journal of science and technology journal of science and technology

JJ O OU UR RN NA AL L O OF F SS C C II E EN NC CE E A AN ND D T E C H N O L O G Y TECHNOLOGY

Volume : 1 Volume :: 11 Number Number :1 Year : 2011 Year : 2011 ISSN : 2233 - 0054 ISSN : 2233 - 0054

June 2011 June 2011

PUBLISHER International Burch University Address: Francuske Revolucije bb. Ilidza, Sarajevo 71210 Bosnia and Herzegovina Phone : + 387 (0) 33 782 100 Fax : + 387 (0) 33 782 131 Editor : Abdulhamit Subasi [email protected] Editorial Assistant : Nejdet Dogru [email protected] ISSN (Print): 2233-0054 ISSN (Electronic) : Frequency : Biannually Current Volume : 1/2011 Aims and Scope IBU Journal of Science and Technology (IBUJST) is a refereed international journal and devoted to the rapid publication of original and significant research in the fundamental theory, practice and application of engineering, science and technology. IBU Journal of Science and Technology will publish papers in science, technology, engineering and application in the areas of, but not limited to: agricultural engineering, biomedical engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, computer engineering, electrical engineering, genetics & bioengineering, industrial engineering, mechanical engineering, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. As an international science and technology journal with interdisciplinary feature, it will set a ground to bring science and engineering communities across disciplines identified above with a view for sharing information and debate. The journal publishes refereed articles and technical research notes that build on theory and contemporary scientific knowledge. Articles submitted to IBUJST will be peer-reviewed and expected to report previously unpublished scientific work. Submitted manuscripts should follow journal guidelines and should not be under consideration elsewhere.

EDITORIAL BOARD Hüseyin Padem, PhD International Burch University Metin Dıgrak , PhD Kahramanmaras Sutcu İmam University Meliha Handzic, PhD International Burch University Sezai Ercişli, PhD Atatürk University Dursun Eşiyok, PhD Ege University Türkay Dereli, PhD Gaziantep University Hüseyin Ekiz, PhD Sakarya University Abdülhamit Subaşı, PhD International Burch University Rajfa Musemic, PhD Sarajevo University Senada Kalabusic, PhD Sarajevo University Dzenana Donko, PhD Sarajevo University Özer Çınar, PhD Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University Akif Kutlu, PhD Süleyman Demirel University A. Turan Özcerit, PhD Sakarya University Tulay YILDIRIM, PhD Yıldız University Erdal Korkmaz, PhD Fatih University Erdem Yazgan, PhD Hacettepe University Erkan İmal, PhD Fatih University Etem Köklükaya, PhD Sakarya University Faruk Geyik, PhD Gaziantep University Fatih Kocan, PhD Southern Methodist University Frank Rattay, PhD Vinna University of Technology Galip Cansever, PhD Yildiz Technical University H. Ali Çetinkara, PhD M. Kemal University Hakan Akpolat, PhD Fırat University Hakan Çalış, PhD S. Demirel University Hakkı Alma, PhD Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University Halil Rıdvan ÖZ, PhD Fatih University Halim Zaim, PhD I stanbul University İsmail Fidan, PhD Tennessee Tech University Magnus Borga, PhD Linkoping University Mehmet Bilgen, PhD University of Kansas Medical Center Nizamettin AYDIN, PhD Yildiz Techical University Recayi Pecen, PhD University of Northen Iowa Yusuf Öztürk, PhD San Diego State University Sadık KARA, PhD Fatih University Abdurrezzak Memon, PhD International Burch University Jasmin Musanovic, PhD Sarajevo University

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

4

Journal of Science and Technology

CONTENTS Editorial 7. Journal of Science and Technology Refereed Articles Reasons of the Arid Aria Formation in Turkey and 9. the Necessary Measure Applications Sukru DURSUN, Ramazan ACAR Lighting of Commercial Buildings by Conveying Sunlight Yavuz SOYDAN, Ahmet DEMIRER, Akin Oguz KAPTI, Tahsin ENGIN, Canan KANDILLI

21.

Effects of Inflorescence on Pollen Viability and 43. Morphology of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Deniz KARAKAYA, Meliha TEMIRKAYNAK, Hüseyin PADEM, Mehmet ÖTEN Hepatitis Disease Diagnosis Using Backpropagation and the Naive Bayes Classifiers Bekir KARLIK

49.

A Step for Environmentalism and Sustainable Development: Landfill Gas to Energy Ferhat KARACA

63.

Paper Submission Guide

71.

Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

5

EDITORIAL

EDITORIAL Journal of Science and Technology Abdulhamit Subasi International Burch University Faculty of Engineering, Information Technology Department Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] Welcome to the first issue of the Journal of Science and Technology. The beginning of 2011 comes with enthusiasm and great motivation for initiating an academic, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to publishing scholarly work in information technology and related scientific areas. In this journal, we plan to publish conceptual and empirical papers that take an interdisciplinary perspective in the areas of agricultural , biomedical, chemical, civil, computer, electrical, genetic, industrial, mechanical, naval, nuclear, software engineering. As scientific inquiry advances, researchers in different scientific areas benefit from theories and concepts in other areas, which can bring a broader perspective to their explanations. As such, our journal will attempt to bring academics from various backgrounds to advance theories and offer solutions for society's problems.


7


Reasons of the Arid Aria Formation in Turkey and the Necessary Measure Applications Sukru DURSUN Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University,Turkey [email protected] Ramazan ACAR Agriculture Faculty, Department of Agronomy, Selcuk University,Turkey Abstract: Desertification means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. This is a degraded sustainability of the original natural ecological functions affected by the natural events and/or due to human activities and/or the appropriate economic functions. Desertification possibility in Turkey may occur because of: • Natural causes, such as soil erosion, decline of the soil productivity and quality, and climate changes of the region. • Technical reasons, such as unplanned deforestation, failure to comply with rules of the range management, affected artificial hydrological structure, stubble burning, mistakes in agricultural land management, unplanned irrigation, use of agriculture and forest areas other than for specified purposes, soil pollution, and physical and chemical degradation of the land. • Socio-economic factors, such as administrative and legal causes, immigration, and lack of education and legislation. Measures used to avoid desert occurrence are: planned agricultural activity, which must not be applied at high erosion risk places; and use of these types of places for pasture or forest area, preventing the incorrect agricultural applications and damaging prevention of pasture areas. Forest destruction, fire prevention and acceleration of reforestation, protection of water resources and as a result, environmentally compatible development and planning of land use must be done. In this


9

S. DURSUN & R. ACAR study, we looked at the available properties of the Konya Closed Basin in order for it to become one of the places with the desert characteristic. Improvement and recovery measures of the available desert areas are examined and some measure rules are suggested for the desert to become available and for the recovery of these types of fields. Keywords: Desertification, Arid and semiarid area, Xerophyte climate, Konya closed basin, Soil, Pasture, Pollution

1. Introduction The geographical location, climate, topography and soil conditions often increase the vulnerability of the country to desertification and drought. There is an absence of sufficient scientific data which proves the size and dimensions of physical and biological degradation factors which lead to the degradation of the soil, forests and rangelands, as well as the misuse of the agricultural lands, pollution of the soils and increased erosion. All these reflect the potential high risk of desertification that Turkey faces (E.W. Kertsen, 2001). Because of the richness of its natural resources, Anatolia has been a multicultural civilization since the Neolithic. The overuse of the land without sustainable planning has caused the occurrence of degradation, eventually leading to a reduction in productivity, and even, to the loss of the soil. The degradation of the natural vegetation on the sand dunes of the Eastern Mediterranean in the 1960s has caused the extinction of several endemic plant species. Moreover, agricultural lands and villages were threatened by the movement of the sand dunes (R. Özçelik, E. Gündoğdu, 2004). Successful attempts were implemented by related institutions to deal with the threat of sand burial in the wind erosion prevention area in KonyaKarapınar in Central Anatolia, in the Eastern Anatolia Watershed Rehabilitation Project area, and in the Sand Dune Rehabilitation area in Akyatan-Adana. Although these efforts have been successful and prevented erosion to some extent, an artificial forestry ecosystem was established by using the inappropriate plants and exotic tree species instead of the indigenous ones.

10


Reasons of the Arid Aria Formation in Turkey and the Necessary Measure Applications

2. Desertification Risks in Turkey The total agricultural land of Turkey is approximately 28,054,000 ha. The main income source of the country is mostly from agriculture and low scale industry. However, the prime soils cover only 17.5% of the total land surface and the productivity of the rest of the soil is limited by topographical, chemical, and physical attributes. The diverse topography along with deforestation and unsuitable tillage and irrigation management has been inducing the rate of erosion in the country during last centuries. The majority of the country’s soil (77%) are prone to erosion risk due to the dominant steep slopes (>6%), and 72% of the soils are more or less affected from water and wind erosion. Alongside these unsuitable conditions, the misuse of lands, i.e. soil sealing, soil exploitation, over use of fertilizers and irrigation, improper use of indigenous environmental friendly agroecosystems; constantly degrade the soils of the country (S.Kapur, E.Akça, 2002; İ. Atalay, 1997). 2.1. Topography and Erosion The climate, vegetation, population, economic life and particularly soils of Turkey are highly affected by the diverse topography of the country. The major causes of this diversity are due to the tectonic movements of the recent geologic periods and accumulation of volcanic products, which have created an elevated mass with an average altitude of 1,132 m. Thus, plains of 0 to 250 m altitude cover only 10% of the country, whereas places higher than 800 m cover two third and half cover the portions of the country higher than 1,000 m (R. Izbırak, 1989; C Cangir, D Boyraz, 2008). Stream bank erosion affects 57 million ha, while wind erosion degrades another 466,000 ha. As a result, about one billion tons of soil is transported to the sea every year. The share of severe erosion is also relatively larger in areas where agriculture is practiced without soil conservation measures. Conversely, the actual erosion rate in the eastern part of the country is lower due to the dominant pastures. Erosion has also caused negative impacts on reducing the life of dams through siltation, despite the abatement programs initiated 25 years ago by the Ministry of Forestry (DSI, 2005; S Sensoy, 2004).


