KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE ...

4th International Academic Conference

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017

KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY Book of Conference Proceedings

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, June, 08th - 09th, 2017

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4th International Academic Conference PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017 KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY 08 & 09 JUNE

SARAJEVO

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

BOOK OF PROCEEDINGS

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017 KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY

BOOK OF CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

Editors: Dženana Bijedić, Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, Mevludin Zečević

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Title : PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017 - KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY BOOK OF CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS For publisher: Prof.Mr.Sci Mevludin Zečević Chef editors: Prof.Dr Dženana Bijedić, Prof.Dr Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, Prof.Mr.Sci Mevludin Zečević Editorial board: Prof.Dr Eva Vaništa Lazarević, Prof. Dr Aleksandra Djukić, Dr Milena Vukmirović Publisher: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Year of publishing: 2017

------------------------------------------------CIP - Katalogizacija u publikaciji Nacionalna i univerzitetska biblioteka Bosne i Hercegovine, Sarajevo 711.3/.4(063)(082) INTERNATIONAL Academic Conference Places and Technologies (4 ; 2017 ; Sarajevo) Keeping up with technologies in the context of urban and rural synergy [Elektronski izvor] : book of conference proceedings / [4th International academic conference] Places and technologies 2017, Sarajevo, June, 08th - 09th, 2017 ; editors Dženana Bijedić, Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, Mevludin Zečević. - El. zbornik. - Sarajevo : Arhitektonski fakultet, 2017. - 1 USB fleš memorija Sistemski zahtjevi: Nisu navedeni. - Nasl. sa nasl. ekrana

ISBN 978-9958-691-56-0 COBISS.BH-ID 24131590 -------------------------------------------------

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CONTENTS ORGANIZATION ................................................................................................................................................... ix ABOUT ...............................................................................................................................................................xiv TOPICS ..............................................................................................................................................................xiv KEY NOTE SPEAKERS ........................................................................................................................................ xv WORD OF THE P&T_2017 CONFERENCE DIRECTORS ....................................................................................... xvii OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS ...........................................................................................................1 URBAN AND RURAL CONNECTION BETWEEN GLOBAL AND LOCAL – BETWEEN ROLE AND REALITY. WHAT DESIGN CAN DO TO ACHIVE THE SYNERGY? .......................................................................................................3 SPACES OF LOW AND HIGH-INTENSITY CHANGES ...............................................................................................4 DECENTRALISING CITIES: TECHNOLOGY, THE NEW CLIMATE AND THE FUTURE OF PERI-URBAN GROWTH ...... 13 TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE ......................................................................................... 27 LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE CASE OF ADIL BEY AND KUWAIT MOSQUE IN SARAJEVO ............................ 28 THE HOMEOSTASIS AND THE SYNERGY IN THE CONTEMPORARY AND FUTURE LANDSCAPING ........................ 38 PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL REGIONALISM AS MEANS OF BUILT FORM IMPROVEMENT IN BOKA BAY, MONTENEGRO ................................................................................................................................................... 48 INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN SERBIA: KIKINDA CASE STUDY ...................................................................... 57 FREE ZONE IN KIKINDA....................................................................................................................................... 64 DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS OF UrbRur AREAS ................................................................................................... 68 COMPLEX PATTERNS OF SYNERGY BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL SPACES ..................................................... 77 THE IMPORTANCE OF IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF LIFE, THE CITY OF BANJALUKA ............................................. 88

SELF-ORGANIZED PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS VS. PLANING AND DESIGNING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................................. 96 KNEZ (PRINCE) MIROSLAV SQUARE IN OMIŠ (CROATIA) ................................................................................. 105 IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF CVJETNO NASELJE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT IN ZAGREB .......................... 115 THE SMALL-SCALE APPROACH AS A GENERATOR FOR URBANITY INCREASE OF BANJA LUKA CITY .............. 126 SPATIAL, TECHNOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ............................................................................................................................ 135 TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION ...................... 144 THE EXPERIENCE OF SMART CITY IN LIGURIA, ITALY. THE CASE STUDIES OF THE MUNICIPALITIES OF LA SPEZIA AND SAVONA .................................................................................................................................................. 145 HEALTHY URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND DESIGN: THE OUTDOOR SPACES ......................................................... 155 TENDENCIES IN NEWLY-BUILT MULTI-FAMILY HOUSING IN SERBIA: OUTLOOK OF URBAN EXPERTS ............... 169 DECODING URBAN FRAGMENTATION: MORPHOGENETIC PROCESSES IN THE SHAPING OF A SUBURBAN TERRITORY IN LISBON’S METROPOLIS ............................................................................................................ 180 RETHINKING ARCHITECTURE AND RELATED ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN WESTERN BALKAN CITIES “Case study of the housing developments in city of Sarajevo” .................................................................................................. 189 THE ZONE OF TRANSITION: BETWEEN CITY AND LANDSCAPE ......................................................................... 204 INNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE PROOCESS OF RE-INTEGRATION OF CITY AND VILLAGE ............................ 215 PERSPECTIVES THAT ARISE FOR PREVENTIVE MEDICINE FROM THE SYNERGY OF URBAN AND RURAL AREAS ............................................................................................................................................................. 227 WATER PROTECTION IN URBAN AREAS .......................................................................................................... 236 RELATION BETWEEN PLANNING AND REALIZATION OF OPEN SPACES IN NEW BELGRADE SUPER-BLOCKS: CASE STUDIES OF BLOCKS 45 AND 70 ..................................................................................................................... 244 IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ACTIONS ON URBAN AND RURAL AREAS ............................................................. 253 TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION....................................................................... 263 THE ARCHITECTURE OF GARDEN AS NEW RECREATION FIELD OF EVERYDAY URBAN LIFE ............................. 264 THE SCIENCE OR ART OF MAPPING? - ELABORATING THE PROCESS OF TIS CREATION IN CITY OF NIŠ .......... 273

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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE PROCESS OF ENHANCING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION THROUGH BOTTOM-UP APPROACH IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN REGENERATION ............................................................ 284 CREATIVE CITY CHALLEGING CONCEPT ‘’ALL FOR ONE – ONE FOR ALL’’ ........................................................ 295 HOUSING QUALITY OF SOCIALLY VULNERABLE CATEGORIES AND AFFORDABILITY OF CURRENT SOCIAL HOUSING PROGRAMMES ................................................................................................................................. 304 TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SOCIAL NETWORKING – „NEGOTINSKA KRAJINA “CASE .............................................................................................................................................................. 312 COOPERATIVE GIS PLATFORM FOR IMPROVING RESILIENCE TO HOUSEHOLD RISKS – CASE STUDY OF ADA MEDJICA ON SAVA RIVER IN BELGRADE .......................................................................................................... 323 MULTILEVEL GOVERNANCE INSTRUMENTS FOR ACHIEVING BALANCED URBAN-RURAL DEVELOPMENT ........ 332 SMART CITY CONCEPT IN THE STRATEGIC URBAN PLANNING PROCESS. CASE STUDY OF THE CITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA ......................................................................................................................................... 341 INTEGRATIVE AND LOCALLY SENSITIVE APPROACH TO THE COMMUNITY PLANNING IN SERBIA ..................... 350 THE “DYNAMIC EDGE”: RE-CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE URBAN FRINGE ....................................................... 359 TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES............................................................................ 370 SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH: THE ROLE OF THE ARCHITECT .............................. 371 INTEGRATION OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS INTO THE BUILDING ENVELOPE OF THE MULTIFAMILY HOUSING BUILDING IN BELGRADE ................................................................................................................... 379 TESTING THE MOST OPTIMAL SCENARIO OF IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCES OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN SERBIA, CONSTRUCTED IN THE PERIOD OF 1971-1980 ............................................................................... 389 DAYLIGHT AND ENERGY ENHANCEMENT WITH VENTILATED FAÇADE SYSTEMS FOR RENOVATION PROJECTS ....................................................................................................................................................... 399 INTEGRATED DESIGN IN THE PROCESS OF ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION ....................................................... 408 EVALUATION OF WALL THERMAL PERFORMANCE FOR VEGETATION WALL ..................................................... 417 MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING PROJECT - Facility relaying on energy efficient technologies in order to prevent abandonment and decay of rural communities in Vojvodina ................................................................... 418 NEGOTIATING SUSTAINABILITY IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF TECHNICAL BUILDING EQUIPMENT AT DAS ECKWERK, BERLIN ................................................................................................................................... 427

TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE ... 438 WEARABLE DEVICES HELP THE WALKER TO EXPLORE THE CITY .................................................................... 439 EXPLORING THE CITY WITH THE BICYCLE AND TECHNOLOGY HELP TO IDENTIFY HAZARDS MET THEREBY .... 445 AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY ENHANCING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION WITHIN URBAN AREAS ....................... 455 CARSHARING – USING INSTEAD OF OWNING .................................................................................................. 461 CONCEPT OF THE REGIONAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ................................................... 470 TOPICS VI: CLIMATE CHANGE........................................................................................................................ 477 ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL OF THE REFURBISHMENT OF BUILDING ENVELOPE OF THE EXISTING SINGLEFAMILY HOUSES IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA ............................................. 478 (R)URBAN SYNERGY RECONSIDERED: THE ROLE OF INFORMATION NETWORKS IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION ........................................................................................................................ 489 TOPICS VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR ................................................................................... 499 ROLE OF TWIN CITIES AND SATELLITE TOWNS IN INTENSIFYING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT ........................... 500 SMALL URBAN CENTERS AS DRIVERS OF DAILY MIGRATIONS AND AGENTS OF TRANSFORMATION OF RURAL BACKGROUND: EXAMPLE OF BLACE MUNICIPALITY ........................................................................................ 512 TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE ............................................................................................................................................... 525 USING SPACE SYNTAX MODEL IN TYPO MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES - UNDERSTANDING THE TRANSFORMATION OF URBAN FORM AND URBAN LIFE OF THE EDGE BLOCKS OF NEW BELGRADE .............................................. 526 THE FUNCTION OF GREENERY IN A SKYSCRAPER: THE PLACEMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE .............................. 536 Moshe Safdie .................................................................................................................................................. 539 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE APPLICATION OF CO-DESIGN WITHIN THE REDESIGN OF THE CULTURAL CENTERS IN B&H ................................................................................................................................................................ 544 LEARNING FROM THE TRADITIONAL MEDITERRANEAN ARCHITECTURE: MICROCLIMATIC AND LIVEABILITY CONDITIONS IN INTERMEDIATE OUTDOOR SPACES ......................................................................................... 553 SUSTAINABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN TRADITIONAL BOSNIAN AND HERZEGOVINIAN ARCHITECTURE - LEARNING FROM TRADITION FOR BETTER FUTURE .......................................................................................................... 563 TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES ..................................................................................... 572

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FLUIDITY: NETWORKED CONTEXT AND CONTEMPORARY METHODOLOGIES OF ARCHITECTURE IN TOURISM . 573 ICT POTENTIAL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN RURAL AREAS ........................................................................... 582 FOOD TOURISM CONCEPT - CREATING SYNERGY BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL PLACES - CASE STUDY OF MAGLIČ, SERBIA .............................................................................................................................................. 593 STRATEGIES FOR RURAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN NIŠAVA DISTRICT IN SOUTHEASTERN SERBIA AS MAIN HUB FOR URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY .......................................................................................................... 608 TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES................................................................................................................... 624 APPLICATION OF ICT FOR URBAN REGENERATION, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SOCIAL EQUALITY IN SCOTLAND....................................................................................................................................................... 625 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES TO SUPPORT COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF TERRITORIAL RESILIENCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES – CASE STUDY OF SERBIA ....................................................................................... 634 CONTINUOUS PERFORMATIVE LANSCAPES FOR RESILIENT CITY OF SKOPJE .................................................. 644 AGILE METHODS IN FORMATION OF METROPOLIS NEIGHBOURHOOD .............................................................. 654 REVITALIZATION OF VAST CITY SPACES THROUGH THE MEANS OF SOUND .................................................... 663 “URBAN RENEWAL UNDER THE SCOPE OF SECURITY ISSUES” - CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE – GLOOMY PARTS OF THE CITY..................................................................................................................................................... 669 DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN URBAN SETTLEMENTS – COMBINED MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM DYNAMICS APPROACH .................................................................................................................................... 681 COMBINED GMA AND SD DISASTER RISK REDUCTION MODEL ........................................................................ 688 TOPICS XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES....................................................... 694 REDESIGNING COMFORT ................................................................................................................................. 695 TOPICS XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES ........................................... 706 REVERSE BIOMIMETIC ANALOGIES IN DESIGN OF ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES.......................................... 707 TOPICS XIV: PARTICIPATORY AND CRITICAL DESIGN IN URBAN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES .................. 718 MODERN SPATIAL CONCEPTS, PROGRAMMES AND TECHNOLOGIES AIMED AT SUSTAINABILITY OF HISTORICAL NUCLEI – THE CASE OF THE TOWN OF BUJE .................................................................................................... 719

PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017 4th International Academic Conference

KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY

ORGANIZATION

Organizers: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dr Vladan Đokić, Dean University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia MSc Mevludin Zečević, Dean University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia and Herzegovina

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COMMITTEES

Organizing Committee: Dr Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, Conference Director, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia Dr Dženana Bijedic, Regional Conference Director, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia and Herzegovina MSc Mevludin Zečević, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dr Eva Vaništa lazarević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia Dr Aleksandra Djukić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia Dr Milena Vukmirović, Urban Laboratory, Belgrade, Serbia

Technical Committee: MA Adna Šarac, Teaching Assistant, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina MA Zulejha Šabić-Zatrić, Teaching Assistant University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina PhD Candidate Alma Hudović Kljuno, University of Technology Berlin, Germany

Scientific Committee • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Dr Evangelina Athanassiou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki School of Architecture, Thessaloniki, Greece Dr Milica Bajić Brković, ISOCARP, The Hague, Nederlands Dr Ljiljana Blagojević, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Ružica Božović Stamenović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia and National University of Singapore, Singapore Dr Olja Čokorilo, University of Belgrade Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Grygor Doytchinov, Institute for Urban Design, Technical University of Graz, Austria Dr Nataša Danilović Hristić, Urban Planning Institute of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Vladan Đokić, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Aleksandra Đukić, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Alenka Fikfak, University of Ljubljana – Faculty of Architecture, Ljubljana, Slovenia Dr Dejan Filipović, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Daria Gajić, University of Banja Luka – Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Dr Bob Giddings, Northumbria University Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Newcastle, United Kingdom Dr Jelena Ivanović Šekularac, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Saja Kosanović, University of Priština, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture, Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia Dr Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Višnja Kukoč, University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy, Split, Croatia Dr Piotr Lorens, Faculty of Architecture, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland Dr Lucia Martincigh, University RomaTre, Faculty of Architecture, Rome, Italy Prof Ljubomir Miščević, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia Dr Juan Luis Rivas Navarro, University of Granada Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Granada, Spain Dr Ralf Risser, Palacky University, Olomouc, Czech Republic Dr Lina Seduikyte, Kaunas University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kaunas, Lithuania Dr Metka Sitar, University of Maribor - Faculty of Civil Engineering, Traffic Engineering and Architecture, Maribor, Slovenia

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Dr Predrag Šinđanin, University of Novi Sad - Faculty of Technical Sciences Dr Ljupko Šimunović, University of Zagreb Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Zagreb, Croatia Dr Lea Petrović Krajnik, University of Zagreb – Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia Dr Grzegorz Peczek, Sopot University of Applied Science, Sopot, Poland Dr Miroslava Raspopović Milić, Faculty of Information Technology, Belgrade Metropolitan University, Belgrade, Serbia Manfred Schrenk, CORP - Competence Center for Urban and Regional Planning, Vienna, Austria Dr Jasmina Siljanoska, St. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Architecture, Skopje, FYR Macedonia Dr Stefan van der Spek, Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and Built Environment, Delft, Netherlands Dr Milena Stavrić, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria Dr Petar Mitković, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Serbia Dr Keković Aleksandar, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Serbia Dr Aleksandra Stupar, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Svetlana Stanarević, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Security Studies, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Eva Vaništa Lazarević, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Milena Vukmirović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Laboratory, Belgrade, Serbia Dr Salih Yilmaz, Izmir Katib Celebi University, Department of Engineering and Architecture, Izmir, Turkey Dr Francesco Rotondo, civil engineer, Associate professor of Urban planning and design at the Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy. Dr Mladen Jadrić, TU Wien, Austria; Dr Francesca Giofre, La Sapiienza Roma, Dipartimento Architettura e Progetto, Italy Dr Vesna Mikić, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia Dr Manja Kitek Kuzman, Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehnička fakulteta, Slovenia Dr Lucija Ažman Momirski, Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za arhitekturo Slovenia Dr Martina Zbašnik Senegačnik, Univerza v Ljubljani, Fakulteta za arhitekturo, Slovenia Dr. Markus Schwai, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway Dr. Dick Sandberg, Luleå University of Technology, Sweden Dr Hamid Ćusović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Aleksandra Nikolić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Aida Hodžić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Izet Rađo, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Bosnia & Herzegovina

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Dr Maida Čohodar Husić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Emina Hadžić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Ahmet Hadrović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Amir Pašić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Emir Fejzić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Denis Zvizdić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Erdin Salihović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Nina Ugljen Ademović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Lemja Chabbou-Akšamija, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Aida Idribegović-Zgonić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Amir Čaušević, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Nerman Rustempašić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Slađana Miljanović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Amira Salihbegovi, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Nihad Čengić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Rada Čahtarević, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Jasenka Čakarić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Pavle Krstić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Elša Turkušić Jurić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Senka Ibrišimbegović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Nermina Zagora, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Haris Bradić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Vedad Islambegović, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Maja Popovac, University "Džemal Bijedić" Mostar, Civil Engineering Faculty, Bosnia & Herzegovina Dr Dženana Bijedić, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia & Herzegovina

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ABOUT The conference examines the formation and presentation of knowledge on technologies and the environment, as well as ethical considerations and potential risks, developing solutions, expertise and discussions with respect to one of the emerging spatial development concepts – urban and rural synergy. The stated objective points to the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to this matter, identification and establishment of relationships between issues of technological development, environmental protection, economic and social change. Consequently the conference program and research are based on the knowledge of several academic disciplines: engineering and technical sciences, humanities, natural and social sciences. The main tasks of the conference are defined in order to discuss the issues related to: • • • •

the future of society and places; creation of sustainable areas and its facilities and infrastructure in line with needs of inhabitants; development of institutions and regulations with an aim of creating safe, sustainable, efficient, imageable and liveable, healthy environment; and creation of favourable conditions for the advancement of innovation to achieve a good quality of life.

Having in mind the conference goals and objectives, we wish to research and understand from the critical aspect the importance and role of technology in design and creation of sustainable places, in the cities, as well as, in the countryside through: • • •

Technological perspective Science perspective Security perspective

• •

Built environment perspective Social perspective

• •

Government perspective Economic perspective

TOPICS • • • • • • •

Sustainable communities and participation Social networks – inherited and created Resilience of places Urban and rural places towards human comfort, health and inclusion Biomimicry and smart innovations to human challenges Geography as development factor Climate change

• • • •

Image, identity and quality of place Cultural patterns and sensitivity Architecture and building technologies Sustainability lessons from vernacular architecture • Tourism for urban-rural synergies • Agriculture as development force • Environmentally friendly modes of transport and commute

KEY NOTE SPEAKERS Dr Mattheos Santamouris, Anita Lawrence Chair in High Performance Architecture, School of Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Australia Professor of High Performance Architecture in the University of New South Wales in Australia. He is also a professor at the University of Athens, Greece and visiting Professor at the Cyprus Institute, Metropolitan University of London, Tokyo Polytechnic University, Bolzano University, Brunnel University and National University of Singapore. Director of the Laboratory of Building Energy Research, at the University of Athens. Past President of the National Center of Renewable and Energy Savings of Greece. Editor in Chief of the Energy and Buildings, Past Editor in Chief of the Journal of Advances Building Energy Research, Associate Editor of the Solar Energy Journal and actual or past Member of the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Solar Energy, Journal of Buildings and Environment, Journal of Sustainable Energy, Journal of Low Carbon Technologies, Journal of Open Construction and Building Technology, Sustainable Cities and Society and of the Journal of Ventilation. Editor of the Series of Book on Buildings, Energy and Solar Technologies published by Earthscan Science Publishers in London. Editor and author of 14 international books on topics related to heat island, solar energy and energy conservation in buildings published by Earthscan, Springer, etc. Guest editor of twelve special issues of various scientific journals. Scientific coordinator of many international research programs and author of almost 240 scientific papers published in peer reviewed international scientific journals. Reviewer of research projects in 15 countries including USA, UK, France, Germany, Canada, Sweden, etc. Expert in various International Research Institutions. Dr Francesca Giofrè, Sapienza University of Rome, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Planning, Design and Technology of Architecture, Rome, Italy (1968) Architect, PhD in Technology of Architecture, full time associate professor at the Faculty of Architecture of the Sapienza University of Rome, Department Planning, Design, Techology of Architecture. She teaches Technology of Architecture since 2004. Since 1995 she has carried research and consultancy work through the University and other institutions national and international. She has published various papers, articles and books and she made many feasibility design studies in the field of architecture for health. She has been Member of Teachers College PhD in “Regeneration and recovery of the settlements”(2004-10); since 2013 she is member of the Teachers College PhD

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“Engineering-based Architecture and Urban Planning”. Teaching co-ordinator, member of scientific board and teacher of the II level Master in Architecture for Health for architects and engineers comes from Developing and emerging countries co-financed by the Italian Ministry Foreign (since 2004). From 2014 she is director of the Master in Architecture for Health. Since 2004, she is member of Member of Interuniversity Research Centre TESIS, Systems and technologies for health care buildings. She has selected to partecipate ad visting professor by Basilesu programme at the Faculy of Architecture of Belgrade (2012) and Faculty of Architecture if Sarajevo (2014). She has different responsibilities inside the Faculty and Department as member of the board of studies and Erasmus Programme for degree in Architecture UE. She has the scientific responsibility of executive agreements with foreign Faculties of Architecture (Belgrade, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Mozambique, Paraguay).

Dr Vesna Mikić, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Croatia Professor at the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb,Department for Architectural Design. She realizes her architectural scientific-research opus through two basic domains: in her scientific and research work, she primarily focuses on topics from contemporary architecture, particularly on modernity and research conducted within her doctoral dissertation “Antun Ulrich's opus, the classicity of the Modern Era“, and persistently enhances both her teaching and her primary research of architectural phenomena which provide the initial ideas of her own architectural opus. She contemplates on the development of modernity by relying on postulates of classical architecture, exemplified in classicism. In that domain, she confirms her research theses by projects designed for public spaces, squares, parks; therefore, urbanist-architectural entireties belonging to architectural assignments of highest ranking. Research within that domain confirm the fundamental postulate on evolution from classicism to international style as well as the idea that classicism is inherent to modernism. The second segment of her work accentuates regional sensibility of contemporary architecture development in the spaces of Croatian regions. She particularly researches the multilayeredness of processes of preservation of Croatian heritage and sustainable development of the natural and cultural space of the Croatian cultural landscape. Those are researches which she strives to build in within her teaching process; particularly the industry to sensibilize the young generation of students for regional topics and the culture of the Croatian space. Apart from pedagogical and scientific, she also does professional work. In her professional work Mikić shows interest for a wide range of topics and problem areas, ranging from cooperation in complex architectural-urbanist complexes as associate in projects of Professor Miroslav Begović, PhD, to realization and participation in the construction of public and housing architecture, in big projects, and shows particular interest for projects of social and societal standard (institutions which deal with victims of family violence).

WORD OF THE P&T_2017 CONFERENCE DIRECTORS It is a great pleasure and honour that we are entering the fourth season of the International Academic Conference on Places and Technologies event this June 2017, thus extending the cycle of this important event. The 2017 Conference had three precedents: the first conference was held in 2014 in Belgrade at the Faculty of Architecture – University of Belgrade, the second was held in 2015 in Slovenia in collaboration with the University of Ljubljana, with the main topic concerning the Healthy Cities and the third was held in 2016 in Belgrade and dedicated to the technologies to create cognitive city. In addition to very reputable scientific conference proceedings, it is important to point out some other valuable results. Two notable results from 2014 Conference that include valuable publications Keeping up with technologies to improve places published by Cambridge Scholar Publishing and Elsevier’s Energy and Buildings Special Issue on Places and Technologies, which were based upon the evaluation of the most outstanding submitted papers from our Conference. Regarding the results of the Conference in 2016, in the process of publication are the book Keeping up with technologies to create cognitive city by highlighting its safety, sustainability, efficiency, imageability and liveability, the special issue of Elsevier’s international journal Energy and Buildings and Facta Universitatis, Series Architecture and Civil Engineering Special Issue. The fourth Conference is in collaboration with the University of Sarajevo. The focus of the conference is the synergy between urban and rural. Aware of the fact that there are a number of different connections and interactions between rural and urban areas, the conference sets the context of urban and rural synergy as a common thread that connects the enormous diversity of connections and interactions between the given places. The rural-urban linkages to promote development can only synergistically stimulate the growth of certain places, but certainly through and with people who live and work there. In this regard the conference emphasizes the importance of networking with the specifics of given environment, social, economic, technological and institutional realities of urban centres and their surroundings. The conference examines the formation and presentation of knowledge on technologies and the environment, as well as ethical considerations and potential risks, developing solutions, expertise and discussions with respect to one of the emerging spatial development concepts – urban and rural synergy. The stated objective points to the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to this matter, identification and establishment of relationships between issues of technological development, environmental protection, economic and social change. Consequently the conference program and research are based on the knowledge of several academic disciplines: engineering and technical sciences, humanities, natural and social sciences.

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The papers will be published in the post conference book of proceedings “Keeping up with Technologies in the Context of Urban and Rural Synergy”, the best of papers will be published in the Scientific Journal Facta Universitatis, Series Architecture and Civil Engineering, as well. Since the founding conference in Belgrade, there is a visible growing interest in the Places and Technologies Conference encountering support in the region and beyond. All this has qualified the conference as a traditional event. Through commitment to specific topics and the quality we have the ambition to keep its importance among the many European conferences. Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić Director of the P&T Conference PhD, Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Serbia Dženana Bijedić Regional Director of the P&T Conference PhD, Professor, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, B&H

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URBAN AND RURAL CONNECTION BETWEEN GLOBAL AND LOCAL – BETWEEN ROLE AND REALITY. WHAT DESIGN CAN DO TO ACHIVE THE SYNERGY? Francesca Giofrè, PhD, Professor, Faculty of Architecture, Department Planning Design technology of Architecture, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Urban and rural terms have different significances with reference to the context and their relationship have changed over time according to socio-political changes, always in a dichotomous way. The latest studies overpass this dichotomy and propose multi-sectoral approach focusing on patterns of territorial continuity, which goes beyond boundaries. On the international level, Habitat II (1996) argued that "Rural and urban development are interdependent. In addition to improving the urban habitat, we must work to provide adequate infrastructure, public services, and employment opportunities to rural areas to increase their attractiveness, develop an integrated network of settlements, and minimize rural-to-urban migration. Small and medium-sized towns need special focus”. Nowadays in a globalized era, where the South and the North are interdependent, and where cities are growing exponentially, the Sustainable Development Goals, do not consider the rural but they have a strong focus on urban dimension. It is true that in 2010 more people live in urban than rural areas, and that in 2030, 60% of the eight billion inhabitants will live in cities, and moreover, in cities 70% of the economy is concentrated; 60% of the global energy consumption; 70% of the greenhouse gas emissions and 70% of the global waste. This is even more true in Europe, where 70% of the population live in urban area, with a polycentric model of cities of which Italy is a unique example (ASvis, 2016). The author is however convinced that a step back should be undertaken, and that the policies of the countries should be geared towards achieving a better synergic balance between urban and rural, thus reducing the pressure on cities, as promoted by Cork 2.0 European Conference on Rural Development (2016). In addition, the author discusses some examples of revitalization projects in rural areas in Italy that have contributed to this goal.

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SPACES OF LOW AND HIGH-INTENSITY CHANGES Vesna Mikić, Ph.D., Arch.Eng., Professor at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, [email protected] ABSTRACT Rural territories are outside the focus of internal and external reflections, and the previous waves of modernisation (and de-modernisation) were slow and inconspicuous. It is only now that these territories are finding ways how to be entered on the global world map and how to take part in the redistributions of identities, economy culture, etc. Although they may share similar fates, all these countryside or rural areas are topics of their own. It needs to be pointed out that out-of-city areas are described as “common”, “normal”, “areas of the low intensity of change”. Such areas appear as new centres regardless of poor regulation of their development. Within the graduate programme at the Faculty of Architecture of the Zagreb University, the courses at the Department of Architectural Design address the topics of the Croatian regional space and its cultural landscape. The course of Architectural Topography of Identity covers architectural topics. Its objective is to affirm rural spaces as part of the long-term research of the space and culture of continental Croatia, and to define its position within the European culture, based on its potential for sustainable development and on the recognisability of the locality. A locality has its internal order and hierarchically related elements. Those elements include colour, rhythm, dimensions, material, the relationships between the interior and exterior, the use of light, the relationship of a building or urban unit towards the ambience, the logic of the form as a result of climactic specificities. This order is binding, but at the same time it does not affect the individuality of the author’s interventions; but, rather, it spurs him to a logical reaction. Contemporary architecture is created as a product that possesses all input data about a specific territory, together with its memory. As it interprets them freely, the final product does not have to explicitly show the specificities of territory, rather, it raises them to another, higher level of detection of what it sentient, and not necessarily rational. The second part of this study presents the author’s experience about such areas. Two case studies have been done within the educational programmes of the Faculty of Architecture: in the municipalities of Kalnik and Pisarovina. Kalnik is a peripheral municipality of the Koprivnica-Križevci County, and Pisarovina is the largest but the least densely populated municipality of the Zagreb County’s “green ring”. Each municipality has one protected landscape zone, but both lack the vision about their strong potential as generators of development. Following the systematic analysis of the space through its basic parameters, the local identities have been primarily articulated by appreciating tradition, homelandness and the specificities which are significant components of Croatian national identity. The ultimate aim is to stimulate developmental processes that will create modern values out of heritage. Keywords: regionalism; architecture; globalisation; future

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INTRODUCTION: The HiperHrvatska project (HiCro)1 was launched in 2005 as part of the pedagogical programme. It examines the multidimensionality of the process within the preservation of traditional heritage and the sustainable development of natural and cultural space in contemporary circumstances of continental Croatia. It deals with a rural landscape that makes up 90% of the Croatian national territory. By mapping and evaluation of the development potential of individual local communities, the HiCro project thereby becomes one of the foundations for concrete (urbanistic and architectural) projects, plans and programmes. The aim of the project is to developing sustainable focal points of an area.2 It develops equality of topics ranging from metropolitan to suburban within the framework of supporting the anthropogenic landscaping. Assuming that infrastructure of a particular microsite is well connected and equipped according to contemporary standards, regions can more clearly offer authentic values of living to urban users. These territories can be called countryside or rural areas (Goss, 2011). Due to negative trends they have come out of the focus of their own and external reflections, where the earlier waves of modernization (and demodernization) were slow and inconspicuous. These trends are only just beginning to find ways how to be included in the global world maps and participate in the redistributions of identity, economy, culture, etc. Though they may share similar fates, each countryside or rural area is a topic for itself. It needs to be pointed out that out-of-city areas are described as “common”, “normal”, “areas of the low intensity of change” (Koolhaas, 2014;123). Regardless of their poor development regulation, they appear as new centres. Each region has its specific local facets (Korff, 2003, 4), roots (Goss, 2011), architectural vocabulary, cultural characteristics that need to be identified in order to be evaluated and subsequently used as the elements of contemporary creation. In doing so one should avoid conventional interpretation and definitions of the traditional and local as "regional elements". The regions' territory has its inner hierarchical relationships and developmental elements. In this case, the architectural meaning includes: morphological orientation in the function of protection from climatic specificity, relationship between house or an urban entity and ambience, relationship between interiors and exterior, logic of form, use of light, material, dimension, colour, rhythm. This is an obligatory order but at the same time it does not abolish the individuality of the subjects that shape spatial assemblies; rather it encourages them to multifaceted interventions in the landscape.

www.Hicro.com project was launched in 2005 by prof. Vesna Mikić, PhD and prof. Sanja Filep, PhD as an international summer school in which the Faculty of Architecture of Zagreb University and the Rapperswil Faculty of Architecture, Switzerland took part. 1

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The HyperCroatia project within the Faculty of Architecture relies on similar researches of IAAC - Catalan Institute of Architecture (see: HiperCatalunya: Research Territories, Multilayered Strategies, 2003, Actar, Barcelona). Prof. Luis Falcon of Barcelona participated in the above project as a guest critic.

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The theoretical part of the topic "recognisability of the region", particularly the first phase of the HiCro project implementation, is explored on the basis of the existing literature supplemented by the Ivo Pilar Institute's research, monographs, studies, conferences, planning documents and relevant projects in the given area. The practical part is based on selected sites and founded on the theoretical part of the project. Detailed local planning and urbanarchitectural case studies are conducted at these sites.

Local identities, Gorski Kotar and Podravina Field programs in the regions of Gorski Kotar and Podravina articulate local initiatives for the versatile and sustainable development of Croatian peripheral regions: road and communal infrastructure development programmes, industrial zones adapted to regional development, programmes related to culture, tourism, leisure etc. The programmes are implemented through the cataloguing of spatial characteristics, followed by the elaboration of architectural programmes of specific sites. Our method shows the historical and cultural reading of the landscape and thus the affiliation to the scientific project under the guidance of Prof. Vladimir Goss, PhD3. The programmes in Gorski Kotar and Podravina took place in three preparatory phases through a multi-layered process of reading regional culture within contemporary circumstances. Regional culture was envisaged in the vitality of the Ricoeur's thought of the 60s and its subsequent architectural critical interpretation of the cultural identity by contemporary architectural critics, Kenneth Frampton being one of them (Frampton, 1992, 339). Previous analyses and studies go in the direction of recognizing the natural and cultural space with an emphasis on its authenticity, organization, communication and urban and rural networks. Ivan Rogić and his "request for recognition of regions" aimed at the "restoration of native land" should be especially pointed out (Rogić, 1992, 28; Geiger, Zeman, 2010).

THE SECOND PERIOD OF RESEARCH WITHIN THE HICRO PROJECT. TWO CASE STUDIES WITHIN THE PEDAGOGICAL PROGRAMME IN THE KALNIK AND PISAROVINA MUNICIPALITIES.

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The author's section "History and historical and cultural reading of the landscape in architectural contemporaneity" is a part of the project of prof. Vladimir Goss in: Prof. Vladimir Goss, PhD "The Romanesque between the Drava and the Sava and the cultural identity of the space" and it is directed specifically to the sacral interpretation of the landscape, i.e. learning how the Croats who settled here, embedded their own worldview originating from the ancient homeland into the new-populated areas. The research is incorporated in the educational process within the HiCro project and summer schools at the Faculty of Architecture, and, through understanding and modern historical reading, has been incorporated into a scientific project.

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS The municipality of Kalnik is the peripheral municipality of the Koprivničko-Križevačka County, while Pisarovina is the largest municipality and the least populated one of the "green ring" of the Zagreb County. Both municipalities have protected landscape areas but no vision of their strength as development generators. In the aforementioned studies, following the systematic analysis of space through its basic parameters, the local identities are primarily articulated through respect for tradition, heritage and already present particularities (important elements of Croatian national character), with the ultimate goal of creating development processes that would produce new and contemporary values from the heritage. Each design assignment, being creative work, but also sociologically, culturally and economically defined, begins with extensive research. Therefore, in the introductory classes of semestral workshops the students learn about the working methodology and the teaching plan for all necessary introductory stages and the semester as a whole. The semestral assignments are given chronologically and in advance, and each requires to be individually elaborated. The first assignment comprises a systematic analysis of space through its basic parameters. It includes an extensive and objective collection of data and additionally an individual interpretation of all input data. Thus, the creative process is involved from the very start of the work through the selection, understanding and the manner of presenting the existing parameters. (At the introduction, the workshop leader and students define the parameters for the analysis of the existing elements in the space.) Such an approach to the assignments makes room from the very start for the setting of new parameters, too, – the ones that are area-specific, with a purpose of identifying potential additional fields of development for the given territory. Finally, all the data need to be superposed and its mutual connections established in a systematic analysis of the area, which will already at this point – through an individual interpretation – define the direction of a student’s own work. As of that point, the semester’s work focuses on the project assignment as defined through the prior research work and programme. The assignment is being developed as an architectural project with a defined scope – by monitoring the existing land allotment in the field. The technological elaboration of the project requires a clear relationship towards the autochthonous architecture of the area, the use of contemporary technology and application of sustainable principles in the development of details. Also required is innovative thinking and introduction of technological novelties along with the above-mentioned regard for local tradition. One of the most important requirements and challenges for students of this course is to conduct a kind of experiment within this project assignment which will potentially redefine the “usage” of space: enhance the quality of life for the domicile population, but also attract impermanent inhabitants; define new types of tourism; explore possibilities of all human activities; create new social structures, and, finally, through interventions create new ambiances in space.

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PARAMETERS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF EXISTING SPATIAL ELEMENTS:

1. NATURAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: A) TOPOGRAPHY B) CLIMATIC FEATURES C) BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (FLORA AND FAUNA) D) NATURAL RESOURCES (RENEWABLE: SOIL, WATER, WIND; AND NONRENEWABLE: MINERAL RESOURCES, FORESTS, WATER SOURCES) E) PROTECTED AREAS 2. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT / ACTIVITIES A) PRIMARY: AGRICULTURE, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, FISHERY AND FORESTRY B) SECONDARY: INDUSTRY, CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY, MINING INDUSTRY, ENERGY INDUSTRY, SHIPPING TRADE, AND TRADES AND CRAFT PRODUCTION C) TERCIARY: COMMERCE, TRANSPORT, CATERING INDUSTRY, BANKING AND TOURISM D) QUARTERNARY: NON-PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES: HEALTH, POLICE, ADMINISTRATION E) TRANSPORT CONNECTIONS (ROAD, RAIL, AIR AND WATER TRANSPORT) – INTERNAL CONNECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS TO OTHER REGIONS AND MAJOR CENTRES 3. CULTURAL HERITAGE (INTANGIBLE, MOVABLE, IMMOVABLE, ARCHAEOLOGICAL) 4. POPULATION STRUCTURE (BY AGE, SEX, RELIGION, EDUCATION, ECONOMIC STATUS) 5. POSITION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF REGION / STATE 6. EXPERIENTIAL LANDSCAPE MAPPING (INTEGRAL EXPERIENCE OF AN ENVIRONEMNT) 7. ADDITIONAL INTERESTING FACTS AND SPECIFIC SPATIAL FEATURES

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FIRST CASE STUDY – ARCHITECTURAL TOPOGRAPHY OF IDENTITY, KALNIK Municipality of Kalnik, hotel in the town of Kalnik The assignment set at the foot of the Kalnik Mountain explores the typology of a dispersed hotel as an approach to the problem of hotel accommodation in a small rural environment. Accommodation units are scattered around the woods in the environs of the town, linked to footpaths and hiking trails, while the central house is located in the square as a public facility, equally accessible to the local community and tourists. The house in the square is a transparent glass brick shell, as an association of grain storage in Kalnik. It creates four covered “streets” within the house, and non-hierarchically accommodates public and hotel services. A swimming pool in the centre serves as a gathering place for the community. Unlike a bathtub in accommodation units, which is exclusively intimate, meditative and in direct communication with nature, the pool is a place of socialization and exchange of experiences. It is completely isolated from the context and moreover it builds within itself a new “tropical garden” enhanced by microclimate inside the pool and the view towards the sky. Intervention in the natural landscape is done gradually. The first stage is construction of a concrete bed with sloping surfaces that collect rainwater and serve as a watering hole for wild animals. Thus the building is not intrusive for the fauna but rather is adjusted to it. The second stage is the upper floor layer. All thermally insulated installations are laid down in the cavity between the slabs. The lowest edge of the concrete bed becomes a thermal bathtub while the glass facade, the most intimate part of the house, is completely exposed to nature. The concrete bed is covered by a wooden double-eaved roof. Dilatation of wooden structure and concrete makes room for an isolation area and a wildlife feeding site. The edge of the concrete bed changes the height in regards to the opposite facades facing the woods and those facing the entrance to the house. The changes in height subtly determine where the animals can reach the feeding site.

SECOND CASE STUDY – ARCHITECTURAL TOPOGRAPHY OF IDENTITY, PISAROVINA Municipality of Pisarovina, Land Art Hotel The task was carried out within Pisarovina Fishponds in Pisarovina, one of the municipalities of the "Zagreb Ring" (Zagreb County). The focus of architectural intervention was to define the hotel facility and its complementary services. The structure of the facility is a thin circular building with accommodation capacities. The volume is not set horizontally but it gradually ascends and forms a slant, a dynamic element in the space. The difference in height between the accommodation units provides additional privacy out of public sight.

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The Kalnik and Pisarovina studies differ methodologically in their architectural approach. In the case of Kalnik, the elements of architecture (both traditional and modern) are interpreted according to local community lore (traditional craftsmanship, rough and rudimentary architectural elements), and “acupuncture” approach is applied. In the case of Pisarovina a modern technological concept was employed. The quest for answers to these questions requires a sharp insight, sensitivity and empathy to reality bearing in mind that "out-of-city" spaces should not be taken lightly. Cultural purism in these areas can hardly be an operational approach. The real challenge for architectural research is to identify programme design models and concepts which take into consideration the necessity to maintain cultural integrity, but also the ones considering new and contemporary development directions. Thus, they point to the particularities of less exposed country and rural areas in Croatia and eventually the gradual alignment of the "topography" of a viable new Croatia within the EU.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS Our starting point is that the place is a community which connects the space and the relevant local knowledge. We have stressed the necessity of considering the value pair global vs. local as the holder of the key issues of our subject. Local identities in rural areas are primarily articulated through regard for tradition, native land and existing specificities. However, in our experiences in the HiCro project and the immediate insight into the space we have rarely come across an active development process that would utilise tradition to create new and modern values. Major changes are mostly initiated by “outsiders” who operate from a colonial position; they look for material and non-material resources and show no interest for the specificities, finesse and the subtleties of the local spaces. The nonexistence of the institutional framework is the dominant problem in structuring and transformation of rural spaces by the global knowledge. This results in numerous uniformed settlements without identity. The inclusion of rural areas in the architectural education brings benefits to both local communities and researchers. Project work in the province cannot be limited to studying typological patterns or some formal topics, but rather these architectural aspects need to be postponed. What precedes architecture is the accurate task setting, discovering authentic local needs, recognition of sites that need to be developed and making sure where the interventions are superfluous or even harmful. In the course of research work different questions arise: Which facilities are really suitable? Can new programmes be introduced? Are there potentials for unusual programmatic developments and combinations? How is modern architectural culture interpolated in the historical and natural context? To what extent are local identities rooted in the specificities of the place and how much do they aim for the modern tendencies?

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS The processes described by notorious terms such as “globalisation” or “transition” are in their essence irreversible. It is therefore necessary to devise mechanisms which restrict their destructive nature and instead enable sustainable development. The design process is preceded by a research process. Although rational, the research process does not necessarily require a rational design process. The relationship between the rational and intuitive remains open and free, depending on the author and the specificity of the task.

http://www.hicro.net/_hr/hicro/

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REFERENCES: Finkielkraut, Alain. (1998.), Likvidacija nasljeđa, Europski glasnik br. 3; govor Alaina Finkielkrauta na skupštini PEN-a u Hvaru. Zagreb Frampton, Kenneth. (1992.), Moderna arhitektura, kritočna povijest, Globus, Zagreb; 338- 352 Geiger, Marija; Zeman, Zdenko (2010.). Mjesto življenja i integralna održivost – vitalnost lokalnog u globaliziranom svijetu, pregledni rad, Društvena istraživanja, vol. 19 br. 3 (107), Zagreb, Goss, P. Vladimir (2014.). Art and Political Correctness, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Rijeka, e-publication, www.romanika.net Goss, Vladimir, (2011.), Razbijanje porodičnog kristala U: Hrvatski identitet, R. Horvat, ed., Matica Hrvatska, Zagreb: 287-302 Koolhaas,Rem. (214.), Dezeen Book of Interviews, edited by Marcus Fairs , published by Dezeen:123 Korff, Ruediger. (2003.), Local Enclosures of Globalization. The Power of Locality. Dialectical Anthropology, 27, str.1-18. Lay, Vladimir. (2005): Integralna održivost i učenje, Društvena istraživanja14/3; 353-377 Mikić, Vesna. (2014.), Arhitektonska topografija identiteta, uvod voditeljice radionice, Općina Pisarovina, Arhitektonska Topografija identiteta, Acta Architectonica, Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, Katedra za arhitektonsko projektiranje, kolegij Arhitektonsko projektiranje 3, 2013./2014. str. 5-12.Zagreb, Mrduljaš, Maroje. (2014.), Istraživanje provincija, osvrt gosta predavača, Općina Pisarovina, Arhitektonska Topografija identiteta, Acta Architectonica, Arhitektonski fakultet, Katedra za arhitektonsko projektiranje, kolegij Arhitektonsko projektiranje 3, 2013./2014; str. 19-22. Ricoeur, Paul, (2007.), Universal civilisation and national cultures u: Architectural regionalism,collected writings on place, identiti, modernity and tradition; Vincent B. Canizaro, editor, Priceton; 43-53 Rogić, Ivan (1992.), Hrvatska i njezine regije, Društvena istraživanja1 / BR. 1: 25-35

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DECENTRALISING CITIES: TECHNOLOGY, THE NEW CLIMATE AND THE FUTURE OF PERI-URBAN GROWTH Dushko Bogunovich, PhD, Professor of Urban Design and Planning, Dean, Faculty of the Built Environment, Arts and Science Gaborone, Botswana, [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper addresses the growing concern that climate change is not just a certain prospect for humanity but is already our new reality. A number of unprecedent weather events observed over the past year indicate that the new climate has arrived. It is in fact likely that we are in the state of ‘accelerated climate change’ and that this is now an irreversible process. Rather than waiting for science to confirm this predicament with absolute certainty, it would seem wiser to prepare for whatever may happen. Following such reasoning, the sustainability and mitigation agendas pale in significance, while the imperative of resilience and adaptation takes the centre stage. In the light of such profound changes in the human condition on the planet – where security and survival take precedence over ‘progress’ and ‘prosperity’ – we need to take a fresh view on the phenomenon of mass urbanization and the associated debates about an optimal urban form. The traditional animosity towards ‘urban sprawl’ needs to be tempered and the long held view that ‘civilised urban life’ means that centralized, reticulated provision of all basic services, needs to be re-examined. The globally present phenomenon of peri-urban development – as some kind of urban-rural blend - has certainly created social and environmental problems. But it also contains poorly understood opportunities. Lower settlement densities are less efficient in terms of transport energy and provision of public utilities, but on the other hand offer more self-sufficiency and resilience – critical capacities in times of crisis or disaster. An array of technologies – information, communication, energy, environmental, transport – are now enabling and enticing more dispersed human settlements world-wide. This, for the time being, is creating lifestyle and economic benefits in the suburban and peri-urban areas. But could this could also make them better prepared for the climate contingencies of the 21st century. Decentralisation of the urban landscape seems both inevitable and desirable. This process can take place in an orderly manner and bring maximum survival and security benefits only if planners, engineers, architects and city authorities re-examine the concept of ‘urban infrastructure’. Small, clean, green, smart and localized must replace – or at least stand by as equal with – the traditional idea of urban infrastructure as: big, dirty, grey, dumb and centralized. These propositions will be illustrated with examples from young, growing, globally-peripheral cities of Gaborone, Botswana, and Auckland, New Zealand.

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INTRODUCTION: REVISITING SPRAWL The word ‘decentralising’ in the title of this paper can be understood both as an adjective and as a gerund. This is intentional. We are simultaneously addressing ‘decentralised cities’ - cities which already have assumed a decentralised form - and the idea that we should perhaps decentralise cities. In other words, in this paper decentralisation is presented as both a fact and a recommendation. As a fact, we are arguing that cities are decentralising and deconcentrating all over the world and that this process is driven by powerful forces beyond the reach of official urban planning. As a recommendation, we are suggesting that, while this process is not inevitable, maybe this is what should be happening anyway. If that is the case, then planners should stop fighting it. The purpose of this paper is to offer an unorthodox view on what has been one of the hottest subjects in urban planning and design debates: the issue of ‘urban sprawl’ and its environmental, social and economic consequences. This debate has persisted for the last 50 years. While perhaps the majority view is that this debate has been settled and is therefore over, we take the heretical view that the debate has never been properly settled and is about to unsettle planners’ and designers’ peace of mind again. The debate is more relevant than ever. While originally driven by relatively local aesthetic, ecological and cultural concerns, it is now a core issue within such critical global discourses as those about climate change, resource shortages, and the purpose of an ICT-driven global economy and an ICT-and-mobility-addicted society. The debate about the ‘optimal urban form and density’ appeared to be settled towards the end of the 20th century, when the compact city form and higher density were declared the ‘winners’, and urban sprawl and low density the ‘losers’. But then the parameters of the debate changed. Somewhere around the year 2000 the situation became much more complex. The issue was no longer just cities relying too much on cars and trucks, and exposing themselves to the threat of ‘peak oil’. Global warming had become a widely accepted fact; the internet and other technologies added a fresh impetus to decentralisation; and local governments worldwide started realising that their efforts to contain urban sprawl in most cases were failing. Consequently, the perception of what presents a strategic risk for cities started shifting from worrying about the ‘automobile (and oil) dependence’ i and distance from vital services, to extreme weather events, terrorism, choking traffic congestion and the super-complexity of modern technological systems. The dependence that worried planners was no longer just the dependence on the car, petrol

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS fuel and associated transport infrastructure, but the dependence on all infrastructure typical of the modern metropolis: power, water, sanitation, food systems, telecommunications. These changes in the global context, and the associated shift in the perception of what ‘dependence’ actually means for cities, have prompted a small faction of planners and theorists ii to start questioning the mantra of density, compactness and public transport, that had just become the new mainstream consensus. The position of this author is that we at least need to reconsider the now so popular compact urban form model. It seems that some elements of the model still make sense; however, some other aspects and assumptions of the model seem less relevant than they were in the previous century. We should not exclude the possibility that, as time goes by, planners might even arrive at the opposite view. They might reach a new consensus that governments should reject high density in principle as too risky, simply because too many people and too many assets concentrated in one place are exposed to sudden hits or prolonged crises. In this paper we will argue that rapidly advancing climate change has placed the resilience and adaptation agenda ahead of the sustainability agenda, and that this change of priorities calls for security and sufficiency ahead of environmental responsibility and ecological efficiency. Security and sufficiency call for more reliance on local resources and services – an approach to urban organization which is difficult, if not impossible, to implement in a high-density city. In addition, we will argue that an array of technologies are driving urban infrastructure decentralisation and ‘atomisation’ anyway and that this is now fueling the peripheral expansion of cities further out, beyond the suburban landscape created by the automobile and telephone in the 20th century. It is also important to note that planning authorities have been in most cases proven powerless to contain the horizontal expansion of cities. What’s more, while their attention was focused on the suburbs, the peri-urbia and exurbia mushroomed. The result of these decades of planners’ misallocated attention is the emerging urban, suburban and peri-urban low-density landscape on a regional scale without much, if any, official planning. This powerful trend now appears both inevitable and desirable. While the inevitability seems pretty obvious, the desirability is quite controversial. We will here argue that this trend actually is desirable – however, subject to important conditions. We will argue that low-density development is desirable not so much because it is such a widely popular lifestyle and affordability choice, but more because it seems a wise strategy in response to fresh warnings that climate change is progressing rapidly, and of the widespread disruption to conventional, reticulated urban services to come. It is in this sense that we will argue the urgent need to question the ideal of the ‘compact city’ and consider the idea of ‘resilient urban sprawl’ as the urban model fit for the vagaries of the 21st century. In the PPt presentation version of this paper for the oral delivery at the conference, the emerging new post-urban and peri-urban landscape will be illustrated with photographic evidence from Auckland, New Zealand and Gaborone, Botswana. The two cities are not just convenient examples because of the author’s familiarity, but also because they

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are so different in size, shape, climate, history, culture and level of economic development – yet they exhibit the same trends in urban form expansion. The metropolitan landscape is indeed converging towards a single global model of urban development – the decentralised, polycentric, mainly low-density city-region – regardless of the local natural and cultural conditions. In the following text, we will first argue the significance of the three types of change that are increasingly rendering the ‘compact city’ model unviable – the new climate; the new urban form; the new urban infrastructure – and then discuss whether some form of ‘resilient sprawl’ is possible, and perhaps even imperative.

THE NEW CLIMATE: RESILIENCE TAKES OVER SUSTAINABILITY In this paper we adopt the majority view among climate scientists worldwide that the rise in average global temperature is an established fact and that this trend is mainly driven by human activity, particularly by the combustion of fossil fuels and large scale destruction or degradation of vegetation cover. We also accept the position of a growing minority 4 of climate scientists who claim that the new climate is here, since we have already passed several tipping points and have triggered a series of irreversible processes. iii Some of these scientists even criticise the mainstream media and the dominant discourse about the future of humanity for pretending that climate science does not even exist and going on with rosy predictions for the global economy and society, while science clearly says the future is bleak. A recent example is the statement that “today the greatest tragedy is the absence of a sense of the tragedy.” iv We would suggest that some of the more extreme views are worth considering, even if we are not prepared to believe them now due to their controversial nature among the scientific community. These ‘extreme’ views argue that we already face civilisation collapse and human extinction - some time before the mid-21st century - no matter what we do now. v They say we had our chance to act 20 or 30 years ago, but we did not, so now we will ‘face the music’. Not a pleasant thought, but deserving of our attention if we are serious about future-proofing our cities. One reason why we should pay attention is the precautionary principle. What if they are right? Too much is at stake to dismiss their claims as a ‘minority view’, label their prediction as ‘having a low probability of happening’ and just hope for the best.

4

Whether they still are a ‘minority’ or perhaps already a ‘majority’ is hard to establish at the time when climate science has become such a dynamic, global-scale effort and new reports and new authors are entering the scene daily. Thus, we take the conservative view and call them a ‘minority’. But it is now becoming evident that the number of such scientists is growing. This almost guarantees that soon they will be a ‘majority’, if they not already. The current evidence in the general media is that many reputable individual, groups and institutions have already expressed their conviction that global warming is accelerating and that unless this is slowed down by urgent, tough and massive policy measures, civilisation as we know it faces collapse.

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS The second reason is that these individuals reinforce the realisation that it is too late for just mitigating the factors which are destabilising climate and then expecting that the climate will remain stable. What they are saying is that from now on we must focus on adapting to the destabilised climate that we have already produced and prepare ourselves for the warming that is already ‘in the pipeline’, which nothing we might do now can prevent. What makes all this alarming news credible is that the ‘accelerated climate change’ (or ‘accelerated global warming’) has now become part of the normal vocabulary in the global climate discourse. New evidence of ‘acceleration’ is presented almost daily. The best examples are the global temperature records and the Arctic ice surface and volume measurements. Both of these have been exhibiting an exponential - rather than linear - trend in recent years. vi Global temperature records show that most of the recent years have been the ‘hottest year until now’, while the Arctic ice trends have been described as a ‘death spiral’ – a reference to an accelerated shrinking of the surface area and volume of ice, and its irreversibility. The ‘spiral’ is presently at the stage where this or next summer we will have a completely ice-free Arctic Ocean, an event without precedent in human history. vii On the other side of the planet, the situation with the ice shelves and sheets on and around the continent of Antarctica is no better. viii There the prospect of collapsing colossal ice sheets and ‘calving’ of giant icebergs is quite certain over the next few decades. ix This is somewhat similar to what is happening in Tibet and the Himalayas x, as well as on the world’s largest island, Greenland xi, all of which are the biggest and best known components of what used to be Earth’s permanently frozen landscapes. The situation with the Arctic Ocean – that is, with the entire Northern Polar Circle – is particularly dire. There, both on the permanently frozen land (the tundra) and on the sea floor of the shallow seas north of Siberia, Canada and Alaska, enormous deposits of frozen methane have started leaking into the atmosphere xii. The reason, of course, is the warmer climate, thawing the permafrost soil, the frozen bogs and the shallow seas which ring the Arctic ocean. Methane – a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide 5 - has the potential to accelerate global warming even further. More warming, of course, will then lead to more releases of methane from yet more thawed permafrost! Arctic methane is perhaps the best example of ‘feedback loops’ in the global climate system. These are the links and triggers in the global weather and ocean circulation systems which have an amplifying or accelerating effect on otherwise linear and slow processes. In the current climate change process the concern is that these loops – triggered by the initial, slow warming, the result of wo centuries of industrialisation and urbanisation – will create, rapidly, more warming. And this will happen independently of any future human activity, regardless of whether that activity is mitigating or aggravating the situation. Recent geological data and computer simulations show that such selfamplifying processes usually run until a new equilibrium is achieved. This happened in the past and affected the living beings on a catastrophic scale. This time around it would affect the human race too.

5

Between 20 and 100 times, depending on the time over which its warming impact is measured.

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Scientist have been warning about some of these loops for decades, but because the processes were poorly understood and accurate modeling was not possible, official climate reports – such as the famous IPCC five-year assessments – never took them into account. This explains why these days so many past projections about temperature, ice extent, storms, and so on, are being regularly corrected and almost always to the worse. 6 Probably the scariest of all these climate records and updates is the frequency and severity of recent extreme weather events – storms, cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes – and the devastation they have left. Two well-known examples are the hurricane Katrina, which almost destroyed New Orleans in 2005, and typhoon Haiyan which left more than 6,000 dead in its wake in the Philippines, in 2013. Other types of disaster typical of a disturbed climate are floods, droughts and forest fires, also more frequent and severe than what was considered ‘normal’ in the 20th century. Sea level rise is another big concern. Mainstream estimates of its magnitude by the end of the century vary between several feet and several metres. Regardless of what eventuates as the actual increase by 2030, 2050, and 2100, sooner or later it will affect tens, and then hundreds of millions of residents of coastal cities worldwide xiii. Notable examples under threat are Tokyo, Shanghai, Mumbai, Djakarta, Lagos, Miami, Rotterdam and Venice. There is a pretty solid prospect that the second half of this century will be marked by mass migration away from the coastal plains, whether it be in disarray, or in the form of colossal resettlement projects. Without going further into these dark scenarios, we wish to conclude at this point that climate change is already our new reality, rather than a ‘future threat’. We should also conclude that most likely we are already in the state of ‘accelerated climate change’ and that this is now an irreversible process. Waiting for science to confirm this predicament with absolute certainty and do nothing in the meantime seems irresponsible. We should prepare our cities for whatever may happen. Preparation means building up the ability of our cities to endure crises and bounce back after shocks. This is called Resilience. It is different from Sustainability. Many measures and actions may heed both agendas, and in that sense Resilience and Sustainability reinforce each other. However, the priorities are different. Sustainability was and is about prevention and mitigation of climate change – while Resilience is about preparedness and adaptation to what will affect us because we failed to prevent and mitigate when we could. The critical point in this discussion then is that resilience and sustainability agendas differ when it comes to the planning, design and management of cities. The idea of a good (or better) urban form has been the subject of a long debate in the 20th century – the century which gave us the automobile, urban sprawl and early signs of climate change 6 A credible, comprehensive and always up-to-date source of information on what is actually happening on the planet and what it means for our future, is the blog-website Arctic News: http://arctic-news.blogspot.com

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS and habitat and biodiversity destruction. It is no wonder that the greenhouse gas emissions from our fossil-fueled transport system and the endless suburbs which paved over natural landscape and farmland were blamed as the principal culprits. From that diagnosis it took only one step to conclude that the distances in the city should be smaller to reduce travel, and that further expansion of suburbs into farmland and natural habitat/landscape should be contained. The silver bullet solution that held the promise of achieving both objectives is the ‘compact city’ idea. Unfortunately – or fortunately, bearing in mind the agenda reshuffle forced by climate change – the compact city model turned to be too difficult to implement. In most cities worldwide urban development ignored planners’ calls for higher densities and less outward expansion. Cities continued to grow much faster out, than up. Not only did urban sprawl turn out to be unstoppable, it also assumed new forms. Rather than just the familiar, iconic ‘suburban sprawl’, it also became manifest in the dispersed, peri-urban, very-low-density development which deceptively looks like the ‘countryside’, but in reality is an integral functional element of the post-modern metropolis.

