PhD. – Kazan, 2012. – 24 p. 26. Roskomnadzor. The report on activity. URL: http://16.rkn.gov.ru/plans-and-reports/reports. (review date: 12.09.2014). 27. Sabirova, L.R., Zayni, R.L., Galiyahmetova, A.F., Galieva, R.M. Functional and typological development features of the Tatar-language press in the Republic of Tatarstan under current conditions. Asian Social Science. Volume 11, Issue 1, 2 December 2014, Pages 321-328.

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015

V.V. NABOKOV "MASHENKA": COGNITIVE APPROACH TO SEMANTIC-CONNOTATIVE STUDY Marina Mikhailovna Morarash Kazan Federal University, Kremliovskayastr, 18, 420008, Kazan (RUSSIA) DOI: 10.7813/jll.2015/6-2/27 Received: 30 Dec, 2014 Accepted: 18 Feb, 2015 ABSTRACT The paper provides a new approach to the novel "Mashenka" written by Vladimir Nabokov. The study was perform ed within the trend associated with the analysis of a literary text according to the cognitive positions. The results of the linguistic incarnation contextual implementation of such text categories as time, man, space, life, the specificity of their stylistic use in the novel and the explication of the text conceptual meaning - these and many other problems of the novel study are revealed in our work. The main object of the author's interest is the cognitive basis for the semantic space formation of a claimed text. The study of semantic text space formation regularities allowed to determine the analysis algorithm of an individual author's picture of the the writer's world for a special consideration. In article also discloses and describes the mechanism of semantic and conceptual categories interaction. The expansion of the linguistic research scope is associated with a particular task of the article - the expression of the idea for a Russian national mentality in V.V. Nabokov's novel. The work is based on the material collected and analyzed by the author. The article contains interesting information about the writer's work and may be practically useful as for other researchers of this writer, so as for the researchers of the reality conceptualization by the other writers.. Key words: V.V. Nabokov, "Mashenka", linguistic analysis of a text, cognitive approach, time, space, life, man 1. INTRODUCTION In recent decades, the problem of a text becomes one of the most popular in a cultural consciousness of the era. According to this publication a text is defined as "a verbal artwork representing the implementation of the author's concept, an individual view of the world created by his imagination, embodied in a literary text using the purposefully selected in accordance with the concept of linguistic resources (in its turn, also interpreting the reality), and addressed to the reader, who interprets it according to their own socio-cultural competence" [1]. Quite a long time the language and culture were considered as the autonomous semiotic systems, but with the development of anthropology "an opportunity to bring together the data of science appeared, since a man is the most critical link between language and culture" [2]. Currently, philology considers the following relation of text and culture which have a very definite semiotic relationship: text as a cultural context model or as its "small" fragment. Thus it is recognized that a text acquires its final and full certainty in the composition of culture. Culture becomes the highest semiotic level, which, however, is not without the contradictions. On the one hand, culture is expressed in the language system of the text, on the other hand, culture still belongs not only to the world of language. Culture is the spiritual realm, which is not always may be described. This means that the spiritual culture is much richer and broader concerning the language world picture content due to a plurality of mental formations - concepts, the ideal essences, which are not always defined by language. If we consider a text as the model of culture, then that's why, perhaps, it has the connotations that are "based on the fundam ental impossibility of a text to include a full personal author's attitude to all the events of surrounding reality represented in speech" [3]. The presence of explicate, lying on the surface, and implicit, hidden in the subtext meanings in in the content of a literary text allows the linguists to distinguish three text levels: a verbal-semantic, a cognitive and an axiological one. As we know from the history of linguistic semantics and text linguistics, science has a gradual expansion of a verbal and semantic component of analysis. From the study of lexical units meaning to the study of the individual fragments and a whole text. If a text is considered by linguists as the result of the reality linguistic conceptualization, we may make the conclusion about the analysis extension from the meaning of a text to the knowledge of reality, and therefore "this level is associated with the reflection of reality, and means the value transition to the knowledge" is called a "cognitive" one [4]. The cognitive approach to the description of text reality and the era, which is recreated by the text at this point linguistics is almost the main for obtaining of important inform ation about the mental units (concepts) functioning, about the content features concerning the central categories of time, space, life, man in text and culture, determining together the values and norms of life and people relations. The cognitive approach is the essential one for the understanding of the aesthetic and the conceptual constants of the world. In this regard, the efforts of linguists are focused now on the development of the text analysis methods. A certain theory was formed to carry out the linguistic analysis of a text. However, as the current practice shows, along with the tendency to use the methods of a text conceptual analysis chaotically, the tendency to excessive formalism also takes place. Hence - the problem of incomplete and unreliable semantic description and the impossibility to identify a generalized artistic sense. The implementation of a cognitive approach is quite a difficult task. The purpose of this article is to show one of the algorithms of the conceptual space analysis and describe the implied meaningful information on the basis of a literary text exam ple. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study material is the Russian novel "Mashenka" written by V.V. Nabokov (1926) [5]. The text illustrations were produced by continuous sampling of the studied V.V. Nabokov's novel (about 1,400 examples).