11

S. DURSUN & R. ACAR

Figure 1. The simplified actual/potential erosion map of Turkey (General Directorate of Rural Services, [General Directorate of Rural Services]) 2.2. Climate The major climate types in Turkey are Mediterranean Climate; Humid Mediterranean Climate; Semi-humid Mediterranean Climate; Black Sea Climate; Semi-humid Marmara Climate, Semi-arid (steppe) Climate; Semiarid Central Anatolian Climate; Semi-arid South-eastern Anatolian Climate; and Continental Eastern Anatolian Climate (C Cangir, D Boyraz, 2008;S Sensoy, 2004;S Sensoy, M Demircan, Y Ulupınar, I Balta, 2008;M Karaca, A Denız, M Tayan, 2000). 2.3. Land Use In terms of renewable water potential Turkey is not a water rich country according to reported world averages, however, it has the highest water potential in Eastern Mediterranean Watershed and in the Middle East. The average altitude, which is more than 1,100 m, and mountainous topography are basis for high distribution costs required for adequate sharing of these water resources within the country. Steep, very steep and precipitous lands represent 62% of the total land in Turkey. Moreover, average steep lands, which need to be protected against erosion, represent 14% of the

12



Figure 2. Precipitation changes in Turkey from 1950 through 2006 (Anonym, 2006a; Anonym, 2007) total land in Turkey. Ultimately, an important part of the agricultural and forest lands, as well as rangelands of the country, are insufficient in water use and because of the highly sloping topography, degradation of the vegetation and soil, they face an erosion risk (İ. Atalay, 1997;C. Akbulak, Erginal A.E., Gönüz A., Öztürk B., Çavuş C. Z. 2008;A Yüksel, AE Akay, R Gundogan, 2008). 3. Desertification Causes and Definitions in Turkey 3.1. Natural Causes Soil degradation can be due to water and wind erosion and the movements of the sand dunes. The weathering soil and geological materials can be transported/eroded due to natural causes such as climate, water, wind, ice and gravity, and topographic variability; along with soil characteristics such as contents of organic matter, texture and structure, efficient profile depth and water permeability; as well as density of vegetation, forests and rangelands. The movements of the sand dunes occur due to the continuous effect of the wind on the friable sandy materials. Decline of soil productivity/soil quality may also be due to leaching plant nutrients from the surface and subsurface horizons. In the regions with high or fluctuating precipitation plant nutrients are leached from the surface and/or from root zones by surface erosion and/or by water percolating through


13

S. DURSUN & R. ACAR

the profile. Local or global climate changes lead to drought at macro and micro catchment levels, mitigation of biodiversity and crop production. 3.2. Technical Causes Degradation can be caused by forest fires, illegal cutting, and over-grazing, especially over-grazing of rangelands on hillsides. Deficiency in or lack of some administrative processes such as fertilizing, weed control, and insemination, along with mismanagement, accelerates erosion, especially in the rangelands on hillsides. The human-induced destruction of the hydrogeologic cycle, the unsustainable management of the artesian wells due to over and misirrigation causes the reduction and fall of the ground water table alongside the intrusion of the saline water in the coastal areas (LI El-Juhany, 2009; FAO, 1995). Stubble burning leads to the loss of biological quality of the topsoil, also preventing the preservation of soil moisture ultimately accelerating the erosion. Stubble prevents the direct contact of rain with the soil especially in the slopes and decreases the intensity of the raindrop effect, in turn reducing the speed of the surface flow and increasing percolation of the rain water into the soil, thus decreasing the intensity of erosion (Anonym, 2009). Degradation can also be caused by mismanagement of agricultural lands, and inappropriate/excess irrigation. Soil degradation and reduction in crop productivity can be due to land mismanagement, such as the lack of polycultural cultivation systems and appropriate mechanization, along with the negative interactions of the overuse of manure and pesticides (M Türkeş, 1999). The lack of ground water management in special natural protection areas and the lack of authority for institutional planning can be established in order to intervene on farmer water use programmes and pattern/type of irrigation in order to avoid overuse of water resources. Inappropriate urbanization, occupation of prime land by the industry, extraction of soil materials for the construction activities and mining cause the degradation of the natural resources with inappropriate use of agricul-

14



tural and forest lands (A Yüksel, AE Akay, R Gundogan, 2008). Over-irrigation, use of low quality irrigation water, lack or unmaintained drainage conditions, over-fertilizing and inappropriate fertilizer uses are the foundation for increasing salinity, which decrease soil productivity, and increase the levels of sodium, leading to aridity. In the areas with overprecipitation and/or over-irrigation, oozing of the alkaline cations in the profile is followed by the increase of the acidic cations. Accumulation of the organic and/or inorganic wastes of industry occurs, as well as the domestic wastes including detergents and toxic elements with soil pollution. Physical degradation of the lands, compaction, degradation of soil texture, undesirable physical structures of soil due to soil processing which is not suitable to the soil structure and soil type also contribute to this problem(Anonym 2004). 4. Activity against Desertification in Turkey The Action Program for Desertification, the major issues directly or indirectly related to desertification and drought, interested sectors and their policies and strategies, natural resources affected from desertification and drought (soil, water, flora etc), negative and positive results of the resource management programs in Turkey were comprehensively outlined and measures to be taken to overcome these negative outcomes are identified in detail (A Yüksel, AE Akay, R Gundogan, 2008;Ç Çiftçi, SS Durduran, Ş Dursun, 2009;Anonym, 2006, www.gap.gov.tr/Turkish/Tarim/ wsm4.pdf). The main principles taken into consideration for developing the Turkish Action Program for Desertification are as follows: a. Stating spatial distribution of desertification and its level by using scientific measures on the lands experiencing desertification/land degradation. b. Identifying ecosystems which need to be protected first and foremost and putting related reclamation initiatives in the agenda. c. Analyzing current environmental protection and sustainable use policies and identifying gaps and deficiencies.


15

S. DURSUN & R. ACAR

d. Identifying scientific, economic, social and technical criteria in new and/or additional policies on implementation approach. e. Informing the public through multiple types of publications and broadcasting for creating/increasing public awareness on desertification. f. Providing effective participation of all related public institutions, administration, civil society organizations, local communities and other groups at local, regional and national level to combat desertification. g. Establishing national strategies to mitigate impacts of desertification and land degradation. h. Developing sustainable land and water use, protecting biodiversity areas and preventing arising social conflicts. i. Establishing early warning systems through centralized information networks. j. Networking with other countries for information flow. The next set of activities to follow accordingly includes: a. Development of the initial Cultural and Environmental Sustainable Land Management Plans. b. Development of Sustainable Land Management programs for MultiIntegrated Satellite systems (MSS) at sites of successful indigenous land management for the enhancement of the participation of the local communities in the process of implementation of the NAP- Desertification. c. Integration of the Soil Protection and Land Use Law into the Action Program for Desertification at selected anthroscapes to address regional and rural development strategies and accelerate provisions on socio-economic equity within the different regions of the country. d. The implementation of the Sustainable Land Management Programs at country-wide representative-pilot-sites will furthermore integrate soils, water, topography, biotopes-biodiversity reserve areas, crops, animal production, fertilizers and population/heritage data/information . 5. Results and Discussion Main definitions used in this report are the same as given in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (www.gap.gov.tr/ Turkish/Tarim/wsm4.pdf; Anonym, 2006):

16

Journel of Economic and Social Studies


a) Desertification means land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities; b) Land degradation means reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of precipitation cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as Arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas mean areas, other than polar and sub-polar regions, in which the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration falls within the range from 0.05 to 0.65; c) Drought means the naturally occurring phenomenon that exists when precipitation has been significantly below normal recorded levels, causing serious hydrological imbalances that adversely affect land resource production systems; e) Land means the terrestrial bio-productive system that comprises soil, vegetation, other biota, and the ecological and hydrological processes that operate within the system. References A Yüksel, AE Akay, R Gundogan, 2008, Using ASTER Imagery in Land Use/cover Classification of Eastern Mediterranean Landscapes According to CORINE Land Cover Project, Sensors 8, 1237-1251. Anonym 2004, Status of land degradation as a cross cutting issue under GEF-3 , Global Environment Facility, GEF/C.24/Inf.6, October 19, 2004. Anonym, 2006, Turkey’s National Action Program on Combating Desertification, Eds. Düzgün M, Kapur S, C Cangır, E Akça, D Boyraz, E Ozevren, N Gülşen The Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Ankara.


17

S. DURSUN & R. ACAR

Anonym, 2006a Devlet Meteoroloji İşleri Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Anonym, 2007, Türkiye tarimsal kuraklik eylem plani, Tarim ve Köyişleri Bakanliği, Ankara. Anonym, 2009, Combating with Desertification, Republic of Turkey ministry of environment and forestry general directorate of forestation and erosion control, Ankara. C Cangir, D Boyraz, 2008, İklim Değişikliği ve Çölleşme veya Toprak/ Arazi Bozulumunun Türkiye’deki Boyutları ve Çölleşme İle Mücadele. Namık. Journal of Tekirdağ Agricultural Faculty, 5, 169-186. Ç Çiftçi, SS Durduran, Ş Dursun, 2009, A Visual Assessment for Land Use Analysis At the Coastal area of Beyşehir Lake, International Workshop on Urbanization, Land Use, Land Degradation and Environment 28th Sept - 01st Oct 2009, Ule2009_WI_08 C. Akbulak, Erginal A.E., Gönüz A., Öztürk B., Çavuş C. Z. 2008, Investigation of Land Use and Coastline Changes on the Kepez Delta Using Remote Sensing, J. Black Sea/ Mediterranean Environment Vol.14 :95-106. DSI, 2005. Basins of Turkey. Available: http://www.dsi.gov.tr/topraksu. htm E.W. Kertsen, 2001, Changing economy and landscape in a Missouri Ozarks area, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/ forests/marktwain/ publications/misc/ Oak_decline/ 10_01_01_ oakmort_ study_ action_plan.pdf. FAO, 1995, Forest Resources Assessment 1990. Tropical forest plantation resources. FAO Forestry Paper No. 128. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. General Directorate of Rural Services, Available: www.khgm.gov.tr/gdrs.

18



htm İ. Atalay, 1997, Türkiye Coğrafyası, Ege Üniversitesi Publ, Izmir LI El-Juhany, 2009, Forestland Degradation and Potential Rehabilitation in Southwest Saudi Arabia, Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 3, 2677-2696. M Karaca, A Denız, M Tayan, 2000, Cyclone track variability over Turkey in association with regional climate, Int. J. Climatol. 20: 1225-1236. M Türkeş, 1999, Vulnerability of Turkey to Desertification With Respect toPrecipitation and Aridity Conditions, Tr. J. of Engineering and Environmental Science, 23, 363 – 380. R. Izbırak, 1989, Sular Coğrafyası, MEGS Bakanlığı Yayınları OKD: 159, Istanbul. R. Özçelik, E. Gündoğdu, 2004, Plannıng forest resources for multiple use and ıts effects on bird habitats, İ. Kiziroğlu, A. Erdoğan, L. Turan, T. Albayrak (Ed.), 1st International Eurasian Ornithology Congress, Turkey 8-11 April 2004, Antalya. S Sensoy, 2004, The Mountains Influence On Turkey Climate, BALWOIS 2004 Ohrid, FY Republic of Macedonia, 25-29 May 2004, Macedonia S Sensoy, M Demircan, Y Ulupınar, I Balta, 2008, Climate of Turkey 2008, Türkiye İklimi, DMİ web, Available: http://www.dmi.gov.tr/iklim/iklim. aspx S.Kapur, E.Akça, 2002. Global Assessment of Land Degradation. Encyclopedia of Soil Science. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York. 296-306pp www.gap.gov.tr/Turkish/Tarim/wsm4.pdf www.unccd.int/cop/cop7/submissions/cst_priority/turkey.pdf Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

19


Lighting of Commercial Buildings by Conveying Sunlight Yavuz SOYDAN Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya,Turkey [email protected] Ahmet DEMIRER Faculty of Technology, Sakarya University,Sakarya,Turkey Akin Oguz KAPTI Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sakarya University,Sakarya, Turkey Tahsin ENGIN Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sakarya University,Sakarya, Turkey Canan KANDILLI Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usak University, Usak,Turkey

Abstract: Energy problems are even more serious for regions which do not have fossil energy reserves, therefore the countries in these regions have to import the needed energy. There is a need to look for different alternatives to supplement the available energy in order to support and Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

21

Y. SOYDAN, A.DEMIRER, A.O.KAPTI, T.ENGIN, C.KANDILLI

maintain the improvements in living standards of the people in urban areas. The use, for instance, of daylight for illuminating buildings can help minimize energy consumption in buildings and reduce the total dependency on imported energy. Buildings which can positively benefit from the use of daylight are mostly public buildings such as hospitals, schools and office buildings, as well as those used in the industry. Today, almost one-quarter of the total electricity produced is using artificial lighting for both commercial and state building interiors in some developed countries. This paper introduces the most recent day lighting methods of Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL), High Intensity Discharge (HID) and Solid-State Lighting (SSL). The key factors such as sunlight availability, using scenarios in the buildings, time-of-day electric utility rates, cost, and efficacy of the displaced electric lights are considered. Current study indicated that amortizing period is achievable in a few years. Keywords: Hybrid Solar Lighting, Daylighting, Sunlight. 1. Solar Lightning Systems Electric lighting is the greatest consumer of electricity in commercial buildings (Fig. 4) and the generation of this electricity by conventional power plants is the building sector’s most significant cause of air pollution. During the 19th century, the sun was the main source of lighting building interiors during the day (U.S. Department of Energy, 2005). However, discovery of the electric lamps caused the sunlight to be displaced as the primary method of lighting building interiors. Day lighting provides light that supplements or replaces electric lighting; the addition of daylight in a space may also bring benefits related to aesthetics, health, and energy savings. The sun is a source of free, plentiful light, and day lighting is an effort to reap this bounty. Therefore, today’s trend, in terms of lighting building interiors, is to utilize the sunlight directly, by means of lens collectors, reflective light-pipes (Fig.1a) and fiberoptic bundles. Although, the concept for hybrid lighting has been around since the early 1970s, it has been difficult to make this technology practical. First remarkable study is accredited to Himawari (www.himawari-net.co.jp) who developed "Mono-

22


Lighting of Commercial Buildings by Conveying Sunlight

lens Himawari”, an automatic sunlight collecting and transmitting system (Fig.1b) in the 1979.