THE NEW URBAN FORM: PERI-URBANISATION IS TURNING CITIES INTO REGIONS, WITH EVER LOWER DENSITIES The vast suburbs could be described as the defining feature of the 20th century city. Yet they existed a long time before the onset of the 20th century. It is similar with peri-urban growth as the defining feature of the 21st century. Discernible forms of it started in the 20th century. The phenomenon attracted the attention of geographers when some of the mature and affluent countries showed a persistent, though relatively small in volume, trend of large cities’ residents moving to towns and villages and generally to the ‘countryside’. One author described this process as ‘counterurbanisation’. xiv The growing trend of outer peripheral areas being settled by urban people rather than farmers was also of great interest to geographers studying the evolution of urban form. Terms like ‘conurbation’, ‘metropolis’ and ‘megalopolis’ have been in use among planners and geographers throughout the 20th century. The words reflected the growing awareness of the huge size of new urban agglomerations and the inadequacy of the word ‘city’ to describe what was happening. Later, the words ‘urban region’ and ‘city-region’ also came into use, referring to the increasingly regional scale of the urban phenomenon. With the rise of urban China and the proliferation of fast transport, even bigger, supra-regional clusters of cities and towns started operating as one economic entity and geographers decided to recognise even ‘mega urban regions’. xv Some of these mega urban regions are 200 to 300 km long and have more than 100 million residents (for example, the Yangtze River Delta, which includes Shanghai). Our point is not the size though. The point is the character of the urban region, the rationale for it, and the economic and social function it has. Its visual character is marked by a blend of urban and rural features, whereby modern, fully

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serviced buildings and some visible infrastructure (good roads, powerlines, cellphone towers) represent the ‘city’, while the surrounding farming landscape and remnant native habitat represent ‘nature’ and the ‘countryside’. The rationale for this development is that not only does this land come at lower prices and larger plot sizes, and that the environment is green and serene, but also that it is no longer as far from the city as we used to think. Distances of 50 to 100 km from the nearby city are not such a big hurdle in the era of good roads, efficient cars, fast trains, mobile telephones and the internet. Functionally, the companies and households in these peri-urban areas are increasingly engaged in typically urban economic, social and cultural activities, and not rural. Some are mixed (small farming, combined with intellectual services over the internet, for example) but overall, urban, tertiary activities are increasingly more important than any form of agriculture or forestry or mining in the area. Peri-urbanisation is just a part of the overwhelming global trend in that cities of all sizes are growing, and that this growth is both outward – horizontal expansion – and upward – vertical growth with an associated increase in density. However, since the outward growth is much faster than upward, cities end up having ever lower overall, average density. It is hard to see this trend slowing down and eventually stopping in a world in which: -

the overall population is still growing; the attraction of the city is very strong; transport and communications technologies are ‘shrinking space’; environmental technologies (energy generation and storage; water harvesting and storage; sanitation; intensive food growing) are increasing enabling ‘off-the-grid’ living; the desire for a lifestyle (or workstyle even) which prioritises contact with nature, tranquility and privacy is widespread; urban land is often prohibitively expensive.

It seems therefore reasonable to predict that peri-urbanisation will continue to evolve on the urban-rural fringe of most cities and that we will see ever more city-regions of unclear size and shape. This prediction may not be to everybody’s liking, but it seems that the city of the future is large, flat and vague about its boundaries. It is also decentralized and polycentric. Whether it will also run on a slower, or a lower volume, metabolism, or will continue to devour the limited resources of this planet and generate mountains of waste – remains to be seen. The potential to lower the metabolism of the sparse, sprawling periphery is there to be discovered and realised.

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THE NEW URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE: TECHNOLOGY IS DRIVING AND ENABLING DECENTRALISATION AND SELFSUFFICIENCY

Technological innovation has been one of the chief shapers of urban form throughout history. Transport technology (TT) has been probably more influential in this area than any other form of technology (say, building or construction technology, or weapons technology, or sanitation technology). Horse-drawn carts; ships, ports and canals; railways and motorways – all have had a big impact on the size, shape and internal structure of the city. Nowadays, two other big families of technology have come to the urban scene: ICT (information and communication technology) and environmental technologies 7. In sum, TT, ET and ICT are the complex of technologies which are the new shapers of urban form, structure and fabric. Together, they are driving a third wave of decentralisation and expansion of cities - after the railway in the 19th century and the automobile in the 20th century. This is very important to understand because the late 20th century intensive critique of dependence on the automobile and petroleum – along with fear that ‘Peak Oil’ was imminent and the price of fossil fuel was going to become unbearable – created the impression that the ‘sprawl era’ was over and cities would have to stop expanding, if not even shrink back. This is highly unlikely in the foreseeable future. Neither is peak oil that close 8, nor is dependence on car transport so threatening when the ‘electric vehicle’ (EV) has already entered the market. ‘Automobile dependence’ was never only about the use of the car as such – it was always also about car over-use, mis-use, and ab-use. Higher taxes and charges could have solved the problem of excessive use and the consequent degeneration of urban social space in the latter half of the 20th century, but abandoning the car altogether was never an option. Thus the most likely forecast is that the automobile will remain the dominant means of transport, both for personal and for business use, and the constant stream of improvements in fuel/power efficiency, security, comfort, etc coming from the car industry will make sure things stay that way for a long time. This of course translates into persistent high levels of mobility and autonomy in terms of choosing where to live and/or have a business. And all of that in the end means a greater tendency for decentralisation, that is – sprawl.

7

Under ‘Environmental Technology’ (ET) we will assume all technologies which have to do with the basic provisions for everyday life: energy (both power and fuel); water; sanitation; food. In some other contexts, energy technology and food production with technical aids are excluded from the ET nexus and the term covers only water supply, and liquid, solid and gaseous waste disposal/treatment. The term ET is also often interchangeably used with ‘clean technology’ (clean-tech) and ‘green technology’ (green-tech). 8 Sadly, because of the introduction of the technology of hydraulic fracturing – ‘fracking’ – and new oil fields in deep sea water and previously frozen lands in the Arctic.

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Perhaps the continued popularity of the automobile would not have changed the urban form dramatically – we would have just seen more new suburbs – had it not been for the other two influential tech-families. ICT and ET have also played a major part in the decentralisation of cities. The proliferation of the internet and mobile telephony has greatly diminished the importance of distance. It is possible to argue that ICT is now the biggest centrifugal force in the shaping of the 21st century city and the automobile and the motorway are now only secondary. Lastly, the ET complex is making a huge influence on locational decision making. Rooftop water harvesting, localised sewerage systems, solar panels for heat and power – all these innovations, along with their ever lower prices, are making independent, off-the-grid living a realistic and attractive proposition. Once this is grasped, the need to be latched onto reticulated suburban infrastructure becomes a thing of the past. One then can live 100 km from the city centre, not 10 km in order to have all the ‘public’ utilities. This brief overview of the joint impact of the TT+ET+ICT complex on the shaping of the post-modern metropolis shows that centrifugal forces are far stronger than the centripetal forces. Under such circumstances it is clear that peri-urbanisation has a bright future. The desire for a good life will propel it more than any fear of the future and what climate change might bring. But even that may change. As climate change events get ever stronger and more frequent, security and resilience may become more important considerations than privacy and a nice view. A wise planning policy should see the benefits of decentralised, independent infrastructure and support the trend. At the same time, it should seek to minimise the encroachment on valuable farmland, sensitive habitat and scenic landscapes. In sum, decentralisation of the urban form seems both inevitable and desirable. This process can take place in an orderly manner and bring maximum survival and security benefits only if planners, engineers, architects and city authorities re-examine the concept of ‘urban infrastructure’ and realise the resilience-building potential of new technologies. The small, clean, green, smart and localised must replace – or at least stand equal with – the big, dirty, grey, dumb and centralised. 

CONCLUSION: RESILIENT SPRAWL This paper is a broad-brush proposition that we need to rethink the dominant paradigm that urban sprawl should be contained and cities should be dense and compact. The overall reason for this unpopular proposition is that conditions have changed. As explained above, the new urban situation is shaped by three powerful trends: climate change has arrived and is threatening cities with severe challenges; cities are transitioning into city-regions with ever lesser

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS densities, despite the planning authorities arguing the opposite; new technologies are enabling autonomy via decentralised, clean, smart forms of urban infrastructure. Decentralisation and localisation reduce both exposure and dependence. A low density urban environment, with infrastructure which is at least partly autonomous and locally grounded rather than centrally supplied and controlled, has better chances of surviving crises, shocks and disasters. Following the low-risk reasoning, we should realise that sustainability and mitigation are no longer our top priorities, and, instead, invest in resilience, adaptation and survival. In the light of such profound changes in the human condition – and the human prospect - on the planet, we need to take a fresh view on the phenomenon of mass urbanisation and associated debates about an optimal urban form. The traditional and widespread animosity towards ‘urban sprawl’ needs to be tempered. The long held view that ‘civilised urban life’ means the centralised, reticulated provision of all basic services, needs to be re-examined. This new angle on urban sprawl pertains to both the suburban and peri-urban landscape. But the latter contains a bigger potential for mistakes, or the right moves. The global phenomenon of peri-urban expansion of cities, whereby bigger cities are transformed into city-regions, has certainly created social and environmental problems. But it also contains poorly understood opportunities. Lower settlement densities are less efficient in terms of transport energy and provision of public utilities, but on the other hand offer more self-sufficiency and resilience – critical capacities in times of crisis or disaster. An array of technologies – information, communication, energy, environmental and transport – are now enabling and enticing more dispersed human settlements world-wide. Presently, the drivers of this trend are gains in lifestyle and economic benefits. But could low-density sprawl also prepare us for the climate contingencies of the 21st century - and should our objective become sheer survival rather than nice lifestyle?

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REFERENCES

Newman, P.G. & J.R. Kenworthy (1999) Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming automobile dependence. Island Press. Retrieved from https://islandpress.org/book/sustainability-and-cities

i

Neuman, M. (2005) The Compact City Fallacy. Journal of Planning Education and Research, Vol. 25, No. 1, Sage, London, pp 11-26. Bruegmann, R. (2006) Sprawl: A Compact History. The University of Chicago Press. Retrievd from http://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo3614185.html ii

A recent comprehensive, and thoroughly illustrated, review of climate science is given in: Hall, W.P. http://www.orgs-evolutionknowledge.net/Index/Essays/ClimateEmergency/Start%20of%20Runaway%20Warming.html Good examples of the current debate in the climate science community can be found in the world’s best known science journal, Nature. E.g.: https://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v408/n6809/full/408184a0.html iii

Hamilton, C. (2017, May 5). The great climate silence: we are on the edge of the abyss but we ignore it. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/may/05/the-great-climate-silence-weare-on-the-edge-of-the-abyss-but-we-ignore-it iv

Guy McPherson’s work and argument is best represented at his website: https://guymcpherson.com His key books on the subject are: • Going Dark (2013) Publish America, Baltimore; and (with Carolyn Baker) Extinction Dialogs: How to Live with Death in Mind (2014) Tayen Lane Publishing. Retrived from http://www.guymcpherson.net

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The thawing Arctic threatens an environmental catastrophe. (2017, April 29). The Economist. Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21721364-commercial-opportunities-are-vastly-outweighed-damageclimate-thawing-arctic vi

Vidal, J. (2016, 18 August), citing the work of top climate and Arctic ice scientist from Cambridge University, Prof. Peter Wadhams: Time to listen to the ice scientists about the Arctic death spiral. The Guardian. Retrieved from vii

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OPENING AND SPECIAL PAPERS’ TOPICS https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/18/ice-scientists-arctic-ice-disappearing-reduceemissions-peter-wadhams NASA. (2017, March 22). Sea ice extent sinks to record lows at both poles. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/sea-ice-extent-sinks-to-record-lows-at-both-poles

viii

Farand, C. (2017, May 20). Miles of Antarctic ice are collapsing into the sea as scientists try to understand speed of change. The Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/miles-antarctic-icecollapse-into-sea-scientists-research-ross-shelf-ice-columbia-university-a7745471.html ix

Vidal, J. (2015, 27 May). Most glaciers in Mount Everest area will disappear with climate change – study. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/may/27/most-glaciers-in-mount-everest-area-will-disappear-withclimate-change-study x

Kintisch, E. (2017, 23 February) The Great Greenland Meltdown. Science. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/02/great-greenland-meltdown

xi

Ahmed, N. (2013, 5 August) Seven facts you need to know about the Arctic methane timebomb. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/earth-insight/2013/aug/05/7-facts-need-to-know-arcticmethane-time-bomb xii

Miles of ice collapsing into the sea. (2017, May 18). The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/05/18/climate/antarctica-ice-melt-climate-change.html xiii

Fielding, A.J. (1982). Counterurbanisation in Western Europe. Progress in Planning, 17(1), 1-52. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030590068290006X xiv

Champion, A.G. (1989). Counterurbanization: the changing pace and nature of population deconcentration. New York: Edward Arnold. Retrieved from http://www.popline.org/node/365263 Rodrigue, J.P. (n.d.). World’s Largest Urban Regions. Retrieved from https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/appl6en/map_world_urban_regions.html xv

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE


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LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURE IN THE CASE OF ADIL BEY AND KUWAIT MOSQUE IN SARAJEVO Ahmet Hadrović, PhD Full Professor, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Bosnia and Herzegovina, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The paper elaborates design concepts of two contemporary mosques built in the late 20th and beginning of the 21st century in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, designed by Professor Ahmet Hadrović. Specific focus is on the use of light in religious buildings, which highly contributes to overall quality of inner space. There are several explanations that make those two buildings thought-provoking to both, the architectural notions, as well as to architectural tradition: • Religious buildings, including mosques, became an important element within the urban tissue of BosniaHerzegovinian’s multi-religious cities. This is due to its content, form, structure, materialization, as well as overall position in the society. Such development was enabled by democratization of society after the fall of communism in ex-Yugoslavia. • Since the end of 20th century designing the mosques has been one of the most challenging architectural tasks, giving architects unique opportunity to express their position on society and human beings through the language of architecture. • Two cases, elaborated in this paper, were chosen because their innovated designs have offered new spatial solutions, all contributing to improved indoor environment, energy efficiency and sustainability in general. • Once built, the referenced mosques provoked vide public reactions, including professional and religious leaders, as well as people coming from various backgrounds. The controversy is polarised around general acceptance, on the one side and disapproval through absence of any comments, on the other side. New concepts in architectural delivery process are often facing rejection, despite being necessary in the overall evolution of the built environment. The paper, based on two examples, provides pro and contra evidence that could assist architects and other involved parties in the creation of long term sustainable built environment. Keywords:

religious buildings, mosque, sustainability, design, light

INTRODUCTION Light is at the same time a matter and energy. By the presence of light man perceives the physical environment. Out of all information collected by senses, approximately 5/6 refers to sight sense. Thus, the light becomes one of the rudimentary prerequisites of the human experience, enabling man to perceiving and understanding the real world.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Due to role that light has in the overall human existence it gained a number of new meanings. Light has become a symbol of life, as opposed to its absence (dusk), which symbolizes death. Light symbolizes progress, lighter, more advanced and enhanced future. Light symbolizes health, purity, presence of sound judgment and making the right decisions. The light symbolizes knowledge, brings wellbeing, as well. All listed is in crucial in validating the true value of every individual, without exception. As the built environment represents a manmade framework of life, proper quality of such spaces heavily depends on presence, awareness, understanding and application of the light in it. Complying with numerous requirements imposed by clients, surroundings, technologies, etc. architects also need to properly address light in their concepts, from the first stage of the architectural delivery process, i.e. from the architectural programming stage.

Figure 1: Daylight at the Luxor Temple, Egypt (1400 BCE) Figure 2: Stained glass Notre Dame de Paris (1163- 1345) Figure 3: LAUD Architects, Singapore Life Church (2012)

This paper demonstrates a personal relationship of an architect to the importance of the light in the creation of two specific religious building complexes.

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Figure 4: Le Corbusier, The chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp (1955) Figure 5 :Tadao Ando, Church of the Light, Ibaraki, Osaka (1989)

ADIL-BEY’S MOSQUE IN SARAJEVO (1994-1999) Though it sounds paradoxical, the design of this mosque was done during the difficult war period in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994). This represented a structure which was supposed to provide high standards for praying, along with different secular facilities. The mosque is located at the northern entrance to Sarajevo, which for author was both great inspiration and huge burden, (Figure 6.). On the other side, the client (vakif), Adil-bey Zulfikarpašić, one of the best known Bosniaks in general, has its requests. Those requests were related to importance of this mosque of his, representing long lasting monument. The author immediately realized that this mosque has to be extremely functional and modern, to offer a solution that could become a model for the future mosque designs. Imagined as the north gate of Sarajevo, this mosque was not designed to upset anyone with its appearance, but quite contrary, to welcome visitors (Figures 8, 9). Facilities are arranged in a basement, ground floor and first floor (Figure 7). On the ground floor there is the main harem (inner yard with large gate), central entrance into the mosque and the principal praying space. At the basement level there are a southern, secondary harem with a small gate, and a large polyvalent hall with its own entrance. Along this polyvalent hall there are ablutions (designed as dressing rooms in modern sports halls). On the first floor there are a balcony (mahfil) and a ceremonial room. All facilities placed on these three floors, in certain moments, need to function as one unique space. One of unwritten principles regarding mosque design, which the author followed, was that there must be no free-standing columns inside the praying space 9 (Fig. 12).

9 Free-standing columns disturb the uniqueness of the praying space and often represent audio and visual barrier between people praying and the imam (leader of prayer) in mihrab (a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the quibla) or at the mimber (a pulpit in the mosque where the imam stands to deliver sermons). Besides that, such columns disarrange the rows (saf) of prayers, which from the aspect of collective prayer is unacceptable.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Ensuring possibility for these facilities to function separately 10, as well as possibility of simultaneous use of all rooms in the mosque, was an important objective while designing this mosque, both in defining of its horizontal and vertical plan and also in designing of its structural system, and in the end, its final appearance. Efficient interior flow of the structure was obtained with a large entrance, hallway, and two staircases. Such a communication got the character of a change regarding the intensity of the facilities, and the mosque’s envelope, both for walls and the roof construction, was glazed. When it comes to the design of the central dome, the author, besides the essential structural purpose, paid particular attention to ensure plenty of natural light and to emphasize its symbolism: by combining a smaller and bigger segment of a dome he obtained an arch which allows light to enter the interior, thus symbolizing entrance to Sarajevo, (Fig. 7 and 11). The author with this design, as well as all his other mosque designs, treated day and night equally, that is, he gave the light a property of a building material. During the day natural light penetrates the interior of the mosque in a way which is to be discovered by a visitor, whereas at night the light from the interior shines as a cheerful and encouraging sign. Balcony at the mahfil level is a place for prayers, both in summer and winter period. This motive of a traditional gallery (divanhana) got its modern version through double membrane solution of an architectural structure, which ensures interior comfort through greenhouse effect in winter, that is, intensive natural ventilation in summer. Minaret is designed as an arabesque with a lot of symbolism, where light effects imply the importance of an event going on inside the mosque 11.

Figure 6: Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo (Google Earth) 10

This demand proved to be justified in terms of ensuring possibilities to heat only some of the rooms and functional parts of the mosque. Thereat, the first thing an outside viewer should perceive when he looks at the minaret is a sky travel of the prophet Muhammed (Isra and Mi'raj j), that is, victory of the light over dark. 11

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Figure 7. Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo, floor plans - Dwg. A. Hadrovic (1997) Figure 8: Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo, entrance façade – Dwg. A. Hadrovic (1997)

Figure 9: Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo (panoramic view)

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Figure 10. Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo (during day and at night)

Figure 11. Adil-bey's mosque in Sarajevo, interior

KUWAIT MOSQUE IN SARAJEVO (2004-2007) The author applied all of the aforementioned mosque design principles on the design of the Kuwait mosque in Sarajevo 12. This is a typical town’s mosque, built near the main longitudinal road – the spine of Sarajevo, in the central city zone (Figure 12). To design such a mosque was a quite sensitive task, since there were many objective and “mental” obstructions imposed by the surroundings. The author knew beforehand that he has to obtain the necessary

12 One should bear in mind that the name Kuwait mosque does not come from the design project, but the name derives from the donation given by the Kuwait kingdom for development of a Bosnian mosque project.

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monumentality of the mosque not with its size but with the power of purity and symbolism of its volume, regardless of the physical structures found in situ (Figures 12 and 15).

Figure 12. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo (Google Earth)

Ground plan of this mosque is a regular eight-armed star, where the arms of the star became porches of the balcony (mahfil), visible from the interior (as sky-windows) and in the fifth façade. Actually, from the interior one can see seven (triangular) arms of the star, whereas the eighth (that is the first in order) arm is transformed into a longitudinal light beam which follows the principal axis (direction of Quibla) of the mosque 13 (Figure 12 and 13). STAMBENI OBJEKAT

GLAVNA KAPIJA OGRADA

SADRVAN

OGRADA

pok

otvor

rivk

pok

i lim karn a:ba

rivk

pok

rivk

i lim karn a:ba

pok

i lim karn a:ba

rivk

l rigo

i lim karn a:ba

OGRADA

l rigo

POPLOCANJE

SUSJE

DNI

KAPIJA-INTERVENCIJE

pok

rivk

i lim karn a:ba

pok

l rigo

rivk

i lim karn a:ba

pok

rivk

i lim karn a:ba

l rigo

TRAVNJAK

OBJEK AT

OGRAD A

NAPOMENA:PRECIZNO UTVRDJIVANJE GRANICA URADIT CE OPCINSKI GEOMETAR NA LICU MJESTA

STAMBENI OBJEKAT TRAVNJAK

N

PRESJEK 1-1

Figure 13. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo, setting plan, and section. Dwg. A. Hadrovic (2004)

13 One of the most favourite comments on the referenced mosque for the author is that when a visitor surprisingly said when he entered the mosque ….”It’s bigger on the inside than on the outside”!

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Thanks to its location on the main longitudinal traffic, the spine of the city, and due to its overall benefits of carrying the message of a new and better future, Kuwait Mosque in Sarajevo has become a place of celebration of the Hijri New Year, (Figure 17 and 18). MINARET

IMAM

rampa za invalide OSTAVA MIMBERA

OSTAVA

URED

ABDESTHANA (M)

KIBLA

KIBLA

POLIVALENTNA DVORANA

MIHRAB

CENTRALNI MOLITVENI PROSTOR

CENTRALNI ULAZ

KIBLA

zracni prostor

MAHFIL

MEKTEB

ABDESTHANA (Ž)

URED

KUHINJA

OSTAVA

OSTAVA

PRIZEMLJE

SUTEREN

Figure 14. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo, floor plans and cross section. Dwg. A. Hadrovic (2004)

Figure 15. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo, exterior.

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Figure 16.. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo, interior.

Figure 17. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo at night. Photos: Anadolia (24.10.2014.)

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Figure 18. Kuvajtska mosque in Sarajevo at night. Photos: E. Hadžihasić (13.10.2015.)

CONCLUSION Light is the basic premise with which man realizes his environment. About 80% of the overall information that the man collects are those obtained by sense of vision. The existential importance of light for human architecture gets its functional usage confirmation and a number of dimensions that are in the sphere of art, psychology, religion, philosophy...The importance of light for the man and his community architecture is expressed, with equal importance, both day and night. At the same time, daily (natural) illumination provides the function of architectural space and receive messages from the outside during the day, and artificial lighting that conveys the message of architecture from the inside out, during the night. Light in architecture can be treated through some recent social agendas, such as, for example, energy efficiency and environmentally friendly architecture.

REFERENCES Hadrović, Ahmet. 2008. Bioclimatic Architecture, Searching for a Path to Heaven. North Charleston: Booksurge. Hadrović, Ahmet. 2009. Structural Systems in Architecture, North Charleston: Booksurge. Hadrović, Ahmet.2011., Architecture in the Context. Sarajevo: Acta Architectonica et Urbanistica, Arhitektonski fakultet u Sarajevu. Hadrović, Ahmet.2014. Water and man in autochthonous symbiosis in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo: Avicena, 2014. Internet sources: https://www.pinterest.com/explore/egypt/ - Accessed December 2016 (Figure 1) https://www.pinterest.com/pin/145030050470538153/ December 2016 (Figure 2) https://www.alucobondusa.com/blog/aluminum-facade-and-exterior-staircase-transforms-historic- church/#.WPSZKY8SGUl (Figure 3) https://mattsawasaki.wordpress.com/category/italy/, - Accessed December 2016 (Figure 4) http://www.archdaily.com/101260/ad-classics-church-of-the-light-tadao-ando - Accessed April 2016 (Figure 5) https://www.flickr.com/photos/antjeverena/2652372380/sizes/o/ Accessed April 2016 (Figure 5)

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THE HOMEOSTASIS AND THE SYNERGY IN THE CONTEMPORARY AND FUTURE LANDSCAPING Małgorzata Kądziela Institute of Cultural and Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland [email protected] Katarzyna Ujma-Wąsowicz Faculty of Architecture, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The contemporary methodologies of urban design are mostly concerned with the problem of the conceptualization of the idea of the city and optimization of the corresponding spatial forms with regard to the spatial and cost efficiency. These questions become more complicated with the introduction of the notion of meta-places, such as extended spaces of virtuality, into the landscaping. The negligence of human physicality/ecology reveals the designers’ insufficient understanding of the role of the synergy between the natural environment and the built environment of the city for the human life. In the field of architecture, scientific criteria and methods have been primarily applied in its technical, physical and utilitarian aspects, whereas the entire expressive and mental realm has been left to individual artistic intuition. The aim of the paper is to see into the role of the homeostasis paradigm in building the synergy between the countryside and the urban in the urban biome. Since the city amounts to the coexistence of people which is subject to the superior rule of nonlinear dynamics that transcend the environment, the human ways of perceiving the synergy between the urban and the countryside will be demonstrated through the concept of the sozoaesthetic design.

Keywords: urban and rural design, synergy, homeostasis, sozoaesthetics, urban biome

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INTRODUCTION Sustainable Development idea is at the core of the spatial planning process practiced in developed countries. Sustainability involves the healthy functioning of the more-than-human world in a way that sustains the continuance of life and promotes its well-being. According to the definition of sustainable development created by the UN Committee in 1987, accommodating the needs of the present generation should not preclude or limit the ability of accommodating the needs of the generations to come. Synergistic development is particularly important in the relationships between the city and the countryside. Yet, nowadays the commitment to sustainability must take a radically different approach. As the nature is more complex than we think (Sessions 1993), the role of the science and technology must maintain its homeostasis/homeodynamics (Przewoźniak 1991), therefore renouncing manipulation and appropriation of nature. We can no longer appropriate nature and then deal with the continual reengineering of nature, which leads to consequences that dangerously exceed our powers of forecasting. A prohomeostatic activity should be more focused on changing our relation to nature, not so much on changing it (Snyder 1993). Forms of human life environment, then, should be organized in the context of natural ecologies.

THE AESTHETICS OF THE RURAL VS THE AESTHETICS OF THE URBAN One of the most powerful and prevalent archetypes of the countryside/rural landscape at work among the Western culture city-dwellers is the romantic image of a picturesque landscape, linking the beauty of nature to ecological integrity and stability (Callicott 1994), and isolated from the civilization. The countryside seems to yield a range of experiences, from the scenic aesthetics derived from the essentially visual and immediate pleasure gaining process, to the intellectual contemplation traditionally associated with nature or the landscape and its ecological robustness (Bell 1999). Such aesthetic experience was conceptualized mainly in metaphysical terms thus determining the nature of the aesthetic values of beauty and the sublime. In the 1920s, Aldo Leopold suggested replacing the traditional aesthetics in urban planning and designing with ecological aesthetics, grounded on the land ethics. According to this concept, designing a sustainable, living rural environment should tend to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of its biotic community (Leopold, Aldo. 1981). This demands the broadening of our idea of the aesthetic experience, renouncing the scenic aesthetics of contemplation associated with the romanticized and emotional picture of the rural landscape, in favour of a new one based on actual knowledge. Although the sentimental scenery provides pleasure in terms of complete sensory engagement, it should be replaced by exploration and appreciation of the dynamics of natural change, ultimately leading to deeper satisfaction and elucidation of the spirit of the place. Even though our ability to perceive quality in nature begins, as in arts, with the pretty, it is then enhanced in the perception of the ecologically healthy landscape in its vastness, and ultimately be intensified in the form proper of beauty. According to Simon Bell, this connects the natural and cultural patterns and processes with a most rewarding vein for aesthetic exploration (Bell 1999). This model is in fact the theoretical representation of the psychological perceptual model/laws, the result of the spatial characteristics of the scene such as nearness, enclosure, interlock, similarity

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and figure and ground (Gestalt laws), and the structural components of scale, proportion, balance, tension of ordering components of hierarchy, transformation and symmetry (cognitive laws), also temporal variation of the landscape, enabling it to produce a large number of differently perceived environments. Over the ages, various processes have contributed the merging of rural and urban areas. The characteristic features of European cities developing between the 17th and the 19th century was their strict separateness from the countryside/rural landscape, as well as the strict distinction between public and private space. City or town areas that served a particular, designated function in the bourgeoisie way of life were always centrally located. In the late 1800s, as a result of industrialization and the associated mass-migration of the rural population into cities (which then lacked the urban instruments necessary to accommodate the needs of the newly established forms of society), the bourgeois city model was replaced by a functional one which went on to dominate the urban discourse in the period spanning from the 1920s to the 1970s (Hilpert 1978). In the functional city, which was a radical response to the problems associated with organizing mass-scale employment and housing, a spatial order aimed at separating work and accommodation was introduced. Hence, the division of the built environment. The new standard and quality of life for the masses required complete removal of the living sphere from the city centre, whereas the crucial issue in urban design became the organization and regulation of a system of individual and public transport (commuting). For the postindustrial society, in turn, the two most natural types of environment have become the city and the cyberspace (Filiciak 2006). The city is no longer perceived as a space that is merely physical. It becomes a space where people, money, commodities and information continuously flow, a network of flows. The Internet has facilitated the concentration of these elements in centres which are, at the same time, both urban and global (Castells 2003). Since the 1980s, culture dynamics has been the city’s central aspect (Imrie and Raco 2003). The symbolical infusion of the culturally-oriented city is juxtaposed with the standardization and the symbolical void of the functional city of the past. Urban subcultures seek community space, and the academic middle class pursue the ethos of creative personal growth (Leinberger and Bruce. 1991). Globally and locally, for consumption- and creative economy-oriented enterprises the city is a land or space of business opportunity. Urban policy based on the cultural revitalization and the creative city models sees them as an essential constituent of the city’s economic growth and appeal for its citizens and visitors alike. In some particularly advanced cases, given city neigbourhoods or districts acquire the character of designscapes (Julier 2005) whose crucial aspect is aestheticization, understood as creating atmospheres. The concept of “atmosphere” means that within a given spatial arrangement, certain moods and affects are purposefully created, to be experienced for the sake of experience alone (devoid of any deeper meaning). “Festivalization” and “eventization” (Quinn 2005.) have become the hallmarks of the creative city, as manifested most clearly by theatre, film and music festivals or seasonal exhibitions held throughout the year. Despite the essential role that the creative class and the technological innovations due to information technology boom played at the turn of the 20th and the 21st century, cities remain grounded in the physical space of the environment. Citizens’ sensory and affective resources tend to be equally exploited by the creative planning regime and the dehumanized environment (Roseland 2005), with the homeodynamics of the built environment disrupted.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Achieving the desired model of sustainability through the creative economy path has proven seriously challenged by the lack of environmental values which were still at work in the industrial society’s functional city.

THE URBAN BIOME AND THE PROBLEM OF THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Every built environment consists of three sub-sets. The physical one involves the geomorphic surfaces and hydrologic structure within a climatic regime. It appears to be the slowest to change, and therefore the most predictable for modelling. Key variables in its perception are seasonality and ambience indicated by such a factors as natural shelters. The next one, the biotic, consists of plants and animals bound with ecological relationships to the physical as well as cultural environments. This subsystem is more difficult to predict and model than the previous one. The third subsystem, the cultural one, consists of the human beings that maintain their relationship to the physical and ecological environments. This sub-system is the most likely to change and fluctuate. We suggest the concept of the urban biome to describe the synergy of the subsystems within the boundaries of a given urban structure. It would be defined as a spatially determined form of environment, accommodating the needs of all living beings as regards the supply of matter, energy, information and aesthetic values, their relative distribution and predictability. Within the structure of a particular urban biome, all the dimensions of the built environment are more specific. The urban biome “provides” services (Solon 2008; Daily 1997; Costanza, D’Arge De Groot 1997) for the cultural environment it encompasses (Daily 1997). This includes provisioning of natural resources (renewable and nonrenewable), agricultural products (of plant origin, e.g. wooden and wood-like). Regulating services are provided within the physical and bionic subsystem (purification of air, control of climate), and are aimed at counteracting natural threats, such as flooding, soil erosion, postindustrial damage, spreading of diseases and pests. Supporting services include maintaining genetic biodiversity, soil and water habitat formation, the hydrological cycle or regulation of nutrient cycles. Within the last subsystem, cultural services are rendered, accommodating the human aesthetic needs. These are nonmaterial, but cognitive, including e.g. the benefits of scenery, as well as cultural, spiritual, emotional and science and education-related experiences. One of the tasks of the contemporary and future urban design is to maintain the ecological dynamics of the all living systems that exploit resources outlined above. The urban biome is an anthropogenic creation, and as such it is subject to human impact (Solon, Jerzy. 2008). If the impact is excessive compared with the environment’s ability to maintain ecological self-control, the homeostasis of the biome’s subsystems is impaired. This is most clearly manifested by the decreased potential of all the systems for the provision of services (oriented at self-control and resilience, resources and functioning, and perception and behaviour) (Przewoźniak 1991).

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GLIWICE – WILCZE GARDŁO AS AN EXAMPLE OF THE URBAN BIOME Gliwice is a city in southwestern Poland, in the western part of the Silesian Voivodeship and the Upper Silesian conurbation, on the Katowice elevation, by the Kłodnica river. The city was incorporated into Poland in 1945. According to a German linguist, Heinrich Adamy (Adamy 1888), the city’s name is derived from the function the initial settlement originally served, namely change of horses when nobility travelled (Adamy 1888). At present, the city has a population of 180 000 inhabitants. Gliwice is an academic centre (it is the home to the Technical University of Silesia, one of the larger employers in the region) and also houses nearly 25 thousand businesses operating in various sectors, including production, technical and creative design, logistics, and service industry. This substantial economic potential is a driving force for the local authorities to invest in new spatial solutions, including housing (new residential developments with single-family houses and apartment complexes), transport, sports and large format retail centres. In 2015, parks, community gardens, green recreational and green residential open spaces accounted for as little as 3.1% of the city’s total area, making Gliwice one of the cities in the region with the smallest proportion of green spaces to the total urban area. Also, over the recent years, some investments have been carried out that seem to stand in the way of sustainable development. Drogowa Trasa Średnicowa, DTŚ, a two-lane intercity road intersecting the town is certainly among them. Another one is Hala Sportowa, a sports venue with a capacity of 15 000 spectators, which serves as an example of an ambitious investment gone wrong, as it is ill-aligned with sustainable development and, like multiple Polish projects executed over the recent years, may never come to be profitable. Large format retail centres are another area of controversy, as even though economically sound, vastly profitable for the city, and crowded with customers, they have already contributed to the demise of the Old Town area, the progressing replacement of spatial structures typical for the industrial and administrative cities by forms of living, work and leisure that result in semiotic and aesthetic “culturalization” of the urban space. Wilcze Gardło, once a farming village after the World War II and now a residential area of the city, was incorporated into the city in 1975. It had been originally designed and set up in the years 1937-1941 on the grounds of a marshy forest belonging to Smolnica village (German Smolnitz up to 1936 and Eichenkamp in 1937-1945), colloquially known as Wilk (source of Rzyketka stream). In the Western part of the forest, a drinking well for the settlement was located, with a pumping facility housed in a separate building stylistically matching the houses in the village. In present day, the water well is connected to the water supply system of Gliwice city. In the forest, two wells are still functional, to be used as emergency drinking water supply. Wilcze Gardło was designed by Rudolf Fischer (http://architekturabytomia.org/pl/osoba/show/Fischer+Rudolf) to resemble an ancient Germanic settlement, communicated by a road passing through the Fellowship House serving as the gatehouse. Right through the gate, there was the village square enclosed by multi-family houses with commercial space on the ground floor. The whole concept was completed by the school building with a pitch,

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE surrounded by more rings of single-family homes. The settlement’s layout featured a main axis connecting the village square and the sports stadium, complemented by a ring street system with housing. The village’s history dates back to the Third Reich period when, in 1936, the general idea for such settlements was developed. The assumption was to build small, self-sufficient settlements modelled on ancient Germanic villages, composed by small, two-floor single-family houses with adjoining utility buildings and small gardens. According to the original project, a bathing pool was to be built in the southern part of the forest, yet this never came to be implemented. West of the bathing pool area, Fischer situated the village cesspit, whose remnants have survived until today. It was linked to public utility facilities and multi-family houses in the settlement. Sewage from single-family houses was directed to ditches situated at the borders of estates located at neighbouring streets. At present, the newly erected buildings are single-family, energy-efficient houses. When founded, the settlement was primarily intended as a housing estate for the Nazi Party (NSDAP) officials and members of SA and SS formations. On 1 April 1941, it became an independent administrative unit, and its initial name of SA-Siedlung Eichenkamp was changed to Glaubenstadt, (Faithful City). It was then allocated an area of 63.7353 ha (approx. 160 acres). In 1945, it was renamed once more, this time to Wilcze Gardło (Wolf Throat) (the name’s author is unknown), yet the people of the village and the neighbouring areas have continued to colloquially refer to it as Wilk (Wolf). In 1970, the area had a population of over 1500 inhabitants. In the early 1970s, the houses were put out on sale to their tenants. Later, the newly-established house owners began to sell their garden plots for development to individual buyers, who in turn built houses on the plots, largely disturbing the original layout of the village. The street plan, however, has remained intact, with a new road added to connect the place to Smolnica village . The Fellowship House is no longer the only gateway into the previous “Faithful Town”. In the 1990s, a full sewage system was built, complete with a sewage treatment plant. Currently, the area is beginning to flourish, as it offers a welcome change of pace and lifestyle from the hustle and bustle of the city centre for those employed in Gliwice. In short, it is, in a sense, returning to the idyllic assumptions at its design roots (http://ciekawe.onet.pl/historia/glaubenstadt-gliwickie-nazistowskie-wierne-miasto,1,5271272,artykul.html).

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Figure 1: The map of Wilcze Gardlo – district of Gliwice city, Poland (source: http://msip-mapa.um.gliwice.pl:9090/gpt4/?profile=1000) and view of the centre [1] (source: K. Ujma-Wasowicz)

TOWARDS THE SOZOAESTHETIC DESIGN In the case of the urban biome of Gliwice and Wilcze Gardło, the dominant human environmental impact are the spatial relationships between the ecosystem and the buildings, resulting from the historical planning rules from the time of its establishment (as described in one of the previous sections). The strongest one is the visual image of the built structures as isolated from the ecological sphere. The extent of the human impact on the environment is systematically growing, as the currently executed infrastructural investments are not accompanied by renewal of ecosystem resources. The decreased number of the investments is not enough to compensate for the adverse results of the civilization advancement that have affected all the biome’s subsystems. The consequence is still more intensified by the processes of the accelerated connectivity to the global techno and virtual sphere (telecommunication and cyberspace). The biome’s vitality has been largely diminished by the human influences. Hence, one of the key tasks that architecture and design in Gliwice have to confront is to create living culture-nature metabolism inside the urban biome, i.e. to restore the homeodynamics among the existing relations to and within the natural environment of the biome. We postulate that inside the urban biome consisting of countryside/rural and city areas, like the Gliwice and Wilcze Gardło one, the design should be based on the redefined aesthetic and ethical values of ecology rather than on agricultural resources. But the aesthetic dimension of design should be revised, with the aesthetics of disinterestedness replaced by the practice of sozoaesthetics. The traditional design/urban planning scrutinizes the

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE local infrastructure determining their value as resources for economic growth, and as such has to be questionable. Similarly, the traditional aesthetics’ theory of disinterestedness (introduced in this paper in a brief description of countryside and city aesthetics) should also be found questionable (Rolston 1998). Sozoaesthetics, in contrast, as a sub-discipline of sozology, deals with human negative activity in order to preserve the balance between the biophysical, structural (especially that impoverished by the human impact) and cultural dimensions of the urban biome. The maintenance of the homeodynamics within the relations across the levels of organization of the urban biome is the main task of sozoaesthetics. The sozoaesthetic design should begin with the understanding of the way the ecosystem interacts with anthroposphere (Anselm 2006). Therefore, designers need to start with a profound understanding of local human factors, the traditional sense of community in particular. A contextual view of reality is crucial to reduce the level of anxiety and uncertainty related to the process of transformation and a given community’s role in it. A realistic sozoaesthetic design includes biochemical changes and biotic additions. It makes the concept of sustainability more operational. Viewing the environment as a seamless unity of places, organisms and perceptions challenges the immersion of humans into the natural environment. Summarizing, sozoaesthetic design should be focused on bringing aesthetic appreciation of environments, both natural and human, in line with the moral obligations to maintain ecological health (Rolston 1995), and to forge strong positive links between aesthetic appreciation of nature and nature preservation inside the urban biome.

REFERENCES Books 1997. “The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital”, edited by Costanza Robert., D’Arge Ralph, De Groot Rudolf et al. Nature, no. 387: 253-260. 2005. “Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. Adamy, Heinrich. 1888. Die Schlesischen Ortsnamen ihre entstechung und bedeutungs. 9. Breslau: Verlag von Priebotsch’s Buchhandlung. Bell, Simon. 1999. Landscape: Pattern, Perception and Process, 81-82. London, New York, and Canada. Castells,Manuel. 2003. Galaktyka internetu, 2 5 1, translated by Hornowski Tomasz. Poznań: Rebis. Daily, Gretchen. 1997. Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington: Island Press. Imrie, Rob and Raco, Mike. 2003. Urban Renaissance? New Labour, Community and Urban Policy. Bristol: Policy Press, University of Bristol.

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Leinberger, Paul and Tucker, Bruce. 1991. The New Individualists. The Generation after the Organization Man. New York: Harper Collins. Leopold, Aldo. 1981. A Sand County almanac, and Sketches here and there, 224-225. New York: Oxforf University Press. Przewoźniak, Maciej. 1991. Krajobrazowy system interakcyjny strefy nadmorskiej w Polsce. Gdańsk: Uniwersytet Gdański. Rogers, Richard. 1999. Towards an Urban Renaissance. Final Report of the Urban Task Force. London: Spon. Roseland, Marc. 2005. Toward Sustainable Communities. Resources for Citizens and their Governments. Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers. Book chapters Callicott, J. Baird. 1994. “The Land Aesthetic.” In Ecological Prospects: Scientific, Religious, and Aesthetic Perspectives, edited by Chapple Christopher Key. Albany: SUNY Press. Sessions, George. 1993. “Ecocentrism, Wilderness, and Global Ecosystem Protection.” In Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, edited by Zimmerman Michael E., Callicott J. Baird, Warren Karen J., Klaver, Irene J., Clark John, 253. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall College. Snyder, Gary. 1993. “The Place, the Region, and the Commons.” In Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, edited by Zimmerman Michael E., Callicott J. Baird, Warren Karen J., Klaver, Irene J., Clark John, 441-456. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall College. Journal articles Anselm, A.J. 2006. “Developing Designs in Balance with Nature.” Eco-Architecture: Harmonization between Architecture and Nature. WIT Trans. Built Environ., no. 86: 195–205. Filiciak, Mirosław. 2006 . “Cybergeografia, transarchitektura.” Kultura popularrna 2 (16): 25-30.

Gobster, Paul H. 1995. “Aldo Leopold’s Ecological Esthetic: Integrating Esthetic and Biodiversity Values.” Journal of Forestry, 93: 6–10. Hilpert, Thilo. 1978. “Die funktionelle Stadt. Le Corbusiers Stadtvision – Bedingungen.“ Motive, Hintergründe, 14–20, 39–57. Braunschweig: Vieweg Verlag.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Julier, Guy. 2005. “Urban Designscapes and the Production of Aesthetic Consent.”. IUrban Studies, no. 42, vol. 5/6: 869–887. Solon, Jerzy. 2008. „Koncepcja “Ecosystem services” i jej zastosowania w badaniach ekologiczno-krajobrazowych.” Problemy Ekologii Krajobrazu, T. 21: 25-44; 113-125. Quinn, Bernadette. 2005. “Arts Festivals and the City.” Urban Studies, no. 42, vol. 5/6: 927–943. Relph, Edward. 1981. Rational Landscapes and Humanistic Geography, 159-212. Beckenham, UK: Croom Helm. Rolston, Holmes III. 1995. “Does Aesthetic Appreciation of Nature Need to be Science Based?” British Journal of Aesthetics, no. 35: 374–386. Rolston, Holmes III. 1998. “Challenges in environmental ethics.” In Environmental Philosophy. From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology, edited by Zimmerman Michael E, 125-144. New Yersey: Prentice Hall. Internet sources http://architekturabytomia.org/pl/osoba/show/Fischer+Rudolf. Accessed April 10, 2017. http://ciekawe.onet.pl/historia/glaubenstadt-gliwickie-nazistowskie-wierne-miasto,1,5271272,artykul.html. Accesed April 2017.

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PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURAL REGIONALISM AS MEANS OF BUILT FORM IMPROVEMENT IN BOKA BAY, MONTENEGRO Kosara Kujundzic PhD student at Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade, Njegoseva 171, Kotor, Montenegro, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The concept of architectural regionalism raises the main question of architectural adjusting to natural, physical, social and cultural context. According to this, we can distinguish the following contemporary principles of architectural regionalism: sustainable design principles as a response to natural and physical context of a region (adjusting building to climate and landscape by its form, usage of local materials, earth sheltering) and critical regionalism principles as a response to physical, social and cultural context (reinterpretation of traditional elements and principles in innovative and creative manner fostering identity of a particular place and genius loci while embracing universal values). Boka Bay is the southernmost fjord in Europe, unique in its natural and cultural beauty recognized by UNESCO, distinguishing it as a specific region. Vernacular architecture of this area is exceptional and well known for its ambient values. Widely spread contemporary design practice disrespectful to this architectural heritage or any form of context, driven only by profit, has caused devastation of space and the ambience. In this paper, a comparison between the traditional and the contemporary architecture of Boka Bay has been made, introducing a new method of evaluating and improving built form and the townscape by applying principles of architectural regionalism (sustainable design and critical regionalism). Keywords: Architectural regionalism, context, sustainability, critical regionalism, built form INTRODUCTION Boka Bay, a fjord located in the south Adriatic Sea, Montenegro, is unique in its natural and cultural beauty, recognized and protected by UNESCO. The specific geography and climate of the bay, as well as its socio-cultural and architectural characteristics distinguish it as a specific region. This region has been developed and modified throughout the history by various civilisations: Romans, Republic of Venice and Austro Hungarian Monarchy, resulting in valuable architectural heritage. Traditional architecture of this area is harmonized with the natural and built environment, diverse but unified. On the contrary, contemporary architecture of Boka Bay results in inharmonious built form, disrespectful to the natural or traditional values of the region. This is a consequence of specific socio-cultural circumstances in Boka, where the private Investor’s interest commonly shaped only by profit, dictate the course of the building and thus the final appearance of the urban form.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE The principles of architectural regionalism are aimed at providing a valuable architectural response to natural, physical, social and cultural context. Sustainability and critical regionalism are regionalist approaches that can be distinguished as the most context-sensitive. Hence, the architectural principles originating from these approaches can help in overcoming the harmful phenomena in contemporary architecture of Boka Bay, providing a foundation for urban form improvement. Like that, the architecture can once again become the high-quality representation of Boka region. The research includes comparison of the vernacular architectural paradigm and contemporary design concepts and realisations in this area, analysed through the principles of architectural regionalism today (sustainable design and critical regionalism).

THE BOKA BAY REGION The Boka Bay region is culturally and geographically specific region. It was a crossing point of many civilizations: Roman Empire, Venetian Republic and Austro Hungarian Monarchy, which all have left important traces in language, lifestyles, building and culture. The topography of Boka Bay fjord consists of a contrasting narrow slightly sloped coast area and steep mountain ridges. The climate is Mediterranean, including hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters, prevailing winds being bura, dry, cold wind blowing from land to sea (northeast direction) and jugo, warm wind blowing from the south (sea) bringing rain. Vernacular architecture of Boka Bay is a paradigm of bioclimatic design, respectful to the nature and its changes, harmonized with the surrounding and the social needs of Boka’s inhabitants. The typical “Boka house” in the Bay area is of a rectangular shape floor plan, made of stone blocks, with pitched roof covered with reddish roof tiles called kanalica. Wooden shutters called shkure in green or white colour are used as shading devices and also a protection against wind and rain, while wooden pergolas covered with grapes in front of the houses provide shade during the summer, and enable sunlight at winter when leafless.

ARCHITECTURAL REGIONALIST DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN BOKA BAY Regardful approach towards topography of a region Harmonizing building with the topography of a region is one of the fundamental sustainable design and critical regionalist objectives. Synthesis of architecture and landscape is a crucial part of ambience and place making. In the vernacular architecture of Boka Bay the form of houses follows morphology of the terrain. At least one floor is earth sheltered, which saves energy due to the earth acting like thermo insulator. The downhill roof line follows the slope of the land. It appears as if the houses emerge from the landscape (Figure 1). In contrast to this old tradition, contemporary architecture in Boka Bay includes negative trends of deep excavations on the hilly terrains and flattening the land which causes devastation of the place (Figure 2) : “the bulldozing of an irregular topography into a flat site is clearly a technocratic gesture which aspires to a condition of absolute placelessness, whereas the terracing of the same site to receive the stepped form of a building is an engagement in

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the act of “cultivating” the site”(1). Architectural regionalism implies strong connection between buildings and the landscape. A successful example of this approach is the first award winning project of the competition “Artist residence in Boka”. This project, signed by Japanese architect Tomohiro Hata, proposes full adjustment of the houses to the surrounding terrain by following the contour lines with the form of façades and retaining walls (Figure 4). The houses are stepped, blending into the natural surrounding (Figure 3).

Figure 1 Vernacular arch. adjusting to landscape by roof line and earth sheltering, Stoliv, Kotor

Figure 2 Contemporary trends of deep excavations and “bulldozing the site” Kostanjica, Kotor

Figure 3 Competition winning project of Artist residence in Boka- architecture adjusting to the landscape

The walls are made of local material- stone, widely spread in the landscape. Like this, stepped houses are blended into the surrounding being perceived like an extension of the landscape, stressing out the natural configuration of the land.

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Figure 4 Artist residence competition winning project- shaping of the houses according to the contour lines

Harmonizing architecture with climate of a region Climate of a region is one of the most significant influential factors in the architectural regionalist design. In the vernacular architecture of Boka Bay, Mediterranean climate determines form and orientation of buildings. Traditional

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houses have compact form, with a rectangular shape of floor plans. Narrow facades are facing north and south, while west and east facades are bigger. Like that, smaller wall mass is exposed to cold, sunless north side while larger surfaces oriented towards west and east get more sunlight. Similarly, bigger openings are positioned on the west and east facades, while north sides get fewer and much smaller openings. Negative contemporary architectural trends in Boka Bay include orientation of houses only towards the sea, regardless of the climatic conditions. Also, the climate is irrelevant for the organization of the houses. Again, day and night areas are positioned only according to the sea views. In contrast to this practice, regionalist approach includes two principal methods of dealing with climate of a region: reinterpretation of traditional climatic devices for use in new buildings and correlation of form and organization of buildings with the climatic conditions of a particular region (2). Traditional climatic devices in Boka Bay are wooden shutters and pergolas in front of the houses. Shutters protect the openings from sun and wind, while pergolas provide shade for the front terraces and ground floor area. These devices have been used in a slightly different form today, but still are efficient and appropriate response to climatic conditions of Boka Bay. Shutters are made of more durable materials (such as aluminium or steel), available in wide range of colours and textures, frequently made as sliding. Pergolas are also present, made of wires connecting metal or wooden columns over which grapes grow. Also, sustainable design principle here is to have solar collectors on top of the pergolas, providing shade underneath, while at the same time gaining electricity or heating water by using solar energy. The most energy efficient is compact form of houses, while the organization is defined according to the sun position: living area (living room, kitchen, dining room) are facing south and/or west reducing the need for heating during colder seasons, while less occupied night area (bedrooms, bathrooms) faces north or east receiving less sunshine.

Usage of locally abundant materials (resources) One of the sustainable design principles and the principles of critical regionalism is the usage of indigenous local resources- materials. The most abundant, autochthone material in Boka Bay is stone (sandstone and limestone). The stone was used as primary building material in this region since the ancient times. It was widely used in vernacular architecture of Boka, and is still used in contemporary architecture today. In the old times, the stone was basic structural material in building façade walls that used to carry the entire weight of the house. Today, it is mostly just a thin surface layer of the façade, simply glued over the walls in order to make façade look more ’’traditional’’. The new usage of stone has lost a structural sincerity that old houses used to have. However, a more advanced, sustainable approach here would be applying ventilated façade with a final layer of stone supported by substructure. Like that, a circulation of air is enabled between the stone layer and structural wall which eliminates moisture and improves thermal insulation of a building making it more energy efficient. This new usage of a traditional material is in accordance with critical regionalist credo, since it fosters ties to a particular place. To clarify, the stone taken from the surrounding enables adjusting architecture to the landscape.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE The usage of stone in Boka Bay has social and cultural meaning, defining genius loci. In the old, prehistoric times, there was only sea and the rock. The first settlements were on the rocks. The Bay is surrounded by rocky mountains. The rock (stone) is a symbol of stability, anchoring, static. In contrast to it, sea symbolizes movement, dynamic, change. Throughout the history and today still, majority of the Boka’s inhabitants have been seafarers or fishermen. Also, sea trade and sea tourism or conquest via sea have culturally transformed Boka. Therefore, this duality of eternal elements symbolizes the life ways of Boka’s inhabitants and the history of Boka. The stone representing roots, home, place to return to, peaceful harbour, the sea representing life, connection to the world. This is why stone is architectural necessity in Boka. In the neighbouring Municipality of Budva, the usage of stone on the facades significantly reduces communal taxes, in order to motivate investors to use it more and increase ambient values in contemporary architecture. Façade treatment is an important part in creating an image of the place. In traditional architecture, for the southern facades exposed to rain and thus prone to mould, red mortar was used, made of clay originating from the plateau of Tivat, small town in Boka Bay. Thus, the southern facades were in red colour, while the other facades use to have shades of grey, depending on the colours of stone, or rarely mortar (Figure 5). Nowadays, the facades vary in strange and unappropriated colours, ranging from bright yellow to purple or blue (Figure 6).

Figure 5 Traditional architecture in Muo, Kotor: harmonizing facades with the surrounding

Figure 6 Contemporary architecture in Dobrota, Kotor, inappropriate usage of materials and colours

Regionalist approach in Boka Bay area would be adjusting new facades to the surrounding by proposing local materials and colours similar to traditional, but used differently and with a reference to the old ones An example of this approach is house in Bigova (Kotor Municipality) (Figure 7). This house designed by Serbian architect Vasilije Milunovic is an example of regionalist approach- adjusting house to the surrounding by usage of local materials

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(stone) with colouristic accents in a grey stone walls (blue shutters). The final processing of the material (stone cut) differs from the traditional one, stone blocks are smaller, some smooth, some rough, providing subtle and harmonious variations in visual perception. In addition, this house is an example of architecture successfully adjusted to the landscape by wide range of Mediterranean vegetation.

Figure 7 House in Bigovo, Kotor, example of critical regionalist architecture- usage of local, indigenous material in a new manner, a house harmonizing with the surrounding/landscape

Critical regionalist approach in reinterpretation of traditional architectural elements can be found in shaping of windows in housing complex in Lapcici, Budva, seaside town not far away from Boka. In vernacular architecture, window openings in a thick stone wall mass widen towards inside having a trapezoidal form in floor plan. This architectural motif is reinterpreted in an inverse way in this housing complex designed by Montenegrin architect Srdjan Tadic (Figure 9). Also, the complex demonstrates wide range of possibilities in architectural creation in stone, from details to overall appearance. The creation is in shaping and contrasting the final cut of the material (Figure 8).

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Figure 8, 9: Housing complex in Lapcici, Budva, an example of artistic architectural creation in stone

CONCLUSIONS Boka Bay region is exceptional and unique in its natural and cultural beauty, transformed over centuries of different rule. Vernacular architecture in Boka is a valuable example of contextual architectural heritage. However, mainstream contemporary architecture in Boka is disrespectful to the history or any form of context, causing devastation of space. In contrast to this, architectural regionalism implies regardful approach towards context and genius loci. The principles of sustainable design and critical regionalism have been distinguished as the most context- sensitive and hence as means of overcoming these harmful tendencies. Building in harmony with the topography of a region is an important regionalist design principle due to energy savings (earth sheltering) and adjusting of stepped architecture to the hilly landscape which helps minimizing its negative impact on the natural context. Climate is one of the most important natural factors in defining a region. Regionalist approach is reflected in compact forms of houses and positioning of the openings depending on the sun. Also, reinterpretation of the traditional climatic devices is one of the important regionalist responses to the climatic conditions. Finally, usage of locally abundant, indigenous material such as stone is sustainable design and critical regionalist principle. However, it should be used in a different manner than in the vernacular architecture, by applying new techniques and/or styles in façade treatment.

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To conclude, these principles of Architectural regionalism are important guidelines to achieving architecture in harmony with the natural, physical and cultural context, which is the only way to establish it as a valuable representation of a region.

REFERENCES Boussora, Kenza, 2007. ”Regionalism: Lessons from Algeria and the Middle East.” In Architectural Regionalism. Collected writings on Place, Identity, Modernity and Tradition, edited by Vincent Canizaro, 124-25. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Frampton, Kenneth, 1983. "Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six points for an architecture of resistance", In Anti-Aesthetic. Essays on Postmodern Culture, 26. Seattle: Bay Press. Figure 1, 2, 5, 6, 7: courtesy of Kosara Kujundzic Figure 3, 4: http://archinect.com/news/gallery/58019542/3/boka-artist-residence-on-the-adriatic- coast-winning-designs Figure 8, 9: courtesy of Srdjan Tadic

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INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN SERBIA: KIKINDA CASE STUDY Danilo S. Furundžić 14 JP Kikinda, Trg srpskih dobrovoljaca 11, Kikinda, Serbia, [email protected] Božidar S. Furundžić CPM Consulting, Makenzijeva 23/5, Beograd, Serbia, [email protected] Vladimir Vujović JP Kikinda, Trg srpskih dobrovoljaca 11, Kikinda, Serbia, [email protected] Dragana Ivaniš JP Kikinda, Iđoški put 4, Kikinda, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Serbia tries to bring foreign companies and manufacturing industries into the country on the basis of its low wages, closeness to European markets and free trade status with both the EU and Russia. The objective of this paper is to present briefly some of the suitable sites in Kikinda, which are attractive as investment opportunity. In this paper, following foreign direct investment matters discussion and analysis of Serbia as investment target, Kikinda advantages and greenfield and brownfield sites are concisely described. Then urban designs of business complex and free zone, both in Kikinda, are presented. Besides Serbia's common advantages of doing business, Kikinda offers appropriate greenfield and brownfield sites for developing and reconstruction to foreign investors. Keywords: Serbia, Kikinda, Sites, Opportunities, Investment

INTRODUCTION International investing is popular all over the world because of the chance for capital growth and risk diversification. There is a competition for foreign direct investment among countries in transition. Serbia tries to bring foreign companies and manufacturing industries into the country on the basis of its low wages, closeness to European 14

Corresponding author

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markets and free trade status with both the EU and Russia. Various districts and towns in Serbia, concurrently with Kikinda - Town and Municipality, compete and attempt to attract foreign investors. Kikinda has two industrial zones. The old zone, located at the town entrance, is planned for development of private entrepreneurship and agriculture. The new industrial zone, situated at a periphery 1.5 km from the town centre, has building land and is planed for private entrepreneurship and craft production. The aim of this paper is to draw attention to greenfield and brownfield sites investment opportunities in the Town of Kikinda.

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI) First of all, let us clarify economics linguistic sintagma: "foreign direct investment". Investment is the act of putting money into something to make a profit. Direct investment targets a specific enterprise. That is opposite to indirect investment targeting a portfolio. Investor, entity making investment, can be domestic or foreign. Foreign investment includes capital flows from one country to another. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an investment in the form of controlling ownership in business in one country by an entity based in another country (Razin, Sadka, 2016). In developing countries FDI provides investment when domestic one is unavailable. International practice proves that FDI is a win-win situation in which each party benefits. An investor gains access to resources and markets and obtain cheaper products and services. Foreign country gets external capital, new industries, jobs, modern knowledge. FDI brings not only capital, but also better management and technology. The know-how transferred with FDI is often more worthy than the capital itself. This transfer helps domestic industry to become more competitive. FDI is a link to international markets and a key for development. Examples of FDI undertakings are: facility constructing, foreign firm acquisition, joint venture establishment (Furundžić, D., Furundžić, S., 2008). There are two models of FDI: horizontal and vertical. In horizontal FDI foreign company does same activities abroad as at home. On the other hand, in vertical FDI different activities are carried out abroad. Two different types of FDI are greenfield and brownfield investments. Greenfield investment occurs when an investor constructs a new facility in a foreign country. New facility offers design flexibility and optimal project management. Brownfield investment occurs when an investor purchases an existing facility to begin new production. In that way construction is avoided and starting up cost may be significantly reduced.