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Journal of Language and Literature, ISSN: 2078-0303, Vol. 6. No. 2. 2015 Initially, the object of our attention was the consideration of the time category text dominants and the representation of its contents [6]. It is curious that the functioning of the time category in V.V. Nabokov's novel "Mashenka" consistently actualizes the essential part of the text meaning, the implicit expression of the main information. The accounting of numerous private meanings discursive manifestations by their extraction from the means of time category actualization, which are syntagmaticaly and paradigmaticaly coupled in a text with the keywords (in this work by the lexical representatives of the concept "time"), allows to perform the logical relations of the named category with the other relevant categories of a textual content (man, space, life). Time is the main ideological coordinate, through which a person perceives the reality and builds the space for his lives. The abovementioned is fully applied to the sequence of the author's view explication: 1. The analysis of time category substantial features. 2. The analysis of the substantial features for the categories of man, life and space. 3. The summary of analysis results obtained during the first two stages. This algorithm is related to the following general points of conceptual space analysis: a) to develop a typology of lexemes, to determine the substantives and adjectives; b) to investigate the syntagmatic compatibility of lexemes at the level of attributive-predicate relations, to characterize an imagery system within the studied nam es; c) to give a paradigmatic and epidigmatic characteristic of the word names of a corresponding sphere taking into account the general linguistic and individual author components of a meaning. In order to achieve the set objectives the following private methods were used: the descriptive one, which includes observation, comparison, generalization of factual material and its classification, the method of component analysis, the methods of contextological analysis. The basic technique is the area conceptualization based on the findings from the surface level of the text lexical elem ents of one sem antic block (time, man, space, life), followed by the identification of the common symptoms for these concepts and the description of the implied content information of the novel. Text is not a random accumulation of units, but a strictly organized whole. The algorithm of a sequential and system analysis of the conceptual space opens the possibility of a text objective study. 3. RESULTS Let's consider the linguistic means of time category expression. According to the results of the experimental and statistical research in the novel "Mashenka" the most frequent are the lexemes of calendar (42.77%) and daily (23.2%) time. The calendar time is represented by the lexemes day, week, month, year, Monday - Sunday and January - December. The time of a day: morning, afternoon, evening, night. On the basis of the performed analysis, this feature may be attributed to the time schedule of the past, which makes up a large part of the novel. First of all, all the lexemes of this category have a common meaning - "time dating" and are used to indicate the sequence of events in the novel. When you consider the relationships and the relations of temporary lexemes with adjectives and predicates the associative and image combinations, or the combinations of psychological orientation were the interesting ones. Together, they cover the scope of the verbal-semantic level, allowing the researcher the exit through the language to the process of the novel semantic content learning. It was found that the category of time in the novel is not only a grammatical one. Such a phenom enon as time in a literary text loses its abstractness and acquires the characteristics of subjectivity, dynamism and substantiality: Days became joyful and cheerful; It's a pity that the days are passed away so aimlessly and stupidly - and these are very good, the best years;