Figure 1. Commercial energy and uses. Lighting consumes almost a quarter of the electricity used in commercial buildings (U.S. Department of Energy, 2005).

This descriptive paper introduces the most recent daylighting methods Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL), High Intensity Discharge (HID) lighting and Solid-State Lighting (SSL). A comparative evaluation of these methods has been made based on different aspects of efficiency, cost, life time etc. Also a deeper discussion on the HSL, which is the one of most recent technologies, has been provided.


23


(a)

(b) Figure 2. a) Reflective light-pipes b) Mono-lens Himawari, an automatic sunlight collecting and transmitting system [ www.himawari-net.co.jp]. 1.1.

Hybrid Solar Lighting System and Components

Hybrid solar lighting (HSL) is a new innovation in the field of solar energy use, which has caused quite a bit of excitement and buzz because of its simple design and ingenuity. While its primary focus is on the industrial and commercial buildings, many environmentally-conscious homeowners are beginning to look at it as a viable source of lighting. Rather than using solar panels, which collect solar energy as electricity, store that electricity, and use it to power lights throughout a building, hybrid solar lighting instead transmits the solar energy directly into the structure using optical fibers. By bypassing this intermediary step, hybrid solar lighting has a much higher efficiency. Traditional solar panels are able to utilize approximately 15% of the sunlight they receive, and standard light bulbs lose the bulk of their energy in the form of heat-the end result is a total efficiency of about 2% of the original sunlight. By contrast, hybrid solar lighting systems are able to utilize as much as 50% of the original sunlight [J.D. Muhs, 2000]. In 1979, researchers in Japan developed a precursor to

24



hybrid lighting systems. However, at the time, tracking the sun accurately was difficult, expensive and unreliable. Light distribution losses in polymer optical fibers were high, and different portions of sunlight were attenuated more than others, making emerging light look different from natural sunlight. In addition, on cloudy days and at night, there was no way to automatically adjust electric lights. Recent advances in microprocessors and control algorithms have made sun tracking a relatively easy, inexpensive and reliable task. Light losses in low-cost polymer optical fibers have dropped by a factor of three, and dimmable electronic ballasts capable of automatically adjusting several types of electric lamps are now common. With this ongoing progress in its components, hybrid lighting is an increasingly realizable goal. In September of 2002, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory installed the first HSL system in a commercial building [J.D. Muhs, 2003]. Seventy five participants witnessed a fully functional hybrid lighting system in operation, examined a second-generation collector, and discussed hybrid lighting in breakout sessions related to research and development needs, feedback from lighting designers and architects, and hybrid lighting based on green energy marketing and incentive programs (J.D. Muhs, 2004).

Figure 3. Sample installations: Wal-Mart superstore [6] Nowadays HSL systems are used in commercial-public-university and other buildings (http://www.sunlight-direct.com/install-walmart.php). Wal-Mart (Fig. 3.) is the largest corporation in the world with revenues of well over $200 billion annually. It is currently expanding at a rate of over


25


40 million square feet per year and it is the largest employer in the U.S. with over 1.2 million associates. Wal-Mart’s annual electric bill is approaching $1 billion annually. This represents the company’s largest non-labour expense. In a typical Wal-Mart Supercenter, electric lighting consumes roughly a third of the electricity used annually and in Wal-Mart’s approximately 3500 stores in the US, this translates into an estimated annual lighting electricity load of 3,646 MWh/year. HSL system is installed in the electronics area of the store, where it is incorporated into spot lighting to highlight the various products in the area. Wal-Mart is interested in evaluating hybrid lighting technology (http://www.sunlight-direct.com/installwalmart.php). San Diego State University, has a single HSL unit working in tandem with eleven two-bulb fluorescent lights and five incandescent lights in an open office area and a hall way. The building houses the SDSU Physical Plant personnel, whose mission is to provide an optimum learning, teaching and working environment for all students, faculty and staff within the campus community and to support the programs which sustain the educational mission of this university. They seek to achieve this goal through teamwork, foresight and innovation in caring for the physical environment of this campus and by fostering its continuous improvement. The Physical Plant personnel ensure that SDSU provides optimum learning, teaching and working environments for students, faculty, staff and visitors to the campus (http://www.sunlight-direct.com/install-walmart. php). Hybrid lighting systems consist of five main components (Figure 4): • light sources (sunlight and electric lamps), • sunlight collection and tracking systems, • light distribution systems, • hybrid lighting control systems, • hybrid luminaires.

26


Lighting of Commercial Buildings by Conveying Sunlight Primary Light source Collector Tracking system

Lighting appliance

Distributing systemfiber optic

Figure 4. Main components of hybrid solar lighting systems (Technology Focus, 2007). 1.1.1. Light Sources: Table 1 contains almost all the light sources. Early applications (National Laboratory Directors for the U.S. DoE, 1997) of hybrid lighting systems will be in commercial buildings where lighting is the single largest use of electricity and will likely incorporate conventional fluorescent lamps located in luminaires. As performance and cost improvements are made in light distribution systems, some applications of hybrid lighting may transition to systems using remotely located electric lamps. Type and may differ from application to application, depending on the system requirements. Sunlight represents one of the earth’s primary sources of nonrenewable energy and is a primary light source for hybrid solar lighting systems. Direct sunlight contributes approximately four-fifths of the total illuminance at the earth’s surface and has an approximate colour temperature of 6.000°K. The remaining one-fifth of the total illuminance at the earth’s surface is from the sky, that is, from sunlight scattered by the earth’s atmosphere. Because the proposed system tracks the sun, hybrid solar lighting systems use only direct, nondiffuse sunlight, but in doing so, they use the dominant source of natural light more efficiently (J.D. Muhs, 2000). Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

27


Table 1. Light sources (www.en.wikipedia.org)

Natural

Light sources Astronomical objects Electronic Stars Star clusters Galaxies Nebulae Bioluminescence Fireflies Aequorea victoria jellyfish Antarctic krill Lux operon Lightning Auroras Sunlight Skylight Moonlight

28

Light sources

Arc lamps Yablochkov candles Incandescent lamps Carbon button lamp Conventional incandescent light bulbs Flashlight Global Limelight’s Nernst lamp Electroluminescent (EL) lamps Light-emitting diodes Organic light-emitting diodes Polymer light-emitting diodes Solid-state lighting Gas discharge lamps Fluorescent lamps Black light Inductive lighting Hollow cathode lamp Neon and argon lamps Plasma lamps Xenon flash lamps High-intensity discharge lamps Ceramic discharge metal halide lamps Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide (HMI) lamps Mercury-vapour lamps Metal halide lamps Sodium vapour lamps Xenon arc lamps Journal of Science and Technology


Direct chemical

Chemo luminescence (Light sticks) Fluorescence Phosphorescence

Nuclear

Combustion-based

Acetylene/Carbide lamps Betty lamp Butter lamp Candles Fire Gas lighting Kerosene lamps Lanterns Oil lamps Rush lights Safety lamps Davy lamps Geordie lamps Torches

Other


Radio luminescent paint (formerly used on watch and clock dials) Self-powered lighting Blackbody radiation Cherenkov radiation Fuser Lasers Son luminescence Sulphur lamp Synchrotron light

29


1.1.2. Concentration System (Collector): NASA-funded studies conducted at The University of Arizona on the use of solar concentrating systems (SCS) harnessing solar irradiance for use in a plant growth chamber located in a subterranean facility (E. Ono, L. J. Cuello, 2004). Two fiberoptic based SCS’s were used. First was the fresnel-lens-based mini 7-Lens Himawari solar concentrating and transmitting system (Mori K. 1985), which collected light through a protective acrylic resin capsule. Inside the capsule, hexagon-shaped, honey-combed patterned fresnel lenses captured incoming parallel light rays that were then focused onto the highly polished input ends of fiberoptic cables. The second fiberoptic based SCS that was used was the mirror based optical waveguide (OW) solar lighting system (T. Nakamura, J.A. Case, D.A. Jack,J.L. Cuello, 1999), consisting of two solar tracking units, each equipped with two parabolic primary mirror concentrators. At the focal point of each primary concentrator was a fused quartz secondary concentrator, which further concentrated the high-intensity solar flux from the primary concentrator and injected it into a fiberoptic cable. Table 2. shows transmissions and overall efficiency of solar collectors. Table 2. Solar collector’s overall efficiencies (E. Ono, L. J. Cuello, 2004) System

Transmission efficiencies

Overall system efficiencies

Fresnel based solar collector (Himawari)

32.4%/10m

23.2%

Mirror based, double mir. (PSI-Silica Cables)

64.1%/10m

40.5%

Mirror based, single mirror (PSI-Liquid-Based Cables)

72%/10m

46.1%

Department of Energy’s ORNL has also designed solar concentrators with the solar lighting of commercial buildings as the original motivation, but now is also being adapted for use in micro algal photo bioreactors. The concentrating collector is in the form of a circular parabolic mirror and a receiver onto which the radiation is focused, the design of which is

30



shown in Fig. 5. The collector gathers the terrestrial radiation and increases the power density of the light by focusing it onto the smaller area of the receiver. Materials used for the concentrator have an average reflectivity of approximately 0.95. Reflection losses and losses due to the secondary element obstruction determine the output of the concentrating collector. The secondary element lies near the focal point of the concentrating collector. It is assumed that all of the solar radiation reflected from the dish strikes the secondary element, comprised of an eight faceted ‘‘cold’’ mirror shown in Fig. 5 and 6.