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SERBIA: INVESTMENT ADVANTAGES Landlocked Serbia is a small Balkan country surrounded by eight neighbour countries (Figure 1), four of them inside the European Union (EU). Serbia has a very good geographical position and mild climate. Thanks to motorways (Corridors X and XI) and the Danube River (Corridor VII) with its navigable tributaries (Sava, Tisa) Serbia is well connected with other countries (Deloitte, 2015). The transition of Serbia, starting after the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), represents complex, slow and delayed process (Uvalić, 2010). Causes of delay are internal (Yugoslavia decomposition, military conflicts) and external (international sanctions, NATO bombing). Serbia's transition incorporates legal harmonisation, innovative strategies (institutions, administration, agriculture, industry, research and development) and EU financial assistance (Furundžić, JakšićKiurski, Petrović, 2016). Major sectors of Serbian economy are: agriculture, food, textile, automotive, construction, ICT, tourism (SIEPA, 2015). Agricultural products (livestock, crop, fruit) have good quality. The food industry is adequately developed. The textile industry has highly qualified workers and cooperates with the leading foreign garment brands. The Serbian automotive industry, with experienced workers, is in progress. Construction is focused on transport infrastructure and buildings in cities. Serbia is attractive spot for information and communication technology (ICT) industry. International tourism has important role in Serbia. Investing in Serbia main advantages are active trade agreements and competitive operation costs. Serbia has bilateral and multilateral Free Trade Agreements (FTA) (EKN, 2015). Such contracts concluded are: Stabilisation and Association Agreement with EU, Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with CEFTA countries, FTA with Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, FTA with European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and FTA with Turkey. Operating costs In Serbia put together labour, utilities and taxes (EKN, 2015). Serbian workers are usually skilled and management speaks English. Office rents are competitive and prices of fuels and motor vehicles maintenance are low. Taxes (corporate, personal income) are reasonable.

KIKINDA: GREENFIELD AND BROWNFIELD SITES Kikinda is a town (Figure 1) and a municipality (Figure 2) located in the Banat district, in Vojvodina - autonomous province of Serbia. Kikinda Town and 9 villages (Figure 2) in its surrounding constitute Kikinda Municipality (Table 1) (Furundžić D., Ivaniš, Furundžić B., 2016). The town of Kikinda, with circa 38000 population, is the economic and social centre of North Banat.

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Figure 1: Kikinda in Serbia

Figure 2: Kikinda Municipality

Kikinda, established as a modern settlement in the 18th century, is a well planned town (Ilijašev, 2002) with wide streets orthogonally laid, a central square, city hall, churches, public edifices, market, and so forth. Town’s urban infrastructure is basically founded for the flow of people, goods, water, energy, and information. Table 1: Kikinda Municipality data

DATA Total area Agricultural area (2013) Population (2011) Population average age (2011) Number of employees (2014)

UNIT 783 km2 70538 ha 59453 42.4 13679

Regional roads connect Kikinda with adjacent towns and villages in Vojvodina. Kikinda is 10 km from the Romanian border, 65 km from Hungarian border, and 130 km from Belgrade, the capital. The town is connected by rail with the Romanian border, with Subotica, and with Belgrade via Zrenjanin. There is a dock for waterway industrial transport by Danube – Tisa – Danube Canal passing through Kikinda Municipality. Banat's fertile farmland ensures successful agriculture (wheat, sunflower seeds, soybean, fruit and vegetables) and existence of natural raw materials (oil, gas, quality clay) provided the development of industry (oil derivates, metal tools, chemical products, tiles and bricks) in the 1980s, before Yugoslavia broke down. Both agriculture and industry

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE were devastated almost completely during the transition process which was long lasting and not finished completely yet (Furundžić, Jakšić-Kiurski, Petrović, 2016). The present economy crisis, however, does not change Kikinda investment opportunities. Fertile land, natural raw materials, location near borders, road and rail connections, an urbanised town, existing infrastructure and agricultural and industrial traditions offer a favorable combination for investors. Table 2: Greenfield and brownfield sites in Kikinda

Number TOTAL

GREENFIELD BROWNFIELD Industry Industry Commerce Residence Tourism 12 12

24

8

4

3

39

Nowadays Kikinda offers greenfield and brownfield investment sites, which are private propriety or propriety of the Municipality of Kikinda (CK, 2016). These sites are classified in Table 2, where number of sites is given also. There are totally 51 sites.

Table3: Greenfield sites examples in Kikinda

GREENFIELD

Industry

Site name

[are]

Barrack Agro Industrial Zone Location in Banini Complex 2

4217 1129 1231

Public Company "Kikinda" (JPK, 2017) has detail list of sites attractive for investments. On the basis of this list, twelve sites are selected. Three greenfield sites are listed in Table 3. Nine brownfield sites are listed in Table 4. Site area is in ares (1 are = 100 m2).

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Table 4: Brownfield sites examples in Kikinda

BROWNFIELD

Industry Commercial Residental

Location name

[are]

Building Company North Banat Car Dealer Concord Electron Uniy Vojvodina Old Bank Block D Location C2 D. Vasiljev Street Location

757 382 33 93 55 3.3 71 51 27

Two Kikinda's greenfield sites (Business complex and Free zone), which may be a focus for foreign investors, are presented in the following.

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BUSINESS COMPLEX IN KIKINDA

Figure 3: Business complex urban plan

The Business complex in Kikinda conceptual urban design plan (Furundžić et al., 2016b) is presented in Figure 3. The complex is located on undeveloped land of the Public Company "Kikinda", where there is а good infrastructure. The location of the complex is suitable for the development of business and production. The available space is utilized to the fullest extent. Required distances of buildings and necessary roads inside the complex are provided. The location phase equipping aligned with the planning document development is anticipated. According to Business complex urban plan (Figure 3), 3D (three-dimensional) models of buildings are presented in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Business complex 3D models

FREE ZONE IN KIKINDA

Figure 5: Free zone urban plan

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Figure 6: Free zone plan details

A free zone is a territory where business activities are performed with a preferential customs treatment, simplified administrative procedures and tax relief. There are currently 14 free zones established in Serbia (Deloitte, 2015). The Free zone in Kikinda conceptual urban design plan (Furundžić et al., 2016a) is presented in Figure 5. Urban design of the zone includes internal roads, customs terminal and the wastewater treatment plant. The other contents of the zone will be determined according to the interested investors needs. Free zone plan (Figure 5) details are presented in Figure 6.

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Figure 7: Free zone 3D models

According to Free zone urban plan (Figure 5), 3D (three-dimensional) models of buildings are presented in Figure 7.

CONCLUSIONS Serbia, like other countries in transition, recognizes foreign direct investment (FDI) benefits and competes to attract investors. Besides capital, FDI brings modern management and technology. As a result, domestic industry develops, becomes competitive and acquires a link to international markets. Landlocked Serbia, having good geographical position and mild climate, is well connected with other countries. Main advantages of investing in Serbia are free trade agreements and low operation costs. On the other hand, Kikinda has attractive greenfield and brownfield sites close to the borders with Romania and Hungaria. Besides Serbia's common advantages of doing business, such as free trade agreements and competitive operating costs, Kikinda offers quality sites for developing and reconstruction to foreign investors.

REFERENCES CK. (2016). “City of Kikinda – Invest in Kikinda.” (Accessed: Apr. 2, 2017) Deloitte. (2015) “Guide for Investing in Serbia”. (Accessed: Mar. 18, 2017) EKN. (2015). "Investing and Doing Business in Serbia". Belgrade: Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Furundžić, D.S., Dorčić, M., Vujović, V., Novakov, D., Klenanc, Dj. (2016a). “Free Zone in Kikinda Urban Design”. 25th International Urban Planners' Exibition, (Catalogue), Belgrade: Serbian Town Planners' Association, p. 06.10. [Source of Figure 5.] Furundžić, D.S., Furundžić, S.B. (2008). "Građevinski zajednički poduhvat". [Construction Joint Venture.] XII internacionalni simpozijum iz projektnog menadžmenta, Zbornik radova, Beograd: YUPMA – Udruženje za upravljanje projektima Srbije, str. 387391. Furundžić, D.S., Ivaniš, D., Furundžić, B.S. (2016). “Integrated Communal Company Organization Case”. (In Serbian). 4th International Conference Contemporary Achievements in Civil Engineering, Conference Proceedings, Subotica: Faculty of Civil Engineering, pp. 779-784. [Source of Figure 2.] Furundžić, D.S., Jakšić-Kiurski, D., Petrović, I. (2016). “Communal Companies Merging as Smart Approach: Kikinda Town in Serbia Case Study”. REAL CORP 2015 – Proceedings of 21st International Conference on Urban Planning, Regional Development and Information Society, Schwechat: CORP, pp. 161-170. [Source of Figure 1.] Furundžić, D.S., Vujović, V., Dorčić, M., Novakov, D. (2016b). “Business Complex in Kikinda Urban Design”. 25th International Urban Planners' Exibition, (Catalogue), Belgrade: Serbian Town Planners' Association, p. 06.09. [Source of Figure 3.] Ilijašev, B. (2002). Kikinda, vekovi prolaze – grad ostaje. [Kikinda, Centuries Pass – Town Remain.] Kikinda: Istorijski arhiv. JPK. (2017). “Javno preduzeće Kikinda.” (Accessed: Apr. 6, 2017) SIEPA. (2015). "Invest in Serbia Info Pack". Belgrade: SIEPA – Serbia Investment and Export Agency. Razin, A., Sadka, E. (2016) Foreign Direct Investment: Analysis of Aggregate Flows. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press. Uvalić, M. (2010). Serbia's Transition – Towards a Better Future. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

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DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS OF UrbRur AREAS

Lea Petrović Krajnik 15 PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban Planning, Spatial Planning and Landscape Architecture, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Ivan Mlinar PhD, Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban Planning, Spatial Planning and Landscape Architecture, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Damir Krajnik PhD, Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Urban Planning, Spatial Planning and Landscape Architecture, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] ABSTRACT UrbRur are contact areas of built urban structure and natural environment, which have always represented an interesting topic for theoreticians and experts seeking to design ideal places for living in harmony with nature. The theory of sustainability, which has been particularly present in the professional circles since the 80s of the 20th century, and is one of the paradigms of modern planning, also stresses the importance of the natural environment for improving the overall quality of life of residents. In that sense, UrbRur areas represent potentially ideal place for new forms of housing development. We are witnessing the urban dynamics of the 21st century, the increasing population density in cities as well as pollution of the environment that encourage residents of major cities to move to suburban areas, which represent potential for the creation of an ideal residence in harmony with nature. The effects of changes in space indicate the necessity of strategic thinking on these important areas, their possibilities and capacities, which is for many years carried out through education of architects and urban planners in urban workshop on graduate studies at the Faculty of Architecture of Zagreb University. The aim of this paper is to highlight the potential and necessity of systematic thinking of UrbRur space to set up appropriate concepts for its future development, and to show possible innovative solutions by which the systems interventions are proposed in this sensitive area, in order to create conditions for its sustainable development. Keywords: UrbRur, Development Concepts, Sustainability

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INTRODUCTION UrbRur are contact areas of built urban structure and natural environment, which have always represented an interesting topic for theoreticians and experts seeking to design ideal places for living in harmony with nature. The theory of sustainability, which has been particularly present in the professional circles since the 80s of the 20th century, and is one of the paradigms of modern planning, also stresses the importance of the natural environment for improving the overall quality of life of residents. In that sense, UrbRur areas represent potentially ideal place for new forms of housing development. Consideration of the European Council of Spatial Planners ECTP-CEU does not deal exclusively with developed urban areas, but they put emphasis on the management and planning of the space as a whole. European Charter on Regional Planning - Barcelona Charter, 2013 presents a vision of Europe based on the Integrated and Connected Cities and regions (territories), debating the issues of sustainable development, promoting a healthy environment as a precondition for a healthy life, the effects of globalization, preserving local features, social balance, cultural diversity, management system, participation in the decision with the basic idea of networking of cities and regions. We are witnessing the urban dynamics of the 21st century, the increasing population density in cities as well as pollution of the environment that encourage residents of major cities to move to suburbia, which represent potential for the creation of an ideal residence area in harmony with nature. The possibility of development of transport subsystems, infrastructure and better networking of space enable many migrations within the gravitational zones of larger settlements, by which the dream of a life in nature and working in the city is becoming a reality. Easier access to once hidden and less accessible areas gives opportunities and the interventions that sometimes from an environmental point of view are not desired in these valuable and sensitive areas. Therefore, the effects of changes in the area indicate the necessity of strategic thinking about these valuable areas, their possibilities and capacities, and the need to focus development based on the principles of sustainability. The aim of this paper is to highlight the potential and necessity of systematic thinking of UrbRur space to set up appropriate concepts for its future development, and to show possible innovative solutions by which the systems interventions are proposed in this sensitive area, in order to create conditions for its sustainable development.

THEORY OF CHANGE OF URBRUR AREAS

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Since its foundation populated areas has been going through different stages of development depending on naturalgeographical and socio - economic circumstances. Observing the development of urban regions and agglomerations we can point out generally accepted descriptive model developed by British and Dutch geographers who are dividing development of agglomeration in four phases: urbanization, suburbanization, desurbanization and reurbanization. Each phase is characterized by the change in number of inhabitants and jobs in the city region as a whole and the main city and its surroundings. In the urbanisation phase, there is a large increase in number of inhabitants and jobs in the main city. The suburbanization phase is characterised by the relatively large increase in population of the city surroundings. Desurbanisation is characterised by the decrease of inhabitants in the main city and its surroundings, and reurbanisation by the relative increase of inhabitants in the main city. Phases of urbanisation and reurbanisation are characterised by the process of centralisation, whereas suburbanisation and desurbanisation by the process of decentralisation. New development tendencies of urban agglomerations are showing that in the developing countries the polarisation is still present, as well as urbanisation with a significant centralisation, while in developed countries the tendencies of desurbanisation are more evident. Desurbanisation is characterised by the tendencies of deconcentration and decentralisation. In the whole agglomeration, i.e. region there is a decrease in the number of inhabitants and jobs, and the focus of urbanisation moves on marginal rural settlements in wider area. New transport and communication technology, new production opportunities in rural settlements, reducing city attractivity in favour of the village, the structural problem of the city, the demographic development and others enabled this process. (Vresk, 2002: 184-188) As pointed out in the Territorial Agenda EU2020, these new processes can affect many environmental problems, such as uncoordinated growth of artificial surfaces, reduction of biodiversity and the growing air pollution. In addition, there is also pressure on land use. Rural diversity and particularly valuable natural and cultural assets can be endangered by over-exploitation and competitors demands and interests. (EC, 2011)

ZAGREB CITY AGGLOMERATION PLANNING Conceiving of the wider Zagreb area is present in the spatial and urban planning circles since the Regional Plan of Zagreb from 1930 which planned a network of transport systems (railways, roads, airports, waterways and ports, bus network) in all directions as a basis for the development of major industrial satellite towns (Sisak, Karlovac and Varaždin). Furthermore, it is important to mention that planned organization of Zagreb agglomeration in the 1970s was in step with other European countries. Zagreb had an innovative model for disburdening of urban agglomeration by creating satellite cities. The Urban Institute of the Social Republic of Croatian made the Spatial Plan of the Zagreb region in 1972 which was a remarkable example of regional development planning, proposing the introduction of the concept

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE of secondary (satellite) centres around Zagreb (Ivanić–Grad, Jastrebarsko, Klanjec, Krapina, Kutina, Samobor, Sesvete, Velika Gorica, Vrbovec, Zabok, Zaprešić, Zelina, Zlatar Bistrica) developing Zagreb as a metropolis. A comprehensive consideration of wider Zagreb area was realized in the Spatial Plan for the City of Zagreb from 1986 (Official Gazette of the City of Zagreb 22/86) which beside the City of Zagreb included the territory of the Community of Municipalities of Zagreb. In accordance with the then regulation it had to be in line with the Social Plan for longterm development of the City of Zagreb in 1982. (City of Zagreb, 2016) A multi-sectoral strategic framework for development planning of urban areas as a whole was established by the new Law on Regional Development of the Republic of Croatia from 2014, which introduces urban areas and its development strategy. In 2015, the activities related to the preparation of elaboration of the Strategy of Zagreb urban agglomeration have started. Zagreb urban agglomeration includes 30 local government units (11 cities and 19 municipalities) covering areas of three counties – City of Zagreb, Zagreb County and Krapina-Zagorje County with a total of 1,086,528 inhabitants (Census 2011).

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Figure 1: Area of Zagreb urban agglomeration (Source: Author’s Archive)

URBAN PLANNING WORKSHOPS - URBRUR AREAS IN NORTHERN PART OF ZAGREB CITY AGGLOMERATION Induced by the effects of changes in the area of large cities and their gravitational zone, education of architects and urban planners in the Urban planning workshop – Settlements planning (Graduate Study, Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb University), has been aimed, already for many years, primarily to the necessity of strategic conceiving of these sensitive UrbRur areas and examination of their possibilities and capacities. City of Zagreb together with the settlements in its wider gravitational zone can be seen as a "regional city" which is characterized by a number of environmental, social and economic characteristics. Conceiving of its future vision has to be primarily based on a comprehensive understanding, not limited to the administrative division of space and their individual interests. According to the planning efforts and Territorial Agenda of the EU 2020 – Towards an Inclusive, Smart and Sustainable Europe of Diverse Regions, which emphasizes the importance of an integrated, polycentric and balanced territorial development and the role of cities as generators of this process, for the Urban planning workshop - Settlements planning in the academic year 2016/2017, the topic of conceiving the development of settlements of Zagreb agglomeration located below the northern slopes of the mountain Medvednica was selected. The subject area includes 5 local government units (Municipality Jakovlje in Zagreb County, City of Oroslavje, City of Donja Stubica, Municipality of Stubičke Toplice and Municipality of Gornja Stubica in the Krapina-Zagorje County) with around 23,500 inhabitants. Assumptions of development of the subject area are primarily based on good transport connections of wider spatial context (complementing and modernising of road and rail networks). The barrier of better transport link of the City of Zagreb and the subject area is the realisation of the planned road and railway tunnel through the Medvednica mountain. The goal of the task is to explore the needs and possibilities of implementation of new programs and facilities related to housing, work, sport, recreation and tourism, in order to determine the appropriate development vision of UrbRur areas located "behind" the Medvednica Natural park, that is deemed appropriate for areas of new attractive housing. Students were directed to incorporate the paradigm of sustainable development in their spatial concepts and examine the optimal housing models, density and physionomy of the urban structure. Spatial solution should propose the outline of the built-up area and the allocation of different land use, a new transport network, and the protection of cultural and natural values through their involvement in economic development. (Horvat, 2016) Students have proposed different visions and concepts of spatial development of the northern part of the Zagreb agglomeration, solutions with minimal intervention to preserve the space identity and quality, solutions based on

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE modernised and systematized railway network and train stations as the generators of settlements development, solutions based on a network of cultural heritage as a major generator of development, solutions based on networking of green fingers grid (cultivated forest) and others.

Connection lines Concept Connection lines (students Maja Tomljenović and Imanol Hernandez, tutor Lea Petrović Krajnik) points out 3 different types of connection lines (CL) regarding different levels: CL 1 - Link Zagreb – Zagorje, CL 2 – Plasters for healing Zagorje and CL 3 – Fingers on the Pila case study. Three basic principles are stressed for the Link Zagreb Zagorje: two facades of Medvednica that are completely different (the southern slopes as busy and highly urbanised and northern slopes with traditional scattered villages), tunnel as necessity for small divided entities, and green fingers of Medvednica as most sensitive and most interesting parts that can provide new inhabitants the best environment – green one. In order to heal Zagorje, two types of plasters are proposed depending on the placement of full (3D objects as forest and structures) and empty (flatten and unfilled areas as agriculture fields, unbuilt areas for sports, roads…). Type 1, where the settlements is placed next to wood and the main road goes along the border of the finger, the inner backbone of agriculture fields with common spaces are proposed leaving the buildable area on the borders next to the woods (nature – buildable – nature – buildable – nature / full – empty – full). Type 2, where the settlement is places between the woods but where the main road goes through the centre of the finger with the attached built-up area next to it, spreading of the new buildable area is proposed for the compact the existing settlement and to leave the emptiness of the agricultural fields as a backyard of the houses (nature – buildable – nature / full – empty – full – empty – full). Finger Pila is characterised by the strong borders formed by dense forest leaving the inner part empty. The main road is places along the west border enabling the connection with other municipalities. There are 3 different interventions proposed: the net, the agricultural corridor and traffic connections. The whole area of a finger was divided into same-sized plots (1 ha) creating a fixed base to develop other layers. The agricultural corridor is proposed in order to create empty backbone of agricultural fields with other common facilities that will ensure the preservation of the rural character and the integration of the new urban zone into area. By placing new roads on the inner side of Pila the network is completed. The planned new road and railway through Medvednica mountain will pass through the upper part of Pila giving the opportunity to place a train station in the centre of the finger representing a new focal point.

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Figure 2: Connection lines concept (Source: Author’s Archive)

Thermal settlements Concept Thermal settlements (student Ivana Lazar, tutor Ivan Mlinar) is based on geothermal sources that have been the reason for the construction of settlements and thermal baths since Antique (Aquae Iasae) i.e. for the construction of spas and medical rehabilitation centers in recent times (Krapinske, Stubičke and Tuheljske Spa and Jezerčica Spa). In the contemporary world practice, geothermal energy is exploited in housing, industry, greenhouses, farms, streets heating etc. as a natural, harmless and economical energy source, and an initiator of development in urban and rural areas. Urban-rural context of northern part of the Zagreb agglomeration is the ideal place for the development of existing settlements driven by geothermal sources and the construction of new modern housing development which synthesize the advantages of urban and rural housing and harmless natural energy. Self-sustainability, energy

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE efficiency and cost-effectiveness in housing development building are ideals that can be achieved based on modern technical solutions and proven theoretical models, of which the most applicable example is linear city (Ciudad Lineal, Arturo Soria y Mata), and practical examples, among which Cvjetno naselje in Zagreb (arh. Vladimir Antolić) stands out. Synergy of urban theoretical and practical planning concepts enables emphasizing the advantages and complementing both types of settlements and housing. Old and new residents and visitors thus gaining a contemporary prototype of reinterpreted concept of garden settlements i.e. Garden City (Garden City, Ebenezer Howard), which consists of five thematic stripes. The first stripe consists of existing houses and roads, the second stripe consists of the planned park with public, sports and recreational facilities, the planned new houses and roads represent the third stripe, the fourth stripe consists of existing railway line and protective greenery, and the fifth stripe are planned working facilities of clean industry and advanced agriculture. The prototype of the urban-rural settlement can be adopted to the most locations intended for the development of existing and construction of new settlements in the Krapina-Zagorje County i.e. in the northern part of the Zagreb agglomeration.

Figure 3: Thermal settlements concept (Source: Author’s Archive)

CONCLUSIONS UrbRur areas that are recognized as a new and attractive residential areas because of their specificity and sensitivity, require comprehensive consideration of the wider area with the aim of setting the vision and concepts for future development based on the aspect of sustainability. Attempts to set the visions and concepts were to establish a system of intervention that can be applied, as principles of space design to a wider spatial context, and not just in one specific site. Detailed analyses of specificities of

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individual locations and their characteristics of natural and anthropogenic environment was a necessary precondition for the establishment of models and types of interventions suitable for the systematic consideration. Development concepts of UrbRur areas highlighted the importance of this specific contact zone with a focus on interventions that primarily do not impair the natural and cultural specifics, but also create new cultivated landscape, and traditional architecture has been taken as a template for the modern design of the new space structure.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research is a part of the scientific project Heritage Urbanism - Urban and Spatial Planning Models for Revival and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage (2032) financed by Croatian Science Foundation, which is being carried out at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb.

REFERENCES City of Zagreb. 2016. “Urbana Aglomeracija Zagreb / Zagreb Urban Agglomeration”. Accessed April 1, 2017. http://www.zagreb.hr/UserDocsImages/SRUAZobuhvat.pdf Croatian Parliament. 2014. “Zakon o regionalnom razvoju Republike Hrvatske /The Act on Regional Development of the Republic of Croatia”. Official Gazette, 147. EC. 2011. “Territorial Agenda of the European Union 2020, Towards an Inclusive, Smart and Sustainable Europe of Diverse Region.” Accessed April 2, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/information/publications/communications/2011/territorial-agenda-of-the-european-union2020 ECTP-CEU. 2013. “The Charter of European Planning BARCELONA 2013, The Vision for Cities and Regions – Territories of Europe in the 21st Century.” Accessed April 2, 2017. http://www.ectp-ceu.eu/images/stories/PDF-docs/ECTPCEU%20Charter%20of%20European%20Planning-%20Illustrated%20Executive%20Summary.pdf Horvat, Jesenko. 2016. Sjeverni prsten zagrebačke aglomeracije, 2035. / Jakovlje - Oroslavje - Donja Stubica - Stubičke Toplice – Gornja Stubica / Prostorno uređenje prigradske zone i urbanističko rješenje dijela naselja. Urban Planning Workshop 2016/2017. Zagreb: Faculty of Architecture. Vresk, Milan. 2002. Grad i urbanizacija – Osnove urbane geografije. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.

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COMPLEX PATTERNS OF SYNERGY BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL SPACES Rada Čahtarević 16 University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Patriotske lige 30, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, [email protected] Dženana Bijedić University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Patriotske lige 30, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, [email protected] ABSTRACT Growth of the population in dense urban spaces and their inadequate connections to rural background, often results in huge gap between the life quality of urban and rural areas. In a countries mostly rural, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, this becomes not only cultural or economical problem, but have a great impact on stagnation of society development and escalation of political conflicts. Planning and designing better urban-rural network can rely on the application of new theories based on more integrated spatial concepts, recognizing and analysing the complex patterns of urban and rural spaces. In spatiotemporal patterns of urban and rural areas, we could find characteristic properties and differences, establishing basic model for their better integration. Urban and rural spatial patterns have different time-scale levels of density, distribution and connectivity, depicted by a multi-level structure and nonlinear interconnections. Urban patterns in modern urban areas are formed on top-down principles, as rational geometric patterns on larger scales, while rural patterns are raised from self-organisation on bottom-up level, on much smaller individual scales. Urban spatial patterns are based on complex dynamical hierarchical networks and dense interconnections of diverse social and technological processes on global levels, while rural patterns are based on loose distribution in closer correspondence to the immediate environment and interconnection with natural processes. Better integration of urban and rural spaces, including technological and natural environment, could be achieved establishing a new spatio-temporal continuity between urban and rural areas, in overall complexity of the wider regional pattern. By the proper distribution of spatial scales and correspondence of top-down and bottom-up processes, synergy of urban and rural spaces could be established, as a result of the complex dynamical balance. Keywords: Complexity, Patterns, Rural, Synergy, Urban

INTRODUCTION

16 Corresponding author

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Ever growing population in dense urban regions and their inadequate connections to the rural areas, often produce a huge gap between the life quality of urban and rural spaces. Traditional urban spaces till the XIX century, provided sense of community between the larger concentration of inhabitants, connected tightly with surrounding rural background, where perseverance of the smaller individual community groups were supported. Increased industrialisation on the one side and growth of the human population in XIX and XX century, resulted in the enhanced growth of urban regions and population living in bigger cities, changing traditional spatial patterns, forming a qualitative discontinuity between urban and rural spaces. In modernism, traditional social and spatial patterns were considered as limiting for the increased dynamics of urban growth. Breaking with traditional urban patterns, often resulted in disconnection of urban and rural areas and degradation of rural but also urban life quality. Urban centres are not only spatial, but also economic and political centres. The development of urban regions are not often based primarily on spatial relations, but on the processes of economic and political power. Disturbed spatial relationships of urban and rural, local and regional space, are reflected in social, political and economic relations in the wider area, and vice versa. In a countries mostly rural, like Bosnia and Herzegovina, where about 60 % of inhabitants are living in mostly rural areas, according to OECD definition, (UNDP, 2013) disproportion of the rural and urban living potentials have a great impact on the development of society, causing economic stagnation and escalation of political conflicts. A need for establishing a model of synergy between urban and rural spaces and their local and global natural environment, demands investigation of their characteristics and patterns, analysing factors of disconnection, finding better, integrated approach in spatial planning and design.

COMPLEXITY OF NATURAL AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT The urban processes have a big impact on stability at all levels of the global environment. Physically interfering with space, consuming large amounts of energy, water and material resources, changing the state of the environmental system and all its subsystems, long-term effects of urban processes on global environmental scales are hard to predict, because nature is not a linear system. (Bijedić, 2012) Natural environment as ecosystem are complex, nonlinear, adaptive system, behaving as a hierarchic system of subsystems, exhibiting emergent and self-organizing properties, supporting variations and selection of future states. (Levin, 1998) Developmental changes in natural systems are in function of complex dynamical balance, providing exchange of energy and information. Natural spatial patterns are not homogenous, but arises from heterogenous interaction and mutual interdependence of different scales, reflecting dynamic processes on different time scale, from short term to long term. (Levin, 1998)

CITY AS A COMPLEX SYSTEM Cities as relatively permanent, compact settlements are characterized by the increased density and heterogeneity of population, building types, and spatial networks. (Wirth, 1938) Urban theories based on the new approach to urban planning and design, rely mostly on complexity theory and their models. J. Jacobs regarded cities as problems of

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE organized complexity, enhancing complex dynamic processes as essential features of the cities. (Jacobs, 1961) “The city is a large-scale collective and complex artifact that on the one hand interacts with its environment, while on the other it is an environment for the millions of people that live and act in cities. “ (Portugali, 2014) As a complex wholes, cities are the part of wider, open environmental system. Although complex theory of cities could be translated in organic way, treating cities as living organisms, cities are more like the ecosystem, as a collective entity whose components form overall patterns, without final, optimal structure. (Marshall, 2009) Urban systems are formed on the complex relationships between individual and collective interests, organic and economic, social and politic, containing many nonlinear, dynamic processes. Numerous individual and collective interests and actions, on various time scales, produce complex structural qualities of the urban network. (Portugali, 2014) City morphology is reflected in a pattern of hierarchy of different subsystems across many scales. (Batty, 2008)

HIERARCHY OF SCALES AND DISTRIBUTION OF SIZES IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS Hierarchy of different scales are one of the main properties of complex systems. (Simon, 1962) Complex hierarchy of scales that governs complex natural systems, are not distributed in linear way. There are difference in distribution of different size in the spatial patterns of complex systems, reflecting processes on different spatial and time scales, short term and long term processes, local and global. Different size of units are distributed according to the universal law of distribution, in constant relations of the size and number of repeated elements, regulating scaling coherence of the system (Salingaros, 1999, Batty 2008.) Larger elements in size are decreased in number, and smaller are increased. In complex systems different density of patterns exists on different scales and different levels of connections. Every scale has its role in the overall coherency of the systems, from largest to smallest. (Figure 1.) ”The smallest scales in the structure are intimately related to the largest scales in the structure and one cannot be changed without changing the other…“ (Salingaros, 1999) Smaller scales are interconnected with many different choices of connecting the subsystems. Intermediate scales are also necessary, to provide interrelation between larger and smaller scales. (Salingaros, 1999)

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Figure 1: Hierarchy of scales in complex patterns: example of fractal geometric patterns Source: on left https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierpinski_carpet; on right author by Fractalsubdivision applet

TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP SPATIAL PATTERNS OF URBAN AND RURAL AREAS

Treating spatial qualities of built systems on more abstract, universal level, as relational patterns, and analysing spatiotemporal patterns of urban and rural areas, we could find characteristic properties and differences. Urban spatial patterns are based on complex dynamical hierarchical networks and dense interconnections of diverse social and technological processes on global levels. Urban patterns in modern urban areas are mostly formed on topdown principles, as a result of rational planning imposing geometric patterns on larger scale. (Figure 2.) As a principle of achieving collective unity and universality, rigid geometry applied in urban planning mostly resulted in spatial organisation based on homogeneity and repetitive uniformity, but they lost spatial continuity with more traditional urban parts, as they possess mostly macro- scales. (Čahtarević, 2016)

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Figure 2: Urban patterns of the late 80s in the city of Sarajevo, BiH Source: on left Google earth; on right photo by R.Č. – author

Rural settlements are raised from self-organisation on bottom-up level, on much smaller scales and individual actions. Their patterns are formed on short-scale connections, based on loose distribution, in closer correspondence to the immediate environment and interconnection with natural processes. Rural settlements are not based on rigid, formal order, or imposed optimal state. Their spatial patterns are unstable and variable, but basic character of the overall spatial and social organisation is maintained and preserved over long time. (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Motives from the rural settlement Obojak, in the wider region of Fojnica city, BiH

Source: on left Google earth; on right photo by R.Č. – author

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EMERGENCE AND SYNERGY OF URBAN AND RURAL SPATIAL NETWORK New urban theories are enveloping spatial planning on different scales: regions, districts, cities, blocks and buildings. (Knaap, 2005) Spatial patterns of human settlements are result of the emergent phenomena, because their characteristics can not be predicted on the characteristics of the components of the system. Emergent systems are wholes, consisting sub level wholes, forming hierarchical, multilevel structures, evolving through variations and selforganised selection of the future states. Their states may change but their identity is maintained. (Heylighen,1989) Emergence is not a quality of homogenous, equilibrium coexistence, but of synergy of variable units in evolution towards higher levels of complexity. “Evolution is not about a single type of behaviour "winning", through its superior performance, but rather by increasing diversity and complexity.”( Allen, 2012) Transition from natural space to urban place is an emergent phenomenon, as a result of aggregation and interconnections between the built elements on one side and their connections to the overall environment on the other. Interactions on lover levels leads to the global higher level patterns of organisation and behaviour. Qualities of urban settlements are not just a result of the sum of urban elements, their size and shape, but of the complex coherent whole that possess specific continuous identity in space and time.

Transition from rural to urban patterns in traditional architecture Example of gradual transition from rural to urban patterns and scale, with maintenance of the bottom-up, selforganising principles of spatial organisation, could be find in the traditional urban districts. (Figure 4.) The basic unit of spatial and social organization, with a pronounced feeling of belonging to a community, recognizing the rights for the sun and open views of each house, could be find in the micro-urban areas of the city of Sarajevo, BiH, called “mahala”. The traditional patterns were preserved in their continuity, although the city life dynamics changed, exhibiting their resilience and adaptability. Constructive concepts were aligned with the opportunities of local building materials, natural ventilation, respecting geomorphological and climatic realities, so their result was comfortable living. (Bijedić, 2012) Bottom-up solutions of the traditional urban places, were not a result of ordered design, but of the empirical building knowledge transmitted through conventional ordering rules regarding the individual choice of location, orientation, selection of materials, as well as the spatial organization of individual units, neighborhoods and urban zones.

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Figure 4. View on traditional part of the city of Sarajevo, BiH, where spatial patterns are preserved for centuries

Source: photo by R.Č. – author

The conflict and discontinuity between urban and rural spatial patterns Urban patterns are often pushed to the largest scales, lacking the intermediate scales that provides living connectivity evident in natural scaling. (Salingaros, 1999). Conflict between the size distribution in the cities, arises from gigantic homogenous pattern geometry of the planned urban areas on one side and on the other traditional and suburban patterns, lacking intermediate scales that could provide coherency of spatial network. As the result of the inappropriate juxtaposition of urban and rural patterns, with their different scales and densities, arises the conflict of urban and rural spatial patterns. This conflict is reflected in the huge areas of unplanned self-organised squatter settlements and slums around planned urban space, on the one side, and formally planned industrial complexes or tourist resorts in rural areas on the other, having disproportional or incompatible scale to their environment. In the zones of cities where rapidly settling of the rural population takes place, transfer of the micro-scale size of rural settlements is applied without organic growth and heterogeneity that are characteristics of the self-organizing rural and traditional urban settlements. In traditional urban zones it could be noticed that overall pattern have the complex character, with many subsystems, while squatter settlement pattern are spread in linear and homogenous way.

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Instead of the complex spatial pattern characterized by a certain closure of interconnected smaller spatial subsystems, homogeneous linear patterns appear, that do not have a clear distinctive spatial organization. (Figure 5)

Figure 5. Patterns of individual housing, exhibiting self-organisation, in Sarajevo city, BiH, left : squatter settlements, right : traditional historic part of the city organised in “mahalas”

Source: Google earth

Fractured links between the urban and rural areas are often result of the extermination or dominance of some homogeneous scale size in the system as a whole. The break of unique tissue of spatial network, is a product of linear homogeneity and domination of one scale without heterogeneous hierarchy in overall organisation, causing disturbance of flow, lack of orientation and lost sense of community.

Synergy and sustainability of urban and rural spatial network New strategies in urban and spatial planning are establishing a network language, enveloping complex spatial relations of physical, social and economic spaces, as dynamic spatial patters. (Healey, 2007) The urban network of cities of different sizes and villages in rural areas, are formed as hierarchical layered system, where every level affects others, where connections are nonlinear, overlapping partially forming multidimensional structure of “cities and regions as evolving, self-transforming systems in which behaviour, decisions and the value systems underlying these all evolve over time.” (Allen, 2012) Conventional planning considered bigger cities as a central core of the region, forming radial pattern of surrounding smaller cities and villages in the rural background. “The city centre was seen as the site of greatest synergy, and the periphery the site of greatest isolation.” (Healey, 2007:8) Research in complex network connectivity, don't consider physical proximity or size as the main factor of connectivity or isolation. Divergent regions and levels in complex

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE network of various types of interrelating places, can enhance, support but also oppose, restrain and depress each other. So even the city centres could become isolated, and rural areas do not have to be synonymous with isolation and separation. Smaller scales of rural communities are necessary constituent in the overall nonlinear distribution of different spatiotemporal scales, providing coherence in emerging local and global patterns of the human settlements. Complex geometric modelling could frame spatial characteristics of natural processes of growth, integrating in dynamic balance systems of different size, function and duration on time scale, providing dynamic flow of the system. Centralistic planning aiming at global optimisation of urban systems, are based mostly on top-down imposed “regular” geometric patterns that should provide order and optimal equilibrium of spatial organisation, but problem with equilibrium models is that they cannot master the qualitative spatial transformations. (Allen 1997:14) On the other side, the bottom-up creation and regulation of spatial patterns, characteristic of rural areas, already found to some extent in the traditional parts of the bigger cities, should not be applied in totally uncontrolled way on only one scale as could be evident in a big squatter urban areas. Providing top-down frame for the development of hierarchical distribution of different scales should be necessary task in urban planning, enabling spatial coherence, resilience and sustainability. Self-organised systems possess resilience based on the complex dynamic where local instabilities and fluctuations could create a new structural organisation. (Allen, 1997) Sustainability of the complex systems is not a result of the internal equilibrium and optimisation of size, form, function, material and energy exchange, but on the capacity to adapt and respond to the internal and external fluctuations and variations, so instability instead of stability is origin of the systems resilience (Allen, 1997) Sustainability is a quality of “highly co-operative system, where the competition per individual is low, but where loops of positive feedback and synergy are high.”(Allen, 2012)

CONCLUSIONS At the beginning of 21st century new strategies of urban and spatial planning are developing, based on the recognition of complex character of the planning task, and applying knowledge of advancing research in the field of complex systems theory and its modelling enhanced by the information technology. Even though they differ in many characteristics, urban and rural spaces are parts of the unique complex, dynamical spatial network system. The notion of the importance of complex qualities of the spatial organisation should be considered in a wider regional planning, including urban, suburban and rural areas, in holistic approach including natural environmental system. Recovery of the existential continuity and better integration of urban and rural spaces, including technological and natural environment, could be achieved establishing a new spatiotemporal continuity between urban and rural areas, in overall complexity of the wider regional pattern and global world processes. Planning on one scale of complex systems impacts all scales, so the planned equilibrium state on one level, can cause disturbance of dynamic balance on the other levels. City planning and regional spatial planning should be considered in integrated, holistic way, searching not for some optimal association between urban centres and rural regions, but for the open dynamical

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relations that provides synergy of urban and rural spatial network, enhancing complexity of global dynamics, based on the heterogeneity, supporting differences as a main factor of sustainability. Urban regions could be considered not as the centres but as the nodes in network pattern of different sized places. Network organisation rather than centralized spatial planning gives greater importance to the role of rural areas, various scale sizes and their distribution, with bottom-up development of spatial patterns. Complex organization and hierarchical spatial patterns that are not homogenized on one scale size gives the opportunity for sustainable development of the region that would be better connected and resilient to the changes in environment, either natural or socio economical. Implying knowledge about complex character of spatial patterns, enveloping urban and rural space in the unique network, it could be achieved sustainable future of the overall system. Instead hegemony of dominant constituents, uniformity and linear centrality, successful development of society within a wider region becomes a consequence of increasing synergy as cooperation, complementarity, and complexity of diversity and variable spatial structures and sizes, from rural to urban.

REFERENCES Book: Allen P.M. 1997. Cities and Regions as Self-Organising Systems: Models of Complexity. Taylor and Francis. London. Bijedić, Dženana. 2012. Arhitektura, Holizam umjesto optimalizacije, Integralni pristup u arhitektonskom stvaralaštvu: Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu Healey, Patsy, 2007. Urban Complexity and Spatial Strategies: Towards a Relational Planning for Our Times , Routledge. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House, New York, 1961. UNDP, ed. Sirćo,A. Goss,S. 2013. Ruralni razvoj u Bosni i Hercegovini: Mit i realnost, Razvojni program Ujedinjenih nacija (UNDP) u Bosni i Hercegovini, Sarajevo Book chapter: Allen P. M. 2012. “Cities: the Visible Expression of Co-evolving Complexity,” in Complexity Theories of Cities Have Come of Age, pp 67-89 Čahtarević, Rada, Suljević Dž. 2016. “The Importance of Scale and Complexity in the Growing Form of the City” , in The Importance of Place: Values and Building Practices in the Historic Urban Landscape, Cambridge Scholars Publishing , pp 37-53 Portugali, Juval. 2014. “What makes cities complex? “ Complexity, Cognition, Urban Planning And Design. Springer. pp 3-19. Journal article: Batty, M. et al. 2008, “The Size, Scale, and Shape of Cities”, Science, 319, 769-771.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Batty, M. Torrens, P.M. 2001. „Modeling Complexity: The Limits to Prediction“ in 12th European Colloquium on Quantitative and Theoretical Geography, St-Valery-en-Caux, Heylighen, F. - “Self-Organization, Emergence and the Architecture of Complexity“ in Proceedings of the 1st European Conference on System Science, AFCET, Paris, 1989, p. 23-32. Knaap, G.,Talen, M., “New Urbanism and Smart Growth: A few Words From the Academy”, International Regional Science Review, 28, 2: 107–118 , 2005. Levin Simon, 1998. “Ecosystems and the Biosphere as Complex Adaptive Systems”, Ecosystems 1: 431-436 , Springer-Verlag Salingaros,N.,West, B.J. 1999. “A Universal Rule for the Distribution of Sizes”, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol 26, pp 909- 923. Simon, Herbert. 1962. “The Architecture of Complexity” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 106, no. 6 (Dec): 467-482. Wirth, L. 1938. “Urbanism as a Way of Life”, The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 1-24 The University of Chicago Press. Internet source: Marshall, S. 2009. “City Planning, Design and Evolution Concepts”, Bartlett, School of Planning, UCL., https://www.academia.edu/2061339/City_Planning_Design_and_Evolution_Concepts

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THE IMPORTANCE OF IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF LIFE, THE CITY OF BANJALUKA Valentina Milovanovic 17 University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Beograd, Srbija, [email protected] Radana Jungic Faculty of Technical Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovica 6, Novi Sad, Srbija, [email protected]

ABSTRACT One of the most important symbols of the city of Banjaluka is the one that is imposed by the nature itself - the river Vrbas and rich vegetation. Even in the period of the Austro - Hungarian occupation, the most significant specificities were the tree alleys. Precisely because of its recognizable urban green structure and generally low height of buildings, the city is also known as the "green city". Today, hasty urbanization increasingly interrupts the connection between nature and the built environment. In order to preserve the image of the city that has been built for centuries and whose existence is threatened on daily basis, it is necessary to act urgently. Therefore, it should be noted that parks and tree alleys are not just green islands in the city, and that they should be identified with the ecological enlightenment and the culture of citizens. Architects and planners must be aware that the space in which they intervene is often deducted from nature and other people, but also from themselves. Recently, urban renewal of the city is rushed and without clear planning guidelines and development goals. Many concepts are accepted without thinking about identity and the specificities of the city, which is justified by the process of transition and globalization. Inappropriate urban policy and lack of planned development of the city are reflected in the final planning solutions, their implementation and further exploitation. The result is ignorance of historical landmarks, gradual loss of identity and lack of what we define as quality of space. These problems are visible when it comes to new individual buildings and whole residential areas with a lack of architectural logic and artistic expression. The question is, what do we get, and what do we lose in the pursuit of globalization and social transition in the city on the Vrbas river? Keywords: Banjaluka, “green city”, identity, quality, transition

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INTRODUCTION Good natural and geographic conditions of the territory where Banjaluka is located are reflected in the name of the city. The word "banja" signifies the area with healing and hot springs, while "luka" is identified with the land that is located along the water. Therefore, one of the most important symbols which define the identity of this city is the one that is imposed by nature - river Vrbas and rich vegetation. The identity of the city is formed for many years, even centuries, and occurs as a result of many factors and events represented in a given time period. Simonovic (2010: 22) defines the complexity of the concept of urban identity, and says that one is manifested by the number of elements of which it is composed, and also in diversity of the interrelationship between these elements, which are variable in space and through time. The complexity is also manifested through a variety of civilization, cultural, social, mental, psychological, socioeconomic, institutional, historical and other characteristics, but also through many physical characteristics witch have visual character, appearance of urban form, elements of the city image, particularities of the spatial relations and activities within a given space. In Banjaluka, all elements that formed and constantly complemented the city, in a material and spiritual sense, have a deeply rooted "green" parameter in itself. In the development of Banjaluka, green structures were continuously treated in a manner witch was characteristic for the spirit of a certain time. That fact had a greatly contribution to identity and final image of the city. Accordingly, a historical development of Banjaluka can be divided into three periods that had terminated today's appearance and character of the city. When it comes to recent history, the citizens of Banjaluka remember the two turning points. The first one refers to the catastrophic earthquake in 1969., while the second one is linked to the civil war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (19921995). This paper is also composed of three units, in which are analyzed essential events and their consequences when it comes to formation of the of the city's identity: Banjaluka from its inception to 1969. earthquake, Banjaluka from 1969. to the end of the civil war, and Banjaluka during the transition period from 1995. to the present. Recent intensive and uncontrolled construction, especially one who regards to city blocks with residential and mixed use (residential and business), directly affects the spatial continuity of “green” as identity of the city and its image. In order to clarify this issue, in third chapter of this paper will be analyzed one new settlement that is determined by the absence of the green structures, and also a lack of quality space and quality od everyday life. Through the comparison of two nearby residential settlements, one new "concrete" settlement and another old "green", many questions are imposed. In witch level permissive urban policies can be justified by transition or globalization processes? How this attitude affects identity of the "green" city? What impact does the absence of “green” have on the quality of city life, if we previously know that the green structures are identified not only with ecological enlightenment, but also with the citizens culture?

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BANJALUKA “THE GREEN CITY”, UNTIL 1969. Banjaluka is situated on the coast of the Vrbas river, where river loses its mountain characteristics and enters a depression. The city was originally developed downstream, but the residential areas that were built after World War II and 1969. earthquake were developed towards hills in the surrounding. The location of the city, material and spiritual culture, as well as the development degree of banjaluka, were always determined by different civilizations (ancientRoman, medieval-Slovenian and Hungarian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Yugoslavian). We can speak reliably about urbanism in Banjaluka only from the period of Ottoman rule and after, due to the fact that there is not much information related to the earlier period. From 1527. to 1878., the city was developed in accordance with the new Ottoman authorities and customs. There are written traces which witness that, even than, Banjaluka was the "green” city. Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi, who visited Banjuluka in 1660., in his writings states that "the most famous of all was Ferhad - Pashas garden, and that each wealthier house has a vineyard, garden and rose garden, delightful as a paradise on earth." Banjaluka stopped being the seat of pashaluk in 1639. Systematic way of building that fits the new European spirit has not been recorded until 1878., but only individual ventures. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation (1878-1918), the city started to get a silhouette of a European city. The former construction of sites-lots with houses withdrawn from the streets in depth of the gardens, was mostly replaced by dense building structure and objects in a row, which have defined the elements of future city blocks. In this period, tree lines provided the specificity of the main street in the city. Baron Alfred von Jelson (1831-1913), AustroHungarian general, is responsible for creation of avenues in Banjaluka. Under his supervision, in a period from 1882. to 1885., along the main streets was planted 17 km long tree lines (about 4.700 trees). Landscape values and a epiteth of "green city", Banjaluka has gained over the centuries. This is demonstrated through the records of many travel writers who acted in a time period from sixteenth to twentieth century. They described the city of Banjaluka as a settlement in the environment of wooded hills, with great vegetation and gardens. Journalist Milena Prajdlsberger-Mrazovic wrote around 1900: "Everything is green in this garden city, Vrbas river is also green with its high coastal slopes". In 1875., Charles Yriart wrote: "The most cheerful nature and vivid city were never neglected in a such big extent, everything is full of contrasts as in every oriental city. Greenery and flowers are smiling from destroyed houses and old wooden shacks next to the bright summer mansions with cheerful colors and look"(Simonovic, 2010: 11). Along with the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918., Banjaluka became the seat of the Vrbas region. During menaging of the first viceroy Svetislav Tisa Milosavljevic (1929-1934), the city was enriched by many representative buildings that will define its modern core. City identity, witch concerned the representation of different green structures, was not missing even in this period. City Park "Petar Kocic" was built in 1930. Photos and geodetic documentation of the area show a symmetrical solution in the style of French parks, with a centrally placed fountain, music pavilion and the monument. It is important to notice that any future reconstruction of the park, was leading to total destruction of the previous visual identity, not a synthesis in the new solution (Guzijan, 2016: 290). The use of urban planning, which began in the Austro-Hungarian, and formed in the period between the two world wars, has given a new face to Banjaluka, a face of European metropolis, which retained its own indentity. Between

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE wars, forming parks is continued, but construction of residential and industrial buildings largely prevents proper and continuous development of the green matrix. The gardens - private gardens disappear, as well as elements of green structures in them. Environment quality of Banja Luka begins to deteriorate (Dosenovic, 2013: 371). After liberation in 1945, the urban and regulatory plans are made, as well as projects for specific urban ensembles (including the construction of new housing estates). Many effort are made that greenery of urban matrix of Banja Luka can be solved by modern urban concepts, but just a few attempts are implemented. In early 1974, a design project of park "Mladen Stojanovic" is finished, whose implementation started in next year. According Dosenovic (2013: 372), although the formation of a green structure is not adequately accompanied the construction of the city, many regulatory plans and preliminary designs recognized the problem.

BANJALUKA “THE GREEN CITY”, FROM 1969. TO 1995. Slow progression of the city was interrupted by a natural disaster. The earthquake that struck Banjaluka on 27th October 1969, significantly changed previous ideas about the city development. Several years after the earthquake, Banjaluka was "recovered" and became wealthier for many individual buildings, as well as entire settlements: Starcevica, Borik, Obilicevo, Kocicev vijenac, Rosulje and Paprikovac. Conceptual settings for above mentioned settlements and projects that have emerged from them, primarily were made for the purpose of the city reconstruction and answering questions about social integration and society modernization in general. As already mentioned, one of the settlements that was formed immediately after the earthquake and positioned on the left coast of the Vrbas River is “Borik”. Compared with to the former collective neighborhoods in Banjaluka, Borik was the first residential settlement that contained some other functions in addition to housing. According to the Yugoslav experts in the field, every neighborhood should have a modern and wide profiled road with separate communication tapes according to the traffic type, a centrally located complex of social-commercial center and elementary school as a center of social life, defined spatial boundaries in the form of roads, three types of housing towers, residential blocks and single-edged objects on the perimeter, and spacious greened open spaces with residential buildings (Novakovic, 2014: 189). Therefore, it can be concluded that during this period was taken care of greenery as an significant factor when it comes to urban identity of Banjaluka, although in a completely new light of a city reconstruction, modernisation and seeking for solutions that would simultaneously correspond to the local context and world trends. Simonovic (2010: 172) claims that in the city silhouette of Banjaluka, it is very easy to notice “Borik” settlement outlines: the accentuated dimensions of residential buildings, often linked to the staircase sequences and mostly painted in white colour, are dominant and easy to remember among other buildings in the city (because there is not a lot of similar residential units). Indeed, the construction of residential areas in the second half of the 1960s, had a specific contribution to the formation of a city image in general, but also in the context of “green”. This is also recognized in the document Revision of the regulatory plan for the residential area Borik in Banjaluka from 2005., where the discussed area is defined as an ambience of importance (with the optimum relation between “green”

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spaces and residents), which needs to be protected from new construction projects. So, the mentioned green space is estimated as an essential value for the identity, but also for the quality of life in the city on the Vrbas river. When assessing the status of green areas, the above-mentioned Revision points out that the green areas of “Borik” reflect a characteristic image of the urban landscape of Banjaluka, in terms of the existence of a strong tree lines along major roads and neighbourhood areas under greenery (UZRS, 2005: 19). Accordingly, by the city's administration bodies and experts in the scientific field, the importance of “green” at the chosen location is noticed. The question is what happens with a obvious lack of that greenery, as a very important factor in the formation of the final image of the city, within newly recent settlements? In the next chapter it will be analyzed one such residentialbusiness complex, that is located right next to the “Borik” settlement.

BANJALUKA “THE GREEN CITY”, FROM 1995. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina has again found itself at the center of conflict. Although Banjaluka was not directly exposed to war destruction, after the establishment of peace in 1995., a new period of the city reconstruction started. Urbanistic and architectural activities in Banjaluka, can be described as very hastily in past decade, without clearly defined guidelines and development goals. The effects of globalization, transition and market world view, influenced the urban form of the city and its identity. How Simonovic says, it is being built by a newly composed architectural model, to form pseudourban environments with a hybrid identity, formed by mixing several different concepts from wider cultural context or free acceptance of foreign models. The negative influence of this factor on the formation of the identity of Banjaluka is substantial (2010:162). When it comes to attitude towards the natural environment, the current architectural trends entail a series of decisions that have direct impact on reducing the representation of green areas and other public spaces. Many values concerning "green" Banjaluka, are devastated or even lost forever. Residents of the newly built parts of the city often have very little functional space for interaction, relaxation and recreation, which in modern times is unacceptable. Jan Gehl points out that trees and other landscape elements play a key role in the metropolitan area. "Trees provide shade in warm summer months, they cool and cleanse the air, define city space and help emphasize important places. A large tree on a square signals: This is the place. Trees along boulevards underscore a linear sequence, and trees that stretch their branches over the street imply the presence of green space in the city. In addition to their immediate aesthetic qualities, the green elements in the city have a symbolic value. The presence of green elements passes on a message about recreation, introspection, beauty, sustainability and the diversity of nature." (Gehl, 2010: 179). As an example of a new settlement of Banjaluka, which is characterized by an unequal ratio between asphalt and green spaces (in favor of constructed), there is isolated complex "Krajina" which is located near the hall "Borik",

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE respectively, on a short distance from the homonymous neighborhood. Differences in the approach to the green structures and identity of Banjaluka, are clearly visible in the photographs that follow.

Figure 2: Comparison of settlement "Borik" and settlement "Krajina", author's photographs

In the example of the complex "Krajina", and other newer parts of Banjaluka the principle of construction of single buildings or possibly their smaller groups is obvious, which is in complete contrast with what is practiced in the period before the Civil War. Novakovic (2014: 182) argues that this approach is not negative in nature, and that it is possible to investigate in the context of the contribution of diversity typology of buildings, architectural design and function in city blocks. However, striving seek for maximum and even illegal development of parcel, change of use of the planned area, very low quality of architectural space organization, led to a pronounced reduction in standard of living compared to the period before 1990. The story is further deepened when we consider the relationship to the natural environment and planning new green structures, given the absence of comprehensive legislation for the specified area. The regulatory plan "Center - alley" in Banja Luka, Revision Plan from 2011, in the context of block greenery is defined to be within blocks of the planned settlement envisaged green areas, all with the goal of enabling a more pleasant environment and connecting with the existing system of urban greenery. In addition, it was said that the obligation of the investor "is to make project design and implementation of landscaping with planting", and that "have in mind that considerable areas are occupied with underground garages, significant green spaces are provided in the form of roof gardens" (UZRS, 2011: 43). Part of the "Krajina" settlement (that is within the above-mentioned plan) is constructed, and characterized by a maximum permitted building, asphalt and dominance of the existence of underground garages. However, roof gardens, landscaping and other elements for planting are almost nonexistent. The concentration of population in the studied locality, requires much more block greenery in relation to built status. Therefore, it can be concluded that quality of life is compromised, which directly affects the patterns of user behaviour and way of life in an urban environment. If we continue today's approach to building, without the respected minimum 20% of green space on the plot (Law of the Organization of construction and space), Banjaluka has a good chance to lose its identity. In many cities today, including Banjaluka, it is very difficult to identify or achieve what relates to the quality of everyday life. Because of the prevailing characters of urban areas and ways of their functioning, the growing importance of gain characteristics that as Radovic (2011) says "celebrate a little, human and locally". The inadequacy of urban

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spaces, among other things is reflected in the lack of greenery, regardless of its positive effects on the physical and mental state of man. The importance of green structures in Banjaluka is even greater because of close ties with the identity of the city. All planning solutions, as well as concepts for the preservation of existing urban areas, need to have the characteristics of continuity, homogeneity and connectivity. Their main task should be functional and aestetic connecting of different content and structures of the city, which would highlight it as a "green city". Why is preserving the above epithets essential to Banjaluka, says the following statement: "Every citizen has had long associations with some part of his city, and his image is soaked in memories and meanings." (Lynch, 1960:2).

CONCLUSIONS Paper traces development of Banjaluka through three periods that are specifically caused current appearance and character of the city. The paper analyzed two residential settlements as positive and negative example of treatment of green and public spaces in the planning process. However they are not isolated cases. There is less good solutions in urban planning practice, planners and architects more and more pleasure investors, who often have no sense of problem outcomes of their investments, but also exclusively tend to maximum built parcels and financial profitability. In this way, the green areas become subordinated to other urban structures (buildings, roads, parking lots). All this resulted in a drastically lower standard of living in relation to the period before 1990. Many researchers have dealt with the problem of planning and preserving the identity of the town, which were recognized in Banjaluka too. Reba (2009) highlights the close relationship between identity of the place and the identity of the man: People are attached to their place and cared for it, because they want to belong somewhere. A man forms his place, and he later formed him. Dealing with the identity of built environment begins when the identity becomes problematic. In certain, identity of the place includes uncertain identity of the people who live there. When it comes to the problem of the city's identity, Jacobs (1958:127) provides a useful guideline, that the solution is more visible in the user's needs, but the concept of the plan:"It is the premise of this critique that the best way to plan for downtown is to see how people use it today; to look for its strengths and to exploit and reinforce them. There is no logic that can be imposed upon city; people make it, and it is to them, not buildings, that we must fit our plans." In order to provide ourselves more humane way of life, it is essential that as citizens take an active role in the creation and management of green and other public spaces. Alleys, parks, green block areas, beaches, promenades along the river, and other green structures should only contribute to the creation of optimal conditions for the healthy and pleasant life in the city, and also to link content and functions within the city. Therefore, architects and urban planners have to observe the problems wider in order to find a comprehensive and innovative answers to complex questions of modern society. Finally, we must realize that the priorities that are offered by today's consumer system of values are not absolute and universal, but are the result of certain material interests, which do not always match with local

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE interests. "The widespread practice of planning from above and outside must be replaced with new planning procedures from below and inside, followingthe principle: first life, then space, then buildings" (Gehl, 2010: 198).

REFERENCES Book: Lynch, Kevin. 1960. The image of the city. The M.I.T. Press: Massachusetts Gehl, Jan. 2010. Cities for people. Island Press: Washington Simonović, Dijana. 2010. Pejzažni gradovi, poređenje razvoja urbanog identiteta Banjaluke i Graca. Arhitektonsko-građevinski

fakultet, Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci: Banjaluka Book chapter: Jacobs, Jane. 1958. “Downtown is for people.” In The Exploding metropolis, edited by William H. Whyte, Jr, 127. Doubleday: University of California. Došenović, Ljiljana; Sekulić, Mirjana; Davidović, Јelena. 2013. “Razvoj obјekata hortikulture u strukturi urbane matrice Banjaluke. Agroznanje”, no. 3: 367-375.

Novaković, Nevena. 2009. "Social values and interest groups in defining Banjaluka's green structure", Arhitektura i urbanizam, no. 24-25: 87-95. Other:

UZRS (Urbanistički zavod Republike Srpske, Banjaluka). 2011. Regulacioni plan „Centar – aleja“ u Banjaluci – Revizija plana. UZRS (Urbanistički zavod Republike Srpske, Banjaluka). 2005. Revizija regulacionog plana stambenog naselja Borik u Banjaluci. Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske, broj 01-696 /13. 2013. Zakon o uređenju prostora i građenju. Novaković, Nevena. 2015. Istraživanje obrazaca upotrebe javnih prostora u funkciji urbane regeneracije susedstva: Grad Banjaluka (doktorska disertacija). Univezitet u Beogradu, Arhitektonski fakultet. Radović, Darko. 2011. How can one express: nothing. In Measuring the Non – Measurable Symposium, part V: Focus

Tokyo. Keio University. Reba, Darko. 2009. Identitet građene sredine (predavanje). Univerzitet u Novom Sadu Guzijan, Jasna; Cvijić, Siniša. 2016. "Petar Kočić city park - a case against the loss of urban identity, Contemporary theory and practice in building development, XII internacional scientific technical conference, Banja Luka: 287-294

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SELF-ORGANIZED PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS VS. PLANING AND DESIGNING THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT Dženana Bijedić 18 Assoc.Prof., University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, dzenanab@af,unsa.ba Rada Čahtarević Assoc.Prof., University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, radac@af,unsa.ba Mevludin Zečević Assoc.Prof., University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, mevludinz@af,unsa.ba Adna Šarac Teaching assistant, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, adnas@af,unsa.ba ABSTRACT The paper elaborates on the issues of spatial regulation and construction in the rural areas. Whether the patterns of urban planning are adequate to be introduced while intervening in rural areas, if it is necessary to keep the old practice in construction, or it is required to make changes in the approach towards creating new built environment in the rural regions. Blidinje Park of Nature is taken as an example to present current situation, it is elaborated and the conclusion is drawn. It has been realised that the practice has been overlooked by some of the vital elements of the human nature. We do not consider this architecture, or planning methods to be a template for solving spatial problems of our time. This would be a rigid approach, which we do not need, because we have our own contemporary technique and materials, methods and means, rules and necessities. We come to this stage because we applied philosophy such as "historia est magistra vitae", as well as understanding the creative spaces of the past as the lesson for the formation of new ones. These places reveal to the world its uniqueness, in which the man places himself creatively in space. They convey authentic messages of the meaningful existence in the synthesis of productive material with creative and spiritual activity. Keywords: regulation, urbanization, rural areas, contemporary approach, nature

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INTRODUCTION Blidinje Nature Park is located in the north-western mountain region of Herzegovina. The scientific researches that have so far dealt with this site have focused mainly on the water quality and geomorphologic characteristics of the terrain. Only several studies in the past century provided an overview of the ethnographic heritage, where methodological exploration and categorization of types of buildings have been carried out. The latest research has shown that the artificial elements of vernacular buildings for generations were built environmentally sound, in every sense. Once some of those elements have lost their function, they come to their decay or transformation, in a functional and constructive way. In the recent past, in order to enhance the economic development, local authorities set spatial plans for Blidinje which are enabling construction of apartment resorts in the Nature Park. Pattern introduced in those plans cannot be detected anywhere at the Blidinje plate. It is questionable how adequate is to impose such artificial interventions at this location having in mind that built heritage respected nature, geography, morphology, ie. it was authentic and environmentally sound. We argue that newer interventions, which follow the urban planning rules and procedures, in the rural environment have not achieved the synergy between the built and the given environment. The elaboration aims to justify and to prove this by comparing two artificial interventions in the natural environment – the old, vernacular and the new, planned one. At the same time, we also tried to identify the causes that led to this and which are quite certain in the social context of the socio-techno-economic development of society. Artificial elements - livestock houses, stalls, hooves, cultivated land, communications, were until recently an excellent example of anthropogenic type interventions, done by generations in full harmony with the natural environment, both in functional and propose sense. Acting in the communion with the mountain, respecting its laws and its rhythm, always with a sense of measure, the seasonal inhabitants of the Čvrsnica and Vran-planina deserted the simple and viable philosophy of living (Vego, 260).

BUILT ENVIRONMENT Existing – vernacular •

Social and spatial context

In the past, the area of Blidinje Nature Park was not populated by a permanent population. Residents of lowland areas migrated to the mountain area early in the summer to address the problem of adverse climatic conditions in the lowlands - large droughts and lack of water. The mountains gave them the opportunity to preserve livestock, produce meat, wool and dairy products. However, some of temporary inhabitants by time formed permanent settlements, when constructing the necessary buildings local materials were used, site orientation was respected, as well as the terrain slopes, the winds, the outside temperatures, the position of the neighbours. Residents have lived for centuries

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in the harmony with nature, living a simple and sustainable life philosophy. As it is usually the case with successfully interpolated structures unknown builder of that time created his living space carefully, not dispersing material and energy in vain while at the same time creating an expressive architecture. As Salopek observed: “"Regardless how, from the point of view of the civil historiography, the role of the peasantry seemed to be ahistorical the fact that for centuries they lived as subjects in the natural surroundings, conveying their traditional life philosophy... The folk creator of this time has created his living space sparingly, not wasting power in vain, but eloquent and expressive as life itself..." (Salopek, p.16). For the purposes of residence, cattle breeding, dairy and agriculture, various types of buildings, such as shelters, flats and stables have been built. The livestock house was first constructed as a ground floor rectangular, seasonal type building (mostly 4x6 m), positioned directly next to a cattle farm, on a landscaped ground and close to the springs of drinking water. In addition to the function of residence, milk and milk products were processed there. In this sense, the house is organized through two parts of the same surface. The first part, the fireplace – ‘ognjište’, is intended for living, preparing for food and sleeping. The second part, 'mlikar', served to store dairy products. The apartment was entered through the low entrance door, which is also the only entrance on the building (Živković, page 15). The construction of the cattle house is made of local wood as a montage-demountable structure to be demolished after the summer season and the material is preserved for reuse next year. Due to the climate change that followed, the summer season is changing, the needs of the users change, first the burning area and the storage space for the fattening products are placed in separate buildings, and the end of the evolution of the summer house is its transformation into a building (4x7 m) for the whole year. The permanent residences unit includes the function of storing dairy products, and the stables are built. The stands were built on a location that was protected from wind blows and which was not threatened by the summer spell. The choice would normally be a downhill, south or southwest orientation. The characteristic stables are built as two-story on a rectangular basis. The division into the floors supports the functional division: ground floor - cattle and the floor storage of drowned and dried fodder. The entrance to the ground floor, which is mostly part of it, is buried on the one side of the stall placed against the storm of the northeast wind, while the entrance to the upper floor is usually on the opposite side - directly from the ground. The roof pitch is approximately 60 degrees on the lateral surfaces, or more than 80 degrees on the front and back roof. The flats and stalls lost their function in time, some of them were not used and the buildings were in ruinous condition or only parts of the building remained. The second part consists of buildings that have undergone transformation in use, and modifications of the physical structure have been made according to the possibilities and the needs.

Existing – New In relation to the construction period that left the mentioned architectural heritage, in the later period, different new buildings were constructed in a manner that was more or less respecting, or less than respecting a given built environment. Some constructions were made in addition to the existing structures, and some as new, separate structures.

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•

Social and spatial context

The scientific and technological revolution increased man's power to manipulate nature, while the economy and the overall economic activity inspired economic selfishness. In that sense, the achievements of the science and technology are often in the service of personal, collective and national interests, not of the interest of the common good. As Al Gore emphasizes: "a sudden acceleration of the scientific and technological revolution, which has allowed an almost unimaginable magnification of our power to affect the word around by burning, cutting, digging, Moving and transforming the physical matter that makes up the earth.", (Al Gore, p. 30) The consequence of contemporary economic policy is ignoring the human connection with the natural world and its dependence on it. The moral set of values is neglected, the regulatory ideal of economics is maximizing profits. This is mostly because, as Peter Russell in The Awakening Earth notes: "In most cases science and technology are in the service of personal, collective or national interests, not the interests of humanity and the planet." (Abadzic, p. 133). In such a system, economic activities lose the necessary relationship with the human being. In this context, there is also the construction of an apartment complex. From the aspect of commercialization, in the period from the beginning of the industrial revolution to the present day, the products of the process of creating a built environment, objects of various forms, sizes and purposes have become widespread goods, producing more or less value, unified, separated from the place, and as a rule reduced to something that can be sold and purchased. Although architecture has always had (and will) have a strong artistic component, in parallel with the development of industrial technologies, based on scientific achievements, it is becoming more and more supportive of architectural creativity exclusively in the field of technology. This resulted in the replacement of the traditional, subjective approach to the creation of the architectural space, which accepted the experiential knowledge, with a new, objective re-definition of the origin of the architectural form and its fragments (Bijedić, p. ii). At the Blidinje Nature Park area, the spatial parameters of individual houses were analysed, which were: positioning in relation to the environment, access, position relative to neighbours, layouts, materials used, type of structure, and roof slopes. The houses of the ethnographic heritage are shown, and compared with the newly built houses of the apartment complex.

•

Characteristics of the ethnographic heritage houses

The folk builder of stone objects was considering the pitch of the terrain, the direction of wind blowing when positioning the space. Buildings are incorporated into smaller groups, but their familiarity within the group is evident, each unit has its own outdoor open - green space. Access communications are also "spontaneous" where they are needed, and they also respect the terrain configuration. The landscape is still natural, complemented by stone structures that are integrated within it.

•

Characteristics of building houses within the apartment settlement:

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The apartment settlement is designed according to the principle of land division on the parcels by establishing an orthogonal network, which also forms the access roads. The area of the apartment complex is densely built, the space between buildings is small. Users of the apartment complex can hardly perceive the natural environment of the Nature Park. The settlement forms a new landscape dominated by objects, and nature is still pale.

Figure 1. Stone, traditional house vs. apartment house

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Table 1. Comparative overview of construction characteristics

CRITERION

ETHNOGRAPHIC HERITAGE HOUSES APARTMENT HOUSES

Floor plan dimensions (m)

5,3x9,5

5x8

Number of floors

P (P+Pt)

S+P+1+Pt

The slope of the roof (o)

55

60

Orientation (cardinal points)

free, according to location specifics

northwest

Structure / materialization

Stone, wood, roof tiles, asbestos cement shingles (not original)

Massive structural system (reinforced concrete blocks); Classical roof structure (woodwork, thermal insulation, roof-tile)

Design and shape

Cube with tilted roof; small number of openings; simplicity

Cube with tilted roof; symmetry; simplicity

Figure 2: Spatial layout and views of the group of stone houses

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Figure 3: Apartment complex, disposition and view of newly built houses

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Lessons learned At the level of individual objects exempted from the whole of which they were part, there were certain differences between stone structures and apartment houses. In the stone house the compartment is conditioned with the needs of the future users (in the design and construction phase already know who they are), while in the apartment house the higher level of abrasion is applied for economic gain - a larger number of squares means more profit. Future users in the planning and design phase have not been actively involved, and their needs are only assumed. Roof tiles and plan dimensions are very similar in both cases, and the next difference is materialization. It seems quite justified in view of the fact that new materials and technology were introduced into the construction industry in relation to the period of stone houses construction. Volume and shape, houses are similar, the difference is due to different levels of abyss. Based on this summarized comparison, it can be said that the house of the new age meets the needs of the users as the old house responded to the lifestyle of the inhabitants of the previous period. However, when we come to the level of observation of spatial complexes, we notice significant differences. The construction of ethnographic heritage promotes the construction of buildings in smaller groups, but the characteristic of the group is the dignity of the objects within it, each having its own external green space. This results in the free orientation of objects in space as well as the possibility of integration into nature. It is evident that there are two different ways of thinking about space. One in the center puts man and nature, and another economic gain. Compared spatial realization to the user being created offers different experiences and perception of the same locality - Nature Park. One emerged spontaneously, the bottom-up principle emerging from the real needs of the user and creating a logical and nephodic structure. Integrated into a natural environment and achieved synergy. The second structure (apartment settlement) is located in the top-down area - it uses the orthogonal network to obtain densely constructed objects, recalling the way it is built in urban areas, where a small gap between the objects is caused by the available areas and a large population Who wants to settle for them. The landscape was altered, the ratio of nature changed - built, now dominated built. Though it is a result of planned thinking, it can certainly be said that there was no awareness of the space in which it is built. The artificially imposed patern is static and limited (it can not be functional - substantiate theoretically), and the nature to which man integrates - the future user is part of an open, dynamic and self-sustainable system where all elements of the whole depend on each other. Trying to copy self-organized patterns of rural settlements from the top-down, complex character of bottom-up spatial patterns are lost. Top down planning are mostly based on linear homogeneous scales, distribution and organization of individual spatial units. Homogeneous patterns of designed space are characterized by internal conflict. Only complex dynamics of nonlinear spatial heterogeneity could lead to synergy, forming emerging place supported by dynamic fluctuations based on behaviour of local individual residents, (Allen, 2012).

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CONCLUSION Dehumanization of environmentally sound spaces has occurred. "What can be done next, and how it can be done?", is the question addressed to all involved parties, and it is addressed to local decision making level? Further, one has to ask is it possible to change human consciousness on environmental issues in the current stage of development, in general? Regardless of concrete situations, today it is necessary to harmonize our approaches towards the natural and given environment, instead of dominating. On that way it is important to notice that, besides changes to be made in the planning, designing, and constructing professions, it is equally important to request changes in governing. Namely, study of the global environment has required a searching re-examination of the ways in which political motivates and government policies have helped to create the crisis and now frustrate the solutions we need (Gore, p.12). We have come to realize that the practice has been overlooked by some of the vital elements of the human space, so that we are talking about uninhabited settlements, dormitories, housing boxes, lost time, lost space, etc. Without a general awareness And worrying about our ambience, we can expect all the more devious space devastation from the functional approach to its exploitation to the loss of the peculiarities of a particular natural or legacy, from the fortunate substitutes for true interpretation to the disturbance of the ecological balance.

REFERENCES Book: Abadžić, Nijaz. 2001. Doba ekologije. Sarajevo, Vlastita naklada

Allen, P.M. “The Visible Expression of Co-evolving Complexity”. In Ekim, T., Egbert, S., Han, M., & Juval, P. 2012. Complexity Theories of Cities Have Come of Age. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Bijedić, Dženana. 2012. Arhitektura, Holizam umjesto optimalizacije, Integralni pristup u arhitektonskom stvaralaštvu: Sarajevo: Univerzitet u Sarajevu

Gore, Albert. 2008 .Earth in the Balance Forging a New Common Purpose. London: Earthscan, in Ekim, T., Egbert, S., Han, M., & Juval, P. (2012). Salopek, Davor. 1974. Arhitektura bez arhitekta. Zagreb: Mala arhitektonska bibliblioteka SAH-e Živković, Zdravko. 2015.Tradicijska kamena kuća dalmatinskog zaleđa priručnik za obnovu i turističku valorizaciju. Zagreb: Ministarstvo turizma Republike Hrvatske i Ministarstvo vanjskih i europskih poslova Journal article: Vego, Jaroslav. 2000. “Buildings of the Ethnographic Heritage in Blidinje Nature Park”. Prostor, Vol. 8(2000), No. 2(20): 269-2

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KNEZ (PRINCE) MIROSLAV SQUARE IN OMIŠ (CROATIA) Vesna Perković Jović Assistant Professor, Ph.D., University of Split, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Geodesy, Croatia, Split, Matice hrvatske 15, [email protected] ABSTRACT The architect Frano Gotovac worked in the area of Split between the mid-1950s and the late 1980s. Although he was for the most part engaged in designing residential areas and blocks, a significant part of his oeuvre was dedicated to the designs of sports, commercial, health, and other centres. Frano Gotovac spent almost all his carrier in Split working in a number of Split firms. In the late 1960s he took a job in Omiš, in the construction firm called Izvađač. At the time of Gotovac’s work in Omiš, this small Dalmatian town was under intensive construction. Omiš expanded out of its historical boundaries onto the east and west peripheries, including the Peninsula Punta in the south. New residential areas were built for the increasing population flocking to the town in search of employment. Through his original architectural approach in designing buildings Gotovac made a significant contribution towards shaping the post-war character of the City of Omiš. He designed a number of residential blocks. The Dalma departments store was also designed by Gotovac in the late 1960s. A building bearing a pronounced touch of the author was constructed in a prominent place of Punta Peninsula, on the west approach to Omiš. The building is located in the immediate vicinity of the historical city core and the River Cetina. These circumstances required the designer to exhibit particular sensibility in the space visible from greater distances due to the configuration of the surrounding terrain close to the River. On the south side of the department store the same author designed a residential block. In designing these buildings, Gotovac envisaged a new city square formed by his two buildings and a residential block designed by the architect Josip Vojnović and constructed in the early 1960s. Keywords: Frano Gotovac, Omiš, Prince Miroslav Square, Modern architecture

INTRODUCTION The Position of Omiš and the Location of the Square The historical core of the City of Omiš is situated at the mouth of the River Cetina, in a narrow belt extending between the sea and the mountains in the hinterland. The high mountains of Dinara of Omiš make a deep river canyon, contributing towards the vividness and dramatic appearance of the entire area. The southeast side of the historical

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core was once flanked by defence backwater of the River Cetina, separating the historical core of Omiš from the Peninsula of Punta. With the cessation of Turkish invasions in the late 17th century, the backwater was filled in and converted into a communication road, the present day Street of Fošal. In the early 1960s, the time immediately preceding a more intensive development in Omiš, the Peninsula of Punta was sparsely developed, featuring only a few private residential houses designed in the Art-Nouveau style, heralding the beginning of the development of this city area and the expansion of Omiš out of its historical boundaries. The subsequent constructions along Fošal Street in the 1960s, interpolated between the existing buildings, formed the façades of the street. At the extreme northeast point of Fošal, close to the bridge across the River Cetina, Gotovac designed an extension to Fošal, a small city square which, however, has never come to life as originally planned.

Gotovac’s Work in Omiš Gotovac’s work in Omiš started in the mid-1960s at the invitation of the Municipality of Omiš, commissioning him to elaborate the urban and zoning plan of the agglomeration of Omiš, entitled “Omiš 1990” 19. The urban plan was never approved, although Gotovac completed it in 1968, and, following a public inspection and discussion, the plan was adopted and approved at the session of the Municipal Assembly of Omiš. Nevertheless, this plan opened new roads to Gotovac, offering him new jobs at designing various buildings in Omiš. He designed a number of residential blocks in the city area of Mlija, residential blocks on the Peninsula of Punta, as well as a small residential complex in the area of Priko between 1960s and early 1970s. The most attractive job consisted in forming a new city square, Duke Miroslav Square, situated on the Peninsula of Punta, formed by two new buildings constructed according to Gotovac’s design, a residential block and a department store dating from 1967 and 1968 respectively, along with a residential block designed by the architect Josip Vojnović and constructed some time earlier, in 1962 20. The buildings are positioned in an octagonal screen, forming a rectangular square offering a view of the historical city core. The articulation of this area required an exceptional sensibility on the part of the architect due to its delicate location in the vicinity of the River and the historical core.

19 Archives of the Split-Dalmatian County, Minutes of the 12th session of the Omiš Municipal Assembly, held on 24th September 1969, enclosure: Conceptual Urban Plan “Omiš 1990”. 20 Archives of the Urban Planning Institute of Dalmatia, T.D. 275/po. Based on Josip Vojnović’s design, a number of buildings in Dalmatia were constructed. The project entitled URBS-1 was made by Vojnović while he was employed at the Urban Planning Bureau in Split.

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DALMA DEPARTMENT STORE Frano Gotovac designed the department store Dalma in Omiš in 1966 21. It was according to this design that the building was constructed in 1967, in the extreme north-west part of the Peninsula of Punta. The north-west side of the building runs along the River Cetina, while the major city thoroughfare, called Fošal, extends along its northeast side. In designing this building Gotovac seems to have shown more interest in the sculptural components of the language of architecture, and as for the justification of such a building being located precisely in this place, Gotovac wrote: “With regard to the growing tourist significance of the City of Omiš and increased needs of the domestic and foreign tourists, the building is located with a view to enhancing, as much as possible, its commercial usability. Located along the bank of the River Cetina, immediately next to the bridge on the approach to Omiš, and at the beginning of the major, busiest, and most attractive thoroughfare of Omiš called Fošal, the building had to justify its existence, both by its location and by its architectural attractiveness” 22. The lot on which the building was erected is visible from different directions and from a greater distance, which is why the department store, characterised by a strong Neo-Expressionist touch, stands out as a prominent landmark at the entrance to the City of Omiš. The department store has a square area of 750 m2 of indoor business space on the ground and the first floors, while 895 m2 goes to outdoor terraces and communication. The ground floor is designed for shops, while the first floor accommodates a furniture and household gadgets shop. Particular attention was paid to communications, combined with different possibilities and modes of the use of the building. The interior of the building features a spiral staircase, connecting the ground and the first floors, in case both storeys were to be used as an integral shopping centre. The main access to the first floor is ensured by a ramp located on the northwest side of the building, or an alternative outer spiral staircase on the southeast side. A major part of the first floor is occupied by a terrace connected by a porch on the northeast side of the building. The ramp, the porch, the terrace, and the staircase constitute an outdoor continuous pedestrian communication, providing a view of the Fošal and the park extending along the southeast side of the department store. Far from being interrupted on the first floor, this communication extends further towards the roof terrace articulated in the spirit of modernist dynamic treatment of the space by creating complex connections between the indoor and outdoor spaces, as for example the one employed in the Le Corbusier’s Savoy villa at Poissy 23 or Schminke House in Löbau 24, designed by the architect Hans Schauron. The serviceable roof terrace-belvedere is connected by a bridge to the spiral staircase located on the southeast side of the building. The basic geometric form of the department store is a cuboid, from which Gotovac, by subtracting volume, creates a porch and the terrace of the first floor. The outer shell of the department store is dominated by a sculpturally formed ramp and a spiral staircase. The same manner has been employed in forming the pavilion of the café located on the roof terrace, similar to the sculpturally formed solarium on the roof of Le Corbusier’s Savoy villa at Poissy. The slanting cornice of the

The address of the department store is Fošal bb. Gotovac, 1968. 23 Zevi, 2006: 254-255. 24 Zevi, 2010: 875. 21 22

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roof terrace could, in formal terms, be associated with the roof of the lower volume of the Guggenheim 25. By its strong horizontal sweep it tranquillises the entire composition of the department store. Like Le Corbusier’s Domino system 26, the applied skeleton supporting the construction, composed of reinforced concrete pillars of the cross layout and the inter-storey reinforced concrete construction, seem to free the façade of its construction role. The façades feature a series of glazed windows, alternating with walls done in concrete and brick, left unfinished in accordance with the radical idea of an open display of the essence of the material. The original appearance of the building’s interior has recently been disrupted. The ground floor and the first floor were originally connected by a spiral staircase in the central part of the building, once an integral shopping centre of the Dalma department store. By changes in the ownership occurring in the early 1990s, the staircase was rendered inaccessible because the building was divided between its two new co-owners by storeys. It is due to this configuration that at the extreme south part of the building, according to the wish of the new investor, a staircase leading up to the first floor was added. By adding several partition walls on the ground floor and the afore-mentioned interventions in the vertical communications, the original idea of an integral shopping centre was altered. With its original and, for the time, modern approach, the department store represents a valuable contribution towards the Croatian architecture of the late 1960s.

Figure 3: Perspective view, drawing of the architect Frano Gotovac, from the archives of the author, conceptual design of the department store, November 1966.

25 26

Zevi, 2010: 734-735. Zevi, 2006: 250.

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Figure 2: Department store, ground floor layout, from the archives of the author, conceptual design of the department store, November 1966.

Figure 3: Department store (left) and residential block (right), north-west view, residential block designed by Josip Vojnović (in the background), from the archives of the Gotovac family.

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Figure 4: Department store, south-east view, from the archives of the Gotovac family.

RESIDENTIAL BLOCK A three-storey residential block with a superstructure 27 was constructed in 1968 on the Peninsula of Punta, along the southeast side of the Fošal Street. Since the building is located in the vicinity of the Mediaeval city core, Gotovac paid great attention to adjusting volumes and heights of the new building to the ones of the nearby buildings situated in the historical core. The longer axis of the building extends in the northwest–northeast direction and runs parallel to Fošal Street. The ground floor of the building accommodates business and shopping facilities oriented towards the square, while the entrances and the storerooms used by the tenants are situated on the opposite south-west and north-west sides of the building. The storeys are divided into three parts, each featuring the same type of flat: the extreme northwest part accommodates four-room flats, while the opposite southeast part smaller two-room ones. The central part is occupied by three-room flats, some with and some without a loggia. With a view to articulating the cuboid box Gotovac fragments the elongated prismatic volume of the building by horizontally moving the volume approximately at its half and by investing each part with his own visual expression. The north-west part of the building is thereby dominated by subtle horizontal lines of reinforced concrete balcony consoles on the surface facing the square, whereas the southeast part of the façade is characterised by a series of vertical lines of walls and windows. A similar procedure, with a view to fragmenting the basic volume, was employed by Gotovac in 1965 in his design of the residential block in Washington Street in Split 28, where the layout dislocation of the building parts in modelling the volume was justified by some restrictive factors and the requirements of the location. In this building Gotovac formally repeated a similar procedure as he wanted to achieve a specific external appearance, however, with no particular influence of the location. He was primarily interested in the plastic research of the volume directed from the exterior towards the interior, followed by an articulation of the interior of a particular building volume, determined in advance. The author’s conviction that the a priori division of the volume into two parts, articulated with formative 27 28

The address of the residential block is 3, 5, 7, 9 Vladimir Nazor Street. The address of the residential block is 7 and 9 Washington Street. The building was constructed in 1966/1967.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE elements marked by a prominent horizontal or vertical direction, will ensure a better proportion of the façade oriented towards the new square and the historical city core of Omiš, seems to have resulted in a functional flaw in the layout organisation of the building’s storeys. In designing the central space of the building, in which three-room flats are located, Gotovac deliberately designed a smaller number of flats with loggias, thereby depriving a large number of flats of a possibility of reaching the outside part of the flat, i.e. loggia, which would provide a higher quality of living. Although the flats are of the same type and have been designed according to the same layout matrix, Gotovac remained true to his belief in realising a more beautiful façade, in which he was adamant and consistent in the implementation of his attitudes. The three-room flats, located within the northwest part of the building, feature loggias because this part is articulated precisely with horizontal protrusions of reinforced concrete consoles featuring on the northeast façade. Since the southeast part of the building overlooks the square by an alternating extension of vertical lines of walls and windows, Gotovac designed a major portion of three-room flats / storeys, marked with an identical layout disposition, without loggias. The south-west façade is articulated with an alternating extension of lines of full walls and strips of French windows. The regular repetitive rhythm of these segments is interrupted by prominently recessed entrances to the building. The cornice of the building represents an uneven dynamic line, following the rhythm of windows and full walls, which features as a recurrent motif of Gotovac’s designs. In the last stage of the façade articulation Gotovac connects differently formed volumes into a visually integral whole by elongating the first floor loggia along the entire façade length 29. This protrusion, intended exclusively for visual effects, continues onto the adjacent southeast façade in the form of a small balcony pertaining to the lowest two-room flat, done with a view to creating an integral composition. The flats are of bilateral orientation with a clear division into living and sleeping areas. The living areas overlook the square, providing a view of the city’s historical core, while the bedrooms, located on the opposite side, overlook the street. The disposition of rooms in each particular flat is dictated by the supporting system, marked by transversal supporting walls and longitudinal reinforcing walls. The external appearance of the building today shows considerable alterations. The northeast façade, overlooking the historical core and the planned square, has lost its original plastic quality by the loggias being subsequently glazed.

Figure 5: Residential block, 2nd floor layout, the supposed original situation of the building, done by the author

29 A similar approach was applied by Gotovac in 1965, while shaping the south façade of the residential block at Pojišan in Split, constructed in the period 1969-1971. The address of the residential block is 2,3, 4 Prilaz Ivana Lozice (Ivan Lozica Street) and 7, 9, 11 Pojišan Street.

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Figure 6: residential block, north-east façade, the supposed original situation of the building, done by the author

Figure 7: Residential block, west view, department store and two-storey building at the beginning of Fošal (left from the residential block), Mediaeval fortress of Peovica on the mountain slope (in the background), from the archives of the architect Ante Kuzmanić

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CONCLUSION The square was thoroughly studied and horticulturally designed: “...it had been designed and created as an extension of Fošal in every way, both functionally and in terms of impression – in order for it to expand and breathe, and be filled with adequate contents.” 30 Much to Gotovac’s disappointment, the square never really came alive; instead, it was devastated by placing a series of kiosks along the northeast side of the area. “From the ‘barracks’ in the direction of the bridge, a host of all sorts of kiosks gradually appeared, the real ones, flea market ones, and the like. The city authorities then seemed to believe that it was all a joke which could be easily erased any time, or when the right time came, failing to understand that each kiosk, even the plainest one, represented a social case per se, with its particular implications burdening the city. Today the whole area represents a disagreeable space barrier, aggressively imposing itself onto Fošal, thus violating a truly urban character of the space. The square is enclosed between three buildings, whose ground floors, crowded with business and trading facilities, have converted it into an appendix serving merely as a free parking lot. The parking thus remains unseen and is not perceived as anything special, being situated behind a series of flea market kiosks, densely crowded together, aggressively imposing themselves onto the major thoroughfare of Omiš, thereby degrading an attractive space behind, annihilating its basic urban intentions. ” 31 The square today has not changed in the slightest: the square close to the historical core has not been brought to its purpose. Even after half a century it is still being used as an improvised parking lot. The surrounding buildings, due to inadequate maintenance and uncontrolled façade alterations, additionally contribute towards diminishing the significance of this area. This space was supposed to represent Gotovac’s contribution towards designing the public space of a small Dalmatian town, which, like so many other Dalmatian towns, saw a spatial expansion in the early 1960s.

REFERENCES Journal articles: Gotovac, Frano. 1968. “Commercial facilities in Omiš.” Arhitektura – urbanizam (Architecture – Urbanism) 53-54: 49–51. Gotovac, Frano. 1987. “Power of kiosks.” Slobodna Dalmacija 44, no. 13040 (March): 14. Archive sources: State Archive in Split, Split, 18 Glagoljaška Street, Archive of the Urban Institute in Dalmatia, Split, T.D. 275/po – Residential and business building of the URBS-1 type, Omiš; contractor: Urban Plan Bureau in Split; designer: Josip Vojnović; August 1959.

30

Gotovac, 1987.

31

Gotovac, 1987.

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Archives of the Split-Dalmatian County – Branch-Office in Omiš, 5 King Tomislav Square, Minutes of the 12th session of the Omiš Municipal Assembly, held on 24th September 1969, enclosure: Conceptual Urban Plan entitled “Omiš 1990”. Archives of the architect Vesna Perković Jović, Split, 1K Hrvatske mornarice Street, T.D. 33/66 – Conceptual design of the department store, contractor: Projektant, Split; designer: Frano Gotovac, November 1966. Archives of the architect Ante Kuzmanić, Split, 20 Put Firula Street, photo files Archives of the Gotovac family, Split, 1I Hrvatske mornarice Street, photo files

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IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF CVJETNO NASELJE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT IN ZAGREB Ivan Mlinar 32 PhD, Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Lea Petrović Krajnik PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Damir Krajnik PhD, Associate Professor, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Cvjetno naselje from 1939 is the last and best Zagreb’s individual housing development planned before the WWII built on the previously rural periphery along the Sava River. The author of development plan and house types is Vladimir Antolić, a progressive architect and member of the Zagreb Work Group – a Yugoslav representative at the Fourth 1933 CIAM Congress where Zagreb was one of 33 presented cities. Development plan of Cvjetno naselje is a rational and functional elaboration of Zagreb 1936 Regulation plan in which Antolić was one of its co-authors. Cvjetno naselje was planned in two rows of five cassettes of which 6 middle cassettes were intended for housing. Pedestrian alley was planned to link the school and the park on the west side and the market place, sports fields and public buildings on the east side. Projects of four types of detached houses on columns are determined by potential flooding of the Sava River. Although 70 houses were envisioned on the area around 13 ha, 80 houses were built partly according to Antolić’s house type projects before and after WWII when a park was laid out on the west side where an elementary school and a public building were also built while a residential building with shops was built in the development centre. In two eastern cassettes six units of five typical row houses, seven typical residential buildings with a total of 63 apartments and three houses were constructed. Image, identity and quality of Cvjetno naselje is defined by context of space, rational and functional Antolić’s development plan and projects of recognizable houses. Cvjetno naselje might have potentially become a quality prototype of Zagreb periphery urbanization with individual houses. However, it has not been implemented due to socio-political changes after WWII and orientation towards collective housing construction in Zagreb. Keywords: Cvjetno naselje, housing development, Vladimir Antolić, Zagreb

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Figure 1: Cvjetno naselje, Aerial view from the West, early 1960’s (Croatian State Archives)

INTRODUCTION After the unification of historically independent Zagreb's settlements into one administrative and territorial unit in 1850, urban development of Zagreb was marked by the construction of urban blocks of residential buildings. In the rural suburbs warehouses, unplanned, illegal and substandard houses were built, and at the beginning of the 20th century, small residential neighbourhoods were planned and realised. Zagreb was the provincial town of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy until 1918, and after the WWI it experienced accelerated economic and urban growth in the new sociopolitical context of Yugoslavia. In the 1920's, small residential neighbourhood housing developments were planned and built along the edges of the main urban structure, while the process of unplanned and illegal construction of substandard houses continued in the vicinity of newly built industrial facilities on the urban periphery. In the 1930s, as an elaboration of the Zagreb 1936 Regulation plan several housing developments with family houses were planned and built in the suburbs, including Cvjetno naselje, a prototype for urbanization of rural suburbs and an alternative to illegal construction of substandard housing. The socio-political context of Yugoslavia changed after the WWII, but economic and urban development of Zagreb continued. In the newly built housing developments residential buildings dominated, while only a small number of housing developments with individual housing was built. Until the early 1990s, Zagreb’s suburbs were mostly urbanized by housing developments in order to encourage the process of urbanization and expansion of the city and as an attempt to control illegal construction of residential areas. While industrial complexes were built on the periphery, suburban settlements mostly retained rural features. After the independence of the Republic of Croatia in 1991 and the Homeland War (1991-1995), most residential buildings in Zagreb were built on inappropriate plots without a clear urban planning concept. The housing development

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE construction stagnated until the beginning of the 21st century when housing developments filled out several free or inappropriately used city areas.

Figure 2: Zagreb periphery 1906 – West Trnje, Savska road, eastern Trešnjevka, Savski bridge and Sava River, View from the North (Oštrić, 1981: 20)

GENERAL CONTEXT

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Rapid growth of Zagreb between WWI and WWII generated the need for a quality urban regulation plan in order to conceive a long term development concept. Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 was created by Stjepan Hribar as Head of the City Building Office together with Antun Urlich, Josip Seissel and Vladimir Antolić as associates. The plan encompassed approximately 6,437 hectares and 213,240 inhabitants and planned the urbanization of suburban areas and rural surroundings of the city. The starting point for the drafting of the Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 were project proposals from 1931 international competition for the construction, expansion and regulation of Zagreb, (Radović Mahečić, Štok, 1997: 20). Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 arranged the city area according to the functional principles of CIAM and had a clearly defined structure resulting from the planned land use. The city was functionally divided into the central part of the mixed-use north of the railway line, the residential part located south of the railway, the industrial part on the east side, and sports and recreation areas along the Sava River. The area north of the railway was mostly built, except for the southern slopes of Medvednica mountain.

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Figure 3: Cvjetno naselje marked on Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 (Archives of the Zagreb Faculty of Architecture)

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Trnje area was consistently planned with urban blocks of residential housing, with stretches of parks and public buildings alongside the residential area. The regularity of urban block in Trnje was achieved due to the neglect of existing urban matrix of unplanned houses and buildings, unlike the south-western and south-eastern periphery areas (Trešnjevka and Pešćenica) where newly planned houses and residential buildings had been incorporated into existing irregular urban blocks system. The residential part of the city was divided into a high-rise zone with nine-story buildings, a medium high rise buildings with four and three-stories s and a low-rise area with two-storey and ground floor houses. (Jukić, 1997: 104) The height and density of residential areas was decreasing toward the outskirts of the city. The planned transportation network respected existing main roads. The elevation of railway line was planned in the city centre, as well as the construction of a new railway bypass intended for cargo traffic, building of an electric tram terminal, a river port, and a military and civilian airport. Large park areas for leisure and recreation were planned in Trnje and along the Sava River. Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 was implemented for a short period of time due to the WWII and changes of the socio-political system after the war, but also because of non-consideration of existing urban tissue (Antolić, 1949: 6). Cvjetno naselje was built in accordance with the Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936, following the system of regular elongated urban blocks planned on the southern part of city's periphery.

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Figure 4: Cvjetno naselje, Site plan from 1939 (Premerl, 1984-1985: 50)

Vladimir Antolić (1903-1981) is the author of Cvjetno naselje regulation plan and of individual houses types for which the static calculations were made by Zvonimir Kavurić (1901-1944) who worked at the Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris in 1927. (Haničar Buljan, 2006: 282, 292) Antolić and Kavurić were progressive architects, founders and members of the Zagreb Work Group (with Dušan Viktor Hećimović, Josip Pičman, Josip Seissel, Bogdan Teodorović and Ernest Weissmann). The group was active from 1932 to 1935 and its intention was to affirm the ideas of modern architecture

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and urbanism through projects and performances, exhibitions, publications and public media, lectures and public discussions. The Zagreb Work Group (Weissmann, Antolić and Teodorović) was a Yugoslav representative at the Fourth CIAM Congress in 1933, where Zagreb was one of the 33 presented cities. (Bjažić Klarin, 2015: 180-199) After WWII, Antolić organized the urban planning office in Croatia and was the head of Zagreb City Planning Institute which elaborated Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1953. From 1953 to 1965 he was working as a consultant for urban planning at the United Nations, organizing urban planning offices and creating city plans for South East Asia. He returned to Zagreb in 1965 where he was active as an expert consultant. (Ivankovic, 2016: 154-178)

Figure 5: Cvjetno naselje, Floor plan of the second floor and section of the house Type A 110 (Author's archive)

CASE STUDY – CVJETNO NASELJE Cvjetno naselje is an individual housing development built according to Antolić's urban plan for city officials, users of the City Bank loan, which funded urbanization and construction from 1939 in the area of Western Trnje, east of Savska road and north of the Sava River, characterised by illegal construction of substandard houses in the vicinity of warehouses and small industrial buildings. Development plan of Cvjetno naselje is a rational and functional elaboration of Zagreb's 1936 Regulation plan co-authored by Antolić, consisting two rows of five cassettes of which 6 middle cassettes were planned for housing. Pedestrian alley was planned to link the school and the park on the west side and the market place, sports fields and public buildings on the east side. Antolić’s projects of four detached family houses types with ground floor on columns were determined by potential flooding of the Sava River. Three types (A 95, A 110 and A 140) were two storey, and type B 170 was a three storey building. (Antolić, 1940: 27) Numbers in house names derived from the built area in square meters. Houses were built on the northern part of 20 x 40 meter plots in order to ensure quality insolation to the south side of the yard which created an idyllic urban landscape of

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE houses immersed in a continuous park. On the ground floor there is a hall and auxiliary rooms, and on the first floor there is a residential part of the house with a hallway, living room, dining room, kitchen, dining room, bathroom, and depending on the type, one or two bedrooms, a toilette and a balcony. Three storey houses could be divided in two apartments. All types have ground floor with columns, simple modernist façades with stands and balconies (depending on the type) and slightly tilted one-sided roof. The north façades are more closed than the others. Antolić even designed gardens and house interiors. (Mlinar, 2007: 159-160) On two neighbouring adjacent parcels beside elementary school Antolić and Kavurić built houses for themselves, Antolić type A 140, and Kavurić by his own project, but in accordance with Antolić's concept of houses on pillars. Although 70 houses were envisioned on the area around 13 ha, 80 houses were built partly according to Antolić’s house type projects before and after WWII. A park, elementary school and a public building were laid out on the west side, while a residential building with shops according to the project by Bela Auer in the development centre was built in 1962. In two eastern cassettes where a market place, sports fields and public buildings were originally planned, after WWII three houses, six units of five typical row houses (late 1940s) and five Jugomont’s (1959) and two Tučkorić’s typical residential buildings (1958 and early 1960s) with a total of 63 apartments were constructed. Changes in traffic system (main pedestrian alley is used for car traffic) and architectural interventions on majority of individual houses after WWII did not significantly influence the quality and a quiet atmosphere of Cvjetno naselje. (Mlinar, 2014: 8-10)

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Figure 6: Cvjetno naselje 1940, View from the West (Author's archive)

CONCLUSIONS Image, identity and quality of Cvjetno naselje is defined by context of space, rational and functional development plan and projects of recognizable family houses designed by Vladimir Antolić. Development plan of Cvjetno naselje is a rational and functional elaboration of Zagreb’s Regulation plan from 1936 (co-authored by Antolić), a successful example of author’s continuity and extent through town planning, architectural and interior design, rarely encountered in practice. Cvjetno naselje is the last and best Zagreb’s individual housing development planned before the WWII which could have potentially become a quality prototype of Zagreb rural periphery urbanization with individual housing. However, it has not been implemented due to socio-political changes after WWII and orientation towards collective housing construction in Zagreb.

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REFERENCES Antolić, Vlado 1940. “Cvjetno naselje u Zagrebu.” Inženjer, No. 3-4, Prilog A: 25-28. Antolić, Vlado 1949. “Regulacioni plan i Direktivna regulaciona osnova Zagreba.” Arhitektura, No. 18-22: 5-29. Bjažić Klarin, Tamara 2015. Ernest Wessmann – Društveno angažirana arhitektura, 1926.-1939. Zagreb: Hrvatska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti, and Hrvatski muzej arhitekture. Haničar Buljan, Ivana 2006. “Prilog za biografiju arhitekta Zvonimira Kavurića (1901.-1944.).” Radovi Instituta za povijest umjetnosti, no. 30: 281-297. Ivanković, Vedran 2016. Le Corbusier i hrvatska škola arhitekture. Zagreb: Europapress holding. Jukić, Tihomir 1997. Strukturalne promjene rubnih dijelova grada – prilog proučavanju urbanističkog razvoja Zagreba. Zagreb: Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Mlinar, Ivan. 2007. Urbanistička obilježja zagrebačkih stambenih naselja izgrađenih od 1918. do 1963. godine. Zagreb: Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Mlinar, Ivan 2014. “Zagrebačka prototipska stambena naselja obiteljskih kuća.” Presjek, no. 11: 6-16. Oštrić, Vlado. 1981. “Urbanizacija Trnja”, In Zagrebačko Trnje u radničkom i komunističkom pokretu i socijalističkoj revoluciji, edited by Mira Kolar-Dimitrijević, 17-26. Zagreb: Skupština općine Trnje. Premerl, Tomislav. 1984-1985. “CIAM i naša međuratna arhitektura.” Arhitektura, no. 189-195: 50-53. Radović Mahečić, Darja, and Štok, Sanja 1997. “Presedan zagrebačkog urbanizma.” Život umjetnosti, no. 59: 10-27.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research is part of the scientific project Heritage Urbanism – Urban and Spatial Planning Models for Revival and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage (2032) financed by the Croatian Science Foundation, which is being carried out at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, under the project leadership of the academician Mladen Obad Šćitaroci.

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THE SMALL-SCALE APPROACH AS A GENERATOR FOR URBANITY INCREASE OF BANJA LUKA CITY Isidora Karan 33 Urban design specialist, Centre for Spatial Research, Banja Luka, Address, [email protected] Milana Stijak Architect, Centre for Spatial Research, Banja Luka, Address, [email protected] Igor Kuvač Urban design specialist, Centre for Spatial Research, Banja Luka, Address, [email protected] ABSTRACT The question of scale of urban space is one of the most discussed in recent urban discourse. With the change of traditional values of space and time, the dynamics of construction of urban space also change. Cities worldwide are growing rapidly. However, urbanization is not followed with the urbanity either density with urban intensity. Cities are transforming into large-scale regional cities. In the same time, they are losing the main idea that city used to represent at the first place: which is to be a locus of diversity that offers wide range of activities and opportunities for social encounters. This research takes the position that even if the scale of urban space will continue to increase, the small scale is still the one that ensures urbanity, even in large-scale urban region. In the framework of multi-scale approach, in the first part of this paper, the development of on-going discourse on small scale urban design and its application in practice will be discussed. The second part of the analysis will present examples of small scaled interventions in urban space of Banja Luka, and will also show potential system of spots for this kind of approach in a short-term period. The aim of the paper is to reconsider and to propose the small-scale approach in designing nowadays cities. Keywords: small scale, approach, urbanity, Banja Luka

INTRODUCTION In the current condition of space-time compression, which refers to the set of processes that cause the relative distances between places to contract, the scale of city space changes (Harvy, 1996). Traditional compact cities are transforming into diffused and fragmented regional cities (Calthorpe and Fulton, 2001) where urban space is going out of human-scale, and it is rather adapted to the vehicles than to pedestrians (Gehl, 2010). Such transformation as 33


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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE a consequence has the lack of spatial relationships and potential social interactions that provide good city space for people. Cities are losing the main idea that they used to represent originally: which is to be a locus of diversity that offers wide range of activities and opportunities for social encounters (Talen, 2008; Ziccardi, 2013).

New city form, which is dynamic and extended into the territory, implies necessity for introducing new approaches towards the planning and designing of urban space. Everyday life in cities nowadays develops beyond the boundaries of a specific site and faces the wide scale of landscape. Although a single settlement or suburb might appear neither large nor dense enough to generate diversity within its boundaries, diversity emerges according to wider flows, developed on a metropolitan scale (Porqueddu, 2015). In this context, Porqueddu (2015) states that spaces, at the micro-scale of perception and human interaction, should be “reframed as components of emergent socio-physical networks stretching out of local boundaries”. Therefore, the focus on a small-scale design is very important. We have to consider that urban planning has become something quite abstract while the distance between the plan and the constructed reality is continuously increasing. For that reason, urban planning should move towards small units, and multiple scenarios enhancing diversity of spatial relationships that those small [spatial] units bring together into the complex structure of city (Radovic and Boontharm,2012).

METHODOLOGY This paper goes from the position that even if the scale of urban space will continue to increase, the small-scale which is adapted to human needs, perception and proportion, is still the one that ensures diversity and quality of life in cities. In this context, the aim of the paper is to define and to reconsider the use of small-scale approach in designing of complex and dynamic forms of cities in a broader sense. In the first part of the paper, the development of on-going discourse on small scale of urban design and its application in practice is discussed in order to draw out positive and negative aspects of such approach. The second part of the analysis presents examples of small scaled interventions in the city of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The interventions produced by bottom-up processes will be studied with the aim to reconsider the potential of small-scale approach as alternative to official large-scale orientated to urban planning and design in the local context of Banja Luka.

SMALL-SCALE APPROACH Small-scale approach is referred to human dimension of the city, on one hand, and urban design based on high quality project done in strategically selected places in the city, on the other hand.

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In terms of human dimension of the city space, small-scale refers to the design of physical environment which is guided by the size of human body, perception and visual field. Presence of small-scale is essential for the well-being of people and the functioning of the physical environment in which human activities occur (Gehl, 2010). This is confirmed by many studies on people's behaviour in public space. William Whyte’s study performed in New York in the 1980s of the last century shows that spaces designed to be monumental very often attract less people than small city spaces. Jan Gehl confirmed that small intervention such as placing benches may significantly improve urban activity of one place, while Darko Radovic’s recent research recognized the small-scale and small places as base elements for Tokyo's identity. As architecture dictates the extent of our awareness to the presence of other people (Hillier and Hanson, 2005: 24), a small-scale of physical environment increases the possibility of social interaction. In other words, small-scale is not an aesthetic category; and it is rather conceived as social category, which can also be considered as a psychological category since it depends on the sensation of security and many sensations in the city space (Radović and Boontharm, 2012). There is no only one right scale, but good relationship between spaces of different scales. By using only one, whether it is the scale of the house or the scale of the business district, it is difficult to achieve intensive and diverse city space. However, by interfering different scales (e.g. small can seem large, far away can be perceived as nearby and vice versa) the diversity, which is a potential quality of every city that has experienced reasonably long process of urban evolution, may be created (Radović and Boontharm, 2012). Small-scale spaces, even if well-designed and adapted to human dimensions, must always be observed as a part of complex, sensitive, dynamic and multi-scale system of city structure. In accordance with above mentioned, the tendency of urban transformation, which is relied on precise actions performed in precise spaces, has occurred in on-going urban discourse. The main idea is to transform a “whole” by “disperse actions” in carefully selected “spots” and use small-scale interventions to transform the larger urban context. It should be stressed that small-scale approach is not only related to dimensions and precision, but also to strategic, systematic and interdependent. Sometimes great ideas can be implemented through small and simple projects, while very small interventions can have an impact on a much greater urban scale anytime they are designed to contribute to the “real life and character of a city”, Sola-Morales (2008) states. He also suggests that the base for large-scale planning should be small-scale urban projects such is his project at Winschoterkade in Groningen. The structure of extended bench-wall at Winschoterkade brought together fragmented elements of city space (river, buildings, open space) and visually connected city centre with periphery. Famous Spain library in Medellin could also be considered a small-scale urban project. It connected not only fragmented city space but also community and had positive impacts on a much wider spatial and social level.Due to punctual interventions that may be carried simultaneously or independently, small scale approach permits flexibility and feasibility in realization of strategic urban plans. In the same time, it enables easier involvement of different actors into continues process of urban space transformation. However, it should be stressed out that small-scale intervention may be both tangible and intangible (Lerner, 2008). For that reason, small-scale approach is related to both top-down and bottom-up process in city-planning.

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SMALL-SCALE DESIGN: BANJALUKA EXAMPLES Planning approach versus urban reality Although the urban planning in the Republic of Srpska is strictly set as a top-down system, the formal urban factory does not work and planning solutions remain mainly on paper (Kuvac, 2017). The city of Banja Luka has been developed according to only two master urban plans during almost 120 years of its planned history. The first urban plan was adopted in 1952, but it almost remained without realisations. The second one (Urban Plan Banja Luka, 1974) is adapted after the earthquake (1969) and is still the only strategic planning document. Meanwhile, two proposals of new plans (Drafts in 1993 and 2010) have appeared, as well as a number of detailed urban plans that have never reached to be translated into the real space and that were the base for speculations. During the turbulent and dynamic period of transition, which occurred with the Civil War in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995), changes in urban area were faster than planned solutions. The contemporary post-transitional city has faced numerous problems such as finance, social, and many others, but also the problem of occupation of open public spaces and a negative change of the image of the city, which is turning into an inarticulately concrete jungle, declining of the quality of urban space and quality of life. Former recognisable symbols and identity of the city fade out without the emergence of any new elements.

Small-scale urban intervention examples The examples of small-scale intervention are selected within the time-frame of the last two decades of social and economic transition (1995- ongoing). Initial criteria for example’s selection were: (1) small spatial intervention with relatively important impact (on space and community), (2) involvement of wide range of actors in the urban intervention process (with the focus on bottom-up processes) and (3) innovation in terms of new design practice introduction. The analysis has shown that there are no examples that would join all of the criteria mentioned. Still some small-scale urban initiatives are identified which are described below Street zine Street zine was a short-term urban acupuncture intervention held in 2012 and organised by the NGO creative group UAA. The project included competition for artists, designers, illustrators, photographers, architects, etc., to exhibit their works in a joint exhibition in open public space in the city centre of Banja Luka (Figure 1.). Besides the aim to

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popularize street art and to enable authors to exhibit outside of cultural institutions in the first street gallery in the city, the idea of the Street zine was also to reactivate city spaces, which were underused and forgotten. Finally, the exhibition was set in semi-private / semi-public space of a specially prepared outside wall of a private garage which makes the facade for the square and parking space in front of the House of Youth in Banja Luka. Due to the small number of interested artists, the bad winter weather, the exhibition remained almost invisible. Although the idea was to publish works every two months, the project stopped after the second exhibition without bigger impact. However, the idea of street art remained alive so few years later it was revived in the project of painting murals on big gable walls in Borik neighbourhood in Banja Luka, organized by Flaster NGO.

Figure 1: Street zine. Source: http://uaa.rs.ba/street-zine/

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Figure 2: Render of wooden structure on the Vrbas river bank. Source: Small SCALE workshop.

The "small SCALE" workshop The "small SCALE" international student workshop includes experimental research on urban acupuncture, design and construction of urban-architectural structure. The selected construction location is the right bank of the Vrbas river, just across the Kastel Fortress in Mejdan neighbourhood in Banja Luka. The participants are students from Trondheim Sarajevo and Banja Luka, with the mentorship team from the NGO Centre for Spatial Research. The workshop is using the experience of NTNU Live Studio (NTNU Trondheim, Norway) and it is supported by the City assembly of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture in Sarajevo and the Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering in Banja Luka. The workshop is focused on the emerging subject of urban transformation of the Vrbas riverbank as one of the most valuable spaces and potentials for identity and the image of the city. The urban acupuncture intervention is the result of three-month research process and creative architectural design, as well as the five-day long construction in the real context. The result of the project is a wooden structure of platforms, benches and dock, which is a combination of urban, landscape, artistic and architectural design (Figure 2). It is a micro public device -midway between urban equipment and public space project.

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The project is still in process, but it has already produced effects in stimulating both local community and local authorities despite a number of problems which have emerged due to the experimental approach which is not recognized in the local legislation. Banj Hill Banj Hill is a natural park on the south side of the city with a multi-layered historical significance and the monument for the Krajina soldiers killed in WWII on the top of the hill. In the post-war period, Banj Hill was abandoned and it has been recently reactivated. Due to the series of small-scale and semi-spontaneous citizens’ interventions in the last few years, Banj Hil is converted into the recreational zone and is one of the most popular places to hike, do sports, or just relax and enjoy the nature. Mentioned small-scale interventions are both tangible (such as placing signposts, new benches, open gym equipment, etc.) and intangible (such as promotion on the social media, organisation of music concerts and other type events, etc.). Banj hill is a good example how large area is activated with small interventions at the level of urban equipment and how citizens’ initiative may be contributing to better use and experience of the city space. The reactivation of Banj Hill is related to the new lifestyle and trend, but it is also triggered by potential conflict between cities authorities and activists gathered around NGO Banj-Hill Recreation Zone. The city administration tried to open vehicular access to the top of the Banj hill. However, socially responsible citizens founded an association that protects the integrity of the recreational zone. Using social networks to inform and assemble the citizens, the civic organisation formed with the aim to protect Banj Hill still wins in constant conflict with private interests.

CONCLUSIONS The positive aspect of the small-scale approach compared to traditional planning it is ability to adapt to a dynamic and unstable context of urban development. Small-scale interventions have a higher feasibility level in both economic and social terms. If done well, small interventions may be a trigger for quality urban change and are solid base for good city planning. The small-scale approach rethinks multiple scenarios and different actors in the urban area, encouraging inhabitants to have an active attitude towards and within public space. The advantage of the small-scale approach also relies on proximity to human dimension, perception, and needs which are often lost in large-scale city spaces. Results of such approach are small scale “common place” defined by architecture, which generate a further spread of the idea and enhance vitality and diversity of urban space. However, the small-scale approach, besides new legal planning framework, requires social capital and citizens initiatives. If there is a lack of collaboration between different actors included in urban space transformation and lack of conscious about values of urban space, small-scale intervention may be unsuccessful or even may lead to disorder.

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE To be successful small–scale interventions require wider strategic vision of the city same as deeper analysis of inherited urban condition. Fewer examples of small-scale interventions from Banjaluka show that, in the context of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the small-scale approach is still not recognised as a possibility to re-invent and re-create the city. Most of the interventions are faced with rigged planning framework, long-lasting and difficult procedures, which are not the only problem identified. Even the in-formal urban fabric is a constitutive part of urban reality in Bosnian cities, there is no sufficient citizens’ initiatives to act and improve urban and space of daily practice. However, the Ban Hill and Small-Scale Workshop cases show that there is a positive moving forward and that the one punctual intervention (such is placing a bench) may initiate another one and re-activate not only the spot where the intervention is performed, but also a wider urban, social, historical and cultural context.

Figure 3: Map of potential small interventions. Source: authors.

On the base of previous examples experience, the Map of potential small interventions is proposed (Figure 3.).

REFERENCES Calthorpe, Peter. and Fulton. William. 2001. The Regional City. Washington: Island Press.

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Harvey, David. 1996. Space, Time and Place, Nature and the Geography of Difference.Cambridge: Blackwell Publisher. Gehl, Jan. 2010. Cities for People. Washington: Island Press. Lerner, Jaime. 2005. Acupuntura urbana. Barcelona: , Instituto de Arquitectura Avanzada de Cataluña. Porqueddu, Ellena. 2015. “Intensity without Density”.Journal of Urban Design, 20(2): 169-192. Hillier, Bill and Hanson, Julienne. 2005. The social logic of space. Nueva York: Cambrige University press. Radović, Darko and Boontharm, Davisi. 2012. Small Tokyo: Measuring non-measurable. Tokyo: Flick studio co. Solà-Morales, Manuel. 2008. De cosas urbanas. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili. Talen, Emilly. 2008. Design for Diversity. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. Ziccardi, Alicia. 2013. “Desigualdad urbana, espacio público y participación ciudadana” edited by Cohen E., Tamara, T. Reinvenção da democracia na América Latina, 85-108. Rio de Janeiro: Letra Capital Editora.

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SPATIAL, TECHNOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Milica Malešević, MArch 34 University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, [email protected] Ognjen Šukalo, PhD University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, [email protected] Ivan Živanović, PhD HRTB Arkitekter, St.Olavs Gate 28, 0166 Oslo, [email protected] ABSTRACT Review of spatial, technological and stylistic patterns in the architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina inevitably entails contextual review of tradition and continuity/discontinuity of development of our built environment. Considering that in the literature there are no unifying narratives about the transformation of the built environment in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the last one hundred and fifty years, this issue becomes a challenge for any researcher. This paper will discuss the transformation of the above mentioned patterns in relation to crucial historical "turning points", as well as ideological and cultural aspects, which are these "turning points" caused. The first major changes in the architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina were formed as a result of the collision of Oriental and Western European concept of life. With the arrival of Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the oriental spatial principles also atrophy, and increasingly come to expression cultural and spatial West European politics. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and the formation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, also appear the new design paradigm. In accordance with the division of the new state to nine provinces called banovinas, which were named after the river basins, also functioned and discourses of architecture that were supposed to highlight regional varieties in order to strengthen the cultural identity of the new, constructed, regional units. In a period of rapid industrialization after the World War II, spatial concepts are also industrialized. The need for rapid and economical construction led to the neglect of specific physical and cultural aspects. With the transition into the new millennium, this trend is, it can be said, fully configured, intensified only with quasi-style formal patterns. So we are witnessing today of increasing level of phenomena "urbanization" of built environment in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and architectural practice in which dominate pseudo-traditional patterns. Keywords: patterns, transformation, spatial, culturual, stylistic.

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INTRODUCTION When it comes to the quality and diversity of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s architectural heritage after centuries of turbulent history, while it would be unfair to make any claims as to the presence of exemplary architectural acheivements, it may rightly be said that this heritage is both rich and stylistically diverse. The building heritage in the territory of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina is known to be heterogeneous in the best sense of the word, as it includes structures and buildings constructed as long ago as prehistoric and ancient times, through the Middle Ages and the Ottoman era, to the contemporary period. This heritage accumulated through four major cultural-civilizational “workshopsˮ: Mediterranean, medieval, Byzantine and Oriental Islamic. Conclusively, Bosnia is a true depository of cultural and historical heritage, continuously presented in history as a “paradigm of synthesis of the East and West, Christianity and Islam, tradition and modernity.ˮ Understandably, specific architectural discourses likewise directly corresponded with such complex interrelations between local identities. Identity construction invariably depended on the ruling ideology and political circumstances of a period, but for the most part, it was grounded on a perception of this region as synthesizing different historical traditions. In addition, the most significant cultural trends (more specifically, particular cultural perceptions of the local region), along with socio-technological growth (as “developmentˮ is always a disputable notion) served the given identity constructs either as a foundation or as a factor of disintegration, a contradiction. This position above or against has typically resulted in spatial, technological and stylistic patterns producing narratives at odds with concrete ideological discourses.