Fig. 5. DOE solar concentrator design (J.D. Muhs, DD. Earl, 2001). The ‘‘cold’’ mirror allows infrared energy to be transmitted while the visible energy is reflected. Each section of the cold mirror reflects 1/8th of the total visible radiation collected by the concentrator and directs it into one of the light fibers. The spectral properties of the cold mirror are not perfect and some of the solar radiation is lost in the process of being reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. The cold mirror is an especially poor reflector at the transition between the visible spectrum and infrared spectrum. The average reflectance of the cold mirror in the visible spectrum is 93% while the average transmittance in the IR spectrum is 96% (G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004 ;D.D. Earl, J.D. Muhs, 2001 ;J.D. Muhs, DD. Earl, 2001). Fig. 6a and 6b illustrate the preferred design for the hybrid solar collector. Fig. 6a includes numeric references to individual components in the preferred design as follows: Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

31


1. Primary mirror, 2. SOE with accompanying concentrating PV cell, 3. Concentric fiber mount assembly, 4. Large-core optical fibers; 5. Angled, hollow mount to reduce range of motion needed for altitude tracking and 6. A conventional rotational tracking mechanism.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. a) HSL 3010 Commercial system c) Natural Sunflower c) System components (J.D. Muhs, 2000; G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004). 1.1.3. Distribution System: The light transmission system consists of flexible, large-core optical fibers. Visible light reflected from the secondary element is focused into these fibers and transmitted to locations in the building where it is needed. The current material being evaluated is a highluminance light fiber. The light fiber is made of polymethacrylate, which is flexible and resistant to fatigue, elongation, and vibration. Light distribution patterns from various optical devices, including silica and polymer optical cables, light pipes, woven optical pads, and light-emitting fibers, were investigated by Cuello et al. (J.L. Cuello, at al., 1998). When hybrid lighting is adopted, the hybrid lighting distribution needs to be designed accordingly. Cuello et al. (J.L. Cuello, at al., 2001) developed a hybrid lighting distribution scheme by wherein the fiberoptic tips from the solar-concentrators formed a rectangular array with strips of light-emitting diodes

32



(LEDs). Also, a version of these light-emitting fibers, configured for use in a flat-plate algal photobioreactor as designed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, is currently being tested at Ohio University (J.D. Muhs, DD. Earl, 2001). There is a need for light-emitting optical cables that can emit light more uniformly at longer lengths and with numerous turns and bends. The optical fiber temperature will reach a critical point at the fiber inlet unless some type of IR filtering is used. Tekelioglu and Wood (M. Tekelioglu, B.D. Wood,2003) evaluated a number of different filtering and cooling methods and concluded that two techniques could be economical and effective. The fused quartz glass method offers an economical and effective solution to overheating at the fiber entrance. One of the important aspect of the transmission system is the effect that the light fiber has upon the color of the light output from the fiber. In a typical installation the light fibers are run through ceilings and walls to get to the appropriate location. The route undoubtedly contains many bends. Bending the light fiber causes increased attenuation and a shift in the color of the light. ORNL has developed a chromaticity model to predict the color change of the light depending on the length of light fiber, number of bends, and bend radius (D.D. Earl, J.D. Muhs, 2003). The effect of additional attenuation losses due to bending has not been included in the model presented here. This hybrid lighting model uses fiber and mirror spectral attenuation data, a uniform entrance loss, and an average fiber length to model the transmission losses (G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004). There are two different types of fiber optic cables. The liquid fiber, which is capable of transporting concentrated sunlight and the ordinary PMMA fibers which connect the metal halide projectors to the emitter. Although originally these two fiber types were planned to be coupled together, due to high losses it was decided that each fiber type will be connected directly to the emitter (A. Tsangrassoulis, at al., 2005). 1.1.4. Control System: HSL systems have a combination of electrical and natural light sources in each luminaire. Each luminaire needs to be able to produce a uniform source of light using electrical light, natural light, or both. Two designs have been developed that can be integrated into existing or new construction (G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004). Control systems will


33


have to be created to ensure that the combination of hybrid solar and electrical lighting maintains a uniform lighting level. A control system consisting of light sensors, coupled with dimmable electronic ballasts, can adjust the artificial illumination levels within the building during the presence of natural light. Unfortunately, the efficacy of dimmable fluorescent lighting decreases with decreasing load fraction (J.D. Muhs, 2000). Another control scenario involves using constant efficacy fluorescent lighting and controlling the illumination by turning the lights on and off in stages. Problems with the staging control strategy include lighting uniformity and illumination level variation. A control system combining the dimmable fluorescent lighting with a staging control strategy may be the best solution. Tsangrassoulis (A. Tsangrassoulis, at al., 2005) designed control system for hybrid day lighting system. The basic characteristic of the control system is the ability to regulate the light fluxes from all light sources according to a predefined design illuminance. Although for fluorescent lamps continuous dimming is possible, the same does not apply for the Metal Halide lamps with their long start-up and restrike times. 2.

OTHER LIGHTING TECHNOLOGIES

2.1. Fluorescent Lighting; High-efficiency fluorescent lighting sets the current standard for energy-efficiency. Any replacement technology, such as SSL, will have to displace this incumbent. 2.2. Solid-State Lighting (SSL); SSL offers a range of new lighting attributes as a semiconductor technology. It produces illumination by passing an electrical current through a certain type of semiconductor material, causing the material to emit light. The type of semiconductor used determines the color of light produced. Because much of the energy goes toward generating light, rather than heat, the production of light through this process is extremely energy efficient. 2.3. Compact Fluorescent Lighting (CFL); A CFL system has two components: the bulb and the ballast. The ballast starts the bulb and maintains its operation. The bulb is-just as it sounds-a small diameter fluorescent, folded for compactness. The compact size of these bulbs al-

34



lows them to screw into common electrical sockets, making them an ideal replacement for incandescent bulbs. CFLs have either magnetic or electronic ballasts. Although magnetic core and coil ballasts have some disadvantages, they are the least expensive options. 2.4. High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lighting; Energy-efficient metal halide HID lighting is being used increasingly as point source replacements for incandescent and halogen bulbs. Traditionally this type of lighting has been used in sports arenas and stadium lighting, but due to its high brightness and efficiency it is now being used extensively for vehicle headlights as well. Solar Electric Technologies; The most relevant solar electric technologies include solar PV modules and solar thermal technologies. The advantages of these systems are obvious. First, PV modules require no moving parts, and they can be conveniently used for any electrically powered end use. Unfortunately, these advantages come with a penalty in terms of overall efficiency. Because of these and other reasons, conventional solar technologies have not displaced significant quantities of non-renewable energy and are expected to be used in the United States for residential and commercial buildings, peak power shaving, and intermediate daytime load reduction (B.G. Ashdown, 2004). Table 4. compares the PV modules with HSL. Integrating photovoltaics into commercial and residential building elements significantly offsets costs and it is anticipated that this approach will pervade increasingly over next few decades (R.W. Miles, 2006). Table 3. Hybrid solar lighting technology could replace less efficient conventional electric lamps (Technology Focus, 2007). Type of Lighting Ibcedenced Flourevscend Hybrid Solar


Typical energy efficiensy (approx. IM/W) 15 75 200

35


Table 4. Comparison between HSL and PVs (J.D. Muhs, 2003).r H SL Parameter

HSL

Photovoltaics

Efficiency Installed $/Wp Payback (sunbelt) Relative lifecycle cost

70% $2.50/Wp 5 years $4,700

5–12% $10/Wp 20 years $33,000

3.

Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupations

Humans are affected both psychologically and physiologically by the different spectrums provided by the various types of light (L. Edwards and P. Torcellini, 2002). These effects are the less quantifiable and easily overlooked benefits of daylight. Daylighting has been associated with improved mood, enhanced morale, lower fatigue, and reduced eyestrain (Robbins, Claude L. 1986).The human eye functions at its best when it receives the full-spectrum of light provided by daylight (Closer Look at Daylighted Schools, 1998). Many fluorescent lights are concentrated in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum to obtain the most lumens per watt; this unbalanced, narrow spectrum limits the blue in the source, which leads to improper functioning of the eye. Wavelengths of light help control the human body’s chemistry (Ott Biolight Systems, Inc., 1997). Many functions, including the nervous system, circadian rhythms, pituitary gland, endocrine system, and the pineal gland are affected by different wavelengths of light. Recently, energy and environmental concerns have made daylighting a rediscovered aspect of building lighting design. The physics of daylighting has not changed since its original use, but the building design to use it has. Daylighting is often integrated into a building as an architectural statement and for energy savings. However, benefits from daylighting extend beyond architecture and energy. The psychological and physiological aspects of natural light should also be considered. The comforting space and connection to the environment provided to building occupants provide benefits as significant as the energy savings to building owners and managers (L. Edwards and P. Torcellini, 2002).

36



4. Summary and Conclusion This paper is a summary of the current literature review on day lighting, and especially hybrid solar lighting in commercial buildings or in nondaylit areas. Along with the importance of energy, studies have demonstrated the non-energy related benefits of day lighting. Hybrid lighting system (HSL) is new tendency for lighting that integrates light from natural and electric sources. It is comprised of components such as concentrating collector, two-axis tracking equipment, secondary element, thermal PV assembly, optical fibers, luminaires, and control system. Hybrid solar lighting collects sunlight and routs it through optical fiber bundles into buildings where it is combined with electric light in hybrid light fixtures. Since there is no energy conversion, the process is much more efficient compared to others. It also helps commercial building owners save energy while also creating jobs and helping the environment. The key factors such as sunlight availability, building use scenarios, time-of-day electric utility rates, cost, and efficacy of the displaced electric lights considered in this paper demonstrate that the simple payback of this approach in many applications can be captured in a few years. The system does has some disadvantages, such that it needs daylight and consists of several high-tech pieces of equipment. However, the energy crises that came about in the past and even are evident at present time, and construction of large commercial buildings requiring lighting at daytimes made the day lighting a very attractive option, since it is free of charge, plentiful, healthy and safe for usage. When considering the cost and performance of various energy-efficiency approaches, it is often convenient to display them in terms of cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) displaced. In the case of hybrid lighting systems, this method is dependent on several factors, including the regional availability of sunlight, building use scenarios, and the price of displaced electrical energy. The improved health of building occupants benefits employers and building owners because of improved performance. With properly installed and maintained daylighting systems, natural light has proved to be beneficial for the health, productivity, and safety of building occupants. Natural light helps maintain good health and can cure some medical ailments. The


37


pleasant environment created by natural light decreases stress levels for office workers; productivity increases with the improved health of workers, and with better productivity come financial benefits for employers. Students also perform better with natural light. (L. Edwards and P. Torcellini, 2002; C. Fay, 2003). Day lighting has been associated with higher productivity, lower absenteeism, fewer errors or defects in products, positive attitudes, reduced fatigue, and reduced eyestrain (L. Edwards and P. Torcellini, 2002). If the physiological benefits of natural light could be included in the overall benefits received from a hybrid lighting system, the break-even capital cost of the technology would increase making it easier to economically justify (G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004). When designing buildings, emphasis is placed on construction and maintenance costs. However, real people will be working in these buildings, so consideration should be given to their psychological and physiological well being. The future prospects for new solar-based lighting and dramatic savings in energy consumption for lighting in general, looks very bright (G.B. Smith, 2004). Further improvements in this lighting system should focus on (A. Tsangrassoulis, at al., 2005): • The development of a better sun aligning system, • Better flux regulation dimming system for the externally installed light sources, and • Increase of the efficiency of the liquid fiber optic system. Transmission of concentrated solar energy via optical fibres (TCSEvOF) systems can have a great potential for solar energy application in a wide range of research areas. The systems based on the ideal TCSEvOF can find significant opportunities to be used in some innovative and prospective studies with multidisciplinary research structure (Canan Kandilli, Koray Ulgen, Arif Hepbasli, 2008; C. Kandilli, K. Ulgen, 2009).