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN OCCUPATION AND THE FIRST RUPTURES OF MODERNITY The architectural discourses that dominated under Austro-Hungarian rule were in agreement with the general goal of the policies of the new administration, more concretely, the administrative and technological modernization of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The changes effected in practically all domains of life in the country led to a rapid transformation of the physiognomy and structure of its towns. Intense construction, so rapid and extensive that it surpassed the total construction activity of the preceding centuries, and the introduction and reinterpretation of new architectural styles, completely transformed Bosnian-Herzegovinian towns and cities, especially Sarajevo. Upon entering Bosnia and Herzegovina, Austro-Hungary found a fairly static and closed society, with only one-third of the population living in urban areas. Naturally, the new authorities began their construction and architectural activities in cities and towns, where it quickly became evident, even in the early stage of the occupation, that the Western European living philosophy would clash with the Oriental way of life. The confrontation of these two radically distinctive outlooks on the world brought an abrupt end to the previous way of life. The previously prevalent patterns of spatial organization and design, which followed the principle of “meandering” lines and contours, that is, which essentially combined man-made spatial structures with natural structures and were far from the principle of

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE “architecture as independent organisms,” 35 was gradually replaced by new concepts of urban and spatial organization. Shortly after the Austro-Hungarian troops were deployed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a new administration system was set up, which included the state government, the judiciary, land administration offices, the post system, the police, banks, etc. What was especially important for building construction was the appointment of the Interim Construction Council, 36 established primarily with the aim of dealing with the consequences of the great fire that broke out in Sarajevo on 8 August 1879, followed by the adoption of the Construction Code Book, or Bauordnung (14 May 1880). With the adoption of this document, Bosnia and Herzegovina saw the introduction of the requirement to submit a request for a building permit prior to any type of construction or commercial activity, and the main precondition for obtaining a building permit was having a formal construction design, which needed to be made in two copies. This inevitably led to the demise of the building institution typical of Bosnia and Herzegovina, dunđeri, masons, whose building craftsmanship was based on the experience and knowledge of the country’s rich popular building tradition; instead of them, building design and construction were taken over by imported professionals with formal training. The local masons had no knowledge of new technologies or the newly required qualifications, and their work was reduced to maintenance, repairs and building a negligible number of traditionally designed houses, which they could build only at the outskirts of towns and in rural areas. As popular demand for traditional building design declined, traditional building crafts, until then one of the most important types of economic activity in the country, began to disappear. This transformed the architecture of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian traditional town core, known as čaršija, previously the heart of the typical town; the shift from feudalism to capitalism resulted in these town cores gradually losing their status as central town zones and becomig periphery. Without even the slightest appreciation of the architectural heritage of the previous socio-economic system, new buildings were “brutally” inserted in čaršije – most often, they were rental houses and buildings, whose design disrupted the harmony and consistency of the lacelike fabric of čaršije, which increasingly looked “disharmonious,” 37 as described by Juraj Neidhardt, who also called them the “diseased lungs” of towns. The new architectural and urbanist patterns imported from European metropolises soon transformed the look of Bosnian-Herzegovinian towns. The old picturesque world of čaršije and mahale, the right to a view, the sun and air, soon became threatened and gradually denied by the new architecture, which perceived measures, proportions and the relations between humans and space differently. The architectural fabric of towns as it had been until then saw the introduction of a new housing typology and structure, intended to recreate the kind of physical framework of living Dušan Grabrijan, Sarajevo i njegovi trabanti: arhitektonsko-urbanistička razmatranja uoči izrade nacrta za regulaciju grada Sarajeva (Zagreb: Hrvatsko društvo inžinjera, 1942), 201. 36 The Council was founded and operated in line with the Turkish Construction and Road Law adopted in 1863. 37 Dušan Grabrijan and Juraj Neidhardt, Arhitektura Bosne i put u suvremeno: Architecture of Bosnia and the Way [Towards] Modernity (Ljubljana: Državna Založba Slovenije, 1957), 110. 35

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the numerous immigrants had in their countries of origin. Rental town houses, previously nonexistent in the housing typology of Bosnian-Herzegovinian towns, were primarily expected to solve the problem of accommodation of the great number of new settlers. The office building, typical of the new capitalist society, embodied in it the spirit of grandeur and significance, and was typically built at the key urban hubs, symbolizing the new civic and capitalist relations. Economic activities connected with real estate and construction land in towns and cities soon proved highly lucrative, so their urban fabric, especially that of the town centers, gradually changed to beyond recognition, whereas the periphery managed to keep its previous character somewhat longer. In parallel with the introduction of new types of buildings in architecture, the new authorities showed the ambition to introduce a “new” architectural style to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which would be worthy of the newly built grand administrative buildings, and which would, supposedly, draw inspiration from the traditional architecture. Yet, the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina saw the import of all architectural trends popular in Central Europe at that time. It may be said with certainty that Neo-Renaissance was the eclectic style the most frequently used in that period. It was used in the building of structures of importance for the state almost as a rule, but it was also fairly commonly used in residental architecture, and also for combined office and residential buildings and rental buildings. The Neo-Romanesque and Neo-Gothic styles were most often used in the building of houses of worship and their outbuildings, while Baroque Revival, as highly decorative, suited the taste of the new, young bourgeoisie the most; as a result, it was the most frequently used in the architecture of residential buildings. Based on the frequency of use in the architectural production during the Austro-Hungarian period, the second most commonly used style after the Neo-Renaissance style, out of the whole array of previously listed European revival styles, was Moorish Revival. Although conceptualized around a mixture of elements and thus eclectic, of which those belonging to the Moorish and Mamluk building traditions are the most prominent ones, this style nonetheless meant a de facto departure from historicism, to whose “abstract universalism it countered regional differentiation”.38 This attempt to highlight cultural and regional differences and break away from historicist architectural traditions allows us to link the emergence and promotion of Moorish Revival with the phenomenon known in social theory as the “invention of tradition.” 39 Whenever possible, invented traditions tend to make a connection with an adequate kind of heroic past. Insomuch as there is an evocation of a heroic past, “invented traditions” are special due to the fact this connection with the past is most often artificial. At the turn of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have an architectural heritage, but rather a “living tradition”, whose motifs mostly came from Oriental Islamic culture; hence, borrowing anything that otherwise belonged to a dominant, wide-spread culture was a case of “inventing tradition.” This style was popularized in order to point out the significance of the “civilizational and cultural” mission of the Austro-Hungarian authorities in Jelena Božić, Arhitekt Josip Vancaš: značaj i doprinos arhitekturi Sarajeva (Istočno Sarajevo: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva, 2006), 108. 39 According to the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, inventing tradition represents “a set of practices, normally governed by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and of a ritual or symbolic nature, which seek to inculcate certain values and norms of behaviour by repetition, which automatically implies continuity with the past.” See: Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1. 38

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Bosnia and Herzegovina in yet another domain, that of architecture; by doing so, they tried to leave the impression that they were the concerned keeper of the heritage and cultural identity of the people under their administration. However, the breakout of World War I cut short the time at their disposal to continue popularizing the stylistic patterns of the Neo-Moorish style. Despite that, it may be said that this style represented an important phase in the development of the regional architectural school of thought, which would soon turn into another regionally-toned “stylistic orientation,” the so-called bosanski slog, which developed under the influence of Secession.

MODERN PRIMORDIAL: THE NEW IDENTITIES OF YUGOSLAVIA In the period after World War I, the practice of inventing tradition continued; it was now done with the aim of constructing regional identities in the newly founded Kingdom of Yugoslavia – and the long desired new Yugoslav nation. As far as architectural practice in Bosnia and Herzegovina is concerned, the kingdom (the state) and the nation led to two distinct orientations.

On the one hand, through exploitiation of the local archaisms, efforts were made to create an image of the Yugoslav nation, which “drew vital energy from its supposed preserved antiquity.ˮ 40 The wished-for antiquity of Yugoslav culture was leveraged with a mobilization of the vernacular architecture, whose elements were raised to the pedestal of “artistic.ˮ Also, the regional identities were diversified in order to “substitute the divisions of Yugoslav society in the spheres of religion, heritage, legal system, and also material and spiritual culture, for functional and qualitative divisions that would not compromise the ideology of the people’s unity, as they would not be based on the criteria of historical heritage, while nonetheless projecting an image of diversity.ˮ 41 The way the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was administratively divided into nine banates, banovine, named after the rivers with the largest basins in each respective geographic area, with no reference to their historical names, is indicative of the efforts to neutralise the inherited traditions and mechanisms provoking divisions and feeding separatist tendencies, which would threaten the functioning of the new modern state, and to strengthen the cultural identities of the newly formed regional units. For the purpose of setting up and implimenting this new system based on unity-of-diversity and promoting/imposing a unitarian Yugoslav cultural identity, the state went as far as to prescribe classification schemes for architectural and ˮ led urban typologies. 42 At the same time, in the framework of the official cultural policy, reliance on the “primordial ˮ of the architecture o to the “conservation its resembling “images frozen in time. ˮThe key illustrations of the type of architecture that in its external form

Aleksandar Ignjatović, Jugoslovenstvo u arhitekturi 1904-1941 (Beograd: Građevinska knjiga, 2007), 111. Ibid, 369-370. 42 The main differences concerned the regional peculiarities of the concrete geographical areas, the locally available materials, etc. One of the offices working under the auspices of the Architecture Department of the Ministry of Construction in that period was the Central Architectural Bureau. The Bureau was in charge of the construction of all public buildings in the Kingdom, from post offices to train stations to the most monumental administrative buildings. 40 41

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referenced such qualities as primordiality and regionalism (eventually, also to those which related to natio) were the royal residences and buildings of the Karađorđević dynasty built across the country up until the mid-1930’s. As for Bosnia and Herzegovina, a royal hunters’ lodge was built in Han Pijesak in the said period, whose design combined those of the typical Dinaric log house and the oriental town house, in order to represent, as truly as possible, the identity of the Drina Banate. 43 On the other hand, opposite the vitalist and regionalist model of the nation, there was the state, with its civilizing and unifying role. Over the short period between the two world wars, the patterns of production of (identifying) space did not significantly deviate from those introduced and imposed by Austro-Hungary – with the somewhat changed assortment of high styles used to show order and implement the acculturation agenda. When it comes to Bosnia, the open public square in Banja Luka lined by the administrative buildings of the Vrbas Banate is definitely the most notable example. Elements of the “autochthonous ˮ and local(Banski Byzantine were here dvorsubstituted and for Banska palata) 44 and classical motifs (Hipotekarna banka).

THE PROGRESS OF SPATIAL EXPANSION: MODERNISM, ENERGY AND STYLE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA The years immediately after the war were marked by projects meant to ensure mere recovery after the great devastation, as well as by an ideological attitude – that of socialist realism 45 – that went hand in hand with the meager resources available. It was only after 1948 and the political changes that it brought that forces 46 were mobilised that completely changed the scale of the production of space, a second time since the Austro-Hungarian annexation. This new scale was the direct consequence of the new energy influx: when it comes to the city fabric, this came with the increased volume of motor traffic (this was now, finally, both an economic and an ideological necessity); as for construction, industrialisation was posited and promoted not only as the principle branch of economy, but also as the central value. The „contemporary“ of the esthetics fused with contemporary of socio-economic reproduction. At the level of styles – albeit under the wing of the ideology of the International Style that positioned itself above all styles – this abrupt transition to the new scale made it possible for the modernist discourses used in Yugoslavia to The Yugoslav discourse considered the elements taken from secular Islamic architecture to be part of the autochthonous Balkan tradition, and not of the Ottoman cultural heritage. 44 The truth is, the competition for the buildings to be constructed in the capital of the Vrbas Banate did contain a provision that requested that the design “be in aggrement with the national spirit ˮ(“Call for the Submission of Preliminary Drawings for the Banate Palace and the Banate Administration Building ˮ , The Official Gazette of the Vrbas Banate no. 19 (10 April 1930), 1). 45 Jelena Živančević, Socijalistički realizam u arhitektonskoj i urbanističkoj praksi Jugoslavije, a doctoral thesis defended at the Faculty of Architecture of Belgrade University in 2012. 46 Both the changed ideological forces, as well as those economic and financial – through stronger ties and affiliation with the Western political bloc. 43

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE refer anew to the historical and traditional practices. With reference to this, the theoretical works by Dušana Grabrijan and Juraj Neidhardt are of special importance for the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina; as they tried to trace a line of continuity in the development of regional architecture in Bosnia and Herzegovina, these two authors showed how the authenticity of a phenomenon can be upgraded if one truly understands one’s history, as well as the global trends. Their critical approach and new treatment of the heritage are evident in light of their simultaneous “existence in two worlds.ˮ Namely, in their book The Architecture of Bosnia and the Way to Modernity/Contemporaneity (Arhitektura Bosne i put u suvremeno), the authors speak of the two poles or extremes in architecture in Bosnia, along the two principal “ spheres of influence – eastern and western, desperately seeking reconciliation in that environment.ˮ 47 They suggest the merging of “western – rationalˮ and “eastern – emotional currentsˮ; it is up to us to bring into balance the rational with the emotional, in a way that will correspond to the new needs, the new materials and technology, that is, “as adapted to the local manˮ. 48

IN THE ABSENCE OF ARCHITECTURE: THE POST-WAR PRODUCTION The Dutch architectural historian and critic Hans Ibelings rightly notes the following: “In many countries in southern Europe (and the Balkans have a reputation to maintain in this respect), there exists alongside the formal, official architecture a parallel universe of mostly semi-legal, informal architecture.ˮ 49 This “parallel universeˮ is indeed the production of space reduced to the most basic parameters – but without the scarcity of resources that marks, defines and creatively guidesthe traditional construction practices oriented toward the fulfillment of needs, the kind of practice known as vernacular architecture. 50 The range of cultural, socio-economic and legal factors leading to this state of things reveals the closing of a circle: autochthonous construction, outlawed through the administrative insistence of having a design project (Bauordnung 1880!), confounded by the conversion of a whole world of the vernacular to single-faceted ideological (and identity) images, is now faced with a local (social) crisis of the architectural design, and with industrial construction processes/technologies that are no longer linked to any ideologies or identities, except to the banal, merely sufficing hyperproduction of constructed space. Unfortunately, the stylistic models found to prevail in the production are closely linked to narrow interests and discrete aesthetics, most often reducible to vulgar

Grabrijan and Neidhardt, ibid., 14. Ibid. 49 Hans Ibelings, Restart: Arhitektura u Bosni i Hercegovini 1995-2010 = Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina 1995-2010, (Sarajevo: Buybook, 2010), 11. 50 Paul Oliver, “Why Study Vernacular Architecture? (1978),” in: Built to Meet Needs: Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture (Oxford: Elsevier, Architectural Press, 2006), 14-15. 47 48

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pseudo-classical or pseudo-traditonal kitsch, 51and the only fate lying in store for most of the constructed, man-made environment is to be “simply depressing,ˮ 52 that is, urbanalised.

CONCLUSIONS Due to continuing instability that it has been faced with throughout its past, Bosnia and Herzegovina, like the wider region of the Balkans, has incessantly been subject to and undergone deep changes. It is in line with those changes, which radically impacted social and historical relations, and which often concerned demographic policies forcefully implemented by the powers that be – Rome, Byzantium, local feudal elites or the Ottomans – that architectural discourses have operated locally. With the arrival of Austro-Hungarians and the resulting sudden arrival of Modernity, spatial patterns and stylistic issues became a question of choice overnight, and they were no longer the constituent elements of the continuum of socio-economic reproduction. The opportunity to choose was only rarely presented to the local population (autochthonous building techniques were forbidden even by law); the options available were either imposed, either constructed from scratch or imported. Critical turning points (always related to a war) and frequently changing political, economic and ideological regimes wrote a distinctive history of Modernity in architecture of Bosnia and Herzegovina – a history of evident discontinuity in relation to its own continuities: the introduction of new land laws by the Austro-Hungarian authorities; Yugoslave explorations of both regional and state-level stylistic identities; modernist changes of scale through the processes of industrialisation and the construction of the infrastructure – or through the fragmentation (practically disintegration) of the up until then complex system of production of space at the turn of the 20th century. In the context of such distinct discourses and limited architectural practice, the contrasting narratives were subjected to peculiar re-examinations and, in agreement with that, new local architectural identities were built (such as in the texts written by Grabrijan and Neidhardt), in parallel with the efforts allowing the local building practices to show that they are truly capable of speaking the universal language, as illustrated by Ugljen’s White Mosque in Visoko.

REFERENCES Book:

This phenomenon, which is typical of the majority of Southeastern European countries in transition, has also been termed Balkanology by the professional community. The term comes from the title of the exhibition Balkanology: New Architecture and Urban Phenomena in South Eastern Europe, organized by the Swiss Architecture Museum and the the Architekturzentrum Wien. The exhibition showed research projects and actual interventions by architects, town planners and activists from Southeastern European countries. The exhibition was first officially opened at the Swiss Architecture Museum in October 2008. 52 “Such forms of building are not interesting as architecture, or even as a source of architectural inspiration; at best as a sociological or anthropological phenomenon.ˮ See: Ibelings, ibid. 51

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TOPIC I: IMAGE, IDENTITY AND QUALITY OF PLACE Božić, Jelena. 2006. Arhitekt Josip Vancaš: značaj i doprinos arhitekturi Sarajeva. Istočno Sarajevo: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredtsva. Grabrijan, Dušan and Juraj Neidhardt. 1942. Sarajevo i njegovi trabanti: arhitektonsko-urbanistička razmatranja uoči izrade nacrta za regulaciju grada Sarajeva. Zagreb: Hrvatsko društvo inžinjera. Grabrijan, Dušan and Juraj Neidhardt. 1957. Arhitektura Bosne i put u suvremeno: Architecture of Bosnia and the way [towards] modernity. Ljubljana: Državna Založba Slovenije. Hobsbawm, Eric. 2002. Izmišljanje tradicije. Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek. Ibelings, Hans. 2010. Restart: Arhitektura u Bosni i Hercegovini 1995-2010 = Architecture in Bosnia and Hercegovina 1995-2010. (Sarajevo: Buybook, 2010), Ignjatović, Aleksandar. 2007. Jugoslovenstvo u arhitekturi 1904-1941. Beograd: Građevinska knjiga. Oliver, Paul. ”Why Study Vernacular Architecture? (1978)” in Built to Meet Needs: Cultural Issues in Vernacular Architecture (Oxford: Elsevir, Architectural Press, 2006.) p. 14-15. Journal article: xxx. 1930. “Oglas natječaja za izradu idejnih skica za Banski dvor i Bansku upravu”. Službeni list Vrbaske banovine, no.19 (April):1 Doctoral thesis: Živančević, Jelena. 2012. Socijalistički realizam u arhitektonskoj i urbanističkoj praksi Jugoslavije. Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION

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THE EXPERIENCE OF SMART CITY IN LIGURIA, ITALY. THE CASE STUDIES OF THE MUNICIPALITIES OF LA SPEZIA AND SAVONA Giovanni Sergi 53 Architect and lecturer in Town Planning 2016-2017 at the Department Architectural Sciences Genoa University, strada del Cavallo 81/B Portone 60019 Senigallia AN, Italy, [email protected] ABSTRACT The main results of this paper will be the explanation of methods and contents of the main experiences in Liguria aiming at changing a consolidated urban organism into a Smart City. The analysis of experiences in the 160 Italian municipalities that faced the issue of Smart City carried out by ANCI (Association of Italian Municipalities) highlighted that the sectors in which most measures were taken are mobility, environment and participation. We can say that similarly to what happened in the past years in lots of European and North American cities, the first projects related to the Smart City in Italy concern the possibility to introduce new technologies to make components of the urban system more efficient. In a second step, local institutions identified new technologies as one of the tools to develop new models of economic development and welfare. There are two different approaches of Italian regions and municipalities towards the issue of Smart City. The first one is the most widespread approach and deals with one or several specific areas of the urban system: mobility, energy, transport. The second approach, that could be defined as holistic, considers the city as a system able to support and spread innovation. In Liguria some Municipalities like La Spezia and Savona have worked on the issue of Smart City, based on a holistic approach that considers the city as a system able to support and spread innovation. The Municipality of Savona has focused on the implementation of models to upgrade specific parts of the city investing in smart grids and energy-efficiency upgrade. Since 2015, the Municipality of La Spezia, has started a process called «La Spezia 20.20 – la città diventa Smart», aiming at developing a new vision within the strategic planning towards 2020. In this document 45 initiatives were outlined and planned. Keywords: Smart City in Liguria Region, holistic approach, strategic planning.

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INTRODUCTION The analysis of experiences in 158 Italian Municipalities that faced the issue of Smart City carried out by ANCI, Association of Italian Municipalities, in 2015 has highlighted that the municipal administrations mainly focused on mobility, environment and participation of citizens. In Italy there are two different approaches of regional authorities and municipalities towards the issue of Smart City. The first and most widespread approach deals with one or some specific sectors of the urban system: mobility, environment, energy, economy, etc. The second approach, that we may define as holistic, considers the city as a system able to support and spread innovation. The analysis of several case studies available in Italy highlights that the idea to change the traditional management of a city according to the model of Smart City requires, as shown by some recent successful cases, the need to identify both a shared scenario of future development and a body, within the municipal administration or outside it, able to promote the development process of a Smart City.

Smart City in Liguria, today In Liguria, some big Municipalities including Genoa and La Spezia have worked on the issue of Smart City using a holistic approach. The Municipality of Savona has focused on the issue of e-government, the redevelopment of specific parts of town working on the implementation of a smart-grid prototype, energy-improvement and smart mobility projects.

SAVONA SMART CITY In 2013 a memorandum was signed in Savona by all members of the “Distretto Smart Comunità Savonesi”: the Municipalities of Albissola Marina, Albisola Superiore, Bergeggi, Quiliano, Savona, Vado Ligure, Provincial administration of Savona, University of Genoa as well as other institutions and bodies among which “ Insediamenti Produttivi Savonesi scpa”. Within the “Distretto Smart Comunità Savonesi” there are some important projects planned by the Municipality of Savona: e-government, the extension of smart grid of the University Campus of Savona close to the neighbourhood of Légino, the development of a Standard Construction Regulation, the redevelopment of the Della Rovere Palace in the old town centre of Savona, the sustainable mobility project designing the redevelopment of Via Nizza and the waterfront, the development of a bus line with a magnetic induction charger and the e-health project in the health sector.

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Smart Environment: Smart Polygeneration Microgrid University Campus The Smart Polygeneration Microgrid of the University Campus in Savona Légino is one of the first pilot plants of smart grid in Europe, built by Siemens Italian in cooperation with the University of Genoa. The area chosen for the project is occupied by three degree courses: Engineering, Communication Sciences and Sport Sciences attended by 2,000 people including students, professors and administration technical staff covering a surface of 60,000 square meters. The micro-grid is an experimental infrastructure comprising a high-efficiency gas micro-turbine for the simultaneous production of electricity and thermal energy, a photovoltaic

Figure 4: Campus of Savona Légino and Nizza street urban renewal project, 2013-2017 Source: www.google.it/ maps, 2017

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plant on the roof, one concentration thermodynamic solar plant, two charging stations for electric vehicles and an electrochemical storage system comprising high-efficiency batteries. The Smart Polygeneration Microgrid of Savona is part of the 100 energy excellencies presented at the Conference on Climate in Paris in 2015 as well as a “laboratory” to test the Smart City that can be repeated in the future on a wider scale and in a part of a city which can be independent in terms of energy consumption and heating

Smart Mobility: the new configuration of via Nizza The Municipality of Savona in 2013 published a call for proposals whose objective was the redevelopment of the urban area around the main road Aurelia, today called via Nizza, having a length of 2,732 metres between the areas called “Fornaci” and “Zinola”. The winner was a project developed by the Municipality of Savona and can be regarded as an interesting example of smart mobility within an established urban area. This project is divided into two stages. The first stage provides for the change of the main road Aurelia into a new urban road with two lanes of 3,5 meters for cars and buses, two new cycle paths, a limitation of car parking areas. The project regarding the new road infrastructure of via Nizza envisages a winding path to limit the speed of cars and buses. Some of the measures are the building of smart shelters that can work as video-surveillance system, bus stops and charging outlet for mobile devices. Moreover, the new buildings envisaged by the urban redevelopment projects provide the energy produced by their photovoltaic plants for the lighting of via Nizza. The second stage envisages the building of a new wooden pedestrian path close to the seaside and the upgrade of some buildings in front of the beach as well as bathing establishment etc.

GENOVA SMART CITY In 2010 the Municipality of Genoa established the Association Genova Smart City aiming at strengthening and facilitating the urban transformation process and implement a new industrial policy based on the promotion of innovation and competitiveness in the technological sector. The clearest example of this change is represented by the Project called Erzelli – Great Campus (acronym of Genoa Research and Advanced Technology), the hi-tech area covering a surface of 400,00 square meters that is being built on the hills of Sestri Ponente to promote research through the creation of an innovative Scientific and Technological Park having unique features to ensure creativity and innovation.

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Figure 5: The skyscraper called "Il Matitone”.The Association Genova Smart City has promoted a study to optimise energy consumption by the building. Photo: G. Sergi, 2016

The programme to develop Great Campus has been only partly implemented so far (two buildings that host 20 companies among which Siemens, Ericsson, IIT, Liguria Digitale and Esaote to make some examples), but envisages the opening of a seat of the University of Engineering as well as new facilities to host technological companies that would make it the most important scientific park in Europe. Erzelli – Great Campus can be considered as an example of “smart city” because here the most advanced technologies in the field of alternative energy are installed (3MW wind turbine, thermal and solar system, photovoltaic plant), tri-generation power plants, optic fibre, led lighting and class “A” building insulation, a vacuum waste collection system and company car pooling. Moreover there will be a free recharge system for electric vehicles and a nursery school for all the user and inhabitants of the neighbourhood. The main element of the project will be the Great Campus, on a surface of 220,000 square meters (more than 50% of the total surface) where facilities for playing, sports and cultural events will be available. The Great Campus park will be an example of “smart” park for the future, giving the change of free high-speed wi-fi connection, benches equipped with USB recharge sockets, sound diffusion system and interactive information totems. Moreover a safety system will be installed in connection with a central control room and an automated irrigation system, with rain and control sensors.

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The scientific park will be connected with the town through a cableway connected to the new stop of the R.F.I. underground – Aeroporto/Erzelli, in order to make it easy to reach and leave the Campus by using a car pooling and car sharing system. By implementing the Project Erzelli – Great Campus, as well as other urban and technological changes (Project Transform-Cat_Med, Force and Internet of Things to make some examples), Genoa aims at becoming a protagonist and a a reference in the high-tech sector at international level.

LA SPEZIA SMART CITY. THE MASTER PLAN "LA SPEZIA SMART CITY" The project called "La Spezia 20.20 - La città diventa Smart" started in 2015 is part of a strategic planning framework launched by the Municipal Administration in 1999 to identify a new economic and social development model for the municipal area after the economic crisis in La Spezia in the 90s. The Municipality of La Spezia, 94,016 inhabitants in 2016, presented the Master plan “La Spezia Smart City” to the public in 2015. This Master plan was the result of cooperation between public institutions, universities, research bodies, companies and associations. To define the Master plan, La Spezia applied the competencies of the Torino Wireless Foundation and identified five specific platforms in which 200 experts took part. To summarise the Master plan envisages the implementation of 45 measures shown in the following table. Some of the 45 measures contained in the Master plan have been further developed within specific working groups. Thanks to the combination of three main components, planning, use of enabling technologies, sharing and cooperation among representatives of the civil society, some plans have been developed and regarded as interesting by the municipal administration as well as private and public players.

SMART ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT: ENERGY SMART COMMUNITY AND PROJECT ON UNCULTIVATED LAND In the energy field, the Energy Smart Community aims at creating a Community able to organise its energy user points, both active and passive, in an efficient way, maximizing self-consumption and minimizing the exchange with external networks. The connection between energy-related issues, territorial development and planning is very relevant in this case. The Municipal Administration has also worked on the field of Smart Environment, one of the main objectives of the platform, that is the protection and promotion of the territory, in particular of the environmental heritage on the hills in order to develop active practices for territorial maintenance.

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Operational data sheet SPECIFIC PLATFORMS

Name of measure and progressive number out of 45 measures

MOBILITY

ENVIRONMENT ENERGY

YES 1

Energy efficiency in municipal buildings and in public residential housing

2

Cold ironing

5

Locally based production chain

6

Energy-efficient apartment blocks

8

Smart Grid

9

Smart Energy Community

14

Prevention and monitoring of hydrogeomorphological risks and restoration of uncultivated lands

16

Spezia Open City

17

Spezia Pass

18

Improvement of accessibility by sea for La Spezia Gulf (Spezia SeatoLand)

19

Spezia E-Smart (Electrical and Sustainable Spezia)

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NO

▪

YES

The measure is based on a project

Measure being implemented

NO

▪ ▪

wood

Envisages an implementation in the territory

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

▪

Completed measure

4th International Academic Conference PLACES AND TECHNOLOGIES 2017 KEEPING UP WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY

LIVING

PEOPLE

ECONOMY

GOV

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▪

▪

▪

20

Management dashboard

29

Didactic and entrepreneurial campus “Tradizione&Innovazione”

▪

▪

▪

30

Incubator 2.0: spreading and development of a business culture: start- up and spin-off

▪

▪

▪

31

Upgrading facilities

▪

▪

▪

32

Educational campus for the tourism industry

▪

▪

▪

33

Social housing in town: communal housing safeguarded by local welfare

▪

▪

▪

37

Urban Safety and Integrated monitoring of the territory

▪

▪

▪

43

Development of outdoor tourism – Hiking tourism Fortresses

▪

▪

44

Transformation of the submarine “Leonardo da Vinci” into a museum

▪

▪

of

school

▪ ▪

Table 1: Selection of the main actions planned for “La Spezia 20.20 La città diventa SMART” Source: www.comune.laspezia.it, 2017

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The project focusing on uncultivated land aims at redeveloping private unused land made available by the current owners for carrying out agricultural activities and restoring the forest heritage.

SMART MOBILITY: OPEN CITY AND SEABUS PROJECTS Regarding the issue of smart mobility, through the Project Spezia Open City the municipal Administration, in cooperation with the affiliated company ATC and the affiliated company ATC, University of Genoa CIRT aims at enhancing the monitoring systems in the Gulf area and creating a single database on mobility. This project aims at integrating already existing info-mobility system to improve the match between supply and demand and the capacity to monitor, evaluate and activate a permanent marketing system of mobility services. Sustainable mobility in the Gulf area is taken into consideration from the point of view of innovative and sustainable mobility by sea. The prototype at which the Seabus project aims, is developed by the University Centre of La Spezia, represents an innovative system of maritime transport based on a hybrid propulsion system, to provide a meaningful contribution to the passengers who travel from the seaside municipalities of the provincial area to La Spezia for labour reasons as well as to the mobility demand in the tourism sector.

Smart Living & People: Social Housing and Digital Library The project called “Abitare sociale” (Social Housing) involves residential communities safeguarded by local welfare and envisages the building of housing, in blocks or as independent houses, connected by services within a network, equipped with technological and IT tools, located in a reachable and well-connected area where people with a disability can be accommodated and helped by health workers and volunteers. With regard to culture the Project Digital Library and museum aims at promoting and easing public access to museum objects and historical archives of the town through ICT tools and applications, integrating the existing Digital Library.

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REFERENCES Book: Clementi, Alberto. 2016. Forme imminenti. Città e innovazione urbana.Trento: List. Testoni, Chiara. 2016. Towards smart city. Amministrazione pubblica e città di media dimensione: strategie di governance per uno sviluppo intelligente sostenibile e inclusivo dei territori. Milano: F. Angeli. Internet source: Anci Osservatorio Nazionale Smart City. 2013. “Vademecum per la città intelligente”. Accessed April 21, 2017. http://osservatoriosmartcity.it/presentato-il-vademecum-la-citta-intelligente/ Ernst&Young. 2016. "Italia Smart. Rapporto Smart City Index 2016". Accessed April http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssetsPI/EY-smart-city-index-2016/$FILE/2016-EY-smart-city-index.pdf

21,

2017.

La Spezia Municipality. 2015. "La Spezia Smart City Masterplan". Accessed April 21, 2017. http://www.comune.laspezia.it/export/sites/SPEZIAnet/Aree_tematiche/Smart_City/Masterplan_La_Spezia_Smart_City_DEFINITI VO_45_progetti.pdf

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HEALTHY URBAN ENVIRONMENT AND DESIGN: THE OUTDOOR SPACES Francesca Giofrè Department Planning Design, Technology of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome, Via Flaminia 70 zip code 00194, Rome, Italy, [email protected]

Zoran Ðukanović Department of Urbanism, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT (STYLE: ABSTRACT HEADING) The paper discusses the evolution of the concept of health and its relationship with the urban environment and design, starting from the first phase (1997) of the initiative of World Health Organization Regional Office of Europe ‘Healthy Urban Planning’. At the same time, the paper focuses on the evolution of the debate at European level and internationally produced initiatives and documents. “Healthy urban planning means planning for people. It promotes the idea that the city is much more than buildings, streets and open spaces, but a living, breathing organism, the health of which is closely linked to that of its citizens” (Barton and Tsourou, 2000). According with this concept, the Zagreb declaration (2009) has defined that “A healthy city offers a physical and built environment that supports health, recreation and well-being, safety, social interaction, easy mobility, a sense of pride and cultural identity and is accessible to the needs of all its citizens”. The urban planners and the architects plays a strategic role in delivering those requirements. In these frameworks at European and at International level, the paper highlights the themes and actions of the urban planner and architect discussing examples of best practices related to open spaces. Such spaces are in fact identified and represent one of the areas of action for sustainable regeneration of cities and the activation of proactive health projects which are becoming 'common goods'. Keywords: City, Health, Open Space, Environment, Participatory Design

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INTRODUCTION The initiative of the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office of Europe began, in 1987, launching the Healthy Urban Planning Initiative, which integrates the concept of health into sustainable development. It is an important moment, the beginning of a well-articulated path that draws attention to the fact that city planning policies do not take into account the concept of health and well-being and how it can overcome this gap. The urbanization is a growing phenomenon: by 2050 it is estimated that the world population will reach 9.3 billion, of whom 6 billion will live in urban areas and in 2025 there will be 27 megalopolises with unimaginable consequences in terms of demand for services, consumption of resources and on the system of spaces, social relations and health. The cities today occupy approximately only 2% of the total land, however they comprise: 70% of the economy; 60% of the global energy consumption; 70 % of the greenhouse gas emission and70% of the global waste. Furthermore, 95% of urban expansion in the next decades will take place in the developing countries. Previously, in 1976 the first United Nations (UN) Conference on Human Settlements in Vancouver (UN HABITAT I), recognised the magnitude and consequences that would have a rapid urbanization on the international level. One of the urgent issues is to protect and ensure the health and wellbeing of people living in cities, even through the regeneration or the creation of an appropriate environment. In fact, the state of human health would be conditioned by 50% of their behaviors and lifestyles, but also environmental factors (20%), genetic factors (20%), health care (10%) (Amara, Bodenhorn et all 2003). Health according with the principles of Constitution of WHO, is a positive concept and it is defined as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” and it is a right and as such it underpins all other fundamental rights which belong to all people. Certainly, the right to health cannot be guaranteed unless some basic prerequisites, linked to the political and cultural dimension of each country and people, are satisfied, such as: peace, shelter, education, food, income, a stable eco-system, sustainable resources, social justice, and equity (Ottawa Charter, WHO, 1986). The health is the result of several factors, determinant of health, which interact with each other and every individual and in general each society based on its culture has a different way of expressing the relationship between health - disease - social context. “The Meikirch Model of Health posits that: Health is a state of wellbeing emergent from conducive interactions between individuals' potentials, life's demands, and social and environmental determinants. Health results throughout the life course when individuals' potentials – and social and environmental determinants – suffice to respond satisfactorily to the demands of life. Life's demands can be physiological, psychosocial, or environmental, and vary across individual and context, but in every case unsatisfactory responses lead to disease” (Birchera and Kuruvillab 2014). When addressing the issue of healthy city, it’s necessary to refer to the context, approach, and implemented strategies that must deal with the reality on which they act. The equity is defined in the sense that “All people must have the right and the opportunity to realize their full potential in health” is only a slogan, in reality because it is not related to the North and the south of the world, “rich and poor people live in very different epidemiological worlds, even within

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION the same city. And such disparity occurs in both high-income and low-income countries” (Rydin, Yvonne, at all. 2012). The awareness of the close relationship between Health and Planning and Architecture is highlighted by the evolution of the debate at European and international level.

HEALTHY URBAN PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE: EVOLUTION OF THE DEBATE IN THE LAST 30 YEARS. FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL At European level, the first phase of the European Healthy Cities Network (EHCN) began in 1987, it was launched by World Health Organization (WHO). The main goal was to introduce new ways of working for health in the cities and to exchange and highlight the best practice and projects in the participating cities. The concept of healthy city from the late 1980s to today is clarified and detailed up to the present multi-sectoral concept. It is not only about improving health care services, but also creating political, economic, social, cultural and environmental conditions so that communities can live in health and well-being. In these processes, a key role is played by the participation of stakeholders and local leaderships, and by researching ways of involving and motivating citizens, or by the political will and the processes put in place to activate such policies. It’s from the third phase of EHCN, since the late 1990s, that the awareness of the role of health promotion through urban planning is considered as a main element, also driven by the maturation of the Agenda 21 principles, signed by 183 countries from all over the world, arising from the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. From this point on, as suggested in Agenda 21, participatory practices are the focus of interventions: the authorities are called to create their own agenda through dialogue with citizens, local organizations and private companies, that has an aim to understanding and acquiring, from the local community and the industrial sector, the information needed to formulate the best strategies. Four years away from UNICED and 20 years from Habitat I, Habitat II, the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (UN, 1996) called the 'City Summit', takes place in Istanbul. The main themes covered and reported as global objectives in the Istanbul Declaration, in continuity with UNICED and Habitat I and in integration of Agenda 21, are: adequate shelter for all and sustainable human settlements in an urbanizing world. In the full globalization of the economy, opportunities are highlighted, but also risks and uncertainties. The Agenda pays attention to people who are subject to be placed at the center to promote actions for sustainable development, and the local governments are identified as the most important partners for the implementation of the stated principles. The interdependence between the South and the North of the world is recognized and acknowledges that “The growth of cities and towns causes social, economic and environmental changes that go beyond city boundaries” and that “Rural and urban development are interdependent. In addition to improving the urban habitat, we must also work to extend adequate infrastructure, public services and employment opportunities to rural areas in order to enhance their attractiveness, develop an

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integrated network of settlements and minimize rural-to-urban migration. Small and medium-sized towns need special focus”. The topic Healthy City, healthy habitat, etc. is frequently used in official documents. From the reading of the various documents produced by EHCN and International Organizations, it is evident that the philosophy behind all levels is the putting in place of policies, processes, actions, long-term projects that are at the service of the people who live and work in cities and made with their participation. The city is understood as a living, breathing, growing and complex organism, having an ever-changing internal dynamic. A key moment in the definition of the Healthy City is represented by the Zagreb declaration (2009), which defines the core themes of the fifth phase, the healthy urban environment and design. The issues related to this core are identified later and identify the fields of action of the urban planner and the architect in: healthy urban planning; Housing and regeneration; Healthy transport; Climate change and public health emergencies; Safety and security; Healthy urban design and creativity and liveability (fig.1).

Figure 1 – Healthy urban environment and design: the main cores (by authors)

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“- Healthy urban planning. Integrating health considerations into urban planning processes, programmes and projects and establishing the necessary capacity and political and institutional commitment to achieve this goal. Especially emphasizing master planning, transport accessibility and neighbourhood planning. - Housing and regeneration. Increasing access through planning and design to integrated transport systems, better housing for all, health-enhancing regeneration schemes and to green and open spaces for recreation and physical activity. - Healthy transport. Promoting accessibility, by facilitating the ability for everyone, including very young people and people with limited mobility, to reach their required destination without having to use a car. - Climate change and public health emergencies. Tackling the health implications of climate change in cities and being vigilant about global changes such as the impact of globalized economies, the free movement of people and preparedness for and response to public health emergencies. - Safety and security. Ensuring that the planning and design of cities and neighbourhoods allows social interaction, increases a sense of safety and security and supports easy mobility for everyone, especially young and older people Exposure to noise and pollution. Promoting and adopting practices that protect people, especially children, from toxic and health-damaging exposure, including indoor and outdoor air pollution, tobacco smoke in workplaces and public places and noise. - Healthy urban design. Creating socially supportive environments and an environment that encourages walking and cycling. Enhancing cities’ distinctive and multifaceted cultural assets in urban design and promoting urban designs that meet all citizens’ expectations for safety, accessibility, comfort and active living. - Creativity and liveability. Promoting policies and cultural activities that encourage creativity and contribute to thriving communities by developing human and social capital, improving social cohesion and activating social change.” (WHO, 2009)

At the global level, among the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2000-2015, it is identified "ensure environmental sustainability" that in its articulations highlights the link between the environment, life and human health. The goal to be pursued globally in the policies followed by the various countries is that the principles of sustainable development are taken: by halting the loss of environmental resources, by halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to drinking water and achieving a significant improvement of the lives of at least 100 million people

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living in poor neighborhoods. The objectives are addressed mainly to the poor countries, the low and medium-income countries, and emphasize the importance of the involvement of local population in the solutions, as well as the need for political change in high-income countries. This objective also highlights the key role of the solutions implemented in the planning of cities and interventions on buildings’ sanitation, especially in low-medium income countries, where the population growth in urban areas reaffirms to be the fastest and most Disastrous (2009, WHO). In 2012, the report "Shaping Cities for Health: Complexity and Planning of Urban Environments in the 21st Century", which outlines the "how health outcomes are part of the complexity of urban processes" is elaborated in the Collaboration between The Lancet and University College London, UK in 2012. It identifies “how health outcomes are part of the complexity of urban processes, drawing attention to the part that urban planning can and should play in delivering health improvements through reshaping the urban fabric of our cities”. The Commission, made up of a group of different scholars, developed the study underlying the city as a complex body and therefore proposed "approach based on complexity thinking that looks at the interconnected elements of a system and how that system has properties not readily apparent from the properties of the individual elements ". The Lancet report "provides an analysis of how health outcomes can be improved through the modification of the physical fabric of towns and cities and discusses the role that urban planning can play in delivering health improvements" and analyzes mainly the connections between: health outcomes and the urban environment; between urban sanitation and wastewater treatment; between the built indoor environment and health; Between transport and health and the connections of the urban heat island and health. The "European Healthy Cities Network of the: goals and requirements in phase VI (2014-2018)" (WHO, 2013) reiterates the goals of creating resilient communities and supportive environments, identifying priority issues for most City: community resilience, healthy settings, healthy urban planning and design healthy transport climate change and housing and regeneration. In 2015, the UN Sustainable Development Summit in New York launches the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which contains the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015-2030 (UN, 2015) and puts at the base the five 'P', People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. An important step that sees sustainability as an integral part of development: from MDGs to SDGS. The goal 11 is "Making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable". To this end, the first UN global summit on urbanization was held in Quito since the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, UNHABITAT III. In Quito, the New Urban Agenda is adopted, “which sets out global standards of achievement in sustainable urban development, rethinking the way we build, manage and live in cities through drawing together cooperation with committed partners, relevant stakeholders and urban actors at all levels of Government as well as the civil society and private sector", after a year of sessions and preparatory documents. The New Urban Agenda reiterates the relationship between urban planning and the health, especially in some passages where we can read: “we will support

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION the implementation of urban planning strategies, as appropriate, that facilitate a social mix through the provision of affordable housing options with access to quality basic services and public spaces for all, enhancing safety and security, favouring social and intergenerational interaction and the appreciation of diversity. (…omissis…) We will support the provision of well-designed networks of safe, accessible, green and quality streets and other public spaces that are accessible to all, free from crime and violence, including sexual harassment and gender-based violence, considering the human scale, and measures that allow for the best possible commercial use of street-level floors, fostering both formal and informal local markets and commerce, as well as not-for-profit community initiatives, bringing people into public spaces, and promoting walkability and cycling with the goal of improving health and wellbeing. (…omissis…) We will strive to improve capacity for urban planning and design and the provision of training for urban planners at national, subnational and local levels.”

In all of the above-described documents (Figure 2), it is evident that, despite the differences between 'local' and 'global', North and South of the world, there is a principle of interdependence between the various policies that can no longer be neglected and the ‘construction’ of the Health City represents a long-term urban and territorial planning process.

Figure 2 – Healthy city: evolution of the VI phase of the WHO European Healthy Cities Network and the relation with international documents (by authors)

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We wonder if large urban agglomerates in themselves are not unhealthy, and we think it is necessary to think how to counteract the phenomenon of wild urbanization and to rethink the relationship between city and countryside, so as to create an interconnected osmotic system, served by the infrastructure to Mobility. In densified European cities, "with the failure of the great urban utopias, contemporary planning is inclined towards the recovery and reuse of city fragments, a careful use of soil and built spaces, towards preservation and improvement of environmental quality" (de Saint Mihiel, 2016). One of these fragments is precisely the open spaces, which, as described below, assume different connotations and declinations, but on which it is possible to act with sustainable and healthy regeneration actions in the city, within an overall view. Urban open space: common Goods? At the beginning of the twenty-first century, urban theory and policy throughout the world is returning to the issue of open spaces, particularly to public open spaces. The fact that open spaces do benefit the daily urban living, and play a vital role in creating healthier, more sociable communities, is changing the attitudes, policies and actions (Woolley, 2003), in the sense that the open spaces have been recognized as one of very important common goods, whit a crucial impact to the quality of life in general. The terms: ‘open spaces’ and ‘public open spaces’, are not synonyms. These terms are related in many ways, but doesn’t mean the same thing. The term ‘open’ could be understood in different ways. To be properly understood, ‘openness’ of open spaces has to be related to, and explained by some of very specific sort of definition. The definition of Benjamin W. Stanley and his team (2012), for an open space is “any urban ground space, regardless of public accessibility, that are not roofed by an architectural structure”. We define the urban open space as: any urban space, which is permanently open to the open air with at least one of its sides. Our main aim of such definition is to try to include into the systematization of open spaces, not only the prestigious ‘Mona Lisas’ of open spaces such as: squares, streets, parks, coastal areas, agricultural land, gardens and so on, but also to include an uncountable number of forgotten ‘micro’ open spaces, such as: roofs, roof terraces, balconies, passages, gaps between buildings and other ‘junk spaces’, even building facades. Therefore, in this sense, there are many areas of intervention to improve the healthy city. A matter of ‘urban open spaces’ is highly multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary. Different disciplines have different point of view on this multidisciplinary field. We can notice several types of approaches to researching and defining the ‘openness’ of the open spaces: - Landscape / green / environmental / horticulture

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION - Formal / morphological / physical / shape / size - Functional / functions / type of activity / mode of use - Cultural / public life / community / politic / identity / proud / human rights - Economic / investments / money value. On the other hand, the term ‘public’ mainly relates to public or communal ownership, or mode of public use of the open spaces. Moreover, there are a many of the open spaces which are private. Although, there are many examples of private open spaces in public use. However one would define the term public space, the definition has to take into account both the right of public access to it, and the right of participation in its use, on the individual, and on the collective level (as groups and communities). In the very ideal sense, a public space would be the one where everyone has a right to come to without being excluded because of economic or social conditions, and use it freely for any activity that does not conflict the rights of other groups and individuals that may be using it as well; while in a broader meaning it includes also places, such as a café, train, or a movie theater, where everybody can come if paying, and sticking to certain regulations. Public spaces do not necessarily include only urban agoras – for instance, traditionally in Norway, Sweden and Finland, all nature areas were and are considered public spaces, due to a law that is listing them as being in the sphere of Allemansrätten xvi (everyone’s-right), and in contemporary times are used for tourism. Also, in Britain, mainly Scotland, there is a legal notion of a ‘common’ (or common land), which is the name for a piece of land over which various people could exercise one of a number of traditional rights, like allowing their cattle to graze upon it. xvii In today’s English the word ‘commons’ come to be used to name any set of resources that a community recognizes as being accessible to its each and every member, including also various types of creative cultural resources xviii. The openly accessible character of public spaces is highly stressed in a German term Öffentlichkeit, which is used to denote ‘public sphere’, as the context of public spaces. In 1962 book by Jürgen Habermas, titled in German as Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit, or, in English, as The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere this notion got the main academic use, which is still commented in most of the contemporary writings on public spaces. In that work Habermas has described a moment in the social and political history of Europe in which a rising bourgeoisies was able to gather in different public spaces such as salons and cafes to discuss various matters which were of public concern and formulate public opinion on many different issues, from trade to politics, from culture to social issues. The public sphere as we know it was, according to him, founded in eighteenth century, as a kind of a fourth sphere, distinct from the family, economy and the state, with a power to mediate between the former three, and this very notion has retained its currency in contemporary debates in uniting Europe, surrounding the issues of citizenship and

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identity. Later criticisms and revisions of this model, such as the ones by Calhoun in 1992, Fraser in 1993, and Hauser 1999, have focused on the public sphere’s exclusivity and its dependence on a culturally-specific set of discourse practices that made this sphere, although open in theory, an arena for a small, privileged part of the public, while, as Miriam Hansen claims, the explosion many new forms of ‘publicity,’ in the following decades has forced us to redefine “the spatial, territorial, and geopolitical parameters of the public sphere” (Vuković, 2011). As a ‘public good’ open spaces can be seen trough the ‘value system’, the system of established values, norms, or goals existing in a society, which is obviously reflecting also in the matter of the ‘current value’ of the open spaces. The ‘Current value’ of the open space is the base point for any further researches and calculations. It is related, not only to value of the land (built or undeveloped), streets and infrastructure, but also to presence of the other valuable goods, product and attractions and moreover to specific value it has related to people: activities, behaviour, believes, health, and so on. Among all, we decided to point-out a short list, sort of typology, of the ‘open space’ values: - The Value of Open Space as a Natural System: “Open space often supports natural systems that provide direct benefits to human society such as ground water recharge, climate moderation, flood control and storm damage prevention, and air and water pollution abatement (Fausold and Lilieholm, 1996). - Use and Non-use Values of Open Space: “a)’consumptive uses’ such as hunting, fishing, and trapping; b) ‘nonconsumptive uses’ such as hiking, camping, boating, enjoying scenery, viewing and photographing wildlife, etc.; c) ‘indirect uses’ such as reading books or watching programs on open space-related resources or activities such as wildlife and travel (ibid.).” - Production Value of Open Space: “Lands valued for open space are seldom idle, but rather are part of a working landscape vital to the production of goods and services valued and exchanged in markets (ibid.).” - Revenues Generated by Open Space-Related Activities: “Activities directly or indirectly associated with open space may generate significant expenditures and provide an important source of revenue for businesses and state and local governments: hunting, fishing, hiking, bird watching, nature photography, snowmobiling, skiing, and mountain biking (ibid. p.14).” - Intangible Values of Open Space: “Earlier ‘types’ of values, which was focused only on open space values of high interest to humans, and which came from humans, are the only values that can be expressed in economic terms (ibid.).” Open space is the vivid system, all the time with constant changes. As the system is changing, its values are changing too. Nowadays, those changes are carefully monitored and mostly well planned and managed - means controlled.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Regarding to the fact that open spaces are one of the main representatives of the public goods, the main aim of these activities is to protect public goods, means public interest (but private interest too), and to offer new opportunities for getting new, increasing benefits for the future. Open spaces are providing a wide range of opportunities to reach desirable benefits as much for the community, that much of the private sector. At present, the debate around immaterial and material commodities also invests in the urban open space. The common good is not a public good, but a good acknowledged as important to the life of the community and cannot be the object of any private appropriation. On this principle, the so-called 'Cooperation Pact' is spreading in Italy on the basis of the Article 118 of the Italian Constitution. Article 118 identifies the principle of subsidiarity, that is, "The State, regions, metropolitan cities, provinces and municipalities shall promote the autonomous initiatives of citizens, both as individuals and as members of associations, relating to activities of general interest, on the basis of the principle of subsidiarity”. Citizens, by applying the principle of subsidiarity, can thus exert a new form of participation that has objectives of general interest, that is, material and immaterial goods. One of the first municipalities to initiate the Cooperation Pact was that of Bologna, which by a regulation in 2014 has identified the various areas of intervention, including material assets such as roads, squares, porticoes, flowerbeds, parks and Green areas, school areas, buildings, etc. The procedure it envisions is the opening of a public notice for the collection of proposals for the provision of spontaneous, voluntary and free energy, resources and skills in favor of the community by citizens' associations. Relations between the municipality and the organizations are governed by the Partnership Pact which identifies: shared care goals and actions; Object of the proposal; Ways of collaboration; Accounting reporting and valuation; Forms of support from the administration; Duration, suspension and revocation and liability. Currently, among the ten active collaboration agreements, 4 concern open spaces such as parks and residual green spaces. Partnership Pacts represent a form of management of participation in the innovative common good that has undoubtedly strengths but also fragility linked to, for example, management at the expiration of the pact and the nonlocalization of interventions in a broader requalification strategy for the city, so costs and benefits should be valued in the widest sense. What we are interested in pointing out is that in the participatory processes the urban planner and the architect assume a new role as mediators of participatory processes and facilitators of the implementation processes.

CONCLUSIONS The paper argues that if health, in its various declinations, is a human right as it is, through transitory property, sustainable development. Urban planners and more generally architects take on a significant role in the debate from an interdisciplinary point of view and on the various levels of intervention: from territory to building. Relations between urban planning, architecture and health are many: how the environment designed at its various levels of intervention can have positive or negative effects on people's health, can promote or dissociate some behaviors, but still today it is far from considering health determinants and assuming them as input generators of design choices. This undoubtedly represents a long-term challenge that highlights the need to enable shared research methodologies and

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the monitoring of real data. Undoubtedly, we cannot be indifferent to the local characters of culture and the different societies, there are no exportable models as there are no generalizable procedures of management processes, but there may be open methodologies and innovative management models to experiment. If traditionally in the past the building process model was linked to a commission and a defined process model, nowadays, urban planner and architect in participatory processes assume a new role as mediators and facilitators. For this reason, new teaching strategies must also be tested to bring students, as much as possible, to the simulation of a real process, in order to make the future designers of healthy cities, who before being this, they are still citizens who live in the city, like us all. An area of interest is the urban open space, as common goods that they do not just add value, it can create it in terms of health, and the improvement of health as a major social investment.

REFERENCES Barton, Hugh, and Tsourou, Catherine. 2000. Healthy Urban Planning. A WHO guide to planning for people. London: Spon Press. Birchera, Johannes and Kuruvillab, Shyama. 2014. “Defining health by addressing individual, social, and environmental determinants: New opportunities for health care and public health”. Journal of Public Health Policy, 35 (3) (August): pp.363–386. Calhoun, Craig. 1992. Habermas and the Public Sphere, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. De Saint Mihiel, Alessandro Claudi. 2016. “Urban transformation for the development and enhancement of the consolidated city”. TECHNE - Journal of Technology for Architecture and Environment, (November): 144-151. Fausold, Charles J. and Lilieholm, Robert J. 1996. “The Economic Value of Open Space: A Review and Synthesis”, Land Lines (September). Fraser, Nancy. 1993. “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy” in Robbins, B. and Social Text Collective (editors): The Phantom Public Sphere. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota PressGiofrè, Francesca and Đukanović, Zoran. 2016. Health Spaces. Hospital Outdoor Environment. Florence: Tesis. Hauser, Gerard. 1999. Vernacular Voices: The Rhetoric of Publics and Public Spheres, Columbia SC: University of South Carolina Press. Hansen, Miriam. 1993. “Forward,” into the book by Negt, O, and Kluge, A: Public Sphere and Experience, Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. Mattei, Ugo. 2011. Beni Comuni un manifesto. Italy: Laterza. Roy Amara, Karen Bodenhorn et All. 2003. Health and health care 2010. The Forecast, The Challenge. The Institute of the future. San Francisco: Wiley. Rydin, Yvonne, at all. 2012. “Shaping cities for health: complexity and the planning of urban environments in the 21st century”. The Lancet 370, no. 9831 (June): 2079–2108.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Stanley, Benjamin W., et all. 2012. “Urban Open Spaces in Historical Perspective: a Transdisciplinary Typology and Analysis.” Urban Geography, 33, 8 : pp. 1089-1117. sustaUN. 1976. The Vancouver Declaration On Human Settlements Accessed March 1, 2017. http://mirror.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/The_Vancouver_Declaration.pdf. UN.1996. United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities Istanbul, 30-31 May 1996 Final Declaration. Accessed February 1, 2017. http://citiscope.org/sites/default/files/h3/WACLA_Declaration_1996.pdf. UN. 2015.“Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015”. Accessed January 7, 2017. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E. UN. 2015. Draft outcome document of the United Nations summit for the adoption of the post-2015 development agenda. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/L.85&Lang=E Vuković, Stevan 2011. Javna umetnost: definicija i trendovi; in Đukanović Zoran and others, Umetnost u javnom prostoru: ekspertska studija prostorne provere užeg gradskog jezgra Užica za potrebe umetničke produkcije u javnom prostoru; Academica – akademska grupa, pp. 167-175 WHO. 1986. “The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion”. Last modified. Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/129532/Ottawa_Charter.pdf. WHO. 2009. Phase V (2009–2013) of the WHO European Healthy Cities Network: goals and requirements. Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/100989/E92260.pdf. WHO and UN-HABITAT. 2010. Hidden cities: unmasking and overcoming health inequities in urban settings. Kobe: World Health Organization, The WHO Centre for Health Development, Kobe, and United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010. Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.who.int/kobe_centre/publications/hiddencities_media/who_un_habitat_hidden_cities_web.pdf. WHO.2013. Phase VI (2014–2018) of the WHO European Healthy Cities Network: goals and requirements. Accessed March 1, 2017. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/244403/Phase-VI-20142018-of-the-WHO-European-Healthy-CitiesNetwork-goals-and-requirements-Eng.pdf. Woolley, Hellen 2003. Urban open space. London: Spon press.

xvi Allemansrätten is the Swedish spelling; in Norwegian it is spelled Allemannsretten. The Finnish term is jokamiehenoikeus (singular nominative form) or jokamiehenoikeudet (plural nominative form). It has never been codified, but retains its validity as a customary law of not being allowed to prohibit entry, or demand a fee for it. It goes for camping, berry picking, taking water from lakes and springs, picking wild flowers (excluding those protected by law), berries, mushrooms, fallen cones, acorns and beechnuts on land that is not a building site, a garden or a plantation, then, bathing or going by boat on most natural watercourses and cross-country skiing. The land

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ethics surrounding Allemansrätten is taught at school and is commonly accepted as such. More About that in: Vail D. and Held T: "Institutional Factors Influencing the Size and Structure of Tourism: Dalarna (Sweden) and Maine (USA). Current Issues in Tourism, 3 (4), 2000,pages 283-324 xvii In 1500 at least half of England and approximately half of Scotland were recognized as common land. However, by the mid-19th century, commons had virtually disappeared, and there are about 800 administrative units left, covering approximately 5,000 km², which is 7%of the terrestrial area. However, Scotland the Land Reform Act was passed in 2003, with an attempt to give back the rights to rural and croft communities, which still makes quite some legal debates in Scotland.. About that, see Callander, R.:‘The History of Common Land in Scotland’, Commonweal of Scotland Working Paper, 1(1), Caledonia Centre for Social Development, 2003. xviii One can take, for instance, The Creative Commons, a non-profit organization enabling copyright holders to grant some of their rights to the public while retaining others through a variety of licensing and contract schemes including dedication to the public domain or open content licensing terms. The intention is to avoid the problems current copyright laws create for the sharing of information. Their licenses were pre-dated by the Open Publication License and the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL). The GFDL was intended mainly as a license for software documentation, but is also in active use by non-software projects such as Wikipedia.

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TENDENCIES IN NEWLY-BUILT MULTI-FAMILY HOUSING IN SERBIA: OUTLOOK OF URBAN EXPERTS Branislav Antonić 54 Researcher-assistant and PhD candidate, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Aleksandra Đukić Associate professor, PhD, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Post-socialist period have brought the myriad of new socio-economic changes for states in Central and Eastern Europe. Knowing that all such changes mirror in space and settlements, they have also made an unavoidable impact on housing as the most prominent urban function. In the case of Serbia, these post-socialist changes in housing have been more severe due to postponed and more complex transition. On the other side, the uncommon model of qualitative socialist housing in the former socialist Yugoslavia has left a positive legacy to present-day situation. Hence, Serbian post-socialist housing has some unique features comparing to other post-socialist countries. This uniqueness is reflected in Serbian reality. A good illustration is a newly-built, “transitional” multi-storey collective housing as dominant type in local typology. However, the data relating to these unique characteristics are rare and insufficiently accurate. The aim of this paper is to improve the research of the urban dimension in newly-built collective housing in Serbia from the point of the planning of housing in new urban plans for Serbian cities. This will be researched by analyzing the professional knowledge and experience of local urban experts. Therefore, the method used in the analysis was survey, in which urban experts had participated. It had been carried out in May 2015. It is expected that the results of the survey will enlighten some mutual issues in Serbian housing and related urban policy which can be better customised and adequately addressed to enable synergy in the future development. Keywords: Urban planning, Multi-family housing, Post-Socialist Context, Survey

INTRODUCTION

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The urban dimension of housing as a research topic can be studied through several relevant aspects. First, housing is often considered as a spatially-prevalent urban function, occupying the major area in an urban settlement. Second, housing is also known as the most sensitive general urban function, because it is strongly related to the private sphere of human life. Finally, every flat or house is also a commodity, i.e. housing is also a market-oriented urban function. Thus, its complexity can be easily observed (Petrović, 2004). This complexity especially comes to the fore in the periods of sudden and tempestuous changes, when it is difficult to balance between all the mentioned aspects. A good example of this phenomenon is the post-socialist transition from a centrally-planned economy to a capitalist market economy in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. This transition has been usually described with less or more negative attributes: sudden (Pickvance, 2002), dramatic (Hirt and Stanilov, 2009), hard to understand (Hamilton et al, 2005), etc. Considering these attributes, the qualitative transformation of urban housing in Central and Eastern Europe has been one of main challenges during the transitional period (IUD, 2013). Nevertheless, differences among the countries in post-socialist Europe are evident. This can also be applied to housing in urban areas. These differences have been shaped by both historical heritage and current conditions (Hamilton et al, 2005). Similarly, housing in Serbia has also been unique, although it has some common characteristics with the surrounding countries. Thus, this part of post-socialist Europe is called the “south-eastern transition subregion” (IUD, 2013). Finally, the specificity of Serbia is also its postponed transition. It was the last country to start with ‘real’ postsocialist transition in 2000, i.e. after more than one decade of the so-called “blocked socio-economic transformation of society” during the Yugoslav wars (Petrović, 2004, p. 145). This postponed transition has had apparent and usually negative reflections in the development of urban housing. Unfortunately, the qualitative practises of urban housing from the post-socialist countries with more experience have not been used to overcome the weaknesses of the existing situation. Thus, the common problem of inadequate and underdeveloped housing policy and legislation is still evident here (Antonić, 2015). Furthermore, the socialist model of housing was predominant during the second part of 20th century. A unique type of collective or multi-family housing with tenancy rights was a role-model in that time (Milić, 2006). This model was widespread in the country; the massive construction of collective housing was firmly supported by the state, side by side with rapid urbanization (Petovar, 2003). Finally, all the mentioned elements have had an influence on the present situation in new housing, which has been built during transition, forming unique “local” characteristics. This can be especially applied to newly-built multi-storey collective housing as the dominant type since 2000 (Jovanović Popović et al, 2013). Despite the dominance of this type in situ, there is a general lack of adequate and accurate statistical data. For example, there is no clear division between homes and flats in statistical data. The general shortage in the housing statistics has been consequently followed by a shortage of adequate scientific analyses and projects. Therefore, the main problem is how to observe these characteristics, especially those which are crucial to general urban development.

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Fig. 1 and 2: Two most common types of post-socialist collective buildings, which are organised for open and traditional (‘closed’) urban-block structure (Author: B. Antonić)

In addition to statistical data, it is necessary to include other resources based on the irreplaceable knowledge and experience of local urban experts. This is the reason why the research interlocutors are Serbian experts in the field of urbanism. To interpret objectively their professional views and opinions about the main issues of urban dimension in newly-built collective housing in Serbia, survey and questionnaire have been chosen for methodological approach. The findings should present which characteristics of newly-built collective housing are crucial for general urban development. In accordance with the expected findings, the final contribution from the research will be directed to the formation of the first guidelines for general improvements of the urban planning and practices in collective housing in Serbia.

METHODOLOGY - THE USE OF SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES The methodology presented in this paper is based on a survey. This method was chosen because it is the proper methodological approach for the fields where professional estimation is important. The feature of qualitative estimation is certainly significant for urban planning - it is in essence of every planning process. Therefore, the foci of this survey are on the macro-urban issues, which are more related to the urban-planning level. Since a survey had been chosen as the methodological instrument for such a research, questions were arranged. The prepared questionnaire had four groups of questions.

THE RESULTS OF SURVEYS Text The aim of the research was to understand the experts' stance in the field of urbanism in Serbia. Thus, the accompanying survey was conducted in the Summer School of Urbanism 2015, which took place in Kragujevac, in May, 14-16th, 2015. Serbian experts in this field are the main participants of the conference. These experts, who numbered 114, took part in the survey. Most of them completed the entire questionnaire, but some of them omitted, or wrongly answered some questions.

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The first part of the questions was introductory, i.e. it referred to the respondents' professional background. The overall majority of the respondents (92%) were professionals in the field of urbanism. The others worked in related sectors, such as the cadastre or building construction in situ. A visible majority of the respondents (82%) was primarily professionals who participated in the creation of the urban and spatial plans and urban projects, as well as other strategic documents. A small percentage (5%) included those who were primarily engaged in the sector of building provisions, or in education and research in urbanism. Those employed in the public sector accounted for 76% of the respondents. Apart from one respondent (an NGO employee), all the others came from private companies.

Newly-built housing vs. renovated housing The second group of questions was the first ever dedicated to the essential analysis of newly-built collective housing in Serbia. It tries to explore the importance of this type of housing in urban areas and its relations to other forms of recent housing development, such as housing renovation or new affordable/social housing.

Figure 3: The ratio between older and newer collective housing

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Figure 4: The ratio between two types of interventions in housing

Figure 5: The importance of newly-built social housing

Localization of newly-built housing in urban areas The third group of questions is associated with spatial distribution and location of newly-built housing in urban areas in Serbia.

Figure 6: The existence of the concentration of newly-built housing

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Figure 7: The importance of new-built social housing

Figure 8: Newly-built collective housing in relation to the socialist monocentric urban model

Figure 9: Newly-built collective housing in relation to the post-socialist polycentric urban model

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Figure 10: Newly-built collective housing in relation to street types

Functional aspect of newly-built housing in urban areas The functional aspect of newly-built collective housing in Serbia, herein, is understood in two ways: how general urban zoning in Serbian urban areas has influenced housing and how it has influenced some accompanied urban-development projects, such as the improvement and renewal of urban infrastructure.

Figure 11: The tendencies of newly-built collective housing in relation to the older one

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Figure 12: The tendency to build new collective housing near the zones of single-family housing

Figure 13: The tendency to build new collective housing near mixed-use areas

Figure 14: The influence of newly-built collective housing on interventions in the nearest public space

Figure 15: The influence of newly-built collective housing on the interventions in accompanying communal infrastructure

CONCLUSION

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Analysing 25 years of transition in Serbia, new collective housing, built during this period, has become the visible element of urban housing stock in the country. This stance is firmly supported by the survey, where the majority of respondents (68%) equated the older, mostly socialist housing with the newer or post-socialist housing in their presence. These opinions question the aforementioned data on the total predominance of housing from the socialistic period of former Yugoslavia, with mass construction of huge housing blocks. The mentioned visibility of new collective housing can be a crucial factor for the next question, which refers to newer interventions in the housing sector. New housing is more present (68%) than the renovation or the renewal of older collective-housing stock. The motive is probably associated with the current situation in Serbia, where the overall level of development as well as national planning and organization is still below those in many post-socialist countries in Central and Central-Eastern Europe. Therefore, it is easier to build new building than to organize and manage the renovation of old ones. The localization of newly-built collective housing in Serbian urban areas is also unique by some elements. To clarify, there is no visible pattern of localization in relation to urban (de)centralization or specific urban factors (workplace, public services, etc.). This is presumably linked to a strong influence of different regional and local conditions in Serbia, rather than to some nationally developed pattern or approach. In contrast, the importance of good transport accessibility is very noticeable - it was confirmed in more than 90% of the answers in the survey. The interpretation can be connected with the transitional circumstances in Serbian cities, where new development is more concentrated along the main transport corridors. This is especially true in the case of the vital retail sector, where the issue of accessibility is significant. Finally, this clearly represents how the process of relevant urban planning and localization of new collective housing has been simplified. The importance of the functional element of newly-built collective housing in Serbia comes right after the issue of localization. There is no visible approach of adequate “pattern” in the zoning or the functional concentration of new collective housing. Thus, according to the survey, this new collective housing can be commonly found in the zones of both older collective housing (79%) and single-family housing (68%). Therefore, retail and public services usually follow the construction of new housing instead of acting as the “initiators” of new-housing development. Given these points in the discussion, the general deficiency of a strategic and planned approach and fragile regulation of newly-built collective housing in Serbia should also be understood as a significant problem for the general development of urban areas. Solid proof can be found in the last two questions in the survey, which are dedicated to the possible influences of new collective housing on the improvement or renewal of accompanied urban and technical infrastructure as a basic element of qualitative urban life. In both cases, it is obvious that new housing is not a sufficient factor for the improvement of the nearest public space (79%), or technical infrastructure (65%). The financial side certainly is the main contributor to this situation, but it probably is not the only one. The causes can also be inadequate objectives, solutions, and measures in planning and strategic approaches at local level. For instance, almost all governments in Serbian cities

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have invested immense resources in the renewal of relative small pedestrian zones in their inner centres. If there had been better redistribution of these resources, more resources would have been realized for the improvement of infrastructure in other zones with new housing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This paper was done within National research projects No 36034 and No 36035, financed by the Ministry of education and science of the Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES Antonić, Branislav (2015). “ Мест о ст ановања у иск уст вау Србиј и / The Place of Housing in Con temporary Urban Policy: How to Use European Experince in Serbia.” In Zbornik radova Letnje škole urbanizma 2015 - II Urbane politike, edited by VeruljubTrifunović, Dušan Minić and Zoran Popović, 195203. Belgrade: Udruženje urbanista Srbije. European Parliament - Directorate General for Research – EU-DGR. 1996. Housing Policy in the EU Member States. Brussels: Social Affairs Series. Accessed January 18, 2017. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/ workingpapers/soci/w14/text2_en.htm#4. Hamilton, Ian, Dimitrovska Andrews, Kaliopa, and Pichler-Milanović, Nataša. 2005. “Introduction.” In Transformation of cities in central and Eastern Europe: Towards globalization, edited by Ian Hamilton, Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews and Nataša Pichler-Milanović, 3-21. Tokyo-New York-Paris: UN University Press. Hirt, Sonia, and Stanilov, Kiril. 2009. Revisiting Urban Planning in the Transitional Countries. Nairobi: UN Habitat Press. Institute of Urban Development - IUD. 2013. The State of European Cities in Transition 2013: Taking Stock after 20 Years of Reform. Nairobi: UN Habitat Press. Jovanović Popović, Milica, Ignjatović, Dušan, Radivojević, Ana, Rajčić, Aleksandar, Đukanović, Ljiljana, Ćuković Ignjatović, Nataša and Nedić, Miloš. 2013. Atlas of Multifamily Housing in Serbia. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, GIZ. Keivani Ramin, Parsa, Ali, and McGreal, Stanley. 2002. Institutions and Urban Change in a Globalising World the Case of Warsaw. Cities 19, no. 3 (June): 183-193. DOI: 10.1016/S0264-2751(02)00015-X. Milić, Vladimir. 2006. Urbanistički aspekti socijalnog stanovanja / Urban Aspects of Social Housing. Belgrade: Arhitektonski fakultet. Petovar, Ksenija. 2003. Urbana sociologija: Naši gradovi između države i građanina / Urban Sociology: Our Cities between State and Citizen. Belgrade: Geografski fakultet - Arhitektonski fakultet - IAUS.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Petrović, Mina. 2004. Sociologija stanovanja: Stambena politika: Izazovi i mogućnosti / Housing Policy: Challenges and Possibilities. Belgrade: Institut za sociološka istraživanja. Petrovic, Mina. 2005. Cities after Socialism as a Research Issue. London: LSE E-prints. Accessed January 18, 2017. http://www.google.com/policies/privacy/. URL: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/23378/. Pickvance, Chris. 2002. “State Socialism, Post-Socialism and their Urban Patterns: Theorizing the Central and Eastern European Experience.” In Understanding the City: Contemporary and Future Perspectives, edited by John Eade and Christopher Mele, 183-203. Oxford: Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9780470693 582.ch9. Temelová, Jana. 2007. Flagship Developments and the Physical Upgrading of Post-socialist Inner City: The Golden Angel Project in Prague. Geografiska Annaler: Series B Human Geography 89, no. 2 (May): 169-181. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0467.2007. 00246.x.

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DECODING URBAN FRAGMENTATION: MORPHOGENETIC PROCESSES IN THE SHAPING OF A SUBURBAN TERRITORY IN LISBON’S METROPOLIS João Rafael Santos Assistant Professor, CIAUD, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Polo Universitário do Alto da Ajuda, 1349-055 Lisboa, Portugal, [email protected] ABSTRACT The article outlines the morphogenetical analysis of complex metropolitan fabrics in Lisbon’s Metropolitan Area, as part of a research project based at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Lisbon, regarding adaptive policies and planning tools for fragmented metropolitan territories. The project’s rationale – understanding the processes underlying areas of landscape and infrastructural fragmentation (territorial vacancy, splintered urban fabrics, spatial clashes between large scale infrastructures and local places) – and their potential for new uses and structural adjustment - was presented in last year’s Places & Technologies Conference in Belgrade. For P&T 2017, new stages of the research are to be presented, namely: • a morphological interpretation of the study area’s evolution and forms of spatial production; • the role of rustic land plot patterns in the becoming of one of Lisbon’s most prominent suburban settlements; • the evolution and characteristics of public space and infrastructural amenities since the late 1950’s, and their changing design, regulatory and real-estate market rationales. This outline, based on cartographic interpretation and systematization, along with the framing of major legal, policy and industry-related events, both at the metropolitan and the national levels, is one of the specific tasks being developed in the project. Its results will inform the next project’s stages in three domains: 1) open space and green infrastructure; 2) mobility networks; 3) territorial regeneration. Preliminary results point out to the existence of major territorial gaps inherited from an urban growth process in which public space quality, continuity and spatial coherence were left behind in the wake of piece-meal development. This process was mainly based on the maximization of built area ratios, keeping the then misadjusted rustic parcels as development boundaries and without the needed update of intermediate level plot patterns and network provision. Regeneration and adaptation processes are seen as requiring a closer understanding of these deeply rooted rationales. Keywords: Urban and territorial fragmentation, metropolitan morphology, public space, plot patterns, territorial regeneration

INTRODUCTION

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Adapt:polis - Beyond urban fragmentation - adaptive spatial policies: infrastructure, landscape and urban management for Lisbon Metropolitan Area after the crisis is a research project aimed at developing knowledge on the topic of urban fragmentation and metropolitan regeneration to tackle ongoing socio-economic adjustment, based at the Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon. The project is expected to improve response by providing policy linkages between three fields of urban policy: 1) open space/public space, 2) mobility and infrastructural optimization, 3) urban and territorial regeneration. A specific pilot-case in LMA – Massamá-Cacém, in the Municipality of Sintra – is being used as a test-bed for a number of analytical tools, critical assessment procedures, strategy and policy inception and prospective design – all with actor involvement through partnering with local authorities. This site is located in a suburban corridor, 20 km west of Lisbon, in which the research critical issues can be found: a peripheral location originally developed around a suburban railway line, later followed by a metropolitan radial motorway – IC19; low quality residential development, poorly developed network of public space and urban facilities; spatial and scalar fragmentation between urban fabric, open spaces and natural features; poorly integrated mobility networks, with weak links between urban settlement and public transport infrastructures.

Figures 6 and 2: Urban fragments in a discontinuous landscape. Source: author

THE PROCESS OF SUBURBANIZATION IN THE MAKING OF LISBON’S METROPOLIS The transformation of the metropolitan territory of Lisbon between the mid-1960s and mid-1990s was shaped by various levels of disruption in the relationship between the development of infrastructural support and the production of urban space: disruption between the programming and the delivery of mobility, utility and facility networks; disruption of the territorial matrix based on the rural parcellation; disruption of socio-economic and political layers at

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the metropolitan and national levels. From an urban structure based on defined on 19th century radial lines, more diffuse urban growth patterns emerge, with new configurations and variable intensities. These patterns are supported by new road and electrical networks which, together, enable residential and industrial deconcentration away from conventional railroad-oriented lines of development. Tensions between functional requirements and the territorial support result in a fragile and coalescing development of urban fabric, supported by minimum levels of infrastructural and environmental support. It only after the 1990s that some of the metropolitan networks designed in the 1960’s to meet booming urban growth begin to take shape. Until the mid-1960's, one could observe some form of infrastructural guiding in the urbanization processes in Lisbon, providing reciprocal relations of spatial aggregation and functional hierarchy which guaranteed a reasonable level of continuity and contiguity. However, in the following decades there is a fundamental change in this morphological relationship between infrastructure and urban development as a result of combined multiple factors: infrastructural saturation, the inability to provide adequate network support to the economic and demographic needs, but also significant legislative changes (Santos, 2013). On the one hand, with the approval of Decree-Law No. 46673 of 29/11/1965 - known as the Law of Loteamentos (urban subdivision) - the government allows the entry of private actors in urban land production, giving away the exclusive role it held in this area since the time of Duarte Pacheco (Nunes da Silva and Pereira, 1986). On the other hand, the legislation extends the private appropriation of urban capital gains to the process of urbanization; until then it was basically limited to the building process (capital gains associated with urbanization and subdivision were retained by the public sector). Henceforth, virtually all urbanization cycle is inscribed within a market rationale, mostly speculative in nature and, above all, informed by investment profitability criteria (Nunes, 2011). Urban development operations are therefore understood as real estate products. Finally, the establishment of horizontal property in the Civil Code 1966 (although it was legally defined since 1955) introduces fundamental changes in investment rationale and in the social and spatial distribution of property and its development, especially in the field of housing.

THE EMERGENCE OF TYPE-VOLUMETRIC SPACING: THE CLASHING ROLES OF INFRASTRUCTURE, PUBLIC SPACE AND BUILDING A new and diffused morphological configuration emerges from the combination between: 1) a fragmented urban development initiative (in space, in time, in infrastructural support), 2) a focus on real estate optimization of residential products and 3) a development scale-up, associated with the construction industrialization. In this type of fabricweaving, the key element is the collective housing building, understood as a module unit and optimized in its internal structure. Seen as a repeatable and addable module, it is often laid over a pre-existing rural parcel fabric, maintain its frail geometric layout. Reparcellation operations or land consolidation for urban transformation, if and when occur,

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION remain apart from any effective effort of integration into wider settlement structure (Arrabaça, 2003, Cruz, 2008, Santos, 2012). A morphological gap between the new urban condition and the original land-shaping rationales is thus opened. Hydrography support continues to shape the urbanizing territory. However, it plays a rather frail role: it is often seen as a functional constraint, no more than a line in the existing land parcel pattern. Clear examples are found in AgualvaCacém where streams and its beds are occupied and piped as a part of wastewater system. Even when recognizable as a spatial guideline on the surface, water lines spacings are dealt more as part of the legal restrictions array than as structural corridors for ecological continuity or as part of the public space system. In addition, aggregation forms tend to mirror the building process rationale. The free-standing model is repeatedly used as an effective and operative tool. It focuses on the building itself and allows for an easy and phased construction process. As a result, however, it also erodes clear traces of order, hierarchy, regularity and quality of open space – so dear to the modern urban discourse –, resulting in an otherwise vague and undifferentiated type-volumetric spacing (Santos, 2012). This model’s capacity to adapt to very different situations can also be seen as its main setback, as it relinquishes on more sophisticated forms of adjustment to local spatial context. These type-volumetric spacings are the result of a volume-oriented design, detaining itself at the object scale, with limited concern with the spatial result of modular repetition patterns over a neutral open space surface.

Figures 3, 4 and 5: Urban spaces in Cacém and Massamá. Source: author

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With very little involvement of architectural skilled design, the development of reinforced concrete construction technologies, such as pillar-beam and prefabrication, result in a rather unsophisticated appropriation of typological innovations such as the free-standing building and the plan libre. The outcome is a new kind of urban and architectural spatial order: on one hand, structural metrics based on pillar-and-beam allow for greater freedom in design; on the other hand, standardization and prefabrication often introduce repeated, monotonous, undifferentiated patterns, with little concern for urban integration and architectural composition. Public-private boundaries, such as small walls with back and front yards, give way to a permeable space, often lacking legibility and hierarchy. The dual relationship between façade and backdoor is blurred. Kitchen and laundry areas, hitherto turned away from streets and public space, become visible. The hitherto prominent role of façade alignment, front doors and ground floors as thresholds between the building and public space is eroded in an often uncontrolled addition of shops storefronts, housing windows, garage doors and faint references to modern pilotis. A rather atopic verticality emerges, replacing a predominantly horizontal grounding of buildings as a spatial ordering device (Santos, 2012).

TRACING PLOT SUBDIVISION PATTERNS: SHAPING A FRAGMENTED URBAN LANDSCAPE Despite an acknowledged difficulty in reading, understanding and providing coherent pictures of these forms of metropolitan landscapes, it is possible to identify some representative patterns, based on territorial integration and on typological differentiation. The intensification of land use associated with this type of fabric (high-rise typologies, higher densities, large residential estates), occurs under two major frameworks: -

from the 1950’s until the 1990’s, with a clear dependency on railroad transportation and commuting with towards Lisbon;

-

since the early 1990’s, with the booming rise of car-ownership and metropolitan deconcentration of employment and services.

The growth of Agualva-Cacém has been firstly dependent on the railroad commuting. Having a station at one of the main lines drove the two small pre-industrial settlements (Cacém and Agualva) into a spatial conglomerate around the railroad line. Before the 1950’s, the adjoining spaces were shaped by high slopes and a deep valley, along which an important water stream shaped some agricultural plots, with the higher grounds used for dry farming. This scenario quickly changed with the suburbanization boom after the 1950’s. The plot pattern along the main and subsidiary valleys was shaped by small-scale elongated parcels, drawing the best relationship between land and water. A capillary road network linked a bridge to the outlying spaces, crossing through the small settlements. Medium-scale estates were found in the slopes, some of them holding a couple of examples of more sophisticated aristocratical houses, which are today at the two cores of today’s joined city.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION The former plot patterns are at the basis of current urban morphological matrix. This is the result of a frail urban development process, in which planning played a minimum role. Not only was infrastructure provision delayed and precarious, but also development control remained rather loose and permeable to private initiative. A laissez-faire attitude towards housing development allowed for incremental subdivision of rustic plots, with very limited intervention in providing guidelines and sustained vision for urban growth (Vaz, 1988, Arrabaça, 2003). In order to decode the morphological processes underlying the building boom, it is possible to outline fourteen different cases of plot transformation. These cases are systematized in terms of morphological process and reflect not only forms of spatial transformation but also changing realms of development rationale. 1 – Small scale plot transformation 1.1 – Single plot + Contiguous and linear aggregation along road/street + stand alone building 1.2 – Regularization and road/street widening + transfer to public domain 1.3 – Linear and regular subdivision along road/street + row buildings 1.4 – Piece-meal building in single plots, without urban alignment 1.5 – Single plot + standalone industrial building 1.6 – Single plot + irregular building development by densification inside plot 2 – Small-to-medium scale plot readjustment 2.1 – Regular subdivision + laying of new internal road/street 2.2 – Piece-meal subdivision + laying of new internal road/street 2.3 – Unplanned and informal subdivision + detached building 2.4 – Articulation between individual plots/developers + Basic urban layout rules + laying of new common road/street 3 – Medium-to-large scale subdivisions 3.1 – Partial subdivision of old farming estates + new urban layout [keeping old buildings and part of land] 3.2 – Total subdivision of farming plots + new urban layout 3.3 – Aggregation and subdivision of rustic plots + New urban layout 3.4 – Phased aggregation and subdivision of rustic plots + phased new urban layout Having these types and their representation, it is possible to build an interpretative framework at a larger scale, according to 1) location, 2) relationship with structural elements (roads, waterlines, train stations) and 3) type of morphological configuration (building type, urban layout, organization of public space). This analysis provides a morphogenetic basis to understand the various processes of urban development and their rationale. If crossed with a diachronical perspective, one can see a change from smaller scaled transformation processes to larger scaled ones, especially after the late 1990’s. This change is noticeable geographically:

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-

The predominance of types 1 and 2 in the first generation of suburbanization (1950’s-1980’s), namely in Cacém and Agualva;

-

The predominance of type 3 in the second generation of suburbanization (1980’s-2000’s), namely in Massamá and São Marcos;

-

Presence of overlaid transformation processes in the older settlements of Cacém and Agualva (types 1, being replaced by types 2), building a more complex and stratified urban matrix;

-

The predominance of types 1 in the parcels adjacent to the oldest roads;

-

The introduction of medium-to-high rise housing typologies in the types 2 and 3;

-

The prevalence of large scale urban layouts in types 3, although often keeping some of the former parcel boundaries in phased development schemes.

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Figure 6: Types of plot subdivision found in the study area (numbering according to the list above)

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CONCLUSIONS In a context where the outline of urban development and compensation parameters is defined as part of national legislation and municipal planning tools, large scale urbanization operations become a tool to bridge some of the private developers’ with the public authorities’ interests. Economies of scale allow for more robust forms of compensation, helping to outline a number of territorial interventions, from the development of middle scale road networks to the building of important urban facilities. Instead of splintered mono-functional fabrics, anchored in older and precarious capillary networks, new urban areas are often accompanied with a sounder frame of urban facilities, public spaces, patches of ecological structure and supra-local networks. These amenities are incrementally combined into an intermediate territorial layer already devised at the municipal level. On a wider background, there is a stabilization trend both in the older parts of urban structures and on the first generation of large scale suburban settlement. A better connected territory allows for unforeseen mobility opportunities, shaping new residential, work commuting, leisure and consumption patterns. New forms of conviviality emerge, often in areas formerly seen as peripheral and devoid of any social diversity and identity.

REFERENCES Arrabaça, Pedro, 2003, Formas Urbanas na Cidade Construída, Dissertação de Mestrado em Geografia Humana e Planeamento Regional, Centro de Estudos Geográficos da Universidade de Lisboa Cruz, Carlos Moreira, 2008, A importância do cadastro no desenvolvimento urbano português, XI Colóquio Ibérico de Geografia, Alcalá de Henares Nunes, João Pedro, 2011, Florestas de Cimento Armado. Os Grandes Conjuntos Residenciais e a Constituição da Metrópole - Lisboa, 1955-1981, Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian Nunes da Silva, Fernando, Pereira, Margarida, 1986, “Ilusões e desilusões das periferias na Área Metropolitana de Lisboa”, Sociedade e Território, n. 5, 14-24 Santos, João R., 2012, Espaços de mediação infraestrutural: Interpretação e projecto na produção do urbano no território metropolitano de Lisboa, PhD Thesis, Faculdade de Arquitectura, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa, available at https://www.repository.utl.pt/handle/10400.5/5429 Santos, João Rafael, 2013, “Planning a metropolis from infrastructure: Lisbon from 1940 to 1966”, Journal of Planning History, vol. 12, n.4, 311-332 Vaz, José A., 1988, “O planeamento urbanístico no concelho de Sintra de 1978 a 1981”, Sociedade e Território, n. 7, 45-58

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RETHINKING ARCHITECTURE AND RELATED ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN WESTERN BALKAN CITIES “Case study of the housing developments in city of Sarajevo” Markus Schwai, PhD Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Design, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway Mladen Burazor 55, PhD Assistant Professor, University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Architecture, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACT Architecture has throughout its history transgressed several phases related to new realities, primarily those of innovations in technology. At each stage architecture has been re-conceptualized – and changed. From the first known use of bricks and mortar more than 6000 years ago, through the perfectionism of this material in the peak of the Roman empire until the “re-invention” of brick as building material at the end of the last century. The invention of the elevator and the reinforced concrete together with prefabricated steel construction elements, were the bases for Manhattan as we see it today. We are now at the dawn of a new era where architecture again will have to change in order to contribute towards a global future. The question arises if it is artificial, manmade islands in the bay of Dubai we want to be representative for architectural development and expression of the technological possibilities a society has developed, or will it be the smart city technology. What place does Sarajevo have in this discussion and what role can it play in the efforts towards local and regional development, here especially in the "Western Balkans"? The city and its inhabitants have throughout several hundred years shown their ability to adjust to new rulers and to new socio-political realities. They improved, combined and implement the steadily "imported" techniques and technologies. The resulting buildings, which comprise the urban environment in Sarajevo, not only represent very good examples of contemporary architecture along a historical axes, but showcase technological development. The same one can say about the cities urban morphological development until recently. Unfortunately, the latest city development does not follow in the same footsteps. We will try to exemplify this, in our view wrong, development through examples, also using Sarajevo. Keywords: energy efficiency, urban planning, smart city

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INTRODUCTION The Paris Agreement of 2016 set goals to globally deal with the change in climate. It was mutually agreed on a limitation of atmospheric CO2 emissions (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2016). This article will look at some of the possible contributions and challenges of architecture in reaching these goals. Architecture has throughout its history transgressed several phases related to new realities, primarily those of innovations in technology. At each stage architecture has been re-conceptualized – and changed. From the first known use of bricks and mortar more than 6000 years ago, through the perfectionism of this material in the peak of the Roman empire until the “re-invention” of brick as building material at the end of the last century. The invention of the elevator and the reinforced concrete together with prefabricated steel construction elements, were the bases for Manhattan as we see it today. We are now at the dawn of a new era where architecture again will have to change in order to contribute towards a global future. The question arises if it is artificial, man-made islands in the bay of Dubai we want to be representative for architectural development and our contribution to development. Technological possibilities and advances can and should be used for supporting above named goals. This will only work if this technology is implemented widely and politically and legally enforced. The most important role in making this happen is the behaviour and acceptance of the people. They have to support these regulations, backed up by their values and knowledge. To be relevant and appropriate architecture, urban planning and design cannot rely on technology alone, partly because technology is resource dependent, and resources are unevenly distributed. Sustainability is therefore invariably dependent on social and political acceptance. Passive house technology which does not allow for the windows to be opened is only one example for the importance on account of system function; the social/ human component which can be called behaviourism, of having the choice of controlling your own environment. Energy, for example, can be saved by the implementation of advanced technological systems, which not only allow you to remotely control their performance, but relates to all accessible data that will provide you with the perfectly efficient and “calculated comfortable” environment. This is not a faraway fantasy, but has become reality through the advance of mobile technology. There are a number of questions more to be answered. It is also about doing the right thing and making the right choices. In that respect, technology is important, but it will not help us if we are not able to use it in the right way and if we forget about the basics. Given the role of the built environment and urbanization, the future is critically hinged on architectural and urban reconceptualization and innovation. Hence, a sustainable society will depend on perceptions and attitudes as much as it will on knowledge. To succeed, we have to use higher education in architecture and urbanism, develop knowledge, explore new ways as well as foster attitudes through modes of learning where energy efficiency is one principle vehicle. To evaluate implication of the status que and the possible future changes we will try to investigate them on different levels, identify challenges and discuss solutions and their local implications. The geographical focus of this article is the region of the Western Balkans, more specifically - Bosnia and Hercegovina (BiH) and the city of Sarajevo.

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IMPACT OF THE GLOBAL PHENOMENA ON THE DEVELOPMENT IN THE WESTERN BALKANS REGION In this part, we will look at the historical development of Sarajevo and highlight the driving mechanism behind urban transformation of the city. The background for these changes is directly linked to the global advances in technology and the way of thinking, and to the occurrences in the socio-cultural context in the region, often manifested through political changes. Diving into the urban reality we will use transport, building typology and its mutual dependencies to discuss these changes, therewith the themes, which are related to our profession and professional knowledge. The modes of transport have historically had an immense impact on the urban form of the cities. These modes have changed and the cities thereafter. What has actually changed was the possibility to use different building typologies independent of their location. The positive aspect was in differentiating between living and working places, and the work in itself has changed thereafter. We will highlight the historical development of transport in the case of Sarajevo. In the early history of Sarajevo, the main mode of transport was walking. This is easily recognisable, when examining the extension of the historical core of the place during the Ottoman period (1463-1878) (Kurto, 1998). Everything was easily accessible by foot and up to 20 minutes of walking distance. The size of the population, together with the means of communication allowed for a centrally located downtown, consisting of public and commercial facilities. Low-density single-family housing was located around the downtown in walking distance. In the beginning of the Austro-Hungarian rule (1878), building of roads for horse carriages was one main activity in urban planning. During their rule, the growing population called for the implementation of multi-family housing and the development of mixeduse typologies. The commercial spaces were located in the ground floor of the tall, new buildings. Public transport has evolved from the bigger horse carriages for individual transport, to the introduction of the electric trams, which signified the growth and modernization of the city. After the Second World War, the number of private cars slightly increased, while the public transport still remained the most important mode of transportation. 56 The growing urban population of the time was accommodated in high-density blocks, which were still located near the main transport nodes and axes. Following the industrial development in the sixties and seventies, there were several reasons for the partially uncontrolled urban expansion: improved accessibility of wider areas by this growing population and the increased number of cars, the political inability of creating enough living spaces for these urban migrants and the absence of sustainability awareness at that time. The above mentioned reasons also led to the prevailing construction of the single-family houses, which mainly contributed to the development of suburbs, disregarding the building regulations, without any considerations for the environment. This trend continued after the recent war (Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice, 2008). Not only is the dominant building typology in itself energetically inefficient, due to e.g. the lack of thermal insulation and EE heating systems, it is not supported by communal infrastructure.

The city of Sarajevo was used as try-out place for urban development hundred years ago. The electrical trams were first tested in Sarajevo, before being implemented in Vienna. 56

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Figure 7: Historical development of Sarajevo (source: authors)

The above-described historical development led to an urban expansion (Figure 7), which triggered many challenges. As mentioned before, this article will try to react upon them in three different fields: the political and market driven, the mobility driven and mainly the energy consumption reasons. They are all three interrelated and connected to the social development and behaviour. Today people in many ways rely on cars, primarily to increase their mobility on the daily bases. This is the reason why cars can serve as a useful tool for mobility measurements. In 2015 for example the number of registered private cars in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 828,333 (Agency for Statistics of Bosina and Herzegovina, 2017), which constitutes to 87 % of the total vehicles in the country. This number constitutes a driving force for the still on-going urban development. Unplanned and informal development in the outskirts of the city started more than fifty years ago. The building stock erected after 1992 stands for 28.66% (Arnautović-Aksić, et al., 2016, p. 40) of the total number of dwellings. The vast majority of it, 71.91%, are single-family houses, which were built in the urban fringe and rural areas. This development, still based on the idea of wide area accessibility by private car, has two main reasons: political and economic. Intern displacement, caused by the most recent war, combined with economically difficulties, has forced the people to find the solutions to sustain their existence and habitation on their own. Political unwillingness or helplessness to tackle these issues enabled the escalation of the described un-regulated building activities.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION As mentioned before, the energy consumption and usage was no theme in discussions or influencing urban development until recently. Information, thereunder the climate change data, became more accessible. Most of the presented data are overwhelmingly “negative” and concerning and urge us to work towards a climate neutral, energy efficient society. This movement is, in the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina, accompanied by the national endeavour to join the European Union. (European Comission, 2017) The development of any country is relying on several factors: global economy, advances in technology (resulting in new construction possibilities) and information only to name some. The building sector is shaped in relation to these factors. The above-described emphasizes the relation between energy and development (Pirlogea & Cicea, 2012). In the area of the total energy usage the residential buildings and transport stand for 21% and 35% respectively (International Energy Agency, 2016, p. 6). Within the residential sector, 11% of the total energy use is attributed to space heating (International Energy Agency, 2016, p. 6) which would give enough room for improvement in energy savings in itself.

REGIONAL/ LOCAL LEVEL What role do the Balkan and Sarajevo play in the efforts towards sustainable local and regional development? In this part of the article, we will deal solely with the dominant building typology, single-family housing, which are placed on the hills surrounding Sarajevo. The deployment of the respective typology, here single-family housing, is directly connected to the location of the building inside the city’s boundaries and the accessibility of these areas is directly connected to the modes of transport (Holden & Norland, 2005). We are not going to examine, visualise or make propositions for transport systems. Nevertheless, there are evident and important mutual dependencies between use of typology and modes of transport, which have direct and indirect implications on energy consumption.

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Figure 8: Accessibility range by different means of transport in the case of the city of Sarajevo 57 (source: authors)

The possibility of using the private car as the main tool of transport opened for locating housing areas independent of the distance to places of attraction and work (Figure 8). This, not only increased the transport-work immensely, but also made it difficult, if not impossible, for the municipal and state authorities to follow this development. The vast number of built single-family houses at formal and informal areas caused the existence of big areas with shortage of all necessary urban amenities, like sewage systems, open public spaces such as neighbourhood playgrounds and kindergartens/ schools. There are several other reasons for this kind of construction, which influenced the location and use of typology. There was a need for fast construction of the large number of housing units in the post-war period. The use of single-family housing can be attributed to the traditional customs of the close-family members living together, several generations under the same roof (Salihović & Zagora, Female Identity in the Language of Space of the 19th Century Residential Architecture in Sarajevo, 2016). Another argument lies in the economical aspect, which forced the people to not only build in informal areas, where the price of plots is low, but also construct building themselves, not paying for professional services. An additional reason is the difficulty in planning holistically for these families, together with their, at that time, unknown neighbours. Since it is not allowed to build in these areas in the first place, there is no 57

This map is an ideal representation of one case. It is not representative for all areas but gives a good indication

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION legal and professional control on the building quality, be it the structural or other technical requirements. The resulting building stock in these areas consists of a high degree of unfinished buildings with questionable quality of the built (SFERA2016). Single-family houses comprise of more than 90% of the total building stock in BiH (p37. GIZ), which is also the representative typology in the countries of the region. On this level, only two countries have devised a National typology registration of residential buildings and that are the Republic of Serbia (Jovanović-Popović, et al., 2013) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (Arnautović-Aksić, et al., 2016). The national typology research in both countries are based on a methodological framework of the European research project Tabula ((IWU), 2017) and therefore the results from these two countries are comparable. Published data offer a possibility to make a general conclusion in terms of energy needs of residential buildings and possibilities in improving energy efficiency in the West Balkan region. According to the 2013 census results, there are 3.53 million people living in BiH (Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016, p. 25) and 7.18 million in Serbia (Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2016). This is a valuable representative sample for the entire region. If the number of inhabitants is cross-referenced with the number of dwelling units and energy needs, an interesting correlation can be seen. In BiH there are 1.619.185 (ArnautovićAksić, et al., 2016, p. 40) dwelling units and in Serbia the number is 3.185.019 (Jovanović-Popović, et al., 2013, p. 28) 58. This means that the ratio between dwelling units per capita is almost the same in BiH and in Serbia (0.45 and 0.44) which means that the population ratio 1:2 is also present in the ratio in the total number of dwellings in the two countries. Energy need for heating of residential buildings in BiH is 19.953.880 MWh/year (Arnautović-Aksić, et al., 2016, p. 43) and in Serbia it is 65.324.717 MWh/year (Jovanović-Popović, et al., 2013, p. 31) and if these numbers are divided by the number of inhabitants, the result is 5.65 MWh/year/capita vs. 9.09 MWh/year/capita (BiH and Serbia respectively) 59. Even though the 1:2 ratio is also noticeable here, it however shows that there is twice as much need for energy for heating of residential buildings in Serbia compared to BiH. It is important to note that there is a difference in how the specific energy need calculations were made for these countries, which is based on countries regulations. The main difference is the continuous vs intermitted heating, which can be attributed to 33% in difference. Even if this correction is taken into account, still the question remains of why is there more need for heating-energy in Serbia compared to BiH? One answer could be that dwelling units in Serbia have larger surface compared to the ones in BiH and therefore there is a larger area that needs to be heated. However this argument does not seem valid if we look at the average size of the dwelling units (Table 2) and the situation is rather opposite. Alternative answer would be that the state of the building stock in Serbia is in much poorer condition compared to BiH and hence need for more energy for heating. This conclusion can be argued by the major building reconstructions after the recent war in BiH. Some The number of dwelling units used in National typologies differ slightly from the official Statistical data. The data for Building typology research was gathered by statistical agency and since the same methodology was applied in both researches, only those figures are comparable. Official number of dwelling units are: 1 607 998 (BiH) and 3 231 931 (Serbia) 59 0,12MWh/year/m2 (BiH) vs 0,22MWh/year/m2 (Serbia) 58

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buildings were completely rebuilt; while in the most cases, partial building refurbishments consisted of façade openings and heating installations renewal, which led to smaller energy needs. There are many more comparisons that one can draw between BiH and Serbia but the most significant values show how much energy could be saved in both countries by implementing similar EE measures. Table 2: Comparison table: residential stock in BiH and Serbia

BiH

SERBIA

Number of dwelling units

1,619,185

3,188,414

Gross surface of residential Buildings (m2)

162,928,630

289,687,720

Average gross surface area of dwelling unit (m2)

100.62

90.86

Energy need for heating residential buildings (MWh/year)

19,593,880

65,324,717

Energy need for heating after the standard improvement of building energy performance (MWh/year)

8,771,954

25,406,457

Energy need for heating after the advanced level of improvement of building energy performance (MWh/year)

6,059,306

18,293,011

Energy savings potential after standard set of improvement measures (%)

55.23

61.11

Energy savings potential after advanced set of improvement measures (%)

69.08

72.00

With the standard improvement measures for residential building in BiH, the immediate savings potential is 55.23% and in Serbia it is 61.11% (Table 2). Advanced set of improvements are less likely to be applied on the larger scale but if so, the energy savings potential is 69.08% and 72.00% respectively (Table 2). The two countries share the same and/or similar climate zones, which is why the economic and social components that influenced the development of residential buildings, as well as urban planning resulted as the numerical distinction indicated by the above statistical analysis. Still, the majority of the residential building stock comprises out of the dwelling units built after 1971, which can be attribute to the industrialisation processes in the former Yugoslavia and migration of people from rural to urban parts (Salihović, Burazor, & Zagora, Analiza primjene principa toplotne zaštite stambenih objekata u Bosni i Hercegovini od

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION početka XX stoljeća do danas, 2016). Based on the presented results, it is safe to assume that there is at least 50% energy savings potential in the WB region by simply applying standard improvement measures. These findings can be used by government agencies in other countries to create their own EE strategy plans. The single- family houses, not only comprise the biggest number of dwellings in BiH, but they also represent the most inefficient way of housing development, especially in terms of energy use. Energy-use can be seen as a direct result lack of envelope insulation and resulting need for heating, but also as a huge generator of energy-loss through a low-density usage of area and resulting with high transport work. This is why the last part of this article will look in more detail into multi-family housing in Sarajevo and linked challenges. CASE STUDY

In Sarajevo, one can easily see how the city grew along the river Miljacka valley and how it was planned (Figure 7) and regulated in the example of the Paromlinska street (Figure 9). Since 1995, there are no more large-scale housing projects backed by government institutions and one could argue that private investors are now key stakeholders.

Figure 9: Excerpt from the regulating plan “Paromlinska” for the municipality of Novo Sarajevo (source: Općina Novo Sarajevo, modified by authors)

In the first years after the war, financial means were limited and therefore investors searched for possible buildings plots within the existing urban matrix to be filled with new housing according to their capabilities. This is still the case

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and one of the recently passed urban regulating plan for the Paromlinska street shows how much private investor’s interests impose on the living conditions. Height of the buildings has become the main point of manipulation and very often, it is increased after the regulating plan has been adopted. Spatial relations between existing and newly planned buildings are not taken into consideration and almost every new construction can serve as a bad example (Tibra Nukleus settlement, New Otoka, etc.). It seems that the urban planning practice is going through a phase of retrogression. As argued before it may be a desired approached in terms of energy usage and emissions to build dense and high, it causes other, not less important, problems. The overall environmental and social sustainability are equally important and here we will use natural lighting and the directly related quality of view as our terms of reference. (Wymelenberg, 2014) There are other issues, such as accessibility and common outdoor spaces, which are important and arise for the choice of building. This being said we will apart from the obvious and clear visible, not argue further. A solar study (Figure 10) shows the impact of the newly planned buildings on the existing residential structures. Sequence 1 to 6 illustrate the insolation at different times and it is evident that the apartments in the existing building “A” with one-sided orientation towards the east, in the winter solstice will not be exposed to direct sunlight at all. The fact that the views will be blocked for many existing residents did not concern the planners and neither the developers. This happens when the planning is done separately in small regulatory planning zones, without correlation one with another, nor with the integral whole.

(A)

(1)

21.12. – 8:22h

(A)

(2)

21.12. – 9:22h

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(A)

(3)

21.12. – 10:22h

(4)

(A)

(5)

21.12. – 12:22h

21.12. – 11:22h

(A)

(6)

21.12. – 13:22h

Figure 10: Insolation in the winter solstice (source: authors)

One simple solution to overcome this problem is to reduce the number of floors for the planned facilities to the maximum of total 7 levels above ground for the proposed buildings. From the urban planning and EE point of view, it would have been much better to use a different apartment block design in the first place. In terms of urban design, choosing a different layout would enable a creation of a “street front” alongside the existing road and establish a point of interest on the eastern corner of the site (Figure 11).

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Figure 11: Alternative proposal (source: authors)

In this case, designing attached apartment buildings would mean less energy spent on heating and at the same time, existing views and insolation would not be altered severely due to much larger distances. Investors, on the other hand would not have to sacrifice a profit since the total surface area of the development would remain the same (Table 2). Table 3: Comparison table: regulating plan “Paromlinska” and an alternative proposal

Regulating plan

Alternative proposal

Buildings footprint (m2)

1,927

2,115

Gross surface (m2)

25,015

25,177

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is still not obligatory to create a solar study and explore the impact that newly planned buildings will have on the designated area and the surroundings, when creating regulatory plans. However this should be, together with increased use of larger area plans, changed in order to prevent creating unhealthy environments and unforeseen development.

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CONCLUSIONS This article intends to show different, equally important, interrelated parts and consequences in the development of housing areas in the city of Sarajevo. Analysis of the individual aspects of the problem would be insufficient to give a clear understanding of the reasons and the modus of urban development and transformation in the city. Therefore, we tried to give a holistic and structured overview of the key urban and construction activities, in order to gain a better understanding of the status quo. Urban development has always been defined by the interaction of the political, economic and environmental forces. A combination of necessity, unfortunate events and political indifference were the reasons for the described development of Sarajevo, shown in the vast areas of arbitrarily located single-family houses and their qualitative shortcomings. The above named and the resulting “lawlessness” of particular areas is the reason for this unregulated and uncontrolled development. This results in do-it-yourself housing solutions rather than engaging the professionally conducted work, which would take the newest technology in the field and environmental issues into account. There are a number of challenges related to this kind of development, but one could argue that at least the individuals’ interest has a bigger impact. This individual freedom and choice on the other hand can be reached with better, common solutions, which also have an adequate answer to the primarily raised questions, namely the location and related mobility issues, infrastructure and creation of common spaces. This is why the last part of this article looked in more detail into multi-family housing in Sarajevo. Here the predominant questions were the relation between the individual versus the urban developer and the steering interests. While in the case of single-family housing the individuals’ interest is the steering fact, there is no one representing the users concerns in this latter project. There is an absence of consideration of basic human needs, represented in planning through values for natural lighting, views and accessibility of common green meeting places in bigger area plans. The existence of schools, kindergartens and common public areas with playgrounds in the near surrounding and directly related to the number of housing units minimizes the transport-work. Moreover, easy and close-by located meeting places would encourage social interactions and foster wellbeing in general. As it was illustrated in the case of the city of Sarajevo, this article indicates the absence of responsibility and environmental and social awareness in the way of thinking and planning in the on-going development activities. Therefore arises the need to rethink the planning process, as well as to analyse the architectural implications of current housing developments in Sarajevo. For the named reasons, the authors of this article suggest the decrease of the number of single-family housing before the described shortcomings are being resolved. Moreover, this article proposed the possibilities for planning, design and EE improvements in the multi-family housing sector.

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REFERENCES: (IWU), I. W. (2017). TABULA. Retrieved from http://episcope.eu/iee-project/tabula/ Agency for Statistics of Bosina and Herzegovina. (2017). Registered road motor vehicles for 2016 year. Sarajevo: Agency for Statistics of Bosina and Herzegovina. Retrieved from http://www.bhas.ba/saopstenja/2017/TRA_REG_2016_001_01_BOS.pdf Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2016, June). CENZUS OF POPULATION, HOUSEHOLDS AND DWELLINGS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, 2013. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved March 29, 2017, from http://www.bhas.ba Arnautović-Aksić, D., Burazor, M., Delalić, N., Gajić, D., Gvero, P., Kadrić, D., . . . Zagora, N. (2016). Typology of residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (D. Arnautović-Aksić, & N. Zagora, Eds.) Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Faculty of Architecture, University of Sarajevo. European Comission. (2017, 4 4). European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/bosnia-herzegovina_en Holden, E., & Norland, I. T. (2005, November). Three Challenges for the Compact City as a. Urban Studies, Vol. 42, No. 12, 22. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00420980500332064 International Energy Agency. (2016). Energy efficiency indicators. OECD/IEA. IEA Publications. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/EnergyEfficiencyIndicatorsHighlights_2016.pdf Jovanović-Popović, M., Ignjatović, D., Radivojević, A., Rajčić, A., Đukanović, L., Ćuković-Ignjatović, N., & Nedić, M. (2013). National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia. (M. Jovanović-Popović, & D. Ignjatović, Eds.) Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade. Kurto, N. (1998). Arhitektura Bosne i Hercegovine Razvoj bosanskog stila. (M. Mažar-Numankadić, & I. Krzović, Eds.) Sarajevo: Sarajevo publishing Međunarodni centar za mir. Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice. (2008). Need of social housing in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Sarajevo: Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice. Retrieved from http://www.mhrr.gov.ba/PDF/Izbjeglice/2.%20Needs%20of%20%20Social%20Housing%20in%20Bosnia%20and%20H erzegovinapdf.pdf Pirlogea, C., & Cicea, C. (2012). Econometric perspective of the energy consumption and economic growth relation in European Union. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 9. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032112003905

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Salihović, E., & Zagora, N. (2016). Female Identity in the Language of Space of the 19th Century Residential Architecture in Sarajevo. South East European Journal of Architecture and Design, Volume 2016;, 11. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/seejad.2016.10026 Salihović, E., Burazor, M., & Zagora, N. (2016). ANALIZA PRIMJENE PRINCIPA TOPLOTNE ZAŠTITE STAMBENIH OBJEKATA U BOSNI I HERCEGOVINI OD POČETKA XX STOLJEĆA DO DANAS – Primjer dominantne stambene tipologije na nivou BiH: individualni stambeni objekti /slobodnostojeće kuće/. (L. Miščević, M. Popovac-Roso, N. Memić, S. Klarić, & N. Ćenan-Čevra, Eds.) Međunarodno-stručna konferencija SFERA 2016, 36-44. Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. (2016, July 27). 2011 Census of Population. Retrieved March 29, 2017, from http://popis2011.stat.rs/?lang=en United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (2016, November 28). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved from The Paris Agreement: http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php Wymelenberg, K. V. (2014, 3 19). The Benefits of Natural Light. Retrieved from Architectural Lighting: http://www.archlighting.com/technology/the-benefits-of-natural-light_o

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THE ZONE OF TRANSITION: BETWEEN CITY AND LANDSCAPE Lucija Ažman Momirski PhD, Assoc. Prof., University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Zoisova 12, SI-1000 Ljubljana, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Is the area between the city and the landscape a transition zone or a border zone? Is it a boundary or a frontier? Is the contact between urbanized land and agricultural land an edge (the basic element that defines the shape of the whole) or a dividing line (that defines a space as a binomial: outside and inside)? Does government legislation support finding a role for solutions for buffer zones between urban and rural areas? How is it possible to create a varied landscape that includes natural diversity, a cultural landscape, and urban development? This paper discusses these questions by examining three sets of material: the European Landscape Convention (ELC) of the Council of Europe, the master plan for the Port of Koper, and the proposal for the new sports arena in Novo Mesto. Following the ELC, landscape is defined as “a zone or area as perceived by local people or visitors, whose visual features and character are the result of the action of natural and/or cultural (that is, human) factors. . . . It also underlines that a landscape forms a whole, whose natural and cultural components are taken together, not separately.” New models of the portcity relationship designed for the master plan for the Port of Koper ensure quality of life in the immediate vicinity of the industrial area. A buffer zone connects a sports park and a substitute habitat area (reeds and bushes) with the port’s warehouses, covered by cultivated terraces with vineyards, native wild trees, and olive groves. The area of the new sports arena in Novo Mesto is located at a transition between recreational, agricultural, and preserved natural open space. The roof of the arena is not planned as an icon, but as a part of the traditional terraced landscape with wide and/or irregular elements adapted to the natural slope. Keywords: city, landscape, transition zone, frontier, border

INTRODUCTION Every urban model can be split into five autonomous elements: the site, the perimeter, the communication network, and built-up areas, “subdivided into anonymous architectural aggregates (of dwellings) and monumental architecture (of buildings, with a specific social function and meaning).” Regarding the second element, the “fortified defense line remained an emblematic element of the town’s image over millennia” (Košir 1993, p. 352). Through the development of urban structures, this line assumed various shapes: from an irregular line adjusted to landscape features to the

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION precise geometric line of the Roman castrum and the Renaissance ideal town. Later the perimeter started to disintegrate (during the Baroque and the Age of Reason), and it lost its importance in the nineteenth century because of new weapons and the growth of the urban population. In some cases, the only border that remained was a geographical boundary or barrier such as a river or the sea. The perimeter wall was a morphological element that clearly divided the city structure from the natural and/or cultural landscape. The width of the division between the city and the landscape was determinable, and the perimeter wall was a clear boundary between the inside and outside. The concept in urban morphology describing how cities expanded into borderland during periods of growth is called the urban fringe belt. It has its origins in Germany, where the geographer Herbert Louis recognized that physical limitations such as city walls have long-term significance for urban growth. Fringe belts were first highlighted in a study of Berlin in 1936, and they define stages in the development of the city. Already in the nineteenth-century, German researchers such as Schlüter, who published a paper in 1899 on the layout of towns, and even earlier Fritz (1884), argued that it is possible to recognize stages of development in town plans (Whitehand 2001). All of these studies were the foundation for a morphological theory of urban growth and change developed by Conzen in Britain in the early 1960s in his studies of Alnwick and Newcastle upon Tyne (Hazar, Kubat 2015). The concept of the fringe belt was disseminated widely in the 1970s, but it was only accepted by scholars outside the English‐ speaking world in the 1980s (Whitehand, Morton 2004). The research also expanded with regard to content, defining the relationship between fringe belts and building cycles, land values, and innovations in transport, and even suggesting the bid-rent model by these dynamics (Whitehand, Morton 2004). Studies expanded on the connection between the idea of fringe belts and the practice of planning and urban landscape management from the late 1990s to the present. Namely, the concept of the fringe belt can be used as an integrated planning approach (Whitehand, Morton 2003, 2006), including its significance for urban ecology and sustainable development (Hopkins 2004). Fringe belt areas emerge spontaneously at the location of the previous wall perimeter. They used to be located at the periphery, and were later embedded within the city as a result of growth. The fringe belt could be regarded as a zone of transition. Various kinds of areas are considered fringe belt locations: “open spaces, industrial areas, institutional areas, low-density housing areas, and recreational areas are examples of fringe belts. For open spaces, these include public parks, market gardens, cemeteries, and vacant lots; for industrial areas, transportation utilities, warehouses, factories, and quarries; for institutional areas, religious centers, monasteries, barracks, campuses, hospitals, and wastewater treatment plants; for low-density housing areas, detached houses and rural settlements; and, for recreational areas, sport areas, riding schools, and golf courses can be given as examples of fringe belt areas” (Hazar, Kubat 2015).

The concept of the fringe belt is often conflated with the concept of the urban periphery, which is the edge or outskirts of an urban or city area. The urban periphery is the external boundary of the urban area. Fringe belt areas were once

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the external boundaries of the city. The urban periphery is an area of dialog between wider spatial-territorial systems with many facets related to an urban limit, whether this is hidden, clear, or overlooked (Hazar, Kubat 2015). The third phenomenon in the context of the study is the “landscaped city” (Germ. Zwischenstadt, verstädterten Landschaft, or verlandschafteten Stadt; Sieverts, 1997). The European landscape is increasingly blending with its urban areas. The changes to this landscaped city are spontaneous. They appear to be disorderly, anarchic changes that arise in an unplanned manner and result in a geometrically unarranged system. The phenomenon of the Zwischenstadt is usually observed from the perspective of the development of the city. It can also be considered from the perspective of the development and status of the landscape (Loeper et al. 2016). This forms the basis of Sieverts’s observation that “the shaping of the landscape where we live can no longer be achieved by the traditional resources of town planning, urban design, and architecture. New ways must be explored, which are as yet unclear” (Sieverts, 2000, 12). The “landscaped city” is an invisible process in the built-up area between the old historical city and the open landscape. The result is something that could be called new living landscapes, man-made landscapes, living topographies (Cros, 2009), and also “artificial landscapes” (Ibelings, 2008).

All three phenomena described involve considerations about the area between the city and the landscape and various speculations about whether this location is a transition zone or a border zone, a boundary, or a frontier. The terms boundary, border, and frontier are often used as synonyms. It is essential to clearly distinguish them. Kristof, a political scientist, characterizes the frontier as open and outward oriented, as a zone of transition. It is difficult to identify essential features of the frontier that are universally valid. In contrast, the boundary 60 is distinguished as being 60 Rankin and Schofield (2001): Bound (noun) 1. A landmark indicating the limit of an estate or territory. 2. The boundary line of a territory or estate; gen. a limit or boundary, that to which anything extends in space. pl. The limit or boundary beyond which soldiers, sailors, students, schoolchildren, etc., resident in particular building, quarters, or area, may not pass. Now chiefly in out of bounds, outside or beyond this boundary.

3. pl. The territory situated on or near a boundary; a border-land; also land within certain limits, a district, neighbourhood, tract. 4. fig. A limit with reference to immaterial things, as duration, lawful or possible action, feeling, etc. Bound (verb) 1. trans. To set bounds to, limit; to confine within bounds; to mark (out) the bounds of. intr. To limit itself; be limited. 2. trans. To form the boundary of. To enclose, confine, contain; also with in. to bound on: to abut upon, adjoin. to bound with: to have the same boundaries as Its origins derive through Middle English from Old French, bodne, from Medieval Latin, bodina, earlier butina.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION closed and inward oriented. The boundary is an abstract concept that precisely indicates the outer line of control that is exercised by an authority. Boundaries are regulated and defined by law, status, and characteristics that are more uniform and precise, and they are closed and inward oriented (Kristof 1959).

The research questions are: What is the contact between urbanized land and agricultural land: is it an edge (the basic element that defines the shape of the whole) or a dividing line (which defines a space as a binomial: outside and inside)? Does government legislation support finding a role for solutions for buffer zones between urban and rural areas? How is it possible to create a varied landscape that includes natural diversity, a cultural landscape, and urban development?

DATA AND METHODOLOGY This article discusses these questions by examining three sets of material: – The European Landscape Convention (ELC) of the Council of Europe; – Proposals for the master plan for the Port of Koper; and – The proposal for the new sports arena at the edge of the urban fabric of Novo Mesto. The methodology follows the three divisions of urban landscape recognized by Conzen: – Layout of the town (comprising streets, plots, and block plans of buildings); – Building fabric; – Land and building utilization or land use.

EUROPEAN LANDSCAPE CONVENTION The European Landscape Convention (ELC) was adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on July 19th, 2000 and later signed by its member states in Florence. One of its aims is “to provide a new instrument devoted exclusively to the protection, management and planning of all landscapes in Europe.” Landscape is an important part of the quality of life for people in both “urban areas and in the countryside, and in degraded areas as well as in areas of high quality, in areas recognized as being of outstanding beauty as well as everyday areas.” In relation to our survey, there are some definitions of landscape that need to be emphasized. Landscape is described as “an area as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action of natural and/or cultural factors”

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(Chapter I: General Provisions, Article 1: Definitions). Accordingly, landscape forms a whole, whose natural and cultural components are taken together, not separately. Landscape also covers “natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas. It includes land, inland water and marine areas. It concerns landscapes that might be considered outstanding as well as everyday or degraded landscapes” (Chapter I: General Provisions, Article 2: Scope). Article 9 is titled Transfrontier Landscapes and draws attention to transfrontier cooperation on landscapes at the local and regional levels.

It is obvious that the characteristics of the landscape as defined by the ELC converge on the definition of a frontier and of a zone of transition, whether the transition occurs between a city and the countryside, between a protected area and an industrial area, between two nation states, and so on.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS, CUSTOM ZONES, CITY, AND LANDSCAPE An example of a new model of the relationship between the industrial area, city, and landscape is the master plan for the Port of Koper, designed to ensure quality of life in the immediate vicinity of the industrial area. In the northern part of the plan, a buffer zone connects a sports park and a substitute habitat area (reeds and bushes) with the port’s

Figure 1. The northern part of the master plan for the Port of Koper (Lučka Ažman Momirski and Marco Venturi).

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Figure 2. The northern part of the master plan for the Port of Koper in a three-dimensional image (Lučka Ažman Momirski and Marco Venturi).

warehouses, covered by cultivated terraces with vineyards, native trees, and olive groves (Ažman Momirski 2015). The area is designed as a transition zone between the industrial area and the landscape. The frontier [DEKS1]already starts within the industrial land, which is visible in the top view of the area (Figure 1).