38



References A. Tsangrassoulis, at al., 2005. On the energy efficiency of a prototype hybrid day lighting system, Solar Energy, Volume 79, P.56-64. B.G. Ashdown, 2004. Assessing Consumer Values and Supply-Chain Relationships for Solid-State Lighting Technologies, ORNL/TM-2004/80. C.Fay, 2003. Daylighting and productivity, a literature review, International Solar Energy Conference, Island. Canan Kandilli, K. Ulgen, 2009. Review and modelling the systems of transmission concentrated solar energy via optical fibres, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 67–84. Canan Kandilli, Koray Ulgen, Arif Hepbasli, 2008. Exergetic assessment of transmission concentrated solar energy systems via optical fibres for building applications, Energy and Buildings, 40, 1505–1512. Closer Look at Daylighted Schools, 1998. http://www.sunoptics.com. D.D. Earl, J.D. Muhs, 2001. Preliminary Results on Luminaire Designs for Hybrid Solar Lighting Systems Proceedings of Forum2001, Solar Energy, The Power to Choose, Washington DC. D.D. Earl, J.D. Muhs, 2003. Modelling and evaluation of chromatic variations in a hybrid solar/electric lighting system, International Solar Energy Conference, Island. E. Ono, L. J. Cuello, 2004. Design parameters of solar concentrating systems for CO2-mitigating algal photobioreactors, Energy, 29. G.B. Smith, 2004. Materials and systems for efficient lighting and delivery of daylight, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, 84, 395-409. G.O. Schlegel at al. 2004. Analysis of a full spectrum hybrid lighting system, Solar Energy, Vol.76, 359. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

39


http://www.sunlight-direct.com/install-walmart.php J.D. Muhs, DD. Earl, 2001. Full-spectrum solar energy systems for use in commercial building, Proceedings of the 36th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, New York, ASME. J.D. Muhs, 2000. Design and Analysis of Hybrid Solar Lightıng and FullSpectrum Solar Energy Systems, Presented at The American Solar Energy Society’s, Solar 2000 Conference, Wisconsin. J.D. Muhs, 2000. Hybrid Solar Lighting Doubles the Efficiency and Affordability of Solar Energy in Commercial Buildings, CADDET Energy Efficiency Newsletter. J.D. Muhs, 2003. Bringing sunlight inside, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, NCPV and Solar Program Review Meeting, NREL/CD-520-33586. J.D. Muhs, 2004. An emerging technology combining natural and electric light together in a single luminaire confronts conventional wisdom on day lighting design. J.L. Cuello, at al., 1998. Evaluation of light transmission and distribution materials for Lunar and Martian bioregenerative life support, International Journal of Life Support and Bioshere Science, 389-402. J.L. Cuello, at al., 2001. Plant hardware equipped with hybrid lighting, combining solar irradiance with xenon-metal halide lamps or light-emitting diodes for life support in space, 31th International Conference on Environmental Systems, ICES/SAE. L.Edwards and P. Torcellini, 2002. A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Building Occupants, NREL/TP-550-30769. M.Tekelioglu, B.D. Wood,2003 Thermal management of the polymethylmethacrylate core optical fiber for use in hybrid solar lighting. International Solar Energy Conference, Island, March 2003. 40



Mori K. 1985. Photoautotrophic bioreactor using visible solar rays condensed by fresnel lenses and transmitted through optical fibers. Biotechnol Bioeng Symp. National Laboratory Directors for the U.S. DoE, 1997. "Technology Opportunities: to Reduce U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Appendix B; Technology Pathways". Ott Biolight Systems, Inc., 1997. Ergo Biolight Report, California. R.W. Miles, 2006. Photovoltaic solar cells: Choice of materials and production methods, Vacuum. Robbins, Claude L. 1986. Daylighting Design and Analysis. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company; pp. 4-13. T. Nakamura, J.A. Case, D.A. Jack,J.L. Cuello, 1999. Optical waveguide solar plant lighting system for life support in space, 29. International Conference on Environmental Systems. Warrendale, ICES/SAE, Technology Focus, 2007. Hybrid Solar Lighting Illuminates Energy Savings for Government Facilities, A New Technology Demonstration Publication DOE/EE-0315. U.S. Department of Energy, 2005. Buildings Energy Data Book, (http:// buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov). www.en.wikipedia.org. www.himawari-net.co.jp. Y.Soydan and T. Engin, 2006. Lighting Building Interiors Requiring Lighting at Day Times By Conveying Daylight, Global Conference On Renewable Energy Approaches For Desert Regions (Gcreader), Jordan. Acknowledgements: This paper was supported by a grant from the Department of Scientific Research Projects of Sakarya University. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

41


Effects of Inflorescence on Pollen Viability and Morphology of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) Deniz KARAKAYA Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey [email protected] Meliha TEMIRKAYNAK Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey [email protected] Hüseyin PADEM International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] Mehmet ÖTEN Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya, Turkey mehmetoten07 @hotmail.com

Abstract: The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of inflorescense on pollen viability and morphology of strawberry pollens. TTC (2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride), IKI (iodine+potassium iodide) and Safranin stain tests were used to determine pollen viability. Pollen morphology was observed under SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). Keywords: strawberry, pollen, viability and morphology.


43

D. KARAKAYA, M. TEMIRKAYNAK,H. PADEM, M. ÖTEN

1. Introduction Pollen physiology, especially germination and viability, has received considerable attention for its application in plant breeding, conversation, adaptation and understanding of physiological behavior of fertilizing pollen grains, recently. There are several reports on pollen germination and viabillity from different plants (Khan and Perveen, 2006). Considering the function of the pollen grain in the life cycle of a plant, one way to test pollen viability would be to use the pollen for pollination and subsequently analyze the seed set. However, because this is time consuming and often not feasible, other methods are frequently used to assess pollen viability. Vital stains, in vitro pollen germination tests are some of the most commonly used methods. The literature on pollen viability that appeared until 1974 has been reviewed by Stanley and Linskens (1974). Poor pollen quality and germination capacity curtails early yield in strawberry (Voyiatzsis et al., 2006). 2. Material and Methods In this study, pollen was collected from diffrent infloresence of strawberry (Fragaria vesca L. cv. Camarosa) plants grown in the greenhouse located in Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Reseach Institute, Antalya-Turkey, in 2010. The first (primer), second (seconder) and third (tertiary) flower stalks and their anthers were collected at the end of February, beginning of March and at the end of March, respectivelly. TTC (2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride), IKI (iodine+potassium iodide) and Safranin stain tests were used to determine pollen viability. Pollen morphology was also observed under SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). The pollen terminology in general follows Harley et al. (1992) and Walker and Doyle (1975). The 300 pollens per treatment were arranged in completely randomized design with replicated four. The means were separated using Tukey Multiple Range Test at 0.05 levels.

44


Effects of Inflorescence on Pollen Viability and Morphology of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.)

3. Results and Discussion The rate of pollen viability in strawberry was found to be significantly different in the medium (Table 1). The highest pollen viability of strawberry was obtained through TTC tests (84.48 %). The strawberry pollen viability exemplified differences depending on the position of inflorescence. For the primer flowers, the highest rate of pollen viability was 84.48 % in the TTC stain test, 74.14 % in Safranin and 52.22 in IKI stain tests. Results showed that the pollen viability was different with respect to stain tests and flower positions. Table 1. Pollen viability rate responses of Fragaria vesca L. cv. Camarosa in different stain tests. Inflorescence Primer

Medium TTC Safranin IKI D%5

Pollen viability 84.48 A 74.14 B 52.22 C 8.34

Seconder

TTC Safranin IKI D%5

75.92 A 71.99 B 48.19 C 3.17

TTC Safranin IKI D%5

70.99 A 67.87 B 48.91 C 2.34

Tertiary

As a result, these stain tests may be used to determine pollen viability in strawberry to provide a rough estimate of pollen viability. The optimum stain test for all infloresence type was TTC. Description of Fragaria vesca L. pollens As a result of examination of Scanning Electron Microscope


45

D. KARAKAYA, M. TEMIRKAYNAK,H. PADEM, M. ÖTEN

a. dry pollen

b.over-view

c. equatorial view

d. polar view

Figure 1. SEM micrographs of pollen grains of Fragaria vesca L. a.dry pollen b. over view of pollen c. equatorial view of pollen d. polar view of pollen (SEM) photographs, the morphological characteristics of strawberry pollens have been identified. Pollen class: spheroidal Pollen size: small Pollen diameter: eliptic Aperture size: colporate Number of apertures: tritrem Ornemantation: striate

46


Effects of Inflorescence on Pollen Viability and Morphology of Strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.)

Intine thickness: thin Exine: tectatae References Bots M.& C. Mariani, 2005. Pollen viability in the field. The report of COGEM. 52 pages. Harley, M.M., A. Paton, R.M. Harley & P.G. Cade, 1992. Pollen morphological studies in tribe Ocimeae (Nepetoideae: Labiatae): 1. Ocimum L.-Grana 31:161-176. Stanley RG, H.F. Linskens,1974. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York. Voyiatzsis D.G. & G. Paraskevopoulou-Paroussi, 2006. Factors affecting the quality and in vitro germination capacity of strawberry pollen. International Journal of Fruit Science. Vol. 5, Issue 2, p:25-35. Walker J.W. a&J.A. Doyle, 1975. The basis of Angiosperm phylogeny: Palynology. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard., 62:666-723.


47


Hepatitis Disease Diagnosis Using Backpropagation and the Naive Bayes Classifiers Bekir KARLIK Department of Computer Engineering, Mevlana University, Konya, Turkey [email protected] Abstract: This study presents a comparison between Backpropagation and Naive Bayes Classifiers to diagnose hepatitis disease. Hepatitis is the general term for inflammation of the liver. The most common causes of hepatitis are the hepatotropic viruses (such as hepatitis A, B, and C) and alcohol abuse. In practice, both of these methods often compete well with more sophisticated classifiers. The performances of proposed methods are selected for each of classification tasks of hepatitis diseases. The overall accuracy of diagnosis systems were 98% and 97% respectively. Keywords: Hepatitis, diagnosis, Neural networks, Backpropagation, Naive Bayes, classifier 1. Introduction During the last decades, the utilization of Artificial Intelligence in medical applications has been recognized extensively. Artificial Intelligence in medicine comprises of interpretation of medical images, diagnosis, and Expert systems to aid general practitioners, monitoring and control in in-


49

B. KARLIK

tensive care units, design of prosthetics, design of drugs and intelligent tutoring systems for diverse phases of medicine. The area of application of Artificial Intelligence in medicine may either be in diagnostic and educational systems, in expert laboratorial information systems, or machine learning systems that possibly involve new forms of knowledge (Uttreshwar G.S. and Ghatol A.A. 2008). Artificial Intelligence could facilitate the creation and application of medical knowledge, explicitly in the generation of alerts or reminders, provision of diagnostic support, judging on therapy critiquing and planning. Artificial Intelligence methods should have a good comprehensibility to support computer-aided medical diagnosis as medical diagnosis demands highly reliable performance. The machine learning techniques could be beneficial once it is possible to check and describe the diagnostic process. Symbolic and connectionist are the two common categories of machine learning techniques (particularly, artificial neural networks). These learning techniques have been applied comprehensively in Medical diagnosis (Zhi-Hua Zhou, Yuan Jiang, 2003; Karlık B. and Aparı T. G. 2009; Okatan A., Karlık B., Demirezen F. 2009; Öz H. R., Karlık B., Evrensel C.A. 2009; Ceylan R., Ozbay Y., Karlık B.,2009; Karlık B. and Kul S. 2009). Moreover, many statistical analyses are on the records of this database in order to diagnose hepatitis disease during the treatment. Both Artificial Neural Networks and Statistical Methods have been the most efficient and effective inductive learning algorithms for machine learning and data mining (Maiellaro P. A., Cozzolongo R., Marino P. 2004; Dragulescu A., Albu A., Gavriluţa C., Filip Ş, Menyhardt K. 2006; Modjtaba R. and Haghighi, M.M. 2009; Jajoo, R., Mital, D., Haque, S., and Srinivasan, S. 2002; Lin, W. and Tang, J. 1999; Nimino M.C. 2007; Cazzaniga M., Borroni G., Ceriani R., Guerzoni P., Casiraghi M., Salerno F.;Vural R.A., Özyılmaz L., Yıldırım T.A. 2006). In this study, computerized diagnostic performance of hepatitis disease was investigated by various classifiers, such as neural Networks and Naive Bayes, which have been used for this purpose. The results of diagnostic performance of both classifiers for hepatitis disease have been found highly reliable.