The port garages border the course of the Ankaran Border Canal (ABC). It is characterized by extensive beds of reeds, approximately 2.7 km long and 70 m wide, and two relatively large wetlands. Two landscaped knolls 20 m high follow the contours of the terrain with its terraces and blend into the surrounding vineyards. From the garage roofs, the vineyard terraces descend towards the canal. The vineyards are planted in a manner to ensure effective long-term maintenance of the extensive space above the garages by pensioned port workers (Ažman Momirski 2010). In this case, the land use must be understood through the cross section: in the same location where vineyards cover the roof, large-scale industrial buildings with a 108,000-car capacity are visible in the floor plan. The extensive roof vegetation on top of the warehouses is also important for the building fabric: it improves the building’s insulation and decreases rainwater drainage. The open spaces are designed as areas for storing cars and containers, large sports areas, mooring areas, a natural habitat, and a terraced landscape in the surrounding countryside. The open areas also

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include road networks within the port and the public road network as the main road link between Ankaran and highway and between Ankaran and Koper. Such a design raises problems in the context of urban morphology. What is being discussed in the case of this building typology? Is one dealing with a city or a landscape? This particular location is not part of the urban fringe belt. Koper’s island character, still recognizable in cityscapes from the early twentieth century, disappeared due to drainage and infilling of the Semedela saltpans between the two world wars, and the key spatial changes in Koper included construction of the newest northern Adriatic port, the Port of Koper. Two spatial developments characterized the initial growth of the port: construction of the first quays and the first berth, and construction of the embankment between Koper and the left bank of the Rižana River, with a length of 877 m. After acquiring the status of a free zone in 1963, a requirement for spatial separation between the port and city was established. Much more than an urban fringe belt, the area described is the urban periphery, where the edge of urbanized and agricultural land is a soft transition zone, intertwined at various height levels, as suggested by the master plan for the Port of Koper. However, the port area is also a customs area, and so it is difficult to justify such a design by government institutions. They want and require the port area (i.e., urban areas and the countryside) to have clearly defined boundaries, which are expressed in a physical fence. Although the latter could simultaneously serve as a railing on the edge of the green roofs of the warehouses, the authorities have found this solution to be too great a risk. Government regulators are therefore not interested in innovative solutions in the areas between the urban land and farmland; such a design stands in their way. The solution in the northern part of the master plan of the Port of Koper is proof that it is possible to plan and manage a diverse landscape that includes not only areas of natural value (i.e., natural diversity), but also the cultural landscape (Figure 2). In such an arrangement, urban development does not need to be rejected; in the case presented, the statement applies to the development of the industrial zone, which usually involves highly conflicting land use. Sports facilities: Building an icon or transition into the landscape? The new sports arena in Novo Mesto is located at a transition between recreational, agricultural, and preserved natural open space (Figure 3). The roof of the arena is not planned as an icon, but as a part of the traditional terraced landscape with wide and/or irregular elements adapted to the natural slope (Figure 4).

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Figure 3. Plan for the new sports arena in Novo Mesto.

Cultivated terraces in Lower Carniola are less intrusive in the landscape because their surface is usually not entirely flat and the slopes between them are not very high.

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Figure 4. Cross-section of the new sports arena in Novo Mesto.

Figure 5. Roof of the new sports arena in Novo Mesto.

Their form is a consequence of field division of the land into wide and/or irregular patches and plots, adapting themselves to the natural slope. The roof of the arena building is planned as part of this traditional terraced landscape in order to improve the view from the center of the city (Figure 5). The arena is almost completely dug into the terrain,

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION which aids climate control in the building. The last terrace encompasses tribunes along the existing stadium. On the edges of the roof terraces, lighting strips are installed to provide daylight and ventilation in the arena. Green strip terraces continue on the roof of the garage, where the existing building is expanded for parking buses and extended in a two-level garage. The organization of the external area allows both the flow of the required number of people and everyday use of the park. Trails in the wooded countryside have good connections to the external setup of the arena. Separate units are designed to function autonomously when other program units are not in use. Therefore, there is adequate access to areas in use and restricted access to other areas. The issues regarding the layout of the urban structure, the building fabric, and the land and building utilization or land use are similar to the previous case. What is added is the examination of an architectural structure as an isolated item, selected and favored by the local administration for further construction. The restricted place of such a building has strong boundaries; it is an island with defined limits and is separated from its surroundings. In urban planning, similar phenomena include island-cities, or new settlements in non-urban areas, which introduce new land use in the territory: leisure centers, residential areas, shopping centers, theme parks, and so on. Their location is selected strategically, taking into consideration good accessibility, climate, and topography. In principle, their construction follows a very similar process and has similar characteristics, which were described at the beginning of the article in the development of urban structures.

CONCLUSION A new type of space is transforming the relationship between the city and the landscape. Usually it is a frontier, but sometimes it is also a boundar. It changes the concept of urban space as a figurative reference and is part of several territorial systems.

REFERENCES Ažman Momirski, Lucija. 2010. “Port of Koper: New Models of Port-City Relationship. Benetke.” Portus, no. 20: 12– 17. Ažman Momirski, Lučka. 2015. “Urbani obalni prostori Kopra: primerjava prostorskih prvin pristanišča v Kopru v prvotnih in sodobnih načrtih.” Annales, Series historia et sociologia, vol. 25, no. 1: 19-32. Cros, Susanna. 2003. The Metapolis Dictionary of Advanced Architecture: City, Technology And Society in the Information Age. Barcelona: Actar. European Landscape Convention. Accessed April 2 2017. https://rm.coe.int/16802f80c6

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Hazar, Dalya, and Ayşe Sema Kubat. 2015. “Fringe belts in the process of urban planning and design: Comparative analyses of Istanbul and Barcelona.” ITU A|Z, vol. 12, no. 1: 53-65. Hopkins, M.I.W. 2004. “Using fringe belts to examine the relationships between urban morphology and urban ecology.” Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham. Ibelings, Hans. 2000. Artificial Landscape: Contemporary Architecture, Urbanism, and Landscape Architecture in the Netherlands. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers. Košir, Fedja. 1993. Zamisel mesta. Ljubljana: Slovenska matica. Kristof, Ladis K.D. 1959. “The nature of frontiers and boundaries.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, no. 49: 269–282. Loeper, Nicoline, Ott, Matthias, and Lučka Ažman Momirski. “Terraced landscapes: new design solutions within the transformation of artificial landscapes.” Annales, Series historia et sociologia, vol. 26, no. 3: 523-536. Rankin, K.J. and R. Schofield. 2004. “The troubled historiography of classical boundary terminology.” Mapping Frontiers, Plotting Pathways, Ancillary Paper, No. 2. Sieverts, Thomas. 2003. Cities without Cities: An interpretation of the Zwischenstadt. London: Spon Press. Whitehand, Jeremy. 2001. “British urban morphology: the Conzenian tradition.” Urban morphology, no. 5: 103-109. Whitehand, Jeremy, and N.J. Morton. 2003. “Fringe belts and the recycling of urban land: an academic concept and planning practice.” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, no. 30: 819‐39. Whitehand, Jeremy, and N.J. Morton. 2004. “Urban morphology and planning: the case of fringe belts.” Cities, no. 21: 275‐89. Whitehand, Jeremy, and N.J. Morton. 2006. “The fringe‐belt phenomenon and socio‐economic change.” Urban Studies, no. 43: 2047‐2066.

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INNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE PROOCESS OF RE-INTEGRATION OF CITY AND VILLAGE Miodrag Ralević Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73-2 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Dijana Simonović Assistant Professor, University of Banja Luka – Faculty for Civil Engineering and Architecture

ABSTRACT Disintegration processes of town and country are in the final phase at almost all global territories both in developing and developed countries. The implication of these complex and multileveled processes of disintegration are manifesting in two main streams: •

Depopulation of rural areas,

•

Overpopulation of town and cities,

These streams have the most negative effects in devastation of rural areas causing constant unbalance in space at local and global level. The time have come to oppose these processes of disintegration in the manner of stopping the negative trends and creating re-integrative processes and strategies in between urban and rural areas. This is the only way of balancing these two opposite processes of urbanisation and de-ruralisation, through renewal of balanced development between town and country. This kind of renewal means integration of rural and urban values and spaces into the strategies of integrative territories in which we have to introduce innovative programmes and plans that will accost country to town and vice versa consigning one to another in the way of mixing the mutual values and advantages. This approach needs reprograming both rural and urban codes and modules aiming to recognize methodical and model routes towards forming innovative programmes, scenarios, concepts, strategies, and action plans in order to reactivate and renew rural areas in function of forming integrative connection with urban areas. Keywords: renewal, reintegration, rural areas, urbanisation

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INTRODUCTION The operative theory and especially practice (especially in our area) the overall problem of the functional connection between the development of the village and the town is primarily considered separately, binding all the prerogatives of spatial development for the development of cities that model becomes a model for the development of all aspects of rural development. When it is released probably for demagogic reasons, a number of important facts facts from the process of the historical process of formation and development of both rural and urban areas. Until the advent of the industrial revolution in space and time have resided in parallel and simultaneously a model clean villages and clean cities while maintaining each its original structure, the main character, and its position and role in a balanced mutual balance the functioning of the whole of the settlement area of macro-regional to microhome assembly . (Figure 1)

V

V

V T

V

V

Village

T

Town

V

Figure 1. The balance of village and city (pre-industrial period) The Industrial Revolution its technological power launched and accelerated multi-layer processes of change in (this case) both directions, changing the structure, character, and especially the mutual position and role of the city and the countryside., Offering a dynamic balance in the room, carrying new, modern types, shapes and designs settlements need to respond to new requirements. It is also evident that the process of industrialization production revived and started to realize and develop in what's left of it (in the spatial sense, formed the core of industrialization of the settlement area which caused the change of the existing city and the establishment of new settlements industrial epoch.Equally valuable for its importance and the fact that there has been a discharge of the village (in the current interpretation of the process), but in reality there was

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION a real resettlement villages to urban areas starting from the people (their culture, way of life) through the ways of rural organizations activities in the area, to the tendency for the formation of rural environments in the city. Both the above-mentioned course of changes in the living environment of man, have initiated the need for a very rapid effect (theoretical and practical) , the formation and construction of modern settlements. Quick after emerging complex of organizational structure, rhythm and at the moment uncertain flows further development. (Figure 2) Migrations from village to city

Migrations from village to village

village Town formation

City Figure 2. The processes of industrialization of space The theoretical propositions and practical suggestions for modern, new settlements in its initial concept tended connecting villages and towns, but also as a model city treated as a starting and destination in which they were installed rural values and circuits that are the city seem to be closer to nature, and rarely propaganda on the village. This is a one-way approach to planning and urban planning profession (especially in terms of our Balkan where the village is more durable and widespread) is brought to ruralized or neoruralized villages and neourban city. It is necessary instead to accept the principle of equivalence between the complexity of the process of change and the

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complexity of the eternal relations of the village - the city that is naturally produced equivalent complex, for its Structure of new settlements that would in itself sublimated all the positive benefits of village and town. In this context, it is necessary that urban theory and practice of the time in a collision with our reality, reconsider their theoretical starting points, and even more so their target destinations. Starting from the original legisative specifics unused range, positive and negative effects on the contemporary urban settlements and the life in them. Recognizing both their failures science will discover ways of further qualitative development of new settlements, but now imbued with the concept and realization of the complexity of the city and the stratification of the village that new settlements should wear and have a (permanent and at the same time) to themselves and to fit them together to do higher quality.

BASICS OF CODING VILLAGES AND TOWNS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON CONTEMPORARY VILLAGE Source codes: Village is an organic creation, in detail, both in general and deriving springs from the very nature and is based on the genetic code of its inhabitants - peasants. The city is an artificial creation, an artifact of man and product specifications, primarily production with which man has at any given moment. New trends of construction of the village leading to the fact that she rarely occur in nature, but more often the nature of the entries as additional element (greening, etc.), And very rarely are built in a natural way. Size occur as artificial circuits, embedded in the natural morphological conditions. Latest developments tend to focus highly-developed technology that works on laws of the natural process that starts trend towards concentrating return of future settlements to natural and rural origin. Initial codes: The village itself is a process of constant adaptation to new changes. The city strives to be an act that occurs in a short period given to cross and achieved perpetuity. In visions - concepts, projects and plans for new settlements largely seen as an idealized conditions that need to last forever as well as their role model-city. In reality, however, the settlement from the state turned into a process of constant change them closer to the character of the village. The course and the pace of change has the form of discontinuity which identifies with the character of the city. Planimetric codes: The town is weighed regularity of form at all levels, and the structure of the village to the anarchy of their assemblies. Urban matrix and architectural houses in new urban areas is based on the laws of geometry, in reality, especially in the newfangled village. Settlements are influenced by their inhabitants left the plans geometrical patterns, disrupted plans and created archaic village assemblies to their inherited visions. Codes structuring: The structure of the village make center (because it is in the center of the estate), halfway between all activities (residential and industrial), shaft (as the contact line of production units) together making anatomical skeleton of spatial organization. The city offers stretching uniform geometrical matrix expansion by offering different concept of the organization and distribution of content and activities. Concepts of new urban settlements (ideal, utopian, modernist, etc.) provide the village with a large number of different centers (neighborhoods, communities,

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION regions, etc.) And in reality a new urban settlements are still weighing forming - during his lifetime - points - center around communication crossroads and axles for medium available, flows along the existing roads were built. Organizational coding: The village is in the levels (from home to Atari) based on mixing up the inseparability of actions and activities (work and housing, etc.) In space and time, while the city tends to the area segregate activities according to their characteristics (especially labor and housing). New urban settlements in the initial stages of its planned as a mono-functional (namely residential), and within the same type of function is performed additionally segregate movement activity and the content of serviceability (commercial, community, service, etc.). In the process of the duration of the taking place, the opposite trend (in the beginning of the spontaneous, then programmatically) mixing activities, which were entered non-residential support functions at the settlement level, then and production within the housing assembly so that the new urban settlements exceeded in the half-functional with a tendency of mixing rate function . (Figure 4)

CODDING

Natural

Genetic

Mehanic

Arteficial

Process

Accomodated

Muddling

Constant

Archaic

Aglomeration

Form regulation

Geometric

Node

Shorter

Widness

Matrix

Mixed

Mixing

Separation

Segments

Figure 4. Matrix codes crossing villages and towns

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CODES

TOWN

VILLAGE

CODES


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PRINCIPLES OF FORMING THE VILLAGE AND TOWN AND RANGE OF IMPACT ON CONTEMPORARY SETTLEMENTS The principles of the constitution: The village has a stabilization of the process (which runs from the establishment, said setting up in the area and period of time), and the city has only one way of formation (including siting, construction, and equipping). All new urban settlements were created in a short period and tended to last forever. Over time, changing cultural patterns of use (affected residents) began their establishment by rearranging preudešavanja, deployment and concentration of its urban villages and rural settlements. Structuring principle: The village is in its rirodi complex and heterogeneous including Atar and settlement prohibitions and estates, okućje and garden, yard and garden, home and building. Economic city as an artificial creation tends jednostvnosti, structured as a sum of spatial sub-continent (flat housing, neighborhood block, etc.) Or as a set of ambient units (houses, buildings, street and boulevard, square and park). The new urban settlements were structured largely as part of the city or a smaller town or a small town on the above principles. Over time the inhabitants out of the established modules and recognizing their garden courtyard formed by spreading its range of use to urban Atars. Principles changing village is changing the principles of spontaneity while expanding or thicken as required by the needs of children (growth or division of the family) type of production (livestock, agriculture) and farm size. City weighs static, but changes have mostly sharp karakter.Nova resorts are designed as static and formation, especially collective type, or the weather influenced the privatization process started to change and densification (through constant upgrading) war vertically (existing buildings ) and more recently expanding at the expense of free space. Control principle: Village regulates relations in the area primarily by establishing clear property relations over private estates, joint over collective land and villages of the Atars as a whole. In the city, especially in our country, ruled by mechanisms spheres of interest so that there is public interest in the wider community, the common interest of the citizens and the individual interest of each individual. In the new urban settlements so-called government. Refers user, wherein the space and settlements belongs to each individual citizen. The right of use is acquired by direct planning by occupying territory by the direct beneficiaries. In the transition process which is underway, there was a transformation of the customer relationship in the different property relations: public interest grows into state property, common area becomes the property of the city, a user in the form of private use of the captured area, leading to a series of anomalies area. Principle Sizing: Village works on mechanisms of necessity and coercion where home large as children seek, apart so they do not interfere with one long. The estate is how much the farmer's purchasing power, a village to the city and how much work needs ua certain area. In the new town dominated by time distance, mastering space in the function modes of transport (pedestrian, vehicular) and travel time. The new urban settlements were built as small towns with distances of 5-20 minutes within the village and 15-30 minutes travel to work points outside of the village. Over time, the residents, and later experimentation began returning distance and dimensions appropriate to the man

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION and the rhythm of its stroke, where transport systems are beginning to adapt to the human movements (pedestrian zones, street, etc.) of different categories (for children, the elderly, the young), and reduces the spatial distance by filling flows (streets and roads) between the points. Figure 5.

VILLAGE

PRINCIPLE

Constant

Establishing, Beeing

Location, Building

Evolving

Hetero

House,

Houses , suares, Parks, streets

Homogen

Spontanious

Spreading,

Growth, Flucturation

Static

Ownership

Private, Mutual…

Public, Group, Class

Interes

Obligations

Production, Economic power

Time, Speed, Spatial

Distance

TOWN

ZONE OF NTWORKING

PRINCIPLE

Figure 5. Crossing codes

CODES OF MODELLING RURAL AND URBAN ASSEMBLIES AND THEIR APPLICATION IN NEW SETTLEMENTS Modeling territory: The village seems primarily expressed Atari territory with rural settlements within, accessible environment daily walk with supporting settlements. City makes the total territory of the city-structured plot, center and periphery. The new urban settlement in its infancy had determined single-territory with a view to (mostly residential) puncture of content, most of the service. Eventually e occurred aggregation of territories. First comes a separation zone boundary, then the central territory of the village in order to then come to the village of penetration in their environment by spreading their territory Atari forming itself necessary supporting settlements (vegetable gardens, orchards, Holiday villages, gardens, picnic areas, etc.).

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Assembly Modeling: The original village assemblies facilities are pavilions, a city objects are connected in series compact, the village offers a wreath form, the port and the ribs, and the city closed-open sets of different correct geometry. New settlements primarily use the concept of rural pavilions grouping them according to the proper geometric matrix, which is an example of direct, high-quality permeation principle of formation of village and town. Modeling of common living conditions: The village is in the function of customary work arising from the multilayer respect for the specificity of the area (mountains, rivers, valleys), the type of production that the village engaged (agriculture, livestock, etc.) and at the end of its ethnic rules of life and housing ( cultural, religious). The city is subordinate to the production process of industries for which there are no regulations, rules and mechanisms of permanent control operation managed organization. The new urban areas are developed as extensions of the large city system, which is why they ruled the regulations and only through their take on life's specificity as neighbourly, mutual talks and agreements. Modeling communication: In the village formed the first economic area and around the house, and then pave the roads that connect distant objects and places in the village and the village. The city is primarily formed at the intersection of roads, then along the roads, and plans in the area through its street matrix. The new urban settlements are more like cities, get a ready-made profile street and street network. Over time, people are starting to cramp their routes (inland village) changing profile of their street and introduce user network of paths and roads. Introduced its customer network linking all movements for themselves your target points. Modeling type of settlement: The village is linked to the peasant in time, the farmer is to itself and its life forms, changing it as the manufacturing industry. Grad (almost contemporary) is a unified framework in which the citizendesigned fictional user, who accepts the established standardized way of life, which ceases to be a subject and becomes a unified object. New settlements for its initial conception of a small town, offer a man to be (while in it) feel passive entity that would eventually grew into the actuator changes with a tendency to resort adapt themselves (and their neighbors). (Figure 6.)

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VILLAGE

MODELS

Territory

Area, settlement

Town, building

Land

Pavilions

Arch,

Closed, continious, cirle

Queue

Tradition

Tratition, Etnos

regulations

Regime

road

ways

Trafic

Streets

Peasent

Introvert

Objest, user, subject

Citizen

TOWN

MODDELING

MODELS

Figure 6. The matrix of crossing the principles of model villages and towns

CONCLUSIONS – PERMEATION OF URBAN AND RURAL MODEL: PRECONDITION QUALITATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SETTLEMENTS

Modern settlements, as previously noted by the initial concepts that should in itself reflect the new cities, while in reality received hybrid settlements that unfortunately the current value of the negation of the village and the advantages of the city. The first step towards overcoming the regulation of town and country is legalization (what is more legitimate) the presence of both models of village and town in modern settlements which would allow permeation of strengthening the qualitative dimension of new current and future settlements. This would create the conditions for creating complex hybrid settlements whose conceptual basis was based on real-life patterns of actual future residents, which would allow their realization, duration and change. In order to establish the quality permeation prerogatives rural and urban attributes, must also be of high quality. This requires to trigger only positive traits while villages and towns to the extent and relative to each other does not nullify, negate and abolish. This revaluation of the profession seeking his value judgment on obsolete rural values and a priori urban advantages of the city, which will seek the establishment of quality relations (causal) between the structural matrix of the village and the city, through their crossing, interweaving and interaction. (Figure 7)

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CODDING mixing node center accomodating Natural - genetic

FORMING

enforcment

ownership

spontanious

Trad. rule

mixing

pavillon

stabilizing

area

Acc. To peasant

Figure 7. The matrix structuring villages MODDELING

In this context, there are a large number of possibilities of establishment of a wide variety of species, the model and the types of modern settlements, with different combinations of the rural and city or town-village qualitative specificity, wherein we will enrich cities rural advantages and villages urban values and form a future settlements which, according to its position and role in the system as a network of settlements village - town, village or city. So we to model cities and re-enable the creation of new villages. In the new mixer is functions in the same area, will take into account the civil in life forms, in the correct matrix spontaneously will be installed normally caused by genetically matched archaic form, within the already-established two pavilion assemblies. He'll be clear property relations through which will clearly express different interests, and the city will be shared and thicken, which will prevail in the process of constant adaptation. (Figure 8)

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CODDING segregating Wide

Arteficial

Travel time

Act

interes

flucturating

geometry

FORMING

regulations Queue

minimizing

Urban land evolving

Street matrix

MODDELING

Figure 8. Structuring matrix of the city

New urban-villages will be created as a whole and will be based on the morphological complex planimetry street, whereby the predominate uninterrupted rows along the central axis (in the form bazaar) in which case the original villagers used to the prescribed order of building culture, remaining at the same entity that actively planning changes to its habitat, occasionally soaring Crossing village and town will allow expansion of the profession to the creation of new types and models of settlements, and to discover new forms and ways of achieving them. These approaches combine, confirmed by a number of settlements achieved in the world starting with the ruralsettlement in America, through eco-habitats in Europe to spontaneous (unplanned settlements) with us. Such an opportunity structuring urban and rural settlements in the original principles of villages and towns, the waist should not drop, but that his action opens avenues for the design, realization, duration and changing contemporary and future settlements. (Figure 8)

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REFERENCES Book: Vukosavljević. V (1965) Istorija seljačkog društva II – sociologija stanovanja, SANU – Naučno delo, Begrad; Živković M. (1964) Urbanistčke koncepcije naselja – selo u prostoru, Arhitektonski fakultet Beograd, Beograd; Ahem, J. (1991) Planning for an extensive open system: linking landskape structure and function, Landskape and Urban Planning Alexander, C. (1967), The city as mechanism for sustaining human contact, University of California, Berkeley; Mitrović, M. (1953), Gradovi i naselja u Srbiji,

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PERSPECTIVES THAT ARISE FOR PREVENTIVE MEDICINE FROM THE SYNERGY OF URBAN AND RURAL AREAS Nikola Z. Furundžić 61

Dentist, Dental practice “Furundzic ordinacija”, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]

Dijana P. Furundžić Dentist, Dental practice “Furundzic ordinacija”, Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]

Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić, PhD Full professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Health care is very important for modern society in every country of the world whether in urban or rural areas. Depending on the area where people live, for them life conditions may differ in many ways. In both environments for human life there are advantages and disadvantages. Regardless of the differences, in rural and urban areas in the human population appear similar health disorders. It would be interesting to determine which factors that occurs in the village and in the city disrupt human life, comfort and health. This paper considers factors that influence human health in urban and rural settlements. Cooperation in sharing of information and experience can overcome differences and lead to better life for all. The synergy of urban and rural areas can provide new knowledge that combines the advantages that these areas possess. The paper points to the positive effects that provide rural areas and the presence of the advantages that cities have in terms of preserving people's health, and thus pulling out the essence of these advantages in order to indicate the perspective that occur for preventive medicine from the synergy of urban and rural areas. Keywords: Human health, Urban area, Rural area.

INTRODUCTION Health is of the same importance for people wherever they live and whatever they do, regardless of origin and nationality, as well as the age group they belong to. From time immemorial human beings are living in communities which are nowadays generally defined as specific two types: urban and rural. When it comes to population of these 61


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areas, the following facts are stated: More than half of the world’s population now live in urban areas, compared to 29 per cent in 1950 and 15 per cent in 1900; By 2050, it is estimated that seven out of every ten people will be living in towns or cities – more than 6.25 billion people; During the period 2000-2050, developing regions could add 3.2 billion new urban residents, a figure larger than the entire world’s population in 1950 (UN, 2013). 'Urban' and 'rural' are terms that mark two types of populated areas, which are different in many aspects. Defining the concept of urban and rural areas is a complex task, because it is hard to find a unique criterion by which the division performs. These terms are often used by policymakers, researchers, national administrations and international organizations. To account for differences among rural and urban regions, the international Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development established a regional typology (OECD, 2010; Brezzi et al., 2011), based essentially on the percentage of regional population living in urban or rural communities, classifying regions in three classes: 1. predominantly urban (PU-if the share of population living in rural local units is below 15%), 2. intermediate (IN-if the share of population living in rural local units is between 15% and 50%) and 3. predominantly rural (PR-if the share of population living in rural local units is higher than 50%). 'Urban' and 'rural' terms are readily understood by the general public, but a clear definition at the international level has remained elusive. In this respect Dijkstra and Poelman (2014) comment that the UN publishes data on cities, urban areas and rural areas, but relies almost entirely on national definitions of these areas, and that the UN principles and recommendations state that due to different characteristics of urban and rural areas across the globe, a global definition is not possible. The population density is the dominant difference between rural and urban areas, but for the population are also important the parameters that vary for different communities, such as unemployment, crime, availability of different kinds of jobs, incomes, health services and education potentials, infrastructure, housing typology, energy efficiency and quality of connections with the surrounding areas. A common confusion concerning what constitutes urban is commented by Todd Litman (2017) in the following way: ˮThe term conjures up images of skyscrapers, crowded sidewalks, subways, and concentrated poverty; although these conditions exist, they are not representative of the overall urban experience. Urban includes many community types ranging from city centres to suburban villages. Most urban residents live in moderate-density neighborhoods that contain a mixture of single-family and low-rise apartments, and rely on a combination of walking, cycling, public transit, and automobile travel, and most cities have a mixture of low, middle- and high-income households. People who imply that most urban residents live in high-rise apartments, forego automobile travel, and are poor, are using atypical examples.“ Gey Howard et al. (2002) point to the following concepts of villages: ˮA village may be a small group of people living in a settlement who practise subsistence agriculture, with no specialization or division of labour, and who are isolated from national development agencies. A village may also be a large and differentiated conurbation where some people work in agriculture, some work in small-scale industries and others provide education, health care, administration and a variety of services. It is also recognized that many villages do not operate independently from cities, in that cities require sustained interaction with rural communities for their food and natural resources (including land for waste disposal). “ When it comes to quality of life, there are so many advantages and disadvantages in city life and village life. There are a lot of facilities for people in the city and they have more opportunities to progress in their lives. Cities provide

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION great facilities for education, medical treatments, job opportunities etc. However, present are many disadvantages, mainly the air of poor quality polluted from traffic and factories, often poor water quality, the environment is polluted with dust, smoke, garbage and dioxide gases, the streets are mostly dusty and unclean, intense traffic and therefore noise. It appears that it is difficult to lead a healthy life in cities. The lifestyle in villages has other specifics in comparison to lifestyle in the city. People well known among themselves and more connected to each other than people in the city. As village has not lot of vehicles the pollution is less so the air is clean, less noise and rush is present. The environment of the village is pleasant and silent and it has scenic beauty. But, the village also has bad points. Often lifestyle is not as advanced as in the cities. Many people have difficulties to keep up with new developments in their field or profession. Since the functioning of the village is closely linked with the city, traveling problems village people often have to face. Rural environment can be considered healthy. Mutual understanding, connections and collaboration between communities, disregarding how large they are, is crucial for the development in all fields and overcoming the problems and challenges that arise. In this respect advantages and disadvantages of both areas for human health are discussed in the paper. The aim of the paper is perception of new knowledge and perspectives that arise for preventive medicine from the synergy of urban and rural areas. It should be noted that some knowledge and perspectives have universal character, while some related to specific regions.

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN HEALTH The impact of urbanization on human health Tord Kjellstrom et al. (2008) comment in the following manner: ˮUrbanization itself is a determinant of health and poverty leads to slum formation and ill-health. Determinants that influence urban living conditions and health include economic, social and environmental conditions. Along the gradient of inequalities, the risks to health are greatest for a billion people living in unhealthy, lifethreatening conditions in informal settlements or ‘slums’.“ The effect of urbanisation on health can be double-edged however, as a result of overcrowding, pollution, social deprivation, crime, and stress. Urbanisation can also result in hypertension, heart disease, obesity, diabetes and asthma (Godfrey and Julien, 2005). Current rise of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCD) is characterized as an urban health crisis. Despite the many advantages of living in urban areas, for many millions of people cities are places of ill health (Pinoncely, 2014). Public health interventions designed to reduce the risk of ill-health and promote feelings of well-being in a community must consider many social and environmental factors (Howard et al., 2002). Due to differences in communities, these factors will vary in importance. Taking about non-communicable diseases, several authors pay attention to determinants that can provoke ill-health and can be recognized as ”causes of the causes“ of ill-health, such as transport, limited access to green space, pollution, noise, housing quality, access to food, unsatisfactory community participation, social isolation, violence and crime. Factors that influencing human health, particularly urban mental health, Tod Litman (2017) classified in the self-selection, economic and social and environmental factors (Table 1).

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Table 1: Factors affecting urban mental health (Litman, 2017)

Self-Selection Differences in the types of people who locate in different community types. Does not reflect causation. • • • •

Poverty and income Age and life stage Mobility (duration of residency) Family & community connections

Economic and Social Differences in how people live and interact. May reflect causation, but often changes over time. • Higher incomes and disparities • Higher costs of living • More subcultures • Higher crime rates

Environmental Factors Factors innate to urban locations. These do reflect causation, but can change over time. • More interactions with strangers • More racial and cultural diversity • Noise and air pollution • Less interaction with nature

Oral health contributes to general health, self-esteem and quality of life and although oral health may have a low priority in the context of mental illness, the impact of mental illness and its treatment on oral health must be addressed (Griffiths et al., 2000). Depression and stress increase the level of the hormone cortisol, which can contribute to periodontal disease (Rosania et al., 2009). Furthermore, medications, lack of motivation for maintaining good dental hygiene, dental phobia, dental care costs, geography and access to care have all been shown to contribute to oral diseases (Bardow et al., 2001; Selwitz et al., 2007; Ramon et al., 2003; Vargas et al., 2002). Environmental factors Environmental factors as noise, light pollution and interaction with nature are discussed. Urban areas tend to have more ambient noise and light pollution, which can induce stress and interrupt sleep (WHO 2011). Common urban noise sources include vehicle traffic, sirens and alarms, construction, loud music and voices, etc. (Jaffe, 2015). Modernization of populated areas provided artificial light at night. Night light makes urban area secure for living but also to misalignment among physiology, behavior and the environment. Electrical light in living and working spaces and on streets is indispensable for activities of population that lives in urban areas. But, over 99% of individuals living in the United States and Europe experience nightly light pollution (Cinzano et al., 2001). New researches suggest that any unnatural timing of light exposure, or lack of appropriate light/dark cues in the environment, can cause misalignment between internal biological processes and the external environment, putatively leading to impaired mood (Bedrosian and Nelson, 2013). As modern life has allowed humans to manipulate lighting easily and has led to unnatural exposure to night light, the prevalence of major depressive disorder (MDD) has increased in parallel (Kessler et al. 1993). Frequent street lighting and decorative lighting of building facades are the features of urban areas. Streetlights and external decorative lighting illuminate the bedroom spaces, TV and computer screens, causing glow in the home at night. Nocturnal light exposure may have serious consequences for circadian timing and contributes to depressed mood. Depression has a complicated mechanism which effects on oral health, as already mentioned above. Noise and light pollution exposure tends to increase with density, and so can be considered as inherent to cities, but can often be managed and reduced with improved design (Litman, 2017).

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION In recent years, because of the rapid urbanization of the world can be noticed the increasing number of scientific articles which suggest professional community about the positive effects that nature has on human beings. For achievement of healthy lifestyle, scientific papers indicated the necessity of interaction between human and nature. Some people argue that people require regular interactions with nature, and that urban living leads to nature deficit syndrome (Berto, 2014; Hartig and Kahn, 2016). Natural environment has a restoring effect on people's mental health that is conclusion of 20 years of research of Rachel and Stephen Kaplan. Based on this research they have conceived theory ”Attention Restoration Theory“ (Kaplan, R. and Kaplan, S., 1989) that describes the restorative effect of natural environments on human mental fatigue. Some studies have indicated a positive effect of nature on the healing process. One of the research approaches relating to health effects of landscapes is known as ”Healing Gardens“. If the view from a hospital window is important in terms of improving recovery (Ulrich, 1984), then the design of hospital gardens becomes a new and significant topic. There are different and sometimes conflicting ways to provide urban residents access to nature, as summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Three ways to increase interaction with nature (Litman, 2017)

Approach Lower density development, such as housing with large private gardens, or near farms and forests. Higher density development with public greenspace, such as apartments near urban parks. Green infrastructure, such as green roofs, and street trees. Natural area visiting, such as parks programs and holidays.

Advantages Private gardens tend to provide more privacy, plus physical and emotional involvement. Reduces land consumption per capita and provides benefits of compact urban development. Provides greenspace within developed areas. Allows more people to experience natural environments.

Disadvantages Increases per capita land consumption and costs associated with dispersed development. Increases costs associated with compact development. Requires more planning. Can increase infrastructure costs. Tend to be infrequent. Increases transport costs.

To be biophilic, cities should devote sufficient area (generally more than 15% of their total area) to public greenspace, provide public parks and recreational facilities within a five-minute walk of most houses, incorporate landscaping such as street trees and planters, and offer community gardens, green infrastructure (such as plants incorporated into buildings), and nature visiting programs in order to ensure that residents have frequent and significant exposure to natural environments and associated benefits (Green, 2016).

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Figure 12: Greenspaces in the areas of life and work allow for window view at the landscape, Photos: Authors. (left-Housing settlement Konjarnik, Belgrade; right- Main office of SOLON AG für Solartechnik, Berlin-Treptow)

The aforementioned facts point to the positive effects that provide the plants in the areas of life and work, as well as the positive effect of window view at the landscape. Greenspaces in the areas of life and work allow for window view at the landscape (Fig. 1). Urban and architectural design should take it into consideration as an imperative. Appropriate dimensions, orientation and views through windows in high density urban areas are crucial. In such areas streets are usually narrow, buildings are close to each other, facade distance between neighboring buildings improper which disrupt intimacy and window view is often poor, directed into the walls and skylights, which can be recognized as urban mental health impacts, and might result in stress and depression. Such situations are not present in rural areas, villages.

HEALTH ASPECT The scientific and empirical knowledge that is related to advantages and disadvantages of urban and rural life can be used for illness prevention and also for treatment of patients. Prevention is usually about prevention of disease, sometimes it is promotion of health and sometimes it is about medication or other agent used for prophylaxis. From medical point of view it is important to understand how urban areas can affect human health, and how rural advantages are healthful. Considering the effects of environment on human health, it is important to remind that in order to make a medical diagnosis in routine conversation with patients there is need for asking questions related to the quality of living space.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION In everyday dental practice conversation with patient is crucial, to understand his problem and need and visualize cause of his dental problem. Using a larger number of information related to lifestyle of patient and handling this information in right way it can be useful for finding the right therapy for him. In order to achieve the results from therapy patient should be motivated to stick to therapy procedures. From the previous text it can be concluded that absence of natural environment and interaction with nature as well as exposure to night light can induce stress and depression mood. Patients with depression mood have decrease in motivation, which leads to uncertainty of therapy results. Depression mood is often clearly manifested through patient poor oral hygiene which results in other oral diseases.

CONCLUSION Cities are the main place of social development. The future of cities and their sustainability depends on the ability to predict problems that might be encountered. In this respect should be considered prevention of human health. Factors that can promote or harm health and wellbeing in urban and rural areas are discussed in the paper. The paper points to the positive effects that provide rural areas and the presence of the advantages that cities have in terms of preserving people's health. The synergy of urban and rural areas can provide new knowledge which opens up new perspectives for preventive medicine. Exhaustive interviews with patients are important preventive and prophylactic measures in medicine and dentistry and the information thus obtained may be directed to experts in other fields. It can be concluded that the progress of society largely depends on mutual cooperation between different professions and multidisciplinary work is the key to success in all domains. REFERENCES Bardow, A., B. Nyvad, B. Nauntofte. 2001. “Relationships between Medication Intake, Complaints of Dry Mouth, Salivary Flow Rate and Composition, and the Rate of Tooth Demineralization in situ”. Arch Oral Biol. 46: 413-423. Bedrosian, TA and RJ Nelson. 2013. “Influence of the modern light environment on mood”. Molecular Psychiatry, 18, 751–757. Berto, Rita. 2014. “The Role of Nature in Coping with Psycho-Physiological Stress: A Literature Review on Restorativeness”. Behavior Science, Vol. 4, pp. 394-409. Brezzi, M., L. Dijkstra and V. Ruiz. 2011. “OECD Extended Regional Typology: The Economic Performance of Remote Rural Regions”, OECD Regional Development Working Papers, 2011/06, OECD Publishing. Accessed February 24, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg6z83tw7f4-en.

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Cinzano, P., F. Falchi, CD. Elvidge. 2001. The first World Atlas of the artificial night sky brightness. Mon Not R Astron Soc. 328: 689–707. Dijkstra, Lewis and Hugo Poelman. 2014. A harmonised definition of cities and rural areas: the new degree of urbanisation. WP 01/2014. Brussels: European Commission, Regional and Urban Policy. Accessed February 25, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/work/2014_01_new_urban.pdf. Godfrey, Richard and Marlene Julien. 2005. “Urbanisation and health”. Clinical Medicine 5 (2):137-41. Green, Jared. 2016. Biophilic Cities Lead the Way to Urban Sustainability. The Dirt, American Society of Landscape Architects. Accessed January 20, 2017. https://dirt.asla.org/2016/06/06/biophilic-cities-forge-new-paths. Griffiths, J., V. Jones, I. Leeman, D. Lewis, K. Patel, K. Wilson, R. Blankenstein. 2000. Oral Health Care for People with Mental Health Problems Guidelines and Recommendations. British Society for Disability and Oral Health. Hartig, Terry and Peter H. Kahn. 2016. “Living in Cities, Naturally”. Science, Vol. 352/6288: 938-940 (DOI: 10.1126/science.aaf3759). Howard Guy, Claus Bogh, Greg Goldstein, Joy Morgan, Annette Prüss, Rod Shaw, Joanna Teuton. 2002. Healthy Villages: A guide for communities and community health workers. Geneva: World Health Organization. Jaffe, Eric. 2015. Why City Noise Is a Serious Health Hazard: An audiologist explains why it's so much more than a mere annoyance. City Lab. Accessed December 20, 2016. http://www.citylab.com/housing/2015/04/why-city-noise-is-a-serioushealth-hazard/391194. Kaplan, R., S. Kaplan. 1989. The Experience of Nature: a Psychological Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kessler, RC., KA. McGonagle, M. Swartz, DG. Blazer, CB. Nelson. 1993. “Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence”. J Affect Disord 29: 85–96. Kjellstrom, Tord et al. 2008. Our cities, our health, our future: Acting on social determinants for health equity in urban settings. Report to the WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health from the Knowledge Network on Urban Settings Acting on social determinants for health equity in urban settings. World Health Organization, Centre for Health Development. Litman, Todd. 2017. Urban Sanity: Understanding Urban Mental Health Impacts and How to Create Saner, Happier Cities, 2 January 2017, Victoria Transport Policy Institute. OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2010. OECD Regional Typology. Directorate for Public Governance and Territorial Development. Pinoncely, Victoria and Inge Hartkoorn. 2014. Promoting Health Cities, The Royal Town Planning Institute (RTPI).

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Ramon, T., A. Grinshpoon, SP. Zusman, A. Weizman. 2003. “Oral Health and Treatment Needs of Institutionalized Chronic Psychiatric Patients in Israel”. Eur Psychiatry. 18:101-105. Rosania, AE., KG Low, CM. McCormick, DA. Rosania. 2009. “Stress, Depression, Cortisol, and Periodontal Disease”. J Periodontol, 80(2):260-266. Selwitz, RH., Ismail AI, NB. Pitts. 2007. Dental Caries. Lancet, 369: 51-9. Vargas, CM., BA. Dye, KL. Hayes. 2002. “Oral Health Status of Rural Adults in the United States”. J Am Dent Assoc., 133:1672– 1681. WHO. 2011. Burden of Disease from Environmental Noise: Quantification of Healthy Life Years Lost in Europe. World Health Organization. Accessed March 14, 2017. http://bit.ly/2btWBXy. Ulrich, R.S. 1984. “View through a window may influence recovery from surgery”. Science 224 (4647): 420–421. United Nations (UN), World Economic and Social Survey 2013 (UN: New York, 2013).

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WATER PROTECTION IN URBAN AREAS Emina Hadžić Professor, University of Sarajevo– Faculty of Civil engineering, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] Hata Milišić Teaching Assistant, University of Sarajevo– Faculty of Civil engineering, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina [email protected] Ajla Mulaomerović-Šeta Teaching Assistant, University of Sarajevo– Faculty of Civil engineering, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACT The paper presents very briefly the basic problems of water resources arising as a result of the expansion and development of cities. Water pollution in the urban environment, the issue of protection against the detrimental effects of large waters, and the vulnerability of source zones, as a result of the spatial expansion and development of the cities towards the sources, has been mentioned. Increasing the number of inhabitants in cities increases the pressure on water resources and in terms of providing sufficient quantities of drinking water, but also in terms of increased wastewater production. Apart from these two, very important, problems that accompany the urbanization process, the problem of the expansion of the cities towards the water resource springs zones is not less important.Special emphasis is given to understanding the relationship between spatial planning - water resource management. From the perspective of sustainable development, spatial plans should bring social development closer to environmental sustainability and respect environmental capacities. In order to optimize its activities in the environment, it is primarily the understanding of the space or the environment. Definig goals are certainly one of the most important steps in the planning process. Taking into account the dynamism of changes occurring in space, it is essential to integrate the planning with the space encompassing and involving other interested characters in order to choose the most advantageous durogeneric goals that will not endanger the natural resources of the area.

Key words: water protection, urbanization, integral water management

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Over the past century, the process of urbanization has experienced full swing, so we can say that our world is becoming more and more urban. According to the data, around 150 million people (or around 5% of the world's population) lived in urban areas at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, almost half of the world's population lives in cities. UN predictions suggest that in the middle of the 21st century, up to three quarters of the world's population will live in cities. With regard to environmental conservation, urbanization brings a series of environmental problems such as microclimate changes in urban areas, air pollution, increased noise, water pollution, agricultural land destruction, park and green areas, and so on. It is believed that the preservation of water resources and the provision of sufficient quantities of quality water will be the biggest challenge of the twenty-first century. In fact, economic development and urbanization lead to an increase in requests for the necessary capacity of drinking water to meet the needs of urban areas, but causes an increase in the total amount of waste water, worsen the qualitative characteristics of waste water, and contribute to the continuous threats to the quality of the recipient, and finally water resources in a particular area. Unfortunately, many urban planners, builders generally, most often due to the lack of necessary information, are not sufficiently aware of the negative impacts of urbanization on water resources, and it is necessary to activate. One skilled in the field of water resources management in the process of spatial planning. Unfortunately, many urban planners, builders in general, mostly because of lack of necessary information, are not sufficiently aware of the negative impacts of urbanization on water resources, and in particular the necessity to involve water resource management experts in the Spatial Planning Process.

PROBLEMS RELATED TO WATER RESOURCES IN URBAN AREA

Increasing the number of inhabitants in cities increases the pressure on water resources in terms of providing sufficient quantities of drinking water, but also in terms of increased wastewater production. Apart from these two very important problems that accompany the urbanization process, the most important place is the most commonly negative impact of the expansion of the cities towards the water protection zone. By increasing the number of inhabitants in urban areas, sufficient quantities of drinking water should be provided at all times. In such cases, it is often necessary to build expensive regional water systems, find new springs, and bring water from a long distance. Water should often be cleaned before delivering to consumers. If problems arise throughout the daily distribution of water to consumers, there are serious economic, social and even political problems.

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On the other hand, urbanization and increased pressure on drinking water increased the amount of wastewater generated by the settlement. It is indisputable that it is necessary to provide adequate sanitation of urban waste water before it is finally discharged into the recipient. In most cases, in developing countries, that is not the case, but wastewater is directly watered, without any treatment. When talking about the protection of the urban environment from the negative influence of water, it should first of all be noted that significant anthropogenic transformation of the urban environment significantly influenced the water cycle in urban environments. By converting natural area into assaults, surface runoff increases as a consequence of the decreasein water infiltration and cities are increasingly encountering flood protection issues. Cities of ancient times are being developed along rivers, so this or similar "transformation" of land generally contributes to increasing the risk of flooding in urban environments. According to some authors (Niemczynovicz, 1996, Bonacci, 2003), the functioning of cities depends primarily on the quality and quantity of management and distribution of water resources within their space. Is it possible to prevent such unfavorable scenarios? As the only possible answer to this question, it can be concluded that the most developed cities in the world, most effectively solved their relationship with water. Can problems be solved once and for all? No, it is important to note that this relationship was never finally resolved. According to Bonaccio (2003), it is necessary to have constant monitoring, monitoring of all events and, in accordance with the principles of sustainable development, continually harmonize it. As one of the many identified problems that question the survival of cities is the usurpation of space that should be protected from certain human activities. Often, due to lack of understanding and inadequate relationship to water resources protection, or the short-term goals of certain interest groups, this space is virtually "attacked" by urbanization. There are so many examples in the world. Unfortunately, such examples are in our very close environment. Since 1987, the main source for water supply in Sarajevo, the ground watrer source – Sarajevsko Polje practically has not defined water protection zones. While awaiting the adoption of a decision on protection zones, new urban solutions and building areas comming too close to the source that supplies Sarajevo city.Failing to observe the results of the strategies that have been made in the past 10 to 20 years and for which they have allocated enormous funding of funds, in the space that should be reserved for the construction of facilities that would solve the issue of providing enough water for the city and for future generations, new urban solutions - new urban zones arise. According to the Water Law 62, as a roof document in the water resource management sector of a state, protection zones must be defined for each source. Defining the protection zone according to the current Regulations for defining

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Water Law ("Official Gazette of the Federation of BiH" No. 70/06)

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION zones Source Protection 63 implies that all economic activities, following adopted the Decision on the protection zones, are in line with the measures prescribed by them. In order to avoid collapse of different economic interests in defined security zones, it is necessary to make timely strategic planning documentation in the area of environment and water resources, which will "pre-reserve" areas that are of higher, general interest and all other activities compatible with them. An open question remains, how is it possible be unaware of importance of water resources in spite of all the facts.

POLLUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IN URBAN AREAS City precipitation waters are a major cause of water resource contamination. They always contain more or less amounts of inorganic and organic substances that can be biodegradable or non-degradable. Most often this water directly, without treatment, discharged into streams, lakes and the sea. The degree of pollution of these waters depends on a number of factors, above all on the amount of rainfall, and the present pollution on urban areas. It is known that the highest concentrations of pollution are at the beginning of run-off from urban areas. First of all, the traffic is transported from the atmospheres and exhaust gases of the car, and then there are the remains of fuel, fats and other substances that arise as byproducts. Certainly, there is considerable pollution generated by the use of various salts and liquids used in winter conditions, such as the use of chemicals to prevent the development of weeds on green areas and the like. Unfortunately, it is common practice of developing countries, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, that waste water, after collection, is released directly into the recipient. Such a shock-laden watercourse regularly has great negative impacts on the water ecosystem. Rivers have a certain self-purification power, but if waste water is continuously discharged into watercourses, then the long-term changes in the quality of the river are diminished. The third important issue of which it is important to talk about is the spread of cities to water protection zones. Most cities have emerged alongside the rivers or in addition to the major drinking water sources from which they can meet the needs of the population. By expanding and developing cities, the boundaries of cities moved to the source zones, to such extent that they, in many cases, questioned the long-term sustainability of water quality. If human ignorance pollutes and contaminates groundwater sources, hundreds of years are needed to make the source self-purifies. This information should be enough to alert policy makers to the fact that in planning and adopting development plans, the planners of the water management sector are not excluded, in order to satisfy the water resources of all users of space.

Rules on the method of determining the conditions for determining the sanitary protection zones and protective measures for water sources for public water supply of the population (FBiH Official Gazette no. 88-12)

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CONCEPT OF INTEGRAL WATER MANAGMENT A new approach to managing water resources could be key to their conservation and sustainable use. This concept is called the concept of "Integrated Water Resource Management" (IWRM). Integrated water resource management can be defined as a process that "promotes coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, with the aim of maximizing the economic and social benefits that come from it, fairly and without endangering the sustainability of key ecosystems" (GWP, 2004). What seems important in this concept is certainly the fact that this is a process that enables coordinated management of water, land and related resources within the catchment area, without compromising the long-term health of key ecosystems. In fact, access to integrated water resource management at the state level is not in conflict with the integrated management of water resources at the basin level, moreover, they complement each other. A comprehensive state framework for integrated water resource management is indispensable for national and crossborder river basin management and is not in collision with spatial planning guidelines. By definition, spatial planning is planning activity with a view to spatially coordinating all activities and processes, and maintaining and developing favorable conditions for the life and work of people in a given territory, in order to achieve optimum distribution of population and economic activities, and to ensure a meaningful exploitation Land with environmental protection and preservation of aesthetic and cultural values of space. However, in practice, it is very complicated and demanding to consolidate all aspects of land use, for the benefit of all users. An additional aggravating circumstance is the fact that spatial planning is usually regulated by policies that are not related to water resource management policies and are controlled by a number of separate sectors and administrative levels. No legal framework or economic tools exist to support an integrated and environmentally-friendly approach to spatial and water management in cities. Spatial planning in BiH is characterized as bottom-up. It is based on the right of local communities to decide on forms of spatial planning in the municipality, not including analysis of the entire catchment area, which is the basis of water planning. So the floods that hit our country in 2014 showed that spatial planning has to be synchronized with river basin management plans, which, among other things, implies a very horizontal linkage. Flood risk and flood risk maps can be used to determine detailed Guidelines for the preparation of spatial plans, ie deciding on land use in river valleys or areas affected by floods.

SPATIAL PLANNING VS INTEGRAL WATER MANAGEMENT Spatial planning has changed in line with socio-economic changes, and its primary role was to control the use of land (Bublin, 2010). However, the issue of land use is closely related to general economic development issues, ranging from traffic development, environmental protection, water management, agriculture, industry, tourism and other

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION activities. Looking at the aspect of sustainable development, spatial plans should bring social development closer to environmentally sustainable development and respect environmental capacities. In order to approach and optimize its activities in the environment, first of all it is necessary to understand the space or the environment. It is certainly one of the most important steps in the planning process of defining goals. Considering the dynamism of changes occurring in the space, it is necessary to integrate the planning with the space that encompasses and includes other interested actors in order to choose the most favorable long-term goals that will not endanger the natural resources of the area. Thus, environmental issues, particularly emphasizing water policy within it, must be related to the purpose and organization of space. The role of water in shaping urbanized space should not be limited to reducing threats associated with water scarcity, excess water (floods, floods, short-term floods, landslides) or worsening water quality. According to Kronenberg 2012, it is equally important to use the water potential to satisfy other services, such as cultural ones. In order to exploit the potential of water it is necessary to cooperate with the water resource management sector in some area. However, one should point out the difference in spatial coverage. In spatial planning administrative boundaries are important, while in the sector of water resources management is about catchment areas which are much wider, and may include not only one region but more cities. They can also extend to areas that cover entire regions, cantons or parts of cantons, entities, states. Difficulties in coordinating spatial and water management are the result of inequalities in the areas covered by plans and various priorities. It is interesting that there are no formal planning documents relating to water management at the local level of cities and municipalities, ie where fundamental decisions are made on spatial planning. Therefore, it is not possible to talk about the approach to spatial planning based on the catchment area when the river basin is not a basic area of planning.

With effective planning, Water Resources Management requires very serious educational activities, technical and economic tools / skills, appropriate legislation and, above all, integrated spatial and water planning. Water management also implies the use of modern information technologies (such as GIS) to ensure that the required data is available to all actors in the space. Many countries explore ways in which cities or areas that are planning to build can participate in the protection of water resources.The US has formulated a LowImpact Development concept (LID), UK has developed a Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS), and New Zealand has developed a very interesting new approach known as Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD).

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In order to integrate all of the above approaches, Australia has developed the Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) concept. WSUD refers to the interdisciplinary collaboration of water management, urban planning and environmental planning, taking into account all parts of the water cycle in urban environments, combining water management functions and urban planning, thus facilitating the synergy of environmental, economic, social and cultural sustainability (Wagner, 2010 WSUD provides a development that is in constant interaction with the water cycle of urban environments, in such a way as to: provide sufficient water for undisturbed economic development with the efficient use of diverse available water resources; Ensure sustainable use of water resources, maintain the quality of water ecosystems; Protect against harmful effects of water, reducing the risk of flooding and damage that may arise; And create spaces that will boost you and protect your water bodies. This approach bridges the gap between the various sectors and provides a platform for transdisciplinary planning, which is essential for sustainable water resource management in cities. These integrated planning strategies contribute to biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and mitigation of microclimatic changes in urban environments (reducing the effect of thermal islands).

CONCLUSION Often the development of cities does not folow the real possibilities of natural resources in their area. Planning and making the best decision-making for the purpose of space, is often governed by the criteria of economic gain rather than environmental capacity and environmental burden. This is how the cities, or new parts of cities that become used for themselves, create the necessary environmental dimension, so the most common expansion of the city goes to the protection of protected areas, water protection zones and so on. Given that the problem is NOT recognized by us and in the world, we are increasingly talking about the need to design compact and user-friendly cities while at the same time emphasizing the wise use of natural resources. New concepts of urban development are developed, including interdisciplinary water management, urban planning and environmental planning, taking into account all parts of the water cycle in urban environments. Trends such as ecological urbanism, green urbanism and green architecture are increasingly present in the urban planning sector in developed countries. Such new concepts require new educational activities, new competencies of builders in the space, to improve effective space planning and appropriate legislation. The concept of integrated urban planning should be based on the availability and exchange of information, as well as the coordination of cost reduction activities and the achievement of synergies in the execution of often different goals of the sectoral strategies. Given that economic priorities are above the environmental issues, the environmental and urbanization goals are most often contradictory. Because of that, the concept of user-frieddly cities and integral water resource absorption contributes to the reconciliation of different goals.

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Unfortunately, spatial planning in BiH still lacks a comprehensive approach and effective tools for the implementation of water management goals. Water management options in the drainage basin are largely determined by the use of land in the area. Therefore water management can not be treated solely as a subject of sectoral policy. Instead, it requires full integration with spatial management, urban planning and architecture.

REFERENCES Baca Architects, BRE, 2009. Long-term initiatives for floodrisk environments, London: Crown. DCLG (Department for Communities and Local Government), 2009. Planning Policy Statement 25: Development and flood risk. Practice guide, London: Crown. Kronenberg, J., 2012. Urban ecosystem services. Sustainable Development Applications, 3, pp. 13–30. UN-HABITAT. Urban Planning for city leaders, 2nd Edition ed., Germany: Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, 2014. Brundtland Commission. 1987., Report of the World Commision on Enviroment and Development, United Nations CRC. Water Sensitive Cities. Australian Goverment Inisiatives, Melbourne, 2014. Rohr, H.E., Water Sensitive Planning – An integrated approach towards sustainable urban water system planning in South Africa. North-West University Potchefstroom, Potchemstroom, 2012. Bublin, M., 2010. Prostorno planiranje i zaštita okoline, Građevinski fakultet u Sarajevu

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RELATION BETWEEN PLANNING AND REALIZATION OF OPEN SPACES IN NEW BELGRADE SUPERBLOCKS: CASE STUDIES OF BLOCKS 45 AND 70 Predrag Jovanović 64 Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, [email protected] Ana Graovac Urban Planner, Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, Palmoticeva 30, [email protected] ABSTRACT During the postwar period, from the 1960s to the 1980s, very large area of today's New Belgrade was built using the concept of the Funtional city, which a lot of professionals consider as a successful example of modern urbanism. Still, with a change of socio-political situation in the Republic of Serbia during the 1990s and 2000s, a number of New Belgrade’s super-bloks started to be replanned. Having that in mind, this paper argues that there has been a substantial difference between planning intentions and real needs of the inhabitants, considering the treatment of open spaces inside the modernistic blocks. The main aim of this research is to show this potential conflict on the case studies of super-blocks number 45 and 70. After review of the plan making process, there will be shown some real needs of the local community that manifest themselves through open spaces, and comparative analyzes will be made. This research examines the question of the direction in which the process of planning should be addressed in order to include the real needs of the local community. Keywords: Urban planning, New Belgrade, Super-block, Open spaces, Local community needs

INTRODUCTION First of all it is important to highlight the main characteristics of Functional city concept in order for better understanding the structure of the open spaces in New Belgrade. This concept was the main theme in CIAM 65 IV in 1933, and as a result of work during several weeks, Athens Charter was formed (Mašić, 1965). The modernists did it as a response to the situation in the cities, which they have called the bitter fruit of a hundred years of machinism. They had suggested that the open space in modern cities should be designed as an extension of an apartment or as 64

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION a green area with all necessary facilities of collective character. Professor Perović (1985, p. 26-27) states that the tone of the Athens Charter was dogmatic and generalized, which gave its ideas the illusion of universal applicability. Roughly highlighting main points of this document, it can be said that it was concluded that the functional city needs to have: four strictly separated activities - housing, working, transportation and recreation; housing in the form of high freestanding buildings; strict separation of pedestrians and cars. As the main result of this planning approach super-block was made. It is an open city block outlined with natural boundaries or streets and with large green areas in the form of a public space. According to Le Corbusier Radiat city, their dimensions should be 400x400m, with self standing buildings standardized to 12 floors, and with sport facilities, a nursery and primary school in the open space, but he did not include commercial and cultural activities in the residential area (Perović, 1985, p. 26). Critique of the Functional city concept has started to emerge from the 60s until today from the authors such as Jane Jacobs, Jan Gehl and Christopher Alexander. Jacobs (1961) concludes that planners and architects of her time have stayed unaware of the functioning of cities, as well as that the perfect neighborhood based on the Functional city concept is too large to be a neighborhood of the street, and too small to become a district. Gehl (2011) stresses out that this concept was purely physical and material planning-oriented ideology with the main goal of the separation of functions. Its main imperfection is the disappearance of the streets and squares as the basic elements around which the cities were organized in the past. In these large structures we see more cars than people, and outdoor spaces are large and impersonalized with wide streets and tall buildings that are causing feelings of coldness. Also, large distances between people and activities constantly reducing the possibility of closer contact, and mass media and shopping centers have become the only city contacts with the outside world. Alexander (2002-2005) discusses that in the last century, the streets and squares of the past, which contain 15 geometric properties that are making living structure, are neglected in the process of planning and construction. We should have in mind that New Belgrade’s super-blocks, which have been emerged in the 1970s, are based on the Functional city concept. This paper will try to explain the difference between planned and spontaneous/unplanned development approach in the treatment of super-blocks 45 and 70 open space that has occurred over the last few decades, which can actually be seen just as criticism of their original ideas and execution. On the one side there will be analyzing the process of re-planning of these blocks that started with the making of additions to the original detailed urban plan in the 1990s, to be continued at the beginning of the 2000s by launching a new detailed regulation plan whose development is still going on. On the other hand, there will be analyzed spontaneous and unplanned interventions that have begun to shape undeveloped open spaces within blocks during this period. For this kind of development, placemaking process and place attachment are significant themes. First, the short review about the historical development of the New Belgrade will be shown as well as the development of plans for this area. Research methodology considers comparative analysis between the planned and realized

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activities in open spaces. Analysis of community movements on the virtual social networks was useful for this research for showing the local community actual needs as well as their activities in open spaces.