50


Hepatitis Disease Diagnosis Using Backpropagation and the Naive Bayes Classifiers

2. What Is Hepatitis? The liver is one of the body's powerhouses. It helps process nutrients and metabolizes medication. The liver also helps clear the body of toxic waste products. The word hepatitis (pronounced: heh-puh-tie-tus) means an inflammation of the liver, and it can be caused by one of many things - including a viral or bacterial infection, liver injury caused by a toxin (poison), and even an attack on the liver by the body's own immune system. Although there are several forms of hepatitis, the condition is usually caused by one of three viruses: hepatitis A, hepatitis B, or hepatitis C virus. The hepatitis virus is a mutating virus, which means that it changes over time and can be difficult for the body to fight. In some cases, hepatitis B or C can destroy the liver (http://orissa.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/event_archive/ Events_Archives/ 88Hepatitis_Day.pdf) and the patient then will need a liver transplant to survive, which is not always available or successful. 2.1 Signs and Symptoms Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver characterized by malaise, joint aches, abdominal pain, vomiting 2-3 times per day for the first 5 days, defecation, loss of appetite, dark urine, fever, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) and jaundice (icterus, yellowing of the eyes and skin). Some chronic forms of hepatitis show very few of these signs and are only present when the longstanding inflammation has led to the replacement of liver cells by connective tissue; this disease process is referred to as cirrhosis of the liver. Certain liver function tests can also indicate hepatitis (http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/viralhepatitis/). 2.2 Types of hepatitis There are 5 types of hepatitis - A, B, C, D, and E - each caused by a different hepatitis virus. 2.2.1 Hepatitis A Hepatitis A or infectious jaundice is caused by a picornovirus. It is transmitted by the orofecal route, transmitted to humans through methods such as contaminated food. It causes an acute form of hepatitis and does


51

B. KARLIK

not have a chronic stage. The patient's immune system makes antibodies against hepatitis A that confer immunity against future infection. People with hepatitis A are advised to rest, stay hydrated and avoid alcohol (http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/viralhepatitis/). 2.2.2 Hepatitis B Hepatitis B is caused by a hepadnavirus, which can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis develops in the 15% of patients who are unable to eliminate the virus after an initial infection. Identified methods of transmission include blood (blood transfusion, now rare), tattoos (both amateur and professionally done), sexually (through sexual intercourse or through contact with blood or bodily fluids), or in utero (from mother to her unborn child, as the virus can cross the placenta). However, in about half of cases the source of infection cannot be determined. Blood contact can occur by sharing syringes in intravenous drug use, shaving accessories such as razor blades, or touching wounds on infected persons. Patients with chronic hepatitis B have antibodies against hepatitis B, but these antibodies are not enough to clear the infection that establishes itself in the DNA of the affected liver cells. The continued production of virus combined with antibodies is a likely cause of immune complex disease seen in these patients. A vaccine is available that will prevent infection from hepatitis B for life. There are three, FDA-approved treatment options available for people with a chronic hepatitis B infection: alphainterferon, adefovir and lamivudine. In about 45% of persons on treatment achieve a sustained response (http://orissa.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/ event_archive/Events_Archives/88Hepatitis_Day.pdf). 2.2.3 Hepatitis C Hepatitis C (originally "non-A non-B hepatitis") can be transmitted through contact with blood (including through sexual contact where the two parties' blood is mixed). Hepatitis C may lead to a chronic form of hepatitis, culminating in cirrhosis. It can remain asymptomatic for 10-20 years. No vaccine is available for hepatitis C. Patients with hepatitis C are prone to severe hepatitis if they contract either hepatitis A or B, so all hepatitis C patients should be immunized against hepatitis A and hepatitis

52



B if they are not already immune. However, hepatitis C itself is a very lethal virus and it can result in death, most people who have gotten hepatitis C have died, and the virus can cause cirrhosis of the liver. The virus, if detected early on can be treated by a combination of interferon and the antiviral drug ribavirin. The genotype of the virus determines the rate of response to this treatment regimen (http://orissa.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/ event_archive/Events_Archives/88Hepatitis_Day.pdf). 2.2.4 Hepatitis D and E Hepatitis D is caused by the virus HDV. You can only get hepatitis D if you are already infected with hepatitis B. It is spread through contact with infected blood, dirty needles that have HDV on them and unprotected sex (not using a condom) with a person infected with HDV. Hepatitis D causes swelling of the liver. Hepatitis E produces symptoms similar to hepatitis A, although it can take a fulminate course in some patients, particularly pregnant women (http://orissa.gov.in/portal/LIWPL/event_archive/Events_Archives/88Hepatitis_Day. pdf). 3. Diagnosing Hepatitis by Using Naive Bayes Classifier Naive Bayes classifier greatly simplifies learning by assuming that features are independent for a given class. Although being independent is mostly a poor assumption, it is much practical to use Naive Bayes classifier, which is a simple probabilistic one, whose application is based on Bayes’ Theorem with strong (naive) independence assumptions. Depending on the precise nature of the probability model, naive Bayes classifiers can be trained very efficiently in a supervised learning setting. In many practical applications, parameter estimation for naive Bayes models uses the method of maximum likelihood; in other words, one can work with the naive Bayes model without believing in Bayesian probability or using any Bayesian methods. In spite of their naive design and apparently over-simplified assumptions, Naive Bayes classifiers often work much better in many complex realworld situations than one might expect. Recently, careful analysis of the Bayesian classification problem has shown that there are some theoretical


53

B. KARLIK

reasons for the apparently unreasonable efficacy of Naive Bayes classifiers [Kotsiantis S., Pintelas P., 2004]. The naive Bayes probabilistic model can be described as the probability model for a classifier is a conditional model; (C ) p ( F1 ,..., Fn | C ) p(C|F1, ..., Fn) = p (1) p ( F1 ,..., Fn )

It can be written as prior × likelihood posterior =

(2)

evidence

In practice, we are only interested in the numerator of that fraction, since the denominator does not depend on C and the values of the features, Fi are given, so that the denominator is effectively constant. The numerator is equivalent to the joint probability model p(C, F1, ..., Fn) which can be rewritten as follows, using repeated applications of the definition of conditional probability: p (C ) p ( F1 ,..., Fn | C ) p(C, F1, ..., Fn)= = p (C ) p ( F1 | C ) p ( F2 ,..., Fn | C , F1 ) p ( F1 ,..., Fn ) (3) = p(C ) p( F1 | C ) p( F2 ,..., Fn | C , F1 ) p( F3 ,..., Fn | C , F1 , F2 ) = p(C ) p( F1 | C ) p( F2 ,..., Fn | C , F1 ) p( F3 ,..., Fn | C , F1 , F2 ) p( F4 ,..., Fn | C , F1 , F2 , F3 ) and so forth. Now the "Naive" conditional independence assumptions come into play: Assume that each feature Fi is conditionally independent of every other feature Fj for j≠i. This means that p ( Fi | C , Fj ) = p ( Fi | C ) and so the joint model can be expressed as, p(C, F1, ..., Fn)= p (C ) p ( F1 | C ) p ( F2 | C ) p ( F3 | C )... =

n

p(C )∏ p( Fi | C ) (4) i =1

This means that under the above independence assumptions, the condi-

54



tional distribution over the class variable C can be expressed like this:

n 1 p(C, F1, ..., Fn) = p (C )∏ p ( Fi | C ) z i =1 (5) where Z is a scaling factor dependent only on F1,..,Fn, i.e., a constant if the values of the feature variables are known (Kotsiantis S., Pintelas P., 2004). Models of this form are much more manageable, since they are factored out into a so-called class prior p(C) and independent probability distributions p(Fi|C). If there are k classes and a model for p(Fi) can be expressed in terms of parameters r, then the corresponding Naive Bayes model will have (k−1) + nrk parameters. In practice, often k =2 (binary classification) and r =1 (Bernoulli variables as features) are common, and so the total number of parameters of Naive Bayes model is 2n + 1, where n is the number of binary features used for prediction (Domingos, P. Michael P. 1997). All model parameters (i.e., class priors and feature probability distributions) can be approximated with relative frequencies from the training set. These are maximum likelihood estimates of the probabilities. The discussion so far has derived the independent feature model, that is, the naive Bayes probability model. Naive Bayes classifier combines this model with a decision rule. One common rule is to pick the hypothesis that is most probable; this is known as the maximum a posteriori or MAP decision rule. The corresponding classifier is the function classify defined as follows: n

classify ( f1 ,...,= f n ) arg max c = p(C c)∏ p= ( Fi f= c) (6) i |C i =1

In this study, RapidMiner program was used to classify hepatitis data. RapidMiner is the most comprehensive open-source software for intelligent data analysis, data mining, estimation, classification and forecasting. RapidMiner is implemented in Java and available under GPL (GNU General Public License) as well as under a developer license (OEM license) for closed-source developers (http://www.rapidminer.com). Dataset domain contains hepatitis patient information like age, gender, diagnostic results


55

B. KARLIK

of patient and current status of patient as two classes as normal or abnormal. In this normalized data set consists of 20 attributes in type of numeric or nominal values, and totally 155 number of data set are recorded as hepatitis dataset (http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ml-repos/machinelearning-databases/,2003.ax). In this study, we chose 15 attributes from dataset which are listed below; 1. Class: DIE, LIVE 2. AGE: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 3. SEX: male, female 4. STEROID: no, yes 5. ANTIVIRALS: no, yes 6. FATIGUE: no, yes 7. MALAISE: no, yes 8. ANOREXIA: no, yes 9. LIVER BIG: no, yes 10. LIVER FIRM: no, yes 11. SPLEEN PALPABLE: no, yes 12. SPIDERS: no, yes 13. ASCITES: no, yes 14. VARICES: no, yes 15. BILIRUBIN: 0.39, 0.80, 1.20, 2.00, 3.00, 4.00 As can be seen in Fig. 1, the BILIRUBIN and AGE attributes appear to be continuously-valued. The other attributes are logical values (yes/no as 1/0 respectively). The test results show high recognition accuracy (97%). If we use all 20 attributes which some of them have missing data, recognition accuracy is found approximately 86%. 4. Diagnosis Hepatitis Using Backpropagation Classifier Backpropagation training with generalized delta learning rule is an iterative gradient algorithm designed to minimize the root mean square error between the actual output of a multilayered feed-forward neural networks and a desired output. Each layer is fully connected to the previous layer, and has no other connection. The algorithm of Backpropagation

56



Figure 1. Main Screenshot of RapidMiner (Data View) classifier can be described; • Initialization: Set all the weights and biases to small real random values. • Presentation of input and desired outputs: Present the input vector x(1), x(2),…,x(N) and corresponding desired response d(1),d(2),… ,d(N), one pair at a time, where N is the number of training patterns. Calculation of actual outputs: Use Equation given below to calculate the output signals

y1 , y2 ,..., yNM

' i = 1,..., N M −1 N M −1

(7) yi ϕ ( ∑ wij xj + bi ) ( M −1)

( M −1)

( M −1)

j =1


57

B. KARLIK

•

Adaptation of weights (wij) and biases (bi): ∆wij (i −1) (n) = µ x j (n)δ i (i −1) (n)

∆bi (i −1) (n) = µδ i (i −1) (n)

where δi

( i −1)

(8) (9)

ϕ '(neti ( i −1) ) [ di − yi (n) ] , I =  M   ( n) =  ϕ '(neti ( i −1) )∑ wkiδ k ( i ) (n),1 ≤ I ≤ M    k  

(10) where xj(n) represents output of node j at iteration n, l is layer, k is the number of output nodes of neural network, M is output layer, φ is activation function. The learning rate is represented by μ. It may be noted here that a large value of the learning rate may lead to faster convergence but may also result in oscillation. In order to achieve faster convergence with minimum oscillation, a momentum term may be added to the basic weight updating Eq. (6). In this study, a three-layered feed-forward neural network was used and trained with the error Backpropagation algorithm. Number of 155 normalized data has been used for training. The learning rate was found as 0.95 giving different coefficient values between 0 and 1. The weights of neural networks were initialized to random values. And then networks were run until at least one of the following termination conditions satisfactory. The average of recognition rates were found % 98 as seen in Fig.2. 5. Conclusions Artificial Intelligence techniques, as well as the implemented system offer the possibility to diagnose patient illness in time. The hepatitis treatment is very expensive and severe side effects can appear very often. Therefore, it is important to identify those patients who most probably can react to the treatment, so that the others can be protected from a treatment with no benefits. This is how the use of such system can support the physician decision concerning the treatment (Dragulescu A., Albu A., Gavriluţa C., Filip Ş, Menyhardt K. 2006).

58



Figure 2. Main Screenshot of Backpropagation Classifier In this study, two classifier methods (Backpropagation and Naive Bayes) were used to diagnose hepatitis. Both Backpropagation and Naive Bayes methods often work much better in many complex real-world situations than one might expect. An advantage of these classifiers is that they require a small amount of training data to estimate the parameters (means and variances of the variables) necessary for classification. Despite its unrealistic independence assumption, Naive Bayes classifier is highly effective in practice since its classification decision may often be correct even if its probability estimates are inaccurate. Because independent variables are assumed, only the variances of the variables for each class need to be determined and not the entire covariance matrix. In future work, we can compare these two methods with the other wellknown classifiers methods such as Fuzzy classifier, Support Vector Machines (SVM), Radial Basis Function (RBF) or Conic Section Function (CSF) neural networks, Learning Vector Quantization (LVQ), k nearest neighbors and others. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

59

B. KARLIK

References Cazzaniga M., Borroni G., Ceriani R., Guerzoni P., Casiraghi M., Salerno F. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to Predict Cirrhosis in Chronic Hepatitis C (CHC). Comparison with a Logistic Regression (LG) Model, Journal of Hepatology, Vol.48, pp. S270-S270 Ceylan R., Ozbay Y., Karlık B.,2009 A Novel Approach for Classification of ECG Arrhythmias: Type-2 Fuzzy Clustering Neural Network, Expert Systems with Applications, Vol. 36, issue. 3, part.2, 6721-6726 Domingos, P. Michael P. 1997 On the optimality of the Simple Bayesian Classifier Under Zero-one Loss, Machine Learning, Vol. 29, pp. 103-137 Dragulescu A., Albu A., Gavriluţa C., Filip Ş, Menyhardt K. 2006 Statistical Analyses and Artificial Neural Networks for Prognoses in Hepatitis C, Acta Polytechnica Hungarica, Vol. 3, No. 3 http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/viralhepatitis/ http://orissa.g ov.in/por tal/LIWPL/event_archive/Events_ Archives/88Hepatitis_Day.pdf http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ml-repos/machine-learning-databases/,2003.ax http://www.rapidminer.com Jajoo, R., Mital, D., Haque, S., and Srinivasan, S. 2002. Prediction of Hepattis C Using Artificial Neural Network. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision, Dec. 2-5, IEEE Xplore Press, USA, pp: 1545-1550.

60



Karlık B. and Aparı T. G. 2009 Development of Effective Telemedicine Software for Epileptic Seizure Recognition, Inter. Journal of Computing & Information Technology, Vol. 1(2), pp. 91-99 Karlık B. and Kul S. 2009 Diagnosis of Lumbar Disc Hernia Using Wavelet Transform and Neural Networks, Ukrainian Journal of Telemedicine and Medical Telematics, vol. 7, No.1, pp. 10-15 Kotsiantis S., Pintelas P., 2004 Increasing the Classification Accuracy of Simple Bayesian Classifier, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, AIMSA2004, Springer-Verlag Vol 3192, pp. 198–207 Lin, W. and Tang, J. 1999 An Expert System for Diagnosis of Fulminant Hepatitis. Proceedings of the 4th Annual IEEE Symposium on Computer-Based Medical Systems, May 12-14, IEEE Xplore Press, Baltimore, MD, USA, pp: 330-336 Maiellaro P. A., Cozzolongo R., Marino P. 2004 Artificial Neural Networks for the Prediction of Response to Interferon Plus Ribavirin Treatment in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C, Current Pharmaceutical Design, Vol. 3, pp. 2101-2109 Modjtaba R. and Haghighi, M.M. 2009 The Diagnosis of Hepatitis Diseases by Support Vector Machines and Artificial Neural Networks, International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology Spring Conference, (iacsit-sc), pp.456-458 Nimino M.C. 2007 Autoimmune hepatitis: A Brief Review with an Emphasis on Autoimmune Testing, LABMEDICINE, Vol. 38, Issue. 4, pp. 248-251 Okatan A., Karlık B., Demirezen F. 2009 Detection of Retinopathy Diseases Using Artificial Neural Network Based on Discrete Cosine Transform, Neural Network World, Vol. 19 (2): pp. 215-221


61

B. KARLIK

Öz H. R., Karlık B., Evrensel C.A. 2009 Application of Artificial Neural Networks Method in Mucus Clearance in Pulmonary Airways, International Journal of Natural and Engineering Sciences, Vol. 3(2), pp. 28-31 Uttreshwar G.S. and Ghatol A.A. 2008, Hepatitis B Diagnosis Using Logical Inference and Self-Organizing Map, Journal of Computer Science, Vol. 4 (12), pp. 1042-1050 Vural R.A., Özyılmaz L., Yıldırım T.A. 2006 Comparative Study on Computerised \ Diagnostic Performance of Hepatitis Disease Using ANNs, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 4114/2006, Pages:1177 -1182 Zhi-Hua Zhou, Yuan Jiang, 2003 Medical Diagnosis with C4.5 Rule Preceded by Artificial Neural Network Ensemble. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine, Vol. 7(1), pp. 37-42

62



A Step for Environmentalism and Sustainable Development: Landfill Gas to Energy Ferhat KARACA Fatih University, Department of Environmental Engineering, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey [email protected] Abstract: The use of biogas as a part of energy source is a practice only recently introduced in the last decades. On the other hand, a main component of biogas, which is methane, is located at the top of the most dangerous green house gases list for the earth atmosphere. Methane itself has 21 times higher green house effect potential than carbon dioxide molecules. This also brings a necessity to control methane before its emitting into the atmosphere. In relation to policies implementation, developed countries consider the usage of biogas in energy production by combustion as a part of environmentalism and sustainable development. Using this method, methane can be converted to less environmentally harmful components and certain amount of clean energy can be obtained. In literature, a common interpretation was noticed that the collection and destruction of landfill methane meets the criteria for greenhouse gas emissions credits. In this study the amount of biogas generated by the Odayeri Landfill area of Istanbul, Turkey is estimated using EPA model (Landfill Gas Emissions Model - LandGEM). In this study a site specific data was used to estimate possible emissions and than the obtained results were compared with the amount of biogas collected during onsite applications. Finally energy production potential per tons of municipal waste was calculated.


63

F. KARACA

1. Introduction Istanbul is one the most populated cities in the world and the amount of collected Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is matches in mass of approximately 14 thousands of tons per day. The MSW shares of Anatolian and European parts of the city are approximately 5 and 9 thousand tons per day, respectively. Solid waste management of Istanbul has been carried out by an affiliated company of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ISTAÇ . Based on the above estimated MSW, personal solid waste generation rate is about 1kg per day. In Istanbul, there are two MSW landfill areas located at each side of the city. Some of the main applications of solid waste management system carried out by ISTAC are; sanitary land filling, composting and recovering of organic wastes, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), treatment facilities for leachate, separate collection of wastes, and electricity generation from landfill gas. The details of Solid Waste Management systems of Istanbul were given in literature, and one can refer to those publications for more details (Nemlioglu et al., 2002; Ozcan et al., 2006; Demir et al., 2004; Ozkaya et al., 2004; Demir et al., 2003; Ozkaya et al., 2007; Demir et al., 2002; Karaca et al., 2009). In the study the focus is on the electricity generation capacity of biogas generated from Kemeburgaz landfill area located in the European side of the city. Characteristics and design parameters of the landfill areas in Istanbul are summarized below: • Site was opened in 1995, • It was closed in 2008 (Recently, new landfill area was added to Kemerburgaz and this site is already accepting solid waste and will continue to do so until 2015. In this study the consideration was made only to the site which has already been used for energy production, so newly added sections are not providing biogas to previously installed energy plant. • Average waste height is 30 m, • Maximum waste height is 90 m, • Volumetric ratio of methane in biogas is accepted as 55% (Karaca et al., 2009),

64


A Step for Environmentalism and Sustainable Development:, Landfill Gas to Energy

• Received MSW records are available from 2001. Data between the years 1995 and 2001 were estimated by Karaca et al., (2009), and their estimations were used in this study. Related data are summarized in Figure 1, • Rate of organic content of landfill site varies from 40% to 60%. The aim of this study is to estimate the amount of methane production using EPA model (Landfill Gas Emissions Model - LandGEM). Projection period of the estimation was set to 25 years which can be considered as the project life for a power plant. The study evaluated the possible income and energy production rate based on the model results of the landfill biogas.

Figure 1. Yearly MSW rates. i) the later part of data was recorded (between 2001 and 2008) ii) and the former part of data (from 1995 to 2000) was estimated using linear regression model. 2. Method LandGEM is US EPA’s official software and is based on a first-order decomposition rate equation for quantifying emissions from the decomposition of waste in MSW landfills. This software provides an uncomplicated approach to estimating landfill gas emissions.


65

F. KARACA

Model defaults are based on empirical data from U.S. landfills, but in this study we uploaded site specific data which are provided in previous section. Further guidance on EPA test methods, Clean Air Act (CAA) regulations, and other guidance regarding landfill gas emissions and control technology requirements can be found in related literature (CAPEF, 1998; Alexander et al., 2005). First order decomposition rate equation is given below:

(1)

Where; QCH4 = annual methane generation in the year of the calculation (m3/ year) i = 1 year time increment n = (year of the calculation) - (initial year of waste acceptance) j = 0.1 year time increment k = methane generation rate (year-1) Lo = potential methane generation capacity (m3/Mg) Mi = mass of waste accepted in the year (Mg) tij = age of the jth section of waste mass Mi accepted in the ith year (decimal years, e.g., 3.2 years) In order to run this model landfill characteristics and model parameters should be set first. Based on the literature values, we used some site specific parameters. In case were unknown, we used default parameters suggested by the model. All of the used parameters are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Input review of LandGEM model run for Kemerburgaz Landfill area. Landfill Characteristics Landfill Open Year Landfill Closure Year (with 80-year limit)

66

1995 2008



Actual Closure Year (without limit) Have Model Calculate Closure Year? Waste Design Capacity Model Parameters Methane Generation Rate, k Potential Methane Generation Capacity, Lo NMOC Concentration Methane Content Gases / Pollutants Selected Gas / Pollutant #1: Gas / Pollutant #2:

2008 No mega grams 0,05 170 4000 55

year-1 m3/Mg ppmv as hexane % by volume

Total landfill gas Methane

3. Results and Discussions In Turkey, a new legislation for renewable energy resources was announced in 2005 and was modified in May 2007 . Based on this new regulation Turkish government announced that renewable energy based electricity production has a selling guarantee with the price of 0.055 Euro/kW-hour. This new regulation created very attractive situation for investments on renewable energy production plants. Based on the model results of Kemerburgaz landfill area, the methane production potential of the landfill site was given in Figure 2. This figure indicates that, maximum biogas production was possibly observed during the year 2009 just after the landfill closure, after which it staidly decreased year by year. Today it is expected to have about a half million cubic meters of methane gas per day. The daily amount of biogas, which can be possibly obtained from that site, is approximately more than 1 million cubic meters per day (only 55% of biogas is methane). After a 25 year projection, the amount of methane production will be decreased to 30% of its maximum level to 58 million m3/year. For the first two years a five percent decrease is estimated and it is followed by a four percent decrease during following 5 years, than it continues to decrease in cumulative order with 3% for 6 years, finally 2% for the remaining 10 years. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

67

F. KARACA

Figure 2. Methane production during a 25 projection year (starts in 2009). Total amount of methane obtained from this landfill site during 25 year project life is estimated about 2.8 billion cubic meter of methane. Practically it can be considered that, 1 cubic meter methane is equal to 0.8 liter diesel fuel. The calorific (heating) value of methane is 33,810 kJ/m3 (Ozturk, 2009). Today the price of diesel fuel in Turkey is about 1.5 Euros, meaning that the value of landfill biogas (25 years’ total) is approximately 3.4 billion Euro. Based on the suggested calculation method (Ozturk, 2009), a power engine can produce 1 kW electric energy from 13,650 kJ methane potential. This means a maximum and average energy potentials of a power plant are about 54,000 kW/h and 32,000 kW/h, respectively, accounting for 6.9 terawatt hour energy for 25 year project life. The possible price of this energy based on the above mentioned legislation is calculated as 3.8 billion Euros, making this value slightly higher than the ones calculated based on the diesel equivalence. References Ozcan H.K., Ucan, O.N. Şahin, U., Borat, M., Bayat, C., “Artificial neural network modeling of methane emissions at Istanbul KemerburgazOdayeri landfill site” Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, 65 (2), 128-134 2006. Nemlioglu, S; Demir, G; Soyhan, B, ve ark. “Gas emissions in Istanbul-

68



Kemerburgaz solid waste landfill site”, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 11 (10B), 915-920, 2002. Ozcan, HK; Borat, M; Sezgin, N, ve ark. “Determination of seasonal variations of major landfill gas in Istanbul Kemerburgaz-Odayeri solid waste landfill”, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 15 (4), 272-276, 2006. Demir, G; Ozcan, HK; Nemlioglu, S, ve ark. “Gas emissions of Yakacik closed solid waste landfill site in Istanbul”, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 13 (10), 974-982, 2004. Ozkaya, B; Demir, A; Bilgili, MS, “Enhanced stabilization and methane potential of MSWs in a field-scale landfill with leachate recirculation”, International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 21 (3), 277-292, 2004. Demir, A.; Ozkaya, B.; Blgl, M. S, “Effect of leachate recirculation on methane production and storage capacity in landfill”, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 12(1), 29-38, 2003. Ozkaya, B; Demir, A; Bilgili, AS, “Neural network prediction model for the methane fraction in biogas from field-scale landfill bioreactors”, Environmental Modelling & Software,22(6), 815-822, 2007. Demir, A., Bilgili, M.S. Özkaya B. (2002). ‘Katı Atık Düzenli Depo Sahalarında Olusabilecek CH4 Miktarının Tesbiti’, GAP IV. Mühendislik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 06-08, Haziran 2002, Sanlıurfa. Öztürk, M., Katı Atık Depolama Alanında Metan Gazı Olusumu, İnternet üzerinden yayımlanmış belge, Ankara, 2008. Web adresi: http://www. mozturk.net/content_images/DEPO%20GAZI.pdf, Erişim:23/04/2009 Alexander, A., Burklin, C., ve Singleton, A., “Landfill Gas Emissions Model (LandGEM) Version 3.02 User’s Guide”, U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC 20460, EPA-600/R-05/047, 2005. CAPEF, 1998. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, AP-42, Volume 1: Stationary Point and Area Sources, 5th ed., Chapter 2.4 Municipal Solid Waste Landfills. U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards., NC. November 1998. Karaca, F., Gören, S., Alagha, O., "Odayeri Katı Atık Sahası Gaz Emisyonlarının Modellenmesi ve Emisyon Tahmini", TÜRKAY 2009, İstanbul / Türkiye, Jun. 2009, Türkiye'de Katı Atık Yönetimi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı, ISBN: 978-975-461-452-7, 1, 1,pp. 389-396


69

LIST OF REVIEWERS FOR THIS ISSUE Ahmet Alkan, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Metin Digrak, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Murat Yildiz, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey Mustafa Petek, Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey Ozer Cinar, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Sadik Kara, Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey Serdar Yilmaz, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Recep Yumrutas, University of Gaziantep, GaziantepTurkey Yuksel Bolek, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Recep Gundogan, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey Kenan Ucan, Kahramanmaras S. I. University, Kahramanmaras, Turkey

70


Paper Submission Guide Submission of an article implies that the work described has not been published previously (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture or academic thesis), that it is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, that its publication is approved by all authors and tacitly or explicitly by the responsible authorities where the work was carried out, and that, if accepted, will not be published elsewhere in the same form, in English or in any other language, without the written consent of the Publisher. The Editors reserve the right to edit or otherwise alter all contributions, but authors will receive proofs for approval before publication. Copyrights for articles published in IBU journals are retained by the authors, with first publication rights granted to the journal. The journal/ publisher is not responsible for subsequent uses of the work. It is the author's responsibility to bring an infringement action if so desired by the author. All manuscripts should be prepared in MS-Word format, and submitted online. If you have any questions, please contact with the editor of the journal. Paper Selection and Publication Process a) Upon receipt of paper submission, the Editor sends an E-mail of confirmation to the corresponding author within 1-3 working days. If you fail to receive this confirmation, your submission/email may be missed. b) Peer review. We use single-blind system for peer-review; the reviewers' identities remain anonymous to authors. The paper will be peer-reviewed by three experts; one is an editorial staff and the other two are external reviewers. The review process may take 3-4 weeks. c) Notification of the result of review by E-mail. d) The authors revise paper. e) After publication, the corresponding author will receive a copy of printed journals, free of charge. If you want to keep more copies, please contact with the editor before making an order. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

71

f) E-journal in PDF available on the journal’s webpage, free of charge for download. General Language Please write your text in good English (American or British usage is accepted, but not a mixture of both). Use decimal points (not commas); use a space for thousands (10 000 and above). We only accept manuscripts in English language. Title Page Title page is a separated page before the text. Provide the following information on the title page (in the order given). It should includes: Title Concise and informative. Titles are often used in information-retrieval systems. Avoid abbreviations and formulae where possible. Author names and affiliations Please indicate the given name and family name clearly. Present the authors' affiliation addresses (where the actual work was done) below the names. Indicate all affiliations with a lower-case superscript letter immediately after the author's name and in front of the appropriate address. Provide the full postal address of each affiliation, including the country name, and, if available, the e-mail address, and telephone number of each author. Corresponding author Clearly indicate who is willing to handle correspondence at all stages of refereeing and publication, also post-publication. Ensure that telephone number (with country and area code) are provided in addition to the email address and the complete postal address. Sponsoring information If the research is sponsored or supported by an organization, please indicate it.

72


General Rules for Text Please use the following rules for whole text, including abstract, keywords, heading and references. Front: Times New Roman; Size: 10 Paragraph Spacing: Above paragraph – 0 pt; Below paragraph – 4 pt Line Spacing: fixed – 12 pt Heading 1: Times New Roman; Size-10; Bold; for example, 1. Introduction Heading 2: Times New Roman; Size-10; Italic; for example, 1.1 Research Methods Heading 3: Times New Roman; Size-10; for example, 1.1.1 Analysis Result Preparation of text Abstract A concise and factual abstract is required (maximum length of 150 words). The abstract should state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major conclusions. An abstract is often presented separate from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. References should therefore be avoided, but if essential, they must be cited in full, without reference to the reference list. Keywords Immediately after the abstract, provide a maximum of 8 keywords, avoiding general and plural terms and multiple concepts (avoid, for example, 'and', 'of'). Be sparing with abbreviations: only abbreviations firmly established in the field may be eligible. Subdivision of the article Divide your article into clearly defined and numbered sections. Subsections should be numbered 1., 2., (then 1.1, 1.1.1, 1.1.2), 1.2, etc. (the abstract is not included in section numbering). Use this numbering also for internal cross-referencing: do not just refer to 'the text.' Any subsection, ideally, should not be more than 600 words. Authors are urged to write as concisely as possible, but not at the expense of clarity. Volume : 1 / Number : 1 / Year :2011

73

Figure legends, figures, schemes Present these, in this order, at the end of the article. They are described in more detail below. High-resolution graphics files must always be provided separate from the main text file. Tables Present tables, at the end of the article. Number tables consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place description to tables below the table body. Avoid vertical rules. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Formula The text size of formula should be similar with normal text size. References Responsibility for the accuracy of bibliographic citations lies entirely with the authors. Citations in the text Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also present in the reference list (and vice versa). Avoid citation in the abstract. Unpublished results and personal communications should not be in the reference list, but may be mentioned in the text. Citation of a reference as 'in press' implies that the item has been accepted for publication. Citing and listing of web references As a minimum, the full URL should be given. Any further information, if known (author names, dates, reference to a source publication, etc.), should also be given. Web references can be listed separately (e.g., after the reference list) under a different heading if desired, or can be included in the reference list.

74


Text Citations in the text should follow the referencing style used by the American Psychological Association. You can refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fifth Edition, ISBN 1-55798-790-4, copies of which may be ordered from http://www.apa. org/books/4200061.html or APA Order Dept., P.O.B. 2710, Hyattsville, MD 20784, USA or APA, 3 Henrietta Street, London, WC3E 8LU, UK. Details concerning this referencing style can also be found at http://humanities.byu.edu/linguistics/Henrichsen/APA/APA01.html. List: References should be arranged first alphabetically and then further sorted chronologically if necessary. More than one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters "a", "b", "c", etc., placed after the year of publication. Examples: Reference to a journal publication: Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton R. A. (2000). The art of writing a scientific article. Journal of Scientific Communications, 163, 51-59. Reference to a book: Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan, (Chapter 4). Reference to a chapter in an edited book: Mettam, G. R., & Adams, L. B. (1994). How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In B. S. Jones, & R. Z. Smith (Eds.), Introduction to the electronic age (pp. 281-304). New York: E-Publishing Inc. Reference to a web source: Smith, Joe, (1999), One of Volvo's core values. (Online) Available: http://www.volvo.com/environment/index.htm (July 7, 1999)


75