DEVELOPMENT OF SUPER-BLOCKS 45 AND 70 FROM 1970S UNTIL TODAY Development of New Belgrade during the 1970s After the Second World War the Yugoslav Republic ceases to be a monarchy. New Belgrade was planned as a capitol of the new modern city, but he was also influenced by the ideology of communism. The social and political system during the 1970s played a major role in fostering the principles of local communities. This assumption is tested by the method of content analysis. The local community stands out as the basis for the front of the municipality, city, republic and the Federation, and Višnjić (1977) even named community extended organized family. Articles 66 from the period of the 1970s are talking about New Belgrade as a modern city, which was the largest construction site in Yugoslavia, and one of the largest in Europe. They are highlighting that the inhabitants were brought together, especially by community centers (with the dominance of commercial function) in the middle of the neighborhood, where entire social life inside one super-block was taking place. But in the 1960s and 1970s, there was not enough money for development of cultural activities because everything was invested in the development of the residential units. That is why until the 1990s New Belgrade was called the big dormitory.

Planning process of super-blocks 45 and 70 In 1960s, two super-blocks (45 and 70) were planned for development on the Sava river coast. There was a planned residential area of 115ha for 9000 apartments in which should live 32000 inhabitants. Between the super-blocks 45 and 70 there was also planed rayon center on the area of 45ha in the super-block 44. The general Yugoslav competition was announced in 1965 for the preliminary urban design of blocks 45 and 70. Based on the winning project of the author architects Tepeš and Gradelj, detailed urban plan was made by architects Mišković and Glavički. After the adoption of the plan, its implementation has started and Directorate of Construction of New Belgrade gave the land for building to a business association "Jinpros" and development company "Komgrap" in 1967. That same year, competition for the architectural design of buildings was announced. Further development and building of blocks was based on the project made by group of author architects Popović, Šekerinski, Čanak and Aleksić (Stojanović, 1975).

66

Kulturni centar Beograda, 1977; Višnjić, 1977

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION Realization of these blocks was made as two distinct urban areas at the level of extended local community. The main land use was residential with residential buildings and following green and recreational areas, then areas whit service buildings on the level of the rayon center with appropriate land use, areas with a local community center, schools, healthcare and social protection and areas for traffic - streets, sidewalks and open parking lots. But the significant part of the planned non-residential structures in super-block has stayed unrealized – commercial contents along Juri Gagarin Street and one half of the public contents inside the blocks (3 kindergartens and two primary schools). Amendments to the detailed urban plan of super-blocks 45 and 70 in New Belgrade were made in the beginning of the 1990s for the part of blocks along the street Jurij Gagarin, where the major part of a local community center was not built. This plan enabled the implementation of planned capacities in several phases - in the low-rise buildings with mainly commercial activities (shopping centers). In that sense, these plan additions did not treat the unbuilt areas i.e. open spaces, but only remodeling formerly planned commercial zone, in the sense of these zone land lot making and possibility of realization in phases. After that, decisions about preparing of new regulation plans for super-blocks 45 and 70 were made in 2001, but until today these plans have not been adopted. Because of that we cannot talk about the new urban plan for these superblocks, but about planning process which lasts more than 15 years, during which there were shifting different tendencies in the treatment of open and free block areas. In that sense, we can divide this long period in three phases. The first phase is a period of preparation of plans from 2001 to 2009, when the planning of super-blocks reconstruction was based on increasing their building capacity in accordance with the parameters of the then Master Plan of Belgrade until 2021. By entering in a period of transition it came to market liberalization and privatization of construction land. For the New Belgrade increase of building capacity in the super-blocks meant the definition of land in public ownership and land for new construction that would be privately owned. Based on that, the determination of a public and private interest relation becomes the main theme of plan-making process for blocks 45 and 70 in this period 67. Considering that owner of the unbuilt areas i.e. open spaces in super-block 45 was the city, and in super-block 70 business association "Jinpros", the two plans have given the significantly different treatment of open spaces and their contents: plan for super-block 45 predicted all undeveloped public contents (schools and kindergartens) and included new commercial contents “punctual” along main vertical axes of super-block, while all other open spaces (playgrounds, sport terrains, greenery) were planned for public ownership; plan for super-block 70 was lower the capacities of formerly planned public contents and some of them dislocated in the place of built playgrounds inside super-blocks, while the central part of the super-block for a considerable new residential structure development, and free open areas of land in private ownership. Plans for reconstruction of these two super-blocks are going to Belgrade In the New Belgrade, cadastre determine only the ground area of a building, which leaves large areas of construction land to be owned by the city without defined status. 67

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city assembly’s planning committee 68 in 2009. The committee was criticizing the different approach to problems and non existence of unique principle for the reconstruction and the clear stand about the main questions that were arising during the making of plans. The plan was returned in the conceptual phase, with a clear goal that all future structure development inside super-blocks should be with public land use and of public interest. The second phase of detailed regulation plan making process for the super-blocks 45 and 70 was a period from 2009 to 2014, when the new conceptual plan for these super-blocks was based on the characteristics of the original plan, respecting the specificity of the site and understanding the problems of urban transformations of New Belgrade’s open block, as well as the preservation and improvement of the achieved high standards of housing and perception of the local community emerging needs. The main recognized problems in the super-blocks are: the lack of the required number of parking places, space for a variety of recreational functions and recreation in the winter, cultural and entertainment facilities, undefined jurisdiction over the management and maintenance of existing transportation and green spaces. For these reasons, all new facilities are planned to respond to the perceived needs of the existing local population: • Needs caused by changing social standards, values and way of life since the dawn of blocks until today; • Needs which are additionally identified and which are not taken into consideration at the time of blocks development for which the capacities built in the blocks are not enough; • Needs as a result of the failure to implement planned large capacity complexes in the environment; • Needs caused by changes in the block’s age structure, the education system and the applicable standards. With this conceptual plan the housing in this spatial whole is unchanged, without the possibility of adding structure onto buildings, while the public service facilities, buildings and complexes (kindergartens, primary school, cultural center, and poly-functional center), sport and recreational complexes, worship and public garages are newly planned. The planning committee has adopted the concept of detailed regulation plans for blocks 45 and 70 in December of 2014, after which the making of the plan draft begun, but also was suspended shortly afterwards. However, it can be said that the planning process is entering into its third phase during 2017 when Belgrade city assembly’s planning committee adopted new capacities for planned public facilities (kindergarten, primary and secondary schools) and their distribution in blocks 45, 44, 70 and 70a, on which the opportunities for planning new housing facilities in block 70 are starting to re-open. It would be interesting, from the point of view of this paper, to note that during a long period, in which lasts the development of plans, in accordance with the then applicable Law on planning and construction, the early public insight procedures have not been defined. The plan was never once been exposed to the public insight and the opinion of blocks inhabitants. 68

In original: Komisija za planove Skupštine grada Beograda

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LOCAL COMMUNITY-ORIENTED PLANNING TENDENCIES Place attachment The one of the very important topics linked to this research is the local community attachment to places within one super-block. As stated in Mazo and Perkins article (2006), place identity consists of personal dimensions which are developing in relation to the physical environment by means of a pattern of beliefs, preferences, feelings, values, and goals, and this dynamic phenomenon grows and transforms through lived experience. The literature that they were researching suggests that processes of collective action work better when emotional ties to places and their inhabitants exist. In that way place attachment, place identity, and sense of community can provide a greater understanding how neighborhood spaces can motivate ordinary residents to act collectively to preserve, protect, or improve their community and participate in local planning processes. They are highlighting the importance of integrating different approaches from different scientific fields in order to understand the values of a community and how place meanings can be strengthened in the planning and design process. This could provide us with an understanding of how to create and develop successful communities.

Placemaking approach Jacobs (1961) was writing that the city is a laboratory in which planning should be learning, the formation and the testing of theories. She pointed to the importance of different spatial levels of managing city neighborhoods. Whyte (1980) stresses out that people like the best least crowded and most restful small spaces, marked by a high density of people and a very efficient use of space. As the most important elements of the square he highlighted seats, natural elements, and streets with commercial activities. Gehl (2011) states that for life between the buildings five principles in the design of open public spaces are important: absence of walls, short distance, low speed, similar levels, and orientation towards other users. Alexander (2002-2005) defines positive place trough 15 geometrical properties of space. All this authors and theories represent the basis for a contemporary approach in urban planning - placemaking (PPS, 2009), which is “a collaborative process of shaping the public realm in order to maximize shared value. More than promoting better urban design, placemaking facilitates use, paying particular attention to the physical, cultural, and social identities that define a place 69”. This research considers, among other things, possibility of implementation of the placemaking approach in the urban planning process in New Belgrade as well as its potential in contemporary situation.

Local community significant places and activities

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It is impossible to predict some significant places and activities for community inside one neighborhood before life start to manifest itself, especially with planning approach that was taking place in Belgrade. In order to better understand the needs of local communities, local government should be established, which contemporary tendencies suggest 70. When we look at all plans for block 45, from the original detailed urban plan to the last draft version, we can see that instead of the schools and kindergartens in the super-block 45 which plan suggests, the craftsman center and football terrain have been developed. A similar situation has happened in the super-block 70 – instead of school and kindergarten the craftsman center has also been developed, the unplanned tennis balloon was built in the school courtyard, as well as playgrounds which Municipality of New Belgrade developed a few years ago. In the process of spontaneous redevelopment of these neighborhoods, local community organizations have significant roles. For example, local community of super-block 45, also known as Fortyfivers, has made a web presentation of their neighborhood. As a significant place inside block 45 they are emphasizing “a little hill” 71, which is very popular during the winter among kids. They are especially proud of their graffiti culture which has been emerging in different places inside the super-block. This short review is highlighting the blog as an important tool for the future research, which should be directed in a more detailed way to such places trough observation and interviews with local community.

CONCLUSIONS Planning and re-planning process of New Belgrade’s super-blocks 45 and 70 is taking place without the participation of the local community. Early public insight was established as a legal obligation only in 2014, while the plan is exposed in its final faze on public insight. The form of the early public insight implies exposition of the preliminary plan and critique and opinion of the citizens, but not their active participation through workshops, forums, groups and so on. Participation of citizens through the placemaking process does not have institutional support – the instrument of urban policy does not exist for this process to be conducted and linked to the conventional planning. Many attitudes related to the issue of New Belgrade’s super-blocks have crystallized over time through planning (the issue of land and other public purposes, allotment, authentic urban structure protection and upgrading of existing facilities), but it is exactly the duration of the planning process of super-blocks 45 and 70 which indicates that it has not yet found the key interest which would have been enough for plans to be completed. However, inhabitants of these two super-blocks, about 12 000 in each of them, are not informed about making the plans for their close urban environment, because under the legally defined procedure they did not even get to the public insight. In this fact, we may seek a place for a new, inclusive approach to urban planning trough the possibility of articulation and implementation of the different social groups’ needs of all super-block residents as well as potential 70 71

ICLEI, 2015; UN-Habitat, 2016 Fortyfivers, 2015

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION investors to whom has not yet been given the importance in the current plan-making process, but which may be the impulse for one more shift, which would take these two plans to their finish.

REFERENCES Alexander, Christopher. 2002-2005. The Nature of Order. Berkeley: CES.

Fortyfivers. 2015. “Mala oaza u sred betona - Brdasce u bloku” The Fortyfivers Blog, March 21. Accessed April 10.2017. http://fortyfivers.blogspot.rs/2015/03/mala-oaza-u-sred-betona-brdasce-u-bloku.html. Gehl, Jan. 2011. Life between buildings: Using Public Space. Washington: Island Press. ICLEI. 2015. “The importance of all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for cities and communities.” Last modified November 11. Accessed September 15.2016. http://www.iclei.org/ fileadmin/PUBLICATIONS/Briefing_Sheets/SDGs/04_-_ICLEIBonn_Briefing_Sheet_-_Cities_in_each_ SDG_2015_web.pdf Jacobs, Jane. 1961. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage books. Kulturni centar Beograda. 1977. “Nova naselja.” Revija Beograd 77, no. 3: 49-53. Manzo, Lynne and Perkins, Douglas. 2006. “Finding Common Ground: The Importance of Place Attachment to Community Participation and Planning.” Journal of Planning Literature 20, no. 4 (May): 335-350. 72 Mašić, Slobodan (editor). 1965. Le Korbizije: Atinska povelja. Belgrade: Klub mladih arhitekata. Perović, Miloš. 1985. Lesons of the past. Belgrade: The Institute for Development Planning of the City of Belgrade. Project for Public Space. 2009. “What is Placemaking?” Last modified December 31. Accessed July 1, 2016. http://www.pps.org/reference/what_is_placemaking/. Stojanović, Bratislav. 1975. “Blokovi 45 i 70.” Urbanizam Beograda 30: 37-38. UN-Habitat. 2015. “Habitat III issue papers: 11-Public Space.” Last modified May 31. Accessed July 1, 2016. https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Habitat-III-Issue-Paper-11_Public-Space-2.0.compressed.pdf. UN-Habitat. 2016. “The City We Need.” Last modified March 3. Accessed September 15.2016. http://mirror.unhabitat.org/ downloads/docs/The%20City%20We%20Need.pdf 72

Retrieved on: 14 July 2016 from http://jpl.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/4/335

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Višnjić, Miodrag. 1977. “Šta je to mesna zajednica.” Revija Beograd 77, no. 4: 23. Službeni list grada Beograda, no.9/66. Odluka o Dup-u blokova 45 i 70 na Novom Beogradu. Službeni list grada Beograda, 1992. Izmene i dopune Detaljnog urbanističkog plana blokova 45 i 70 na Novom Beogradu. Town Planning Institute of Belgrade. 2013. Koncept plana detaljne regulacije bloka 45 u Novom Beogradu. Town Planning Institute of Belgrade. 2013. Koncept plana detaljne regulacije bloka 70 u Novom Beogradu. Town Planning Institute of Belgrade. 2009. Nacrt plana detaljne regulacije bloka 45 u Novom Beogradu. Town Planning Institute of Belgrade. 2009. Nacrt plana detaljne regulacije bloka 70 u Novom Beogradu.

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IMPACTS OF EARTHQUAKE ACTIONS ON URBAN AND RURAL AREAS Naida Ademović Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Patriotske lige 30, 71 000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, [email protected]

ABSTRACT How do we define urban and rural places? Different regions have various definitions regarding urban and rural. Once the definition is accepted for a certain region comparisons of the earthquake effect can be done. Do types of settlement (urban vs rural) have a one way impact on the effects of the earthquake action or not? The article raises some factors that have an impact on the number casualties as well as their interdependence, like population density, urban vs rural, economic development etc. Several examples of these facts and the earthquake devastation in the resent years are illustrated. After the elaboration and comparison it was clear that a unique answer cannot be given regarding the impact of earthquake on rural vs urban areas. The answer is never straightforward and never simple as it might seem at the first glance and it depends on several aspects that have to be taken into account. Keywords: earthquakes, urban, rural, design, codes, economic development

INTRODUCTION How do we define urban and rural places? Under rural areas one defines an open and spread out country which is usually not so populated. Usually this population is self-sustained by work on land or in some industrial field (coal, copper, etc.). If residences are formed than this areas is referred to as suburban. They are bigger than rural areas but smaller than larger cities, and arranged in a different manner. Finally, areas of high population that is both for living and working purposes are defined as urban areas. In the USA prior to Census 2000 urban referred to all territory, population, and housing units located in places with a population of 2,500 or more. With Census 2000, the definition changed. After the 2000 Census was taken, the Census Bureau’s geographers looked at every block in the nation and decided if it was or was not urban. There are very specific criteria about whether a block could be labelled urban or not. They generally have to do with density of settlement and proximity to other urban blocks. Some territory inside

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an incorporated city or town can be rural instead of urban. The definition of urban doesn’t have anything to do with the boundaries of incorporated places. In fact, urban and rural are delineated independently of any other geographic entity. However, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. European countries define urbanized areas on the basis of urban-type land use, not allowing any gaps of typically more than 200 meters and use satellite imagery instead of census blocks to determine the boundaries of the urban area. In less-developed countries, in addition to land use and density requirements, a requirement that a large majority of the population, typically 75%, is not engaged in agriculture and/or fishing is sometimes used. Or as Historian John Gurda states: "I have tried to uncover Milwaukee's civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of that bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in urban areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions, but because they offer jobs. ... It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there. I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities."

ELEMENTS DETERMINING THE IMPACT OF AN EARTHQUAKE Looking at the world population map (Figure 1) and the seismic hazard map (Figure 2) an evident rough coincidence of high seismic hazard with high human population.

Figure 13: World Population Map

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Figure 14: Global seismic map

What kind of an impact will an earthquake have on a community depends on several issues and their interrelations as well. First of all one needs to look at the population density. If the area is more populated there is a higher probability of increased number of casualties. An example is 2001 Gujaret earthquake in Indian (Figure 3) which occurred in a densely populated area (Figure 4). The death toll in the Kutch region was 12,300. Whereas, Bhuj, which was situated only 20 km away from the epicenter, was devastated. Over a million structures were damaged or destroyed, including many historic building. Almost 50% of homes were destroyed, dozens of public facilities and historical structures as well (Figure 5). In Ahmedabad, Gujarat's commercial capital with a population of 5.6 million, as many as 50 multistory buildings collapsed and several hundred people were killed. In Kutch, the earthquake destroyed about 60% of food and water supplies and around 90% of the district's housing stock.

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Figure 15: Epicenter of Gujaret earthquake

Figure 16: Population density of India in 2001

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Figure 17: Population density of India in 2001 Devastations after the earthquake in India in 2001

As can be seen from the previous paragraph the second issue is whether the area is urban/rural. In rural areas there are fewer buildings, building are not close together, the population is smaller (less dense?), so the size of the disaster, the disaster may be smaller. At the first moment one may conclude that fewer buildings to fall and collapse means fewer causalities. Also because the buildings aren’t as close together there is more space for people to escape. However, it is not as simple as it seems as will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Additionally, one has to keep in mind that the definition of urban to rural varies in different countries. Some areas can be rural but highly populated and with a bad engineering construction of houses which may lead to numerous casualties. So a straight forward conclusion cannot be made. On the other hand one may argue that urban populations can be at greater risk from earthquakes than rural areas primarily because urban areas have more buildings and a larger population than rural areas. In the urban areas besides primary effects, building collapse, secondary scenarios, such as fires that burned out of control afterward can be even more destructive like in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake (Figure 6). The death toll remains the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California's history and high in the lists of American urban disasters. While, on the other hand in some urban areas if the construction is well done and preventive measures are undertaken this may lead to smaller number of casualties. However, again it is not as simple as it seems.

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Figure 18: 1906 San Francisco earthquake-fires

A good comparison would be between 2005 Kashmir earthquake (moment magnitude of 7.6) which occurred in predominately rural areas on one side and 1985 Mexico City earthquake (moment magnitude of 8) which occurred in predominately urban areas (Figure 7).

Figure 19: 2005 Kashmir earthquake [10] vs 1985 Mexico City earthquake [11]

The casualties in the Kashmir rural earthquake were 79,000, considerably more than the Mexico City earthquake measuring the same on the Richter scale killing 10,000. In the 2005 Kashmir earthquake e roads were destroyed by landslides which were triggered by earthquake actions, villages were totally cut of, rescue teams could not intervene in the rural areas. So, in the immediate aftermath of an earthquake rural areas present a very complicated challenge – huge distances have to be covered, roads are often destroyed and rural areas have few medical services. Another elements that has a major impact on the degree of devastation is the level of economic development of a country or a specific region. For less developed regions (Figure 8) the houses are made of bad material and usually they are highly populated. When an earthquake hits it is not the earthquake that kills but the houses that collapse very quickly and the inhabitants are hit by numerous objects. Additionally as many people live in such small houses evacuation is

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TOPIC II: URBAN AND RURAL PLACES TOWARD HUMAN COMFORT, HEALTH AND INCLUSION rather difficult. In urbanized sites buildings are more or less constructed for seismic actions on one hand and on the other smaller number of people are occupying these structures making it more accessible for evacuation.

Figure 20: 2005 Less economic developed countries

Less Economic Developed Countries (LEDC) suffer more from the effects of natural hazards than More Economic Developed Countries (MEDC) as they are capable of, to a certain extent, stopping the effects and they have the finances, resources and experience. LEDC's are poorly developed countries and so when it comes to natural disasters, especially earthquakes, the primary effects happen and as well the secondary effects and then the follow up effects happen. Usually in these countries and especially in their rural areas population is unaware of what is happening and what to do in such a situation. Level of hazard awareness is very low to nonexistent. This in many cases increases the number of causalities. In MEDC's and especially in urban regions plans are made and widely published, population is aware of the disaster and to a certain extent prepared. In this respect some of the primary and secondary earthquake effects could be prevented. So, people are lost LEDC's while money is lost in MEDC's. Additionally once the earthquake hits a LEDC's area, as it lack in good communication, power and water supply, has limited medical facilities, this all leads difficulties for emergency help to get there and consequently increases the possibility of diseases and overall increase of casualties. Looking at the urban areas in LEDC's and MEDC's it is obvious that LEDC's is more likely to be at a greater risk form natural hazards than an urban area in an MEDC's. Generally MEDC's have more money than LEDC's therefore can predict natural hazards and prepare for natural hazards. This indicates that earthquake effects will have a different impact on the same type or area, "urban" depending on the economic development.

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In urban areas, the level of adequate engineering seismic design and construction is another aspect. Existence of engineering seismic design does not ensure proper construction on the site. A typical example is Turkey, a seismic prone zone, which has been affected by numerous earthquakes from Erzincan in 1992, Kocaeli in 1999, Bingol in 2003 and so on. Turkey has very strict codes (Turkish Earthquake Code) for seismic actions, however still many structures especially reinforced concrete residential buildings were destroyed and heavily damaged. There are a lot of various reasons for the damage in reinforced concrete buildings due to seismic actions. However, the main reason is the use of material of poor quality. River sand and pebbles are used in the production of concrete and it is used manually. The ready mixed concrete plants which have been recently installed, have not been operated sufficiently and local river sand and pebbles are used in the production of ready mixed concrete. If the Turkish Earthquake Code (2007) is applied as it should, the damage reasons resulting from the inadequacy of design will be minimized. However, the most important problem in Turkey is that the workmanship and the materials are of poor quality. Further, characteristics of the earthquake itself have a direct impact on the degree of deviations: magnitude, distance from the epicenter, focal depth etc. If the distance from the village or town is smaller and the focal depth is smaller the devastation will be higher regardless is this an urban or a rural area. It does not play a role here as the energy dissipation will be rather high and destruction will be enormous. Effects of rural vs urban are connected as well to the weathering conditions when the earthquake hits. The 2005 Pakistan earthquake hit during October and the people that survived the quake but became homeless probably got hyperthermia or other illnesses caused by exposure to cold weather. On the other hand if the earthquake strikes in summer people trapped under the rubble will die faster due to lack of water. Additionally, hearth diseases will rapidly increase due to bacteria development at high temperatures. In the rural areas this might have a higher implication due to lack of water supply and electricity if highly populated, where as it might have a smaller impact on the urban area of high economic development, but this cannot be stated as a fact.

CONCLUSION There are so many things affecting the earthquake impact that it is not possible to give a direct answer regarding weather urban or rural areas are more or less affected by earthquake actions, being primary or secondary. It is evident that if the population density is higher that most probably the number of casualties will be higher as well. However, the other aspect cannot be looked solo. It is seen that a rural area can have a more devastation scenario than an urban one depending on various features, and vice versa. Aftermath scenario could be and most of the times it is more severe for rural areas as well as for LEDC's in comparison with urban and MEDC's. The answer is never straightforward and never simple as it might seem at the first glance.

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REFERENCES (STYLE: TITLE OF THE PARAGRAPH) 1985 Mexico City Earthquake, United States Geological Survey Earthquake code /TDY2007 (IBC/ASCE, Eurocode) Earthquake Reconstruction and http://www.erra.pk/eq2005.asp

Rehabilitation

Authority,

Government

of

Islamic

Republic

of

Pakistan,

Gurda, John (1999). "Foreword".The Making of Milwaukee. Milwaukee County Historical Society. p. vii. http://population.city/world/ Accessed Aril 7, 2017 http://www.census.gov/geo/www/ua/2010urbanruralclass.html. Accessed April 2, 2017 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake. Accessed April 7, 2017 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_area. Accessed March 2, 2017 https://www.thoughtco.com/seismic-hazard-maps-of-the-world-1441205. Accessed March 6, 2017 Interdisciplinary Observations on the January 2001 Bhuj, Gujarat Earthquake. World Seismic Safety Initiative Earthquakes and Megacities Initiative O. Isler. 2018 Seismic Performances and Typical Damages of Beam-Column Joints in the RC Buildings, The 14 th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering October 12-17, 2008, Beijing, China, pp.1-6

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THE ARCHITECTURE OF GARDEN AS NEW RECREATION FIELD OF EVERYDAY URBAN LIFE Ana Zorić 73 Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Igor Rajković Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Nebojša Fotirić Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper explores possibilities of the implementation of the garden in the context of everyday urban life, as a new field of recreation and leisure activity, using the research by design method to investigate its potentials in the contemporary context. The paper is based on the results of student’s research conducted on the academic course Recreation - Contemporary Design Aspects, as a part of the Master studies at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, within the main topic concerning relationship between open space and leisure time. Referring to theoretical grounds, gardens represent minimal “universes”, with the potential integration of various spaces and locations incompatible with each other. Gardens are fragments of nature, different and desirable within the urban everyday life, but also the bearers of ideas of the integration of landscape as the primary medium in the construction of urban area. On the other hand, the idea of recreation and leisure activities is guided by the human’s desire to step out of everyday life, but at the same time, to stay closely linked with other life activities. By this means, recreation opens broad field for creative actions that could transform everyday urban life and refine its space. In this research, architecture is recognized as a tool for creative harmonization of diverse programs, forms and experiences of built and unbuilt, through the application and invention of new forms of recreational spaces and programs. Through the idea of recreation as a universal program recognized as a modern need, research by design opens new opportunities and explores diverse ways of new urban - natural synergy relying on the potentials of the single garden in contemporary context. Keywords: recreation, garden, nature, architecture of leisure time

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Analysis of the modern city and life in it, we observe phenomena that indicate defects of contemporary urban everyday life. Full built structure and consistency of sensitivity indicate the absence of the dynamics of space and experience. On the other hand, new leisure time activities appear as a need for negating daily routine. The need for new and different spaces and programs indicates a critical attitude of users towards the contemporary city and need to change it, transform it and improve life in it. The idea of the city changing imposes applications of the garden, as atypical space for the urban environment. The ambiance of nature returns spontaneity that the city lacks, opens fields of recreation and relaxation, and makes the more dynamic experience of the urban environment. Their flexibility allows the adaptation of unused fragments of the city space and creating of the complete balanced urban landscape, but also accepting and combining various programs and functions in the garden. This way, gardens as a critique of the city space and recreation as a critique of functions of the contemporary city become a creative field of new forms of spatial - program operations. A wide range of physical abilities of garden and forms of activity and passivity of leisure time belonging to recreation, open the possibility of their mutual combination and creative transformation of cities through new forms of architecture.

THE POTENTIALS OF THE GARDEN IN CONTEMPORARY URBAN CONTEXT Analyzing the meaning and scope of the concept of the garden from the aspect of empirical and aesthetic theories, but also contemporary phenomenological theories, we recognize its modern potentials. Empirical and aesthetic theories of the 18th century interpreted garden as a recreational area with emphasized sensuality and experience (Whately, 1770). Describing ruin as an integral part of the romantic gardens, identified their ambiance and scenic character as the idea of spontaneous releasing nature that state of ruin symbolized, what distinguishes the importance of the natural environment for the function of recreation, relaxation, and spontaneity. On the other side, Michel Foucault characterized the phenomenon of the garden as a kind of heterotopia (Foucault, 1986), or place with nature differs from the environment. In the case of the garden, it refers to the ability to accept a variety of spaces and locations incompatible with each other. The garden is universal, overall heterotopia as the smallest fragment of the world and nature. Recognizing its timeless nature emphasizes the qualities of flexibility and compatibility of the garden with other areas and functions of the modern city. The original meaning of the garden is primarily linked to the rural areas, where it is a dominant element of the spacefunctional rural unit. In contrast to villages, cities dominate by the built structure, which is the bearer of their function as well as their appearance. Modern theoretical approaches to analyzing the problems of the modern city, such as the built density, pollution and imbalance of natural and built structure, recognize the idea of the garden as the holder of restoring the balance of the cities of today. Garden as a fragment of the landscape has been recognized as an innovative factor in the urban landscape of desirable modern city (Waldheim, 2006). This approach emphasizes the idea of the city landscape that is equally constituted of the natural and artificial space-functional fragments. Open urban spaces thus become the operation field of different disciplines in order to overcome differences in polarity, such as built structures and natural landscapes (Pollak, 2006). Garden cultivation, as a potential function of the

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redefinition of the city space, can be the holder of the idea of integration of the landscape as the primary medium in the construction of new urban space. Based on the previously presented theoretical interpretation of the garden, it has a specific group of potentials for the modern urban environment. Ambiental potentials are related to the colorful aesthetic and presence of nature that stimulates senses, emotions, and experience. Program potentials include a variety of functions related primarily to recreation and relaxation but also represents the connective field for other functions as a kind of universal heterotopia. The aforementioned character of heterotopia continues to the group of physical potentials, by the interpretation of the garden as a universal, adaptable space that connects disparate places and locations. As a fragment of nature, it is a suitable connective factor of the balanced urban landscape.

LEISURE ACTIVITIES AS NEED OF THE MODERN CITY Contemporary context of the global connection transformed the modern city in the process of accelerated lifestyle, which ignores the diversity and sensuality. The dominant built structure, constructed as the bearer of such context, in an attempt to fill in and homogenize urban system, products separation and segregation, eliminating local specificity, individual needs and thus neglecting the individual spaces, social groups and subjects. This condition produces unbalanced built structure without sensuality and dynamism of experience and on the other hand a critical attitude of users noticeable on the expression of new needs, activities, and practices. Through the idea of recreation Lefebvre connects both identified problems, calling it a spontaneous criticism of everyday life (Lefevbre 1959). Considering that the world of recreation is created by man’s desire to jump out of everyday life, besides its close connection with other domains of life, recreation realizes new possibilities in relation to them. In this way, recreation is established as a complex of activities and passivity, forms of sociability and communication which extend its scope and potential. Relying on the Torkidsen’s definition of recreation as an imprecise term that is related to the category or remaining and free time, it includes the operations taking place in the space of the specific features and realized through the experience (Torkidsen, 2005). By Interpretation of the meaning and purpose of recreation in modern conditions, we gain an idea of its scope and vagueness and conclude that its clear forms of expression are interdependent categories of free time and a specific place. According to that, its main purpose is to make the recreational experience. According to Williams, the perception and experience are the benefits of dealing with recreational activities and their value is only achieved in the correlation of activities and context (Williams, 1995). The value is realized as the physical, emotional or psychological reward of feeling that something is being done. Recreational experience is a state of mind which is the result of interaction between the participants in recreation and their real or imagined environment (Lee & Shafer, 2002). The range of this field extends in relation to the characteristics of the area where the activity takes place. This fact emphasizes the importance of spatial and environmental components, in relation to the aim of gaining the desired impression inside it. The significance of the spatial component Williams and Roggenbuck explain by the dependence

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION of the location that is related to functional use, and the ability of space to support desired recreational experiences (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1992). On the other hand, the identity of the place indicates the importance of the spatial context specifics. In this sense, the spatial component refers to an emotional and symbolic meaning of relation of people and recreation areas. Beside experiential and physical, the functional context of recreation has an important role in the modern city. As a kind of criticism of the space segregation, recreation by Lefebvre is a form of assembly and connecting the city (Lefevre, 1996). As such, it includes sports, theater, cinema, fairs, collective games and other actions that activate spaces and connects actors. Assuming gatherings, artistic, spontaneous and spatially specific practices, it is a phenomenon that has a physical manifestation trough spontaneous and direct practices (Živković, 2015), which connects the whole city by acting in fragments. Based on the above interpretation of the meaning and scope of recreation in contemporary urban context, we get the idea of its flexibility in a physical, functional and experiential sense, depending on the parameters dictated by the environment. The potentials of this flexibility are precisely in the creative freedom of articulation of these parameters in order to achieve desired effects in modern city space. Achieved effects contribute to the dynamics of experience, activation of individual spaces and spontaneously connecting of city spaces.

ARCHITECTURE AS A TOOL FOR COMBINING OF THE BUILT AND NATURAL BY RECREATIONAL PROGRAMS According to the analyzed characteristics of the contemporary urban environment, we recognize the problems of spatial segregation and lack of sensuality. They manifest themselves in space through disrepair of some areas of the city and imbalance of built and natural structure. In contrast to physical manifestation, the experience of the city is characterized by a uniform and monotonous character. At the level of the user, on the one hand, the result is a blasée state (Simmel, 1948), and on the other spontaneous appearance of new activities as a critical reaction to the environment. There is a spontaneous need for dynamics of activities and experiences in the areas of free space and time, with the intention to jump out of everyday life. Recognizing the similarity of analyzed potentials of the garden and the aims of recreation, we establish a new field of spatial - program relations with the idea of contribution the urban everyday life. Exploring innovative forms of recreation we find its new fields of contributions to the contemporary city. According to explored, gardening can become a new form of recreation in the city. On the other side, in relation to the perceived deficiencies of urban areas, the garden becomes broad of the city redefining. In this way, recreation and garden open up the possibility of creative combining, and architecture becomes a tool for implementation of their new forms into the system of the city. Architectural Design, as a creative method which connects spaces with their users, in this research has been recognized as a way of the realization of spatial manifestations of garden and recreation in an urban context. This way creates new forms defined as the architecture of leisure time, which would be analyzed on

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student’s research conducted on the academic course Recreation - Contemporary Design Aspects, as a part of the Master studies at the University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture.

Architecture of leisure time The attitude of some fragmented city spaces and recreational activities, established through the idea of the garden becomes the theme of research by design. Student’s research conducted on the academic course Recreation Contemporary Design Aspects, through this theme in a practical way, posted several important questions: treating abandoned fragments of the city, the role of nature in the city's everyday life, and the modern conception of recreation in the analysis of daily needs of the user. This way, the research establishes the aspects for recognizing the values of the garden as a recreational program - in relation to the general characteristics of the modern city area, as well as the specifics of individual spaces (table 1). The benefits of research by design are precisely in the independence of the entrenched values and standards that make clear limits of spaces and functions in contemporary urban context, even though they naturally tend to be mixed and connected. Urban fluidity makes real confusion of activities that need to be spatially articulate. Creative approach, relying on the recognition of values of the observed local context in relation to the contemporary environment, developments, and trends, creates new image completely liberated. This process as such is the best way for consideration of the real situation, through new perspectives and visions. Combining of design methods and student’s own interpretation of the given theme architecture of leisure time, they gave their views of some city spaces, which can be divided into 2 groups: garden as a way of reviving the individual fragments of the city and garden as a recreational program of housing in the urban everyday life.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Table 4: Garden as new recreation field of everyday urban life through architecture of leisure time

garden

potentials

recreation

ideas

Contribution

sensuality, ambiance, vividness

(Whately, 1770) universal heterotopia (Foucault, 1986)

stimulant relaxation and recreation

practice with the aim of recreational experiences (Torkidsen 2005) a wide range of activities and passivities

(Lefebvre 1959)

experience as the aim of recreation (Williams 1995)

the dynamics of experience in the city

the fragmented structure as part of the landscape (Waldheim, 2006; Pollak, 2006) nature as a critique of the urban environment (Edensor,2007)

fulfilling city voids

leisure activities act in fragments (Haydn & Temel, 2006; Bishop & Williams, 2012)

balance to built structure

recreation as a critique of everyday urban life (Lefebvre 1959)

flexibility and adaptability to all areas and programs

(architecture of leisure time)

Combining spatial possibilities of the garden and leisure activities (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1992) free spaces for free time

(Lefevre, 1996)

new forms of recreational activities

research of new spatial and functional forms (Williams, 1995)

innovative spatial and functional suggestions for urban everyday life transformation

engagement of neglected urban spaces and balanced city landscape

Garden as a way of reviving the individual fragments of the city Projects of this group are related to abandoned and neglected areas of the city, with the aim of their reviving through recreation. Projects represent recognizing the values of their state, which initiate implementation of recreational activities that best fit into the recognized space identity and specificity, historical and natural values, but also represent an adequate response to contemporary forms of use of the location. Garden as a modern way these spaces come to life, appears under the influence of experience of naturalness and spontaneity of empty urban spaces, as an exceptional value that should be used and emphasized. Besides reviving abandoned spaces of the city, the aim of these projects was also exploring new activities that belong to the leisure time and can be classified as recreational (Figure 1). On the one hand, plant cultivation and gardening represent new forms of recreation in the city. On the other hand, natural park ambiance of the garden is the place of peace in the crowd of the modern city and kind of criticism

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of contemporary context, offering relaxation and enjoyment of nature as forms of leisure activities. The results of this research group are the activation of abandoned fragments of the city through activities initiated by contemporary needs of users, emphasizing the value of the specific areas in the city and their connection to the rest of the city landscape.

Figure 21: Stefan Gašparević, Orchard at the area of Summer Theatre Stage in Topčider (left), and Jelena Memarović, garden as a way of reviving abandoned industrial zone in Belgrade (right), student projects at Recreation – Contemporary Design Aspects class

Garden as recreational program of housing in the urban everyday life These projects rely on the idea of the flexibility of the garden and recreation, and their fitting in other everyday functions and activities. Research is related to the study of family housing projects, with the idea of the garden as an extension of the house, and plant cultivation as a form of recreation. The study was primarily inspired by produced form of the family house, but also by deficiencies of modern urban context. Guided by the idea that outer space is an important part of the family house, students try to compensate the lack of natural components in the city. Designing the garden as an integral part of the housing project, living receives a natural character, tillage and gardening becomes an integral part of family daily activities, and life in the big city changes its own character. Freedom of designing the garden as orchard or vineyard crops as part of housing opens a creative view on the scope and importance of the natural surface in the metropolis as an atypical and innovative form of entertainment, recreation, and relaxation (Figure 2). As an integral part of housing, garden care becomes a form of active recreation of the family. On the other hand, the dominant natural environment as a new context for housing in the city represents a kind of deflection from today’s conditions, means relaxation, rest and enjoy nature as part of the free time. In this way, the garden becomes an important element of family everyday life, an integral part of personal home space, but also the element of transformation the entire urban landscape.

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Figure 2: Aleksandra Milovanović, Vineyard as a recreational field of family housing in Belgrade (left), Ivana Nešić, Fields as space of entertainment and education in the city (central), and Stefani Poštić, Garden as part of family housing (right), student projects at Recreation – Contemporary Design Aspects class

CONCLUSIONS Research of the potentials of the garden as new recreation field of everyday urban life opens issues related to the spatial and functional deficiencies of the modern city. Recognizing the problems of abandoned city spaces on one side, and the monotony of everyday life in the city on the other, research by architectural design becomes the creative method of transforming urban areas by responding to the daily needs of the user. Different from the studies that deal with the same subject through theory, research by design find a large number of solutions that can be implemented directly in a specific area. Using spatial and functional flexibility of the garden, on the process of architectural design on the academic course Recreation - Contemporary Design Aspects, it becomes a tool of space-functional improvement of life in the city. According to that, student research opened two topics: the garden as a way of reviving abandoned spaces, and garden as a recreational program of housing in the contemporary city. Analyzing the results of the projects based on these two topics, we derived conclusions about the importance of the garden potentials that can be noticeable on two levels: the larger urban scale and the level of the user. Garden as a way of reviving abandoned spaces, on a larger urban scale promotes neglected places making them more attractive, allows increasing the number of green areas in the city, and contributes to the balance of built and unbuilt. At the level of the user, garden emphasizes the vividness of the experience of abandoned places and contributes to the dynamics of experience. As green city space, garden supports usual recreational activities, but also offers gardening as an innovative recreational program of the city. Through socializing, entertainment and relaxation, this program supports collective care for the common areas and closeness to them. Garden as a recreational program of housing in the contemporary context, on a larger urban scale, changes the perception of city living, representing open space and nature as an essential part of housing. This way, the city gets pleasant features that were only characteristic for villages until now. At the level of the user, garden as part of the housing unit contributes to the comfort of everyday life, while garden cultivation becomes obligatory family activity.

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Besides that, this activity, unexpected for an urban context, is also recreational, fun, and it promotes socialization of inhabitants.

REFERENCES

Edensor, Tim. 2007. “Sensing the Ruin.” Senses & Society, 2/2, 217-232. Foucault, Michel. 1986. “Of the Other Spaces”. Diacritics, 16/1, 22-27. Lefebvre, Henri. 1959. Dijalektički materijalizam/ Kritika svakidašnjeg života. Zagreb: Naprijed. Lefebvre, Henri. 1996. Writings on Cities. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Lee, BongKoo, and Shafer, C. Scott. 2002. “The Dynamic Nature of Leisure Experience: An Application of Affect Control Theory.” Journal of Leisure Research. 34(3), 290-310. Pollak, Linda. 2006. “Constructed Ground: Questions of Scale.” In The Landscape Urbanism Reader, edited by Waldheim Charles, 125-139. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Simmel, Georg. 1948.“The Metropolis and Mental Life.” Social Sciences III Selections and Selected Readings, vol. 2, 324-339. Torkildsen, George. 2005. Leisure and Recreation Management. London, New York: Routledge Waldheim, Charles. 2006. The Landscape Urbanism Reader. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Whately, Тhomas. 1770. Observation on modern gardening. London: Printed for T. Payne.

Williams, R. Daniel, and Roggenbuck, W. Joseph. 1989. “Measuring place attachment: Some preliminary results.” In Abstracts: 1989 Leisure Research Symposium, edited by L. H. McAvoy & D. Howard, 32. Arlington, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. Williams, Stephen. 1995. Outdoor recreation and the Urban Environment. London, NY: Routledge Живковић, Јелена. 2015. Концепт интегрисане рекреације и могућности примене у условима развоја градова Србије. Београд: Универзитет у Београду – Архитектонски факултет

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THE SCIENCE OR ART OF MAPPING? - ELABORATING THE PROCESS OF TIS CREATION IN CITY OF NIŠ Tatjana Mrđenović Assistant, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73-2 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Mapping the territory has always been an instrument to plan the actions towards it. Nowadays mapping has a wider meaning in regards to our cognition of its complexity in physical, socio-economic, natural, institutional and cultural aspects. Sustainability has opened plenty of meanings on city development from participation to systematic management of city development. The question on who decides on city development opens a discussion on ways and disciplines on its mapping. In other words the main issue is related to the source of knowledge, information and data we collect, systematize and form into our cognition of the city in whole: Is it social or scientiphic? Maybe both? The research will consult two dominant paradigms in city development: collaborative and positivistic-rational in order to track the ways on its mapping in Castell's network society. The main hypothesis is that mapping today is an artistic thing in regards to Forester's dilemma on future of urban planning and development. Hence, we need art to integrate different, more particular, worlds of the city using technology as an instrument of the process of integration. The hypothesis will be elaborated using theoretical comparison as well as case study of TIS development in City of Niš developed and implemented during UN-Habitat Settlement Integration Refugees Programme in Serbia, which was developed over the five years together with relevant stakeholders. Keywords: Mapping, GIS, Collaborative planning, Sustainability

INTRODUCTION The process of mapping will be elaborated in regards to urban and spatial development considering territory as a main subject of mapping. Territory has a wider meaning than administrative boundaries. Today, especially in line with sustainable development, territory considers integrative space, that acc. to Mrdjenovic bounds socio/economic, natural, built, cultural and institutional space including all stakeholders (Mrdjenovic, 2013). Therefore, the process of mapping should memorize fragmented pictures of our reality as well as ideas and visions of our future using both social and scientific knowledge. Following the theory of collaborative planning the main instrument of integration is Habermass's communicative action which on the other hand is criticized by Faucault in regards to it normative

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conditions that are to idealistic in global society that is colored by different power relations. Most of authors claims that this limitation defines the end of planning, however Forester thinks that we can reach consensual future using art as tool for integration. Here art stands for cognitive development of individuals and groups to reach different levels of self-awareness, creating own power of identity (as Castells says) (Habermas, 1984). The paper will discuss the power of mapping in developing cognitive elements in group decision making, where art stands for cognitive and science for structural development of group and its social capital. Therefore, the research will mostly relay on social capital theory and its development using mapping as artistic process of rewriting/rememorizing/mirroring present cognition of self and spatial environment into virtual one in order to reach higher level of awareness. TYPE OF RATIONALITY AND MAPPING Mapping has variety of meanings in regards to role and topic we consider and decide are crucial for urban development. In general „mapping is creation of maps, a graphic symbolic representation of the significant features of a part of the surface of Earth. The mapping as a process comes from Cartography (from Greek xap Ƭɳʕ ķɦaɾ tēs papyrus sheet of map, paper; and y рȹ – write) ɛ ɩ v graphein is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. In computing and data management, data is the process of creating data element mappings between two distinct data models. Data mapping is used as a first step for a wide variety of data integration tasks. On the other hand a mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. A mind map is hierarchical and shows relationships among pieces of the whole. “(www.wikipedia.org) Here is important to outline that mapping is: • Scientific, artistic and communicative process, • Cognitive process of putting data sets into hierarchical system. Therefore, we can say that the decision what should be on the map is a process of cognitive development of a group or community in order to understand better the reality and estimate their future urban, spatial and territorial development using scientific methods and techniques as well as art to represent what is agreed. Art here stands not only for aesthetic reasons, but also for making sense together or as an instrument of overcoming barriers in communicative process. So, mapping is a decision making process both instrumental and incremental. Seen as a communicative process it is strongly related to the traditions of urban decision making when it is more rational (“top-down”) or collaborative (“bottom-up”) process. The key factor in this dilemma is the type of rationality that is practiced in wider social context. Rational paradigm is based on objective rationality and positivistic approach to development. It means setting and evaluating all possible solutions and forming defined scope of action. „It is based on instrumental rationality, namely on expert’s analysis which enables setting of goals, identification of alternative courses of action, evaluation of the means by which the goals would be achieved and the creation of systems of implementation” (Bajec, 2009). In urban planning and design theory it is mostly supported with Faludi’s

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION model of planning agencies where they practice systematic and rational approach to urban development integrating different levels of governance into coordinated multi-planning system (Faludi, 1984). The main critique to rational paradigm comes from Simon’s rational constrains where it is not possible to generate and evaluate all possible alternatives because of constrains of human thinking. On the other hand Lindblom in his theory of “muddling through” says that rational approach to development is not realistic in the real politics with complexity of different interests and stands for generating solutions in incremental approach (Lindblom, 1959).Both systematic and incremental approaches have their positive and negative side. We can’t for sure perceive reality in positivistic manner, and on the other hand if we lean on incremental approach we can be in situation without any developmental options. Healy in theory of collaborative planning sees urban development as putting fragments of viewpoints and interests into common picture through communicative process of bottom-up participation in different social arenas. She argues rational paradigm saying that it is not applicable in plural society and its complexity of different interests and thoughts. On the other hand, Bajec identifies main risks for collaborative / communicative paradigm, especially in domestic context. The risk is that participants can be in situation when they do not decide based on their interests, when collaborative decision making becomes a field for manipulation. According to Habermas it means instrumental action that focuses of gaining success of individuals in contrast to strategic and communicative action that are socially oriented (Habermas, 1984) providing developmental social capital in process of strategizing development. Healy stands for Habermas's communicative action through argumentation and sees strategic development as defining framework for action, more than defining final set of actions. She says that process of urban decision making should frame development through socio-sensitive decision making, developing “hard” and “soft” infrastructure as a base for creative milieu (Healey, 1997). “A creative milieu is a place…that contains necessary preconditions in terms of “hard” and “soft” infrastructure to generate flow of ideas and inventions. Such a milieu is a physical setting where a critical mass of entrepreneurs, intellectuals, social activists, artists, administrators, power brokers or students can operate in an open-minded, cosmopolitan context and where face to face interaction creates new ideas, artifacts, products, services and institutions and as consequence contributes to economic success.” (Landry, 2005). Creative milieu can be an arena that makes preconditions for communicative action, integrating actors from different developmental sectors, as well as from public, private and civil sector through building bridges and partnership in fragmented societies. By my opinion both paradigms rational and collaborative are in line with sustainable and integrated development in plural society. Rational paradigm provides vertical and systematic integration while collaborative horizontal mediating different pictures of reality into coherent whole. Also, in plural society where interests should be recognized at all levels, integrated approach in urban decision making integrates positive factors of rational and collaborative paradigm, providing sustainable framework for development. Therefore, mapping needs

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art and creative milieu to connect fragmented cognition of space into integrated one, using both mental spaces, social knowledge and scientific one. THE PROCESS OF MAPPING IN TIS CREATION OF NIŠ SETTLEMENT PANTELEJ Territorial information system will be elaborated as an instrument in the process of cognitive and structural integration, as well as horizontal and vertical as it was elaborated previously. The attribute territorial gives to this info system the socio-spatial dimension, as the territory is seen as the space bounded by common interests. So, territory is the space that integrates different spatial dimensions that are relevant for the urban or spatial issue, and we can say it is a platform were the spaces of interest should be linked and integrated towards common interests. In line with this the territory is not something which is given by nature; it is a phenomenon that is created by people, their interests, networks, trust, and collaboration. We can say that richness of the territory is reflected by the richness of social capital developed in the process of dealing with the issue. In line with this Territorial information system in contrast with GIS is the instrument that uses GIS to integrate data to produce new information that carries developmental arrow to social capital. Therefore, the cognitive and structural elements of TIS go beyond the boundaries of one institution or organization, and initiate integrative processes of building trust, partnerships, collaboration and collective action, using creative milieu and art as a tool for integration. The question is how to start, manage the process towards horizontal and vertical integration? The following text will elaborate the process of implementation of TIS pilot project in City of Nis, Serbia in the framework of UN-Habitat Settlement Integration Refugees Programme. Process of cognitive and structural development in the community The situation in Serbia when the process of TIS implementation has started was that selected local communities had awareness of using GIS and some of them has started implementation of it inside the boundaries of one institution, digital data and data bases existed in different public companies, departments, institutions. Therefore, the approach was to start with implementation of TIS pilot projects that should integrate minimum three institutions in local community. The period of implementation was one year. The structural elements of TIS development during the period of implementation was in the constitution of two groups in local communities that was relevant for implementation of TIS. The first was coordination body, on the level of decision making which task was to bring political support to TIS development. The members of coordination body were managers of public companies, local representatives, directors of LA departments, etc. The second one was the working group, which had technical task to work on TIS development. The members of working groups came

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION from the different institutions relevant to the common issue. Both of the groups were appointed by the authority in the municipality. Before the constitution of any structural elements the first cycle of raising awareness of TIS was implemented in the municipalities in the form of interactive trainings delivered to beneficiaries of interest. The aim of the trainings was to establish common understanding „common mind map“of data and information sharing can bring to the win-win solutions in the local community as well as on the raising knowledge on TIS concept, structure and implementation. The mission of the trainings was to promote benefits TIS can bring to the community. This structural element on local level was the frame for cognitive development of social capital, as well as future structural development in the form of institutionalizing TIS after the pilot project is finished. The first element of cognitive development was the TIS Pilot Project document which was done by the members of working groups in consultation with coordination body. The Project document was consisted around the selected issue that will be dealt with in the process. The issue was elaborated on the workshops were the members of both structural elements from each municipality was present. The workshop was aimed to develop acceptance of the issue among the people in the TIS team. Methods and techniques used in the workshop were brainstorming, nominal group technique, problem tree, active listening. As an outcome from the workshop municipality selected a common issue to be dealt, defined objectives and results that will be achieved during the implementation of TIS. The issues was: Rural Development. 74 The first cycle of TIS implementation was aimed to data integration and resulted in the integrated geo-database model - conceptual and physical. The integrated data was from different sources and on cognitive level it established cooperation between institutions, departments and public companies, managed by coordination body. On structural level it resulted in metadata as well as in model diagram and personal geo-data base. The results of each municipality was presented, discussed and evaluated on the workshop. The techniques for evaluation in order to improve quality of geo-data base model were a form of group questionnaire when each team should answer and give suggestions in the group discussion. After the group elaboration the proposals for improvement were presented and discussed between WG from each municipality. (Figure 1)

After the acceptance of the TIS Pilot Project the series of trainings on how to use TIS software was organized for the members of the working groups when they gain knowledge and skills how to model data base, fill it with data, create and traduce maps, reports, diagrams. The trainings delivered technical knowledge to the people, members of th е working group in the mu

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Figure 1: Interactive territorial map with data structure The second cycle of implementation was aimed to develop thematic maps that will emphasize benefits of data integration through its visualization. Besides factographic maps showing territorial resources, the thematic maps had developmental attribute, providing integrated ‘new’ information that will enable smarter decisions in managing the territory. On cognitive level it promotes partnerships to tackle common territorial problems that go beyond boundaries. The thematic maps was created in the process of on the job training in each municipality were members of TIS working groups using technique of brainstorming, nominal group technique, elaborated themes that will be relevant to the issue as well as additional data needed for their creation, together with alpha-numeric reports, charts and diagrams. (Figures 2, 3)

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Figure 2: Average size of agricultural land per village in MU of Pantelej

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Figure 2: Way of sale of agricultural products The results of the second cycle of implementation were presented on the conference where besides the members of coordination body, working group from each municipality the representatives of relevant ministries, regional associations and other municipalities that started working on data integration was present. The conference was aimed to open dialogue on the achieved results so far and to initiate systematic work on TIS development in Serbia. The conference initiated linking dimension of social capital development, in the form of dialogue, workshops on topic of institutional and technical arrangements that should be developed in the form of norms, rules, procedures, policies and laws. The third cycle of implementation was to finalize the projects and to publish thematic maps and territorial data base in interactive manner on DVD, web and in the form of the brochure. In each form of publishing the results emphasized the benefits TIS and integration of data, visualization, and reports can bring to the community. Also, through publishing

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION the dissemination of the concept of TIS to the public has been done. Furthermore, some of the municipalities has presented their results in the form of workshop inside the community, emphasizing benefits of TIS. Mediating and facilitating the process, cognitive and structural elements The developmental dimension of social capital in the process of developing TIS was in the space dimension of its mediation and facilitation. The period of this process lasted much longer than its implementation, actually two years before the start of implementation and one year along of its process. The mediating and facilitating space was managed under the umbrella of UN-Habitat and in partnership with consultant team from the Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade 75. The whole process of designing the approach for the implementation and developing different dimensions of social capital was prepared and tailored to the conditions in Serbia both on cognitive and structural level. Each workshop, conference and training was fully prepared and tailored to the specific conditions in each municipality. On cognitive level the process was mediated and facilitated through communicative action using methods and techniques most appropriate to the existing level of social capital in each municipality. Each form of dialogue was designed towards its outcomes and inputs for the second phase of developing TIS. The facilitating and mediating team was constantly trained by UN-Habitat on the subject during the whole process. So the team was educated on cognitive techniques such as improved communication, conflict management, participatory planning, and good governance. On structural level the process was designed in the form that it was supported along the development of TIS. The development was constantly followed and guided in the communication process by consultants. Therefore, it was possible to monitor the development towards expected results. Furthermore, the break points in the form of workshops, conferences, and trainings were designed and positioned in time to reinforce developmental dimensions of social capital in form of better collaboration, integration, communication and partnerships. Trainings were on the different level from basic to advance and on the job. They had developmental characteristics in building human capital as well as social through interaction, bounding the team. Beside the structural elements for each break point and social arena, the structural elements were developed to follow in line process of TIS development in the municipalities. Structural elements along the process were rules of

National consultants for TIS within UN-Habitat SIRP: Ksenija Lalovic - senior, Tatjana Mrdjenovic - junior, Uros Radosavljevic junior 75

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communication, tools designed by consultants, intranet and forum. Each structural element reflected cognitive values to be achieved, such as transparency, information flow, accessibility, inclusiveness. The tools was designed as a support to the step-by-step elaboration of results and to follow the incremental cycles of implementation of the TIS development process. Each tool carries its cognitive elements such as purpose of the tool, how to use it, which steps to follow and related techniques to be applied, which equipment/materials are necessary, how to document achieved results. The set of TIS tools included: conceptual database model table; matrix of data sources, users and typology of data; data sharing protocol; database model diagram; rules of acquisition, digitalization, and storing of data; rules for the elaboration of maps and layouts; metadata structure. The tools focus on roles each member of the team had and support interaction, participation, team-work throughout the process of implementation. Intranet provided accessibility to the relevant documents and materials during the process of implementation. Each member of the working team had its own accessibility with different permissions. The intranet provided structural platform for sharing support materials provided by consultants, documents produced by municipality working groups, etc. On the other hand forum was designed to share experiences between TIS municipality working groups on different topics during the implementation period. As a support in using the platforms TIS consultants developed guidelines how to use it. CONCLUSIONS The research showed that mapping isn’t either scientific or artistic discipline. However, in regards to definition of territory which is an integration of all developmental factors (economy, society, environment, culture, institutions) and actors that comes from public, private, civil sector, mapping is a process of raising awareness where we are through development of basic maps, and where we want to be using ICT tools and instruments for data integration and representation on which the community has agreed and achieved common sense on where they want to be. In that manner mapping is also the art of cognitive development of individuals and groups on the reality and future development. The case study showed that art in modern mapping stands for cognitive development, using both faceto face an on-line communication for defining the space for common understanding, which will be further mapped using TIS or Collaborative GIS in order to provide incrementalism and integration of different pictures of the world. „Collaborative GIS can be defined as an eclectic integration of theories, tools, and technologies focusing on, but not limited to structuring human participation in group spatial decision process.”(Balram and Dragićević, 2006:3).

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REFERENCES Book: Balram S., Dragićević, S. (2006), Collaborative Geographic Information Systems, Idea Group Publishing, Melburne Faludi, A. (1984). Planning Theory. Oxford: Pergamon press. Habermas, Beacon Press.

Ј. (1984). The Theory Communicative Action of - Volume One: Reason and the Rationalization of Society. Boston:

Healey, P. (1997). Collaborative Planning: Shaping Places in Fragmented Societies. London: MACMILLAN PRESS. Landry, C. (2005). The Creative City: A Toolkit for Urban Innovators. London: Earthscan. Journal article: Bajec, N. L. (2009). Rational or collaborative model of urban planning in Serbia: Institutional limitations. Serbian Architectural Journal , 81-106. Lindblom, C. (1959). The Science of Muddling Through. Public Administration Review,19 , 79-88. Mrđenović, T., (2013) Capacity issues in local communities for integral urban regeneration , 2013, iss. 38, pp. 9-16, Internet source:

www.wikipedia.org

Additional note: The research is a result of scientific project: Spatial, ecological, energy and social aspects of spatial development and climate change – mutual relations, funded by Ministry of education and science Republic of Serbia.

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THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE PROCESS OF ENHANCING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION THROUGH BOTTOM-UP APPROACH IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN REGENERATION Ana Martinović PhD student at University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Architecture, Ljubljana, Slovenia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Technological progress is having a great influence on many aspects of urban development processes, which is sometimes, especially in developing and post-conflict areas difficult to balance with the already established patterns of urban development inherited from the past. Today, more and more new approaches in urban planning processes are being questioned. The bottom-up planning approach, a technique already used in many cases, is particularly worth noting when discussing developing and post-conflict areas. In a situation where the city administration fails due to its sluggishness in reacting is the moment when active citizenship in the form of non-governmental organizations and other associations can act more efficiently. As an urban regeneration model, particularly in postconflict areas, the bottom-up approach can play a great role in enhancing community participation and social inclusion. An inevitable part of any process or action initiated by using the bottom-up approach is its presence on social media. What is the relation of social media with the bottom-up approach initiatives? How important is it for any initiative to be heard by the public? What is the overall effect of social media on real actions and interventions? Does social media contribute to the enhancement of community engagement or is it doing the opposite – allowing the participants to hide behind it and only act passively? Is there a relationship between social media and social sustainability initiatives? The intent of this paper is to provide answers to this and similar questions. The presented issue is examined in the context of urban regeneration initiative applied to a case study of the former Žitopromet factory in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: Community participation, Bottom-up approach, Social media, Urban regeneration

PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES AND URBAN REGENERATION IN THE NETWORK SOCIETY The fast progress of new information and communication technologies over the last few decades has led to significant changes in all areas of human life. In particular, social media have infiltrated as main tools of communication and interaction between different users on global level. According to an URBACT report, the statistics show that 68% of European population is using social media, which represents a significant number of its population [URBACT, 2016].

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION In developing and post-conflict countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, the percentage of Internet users is quite high. A 2016 research shows that as many as 72,41 % of people across Bosnia and Herzegovina are Internet users [EUROSTAT,2016]. Development of these new technologies is also having a potentially significant influence on urban regeneration and development processes on both, a global and local scale. Today, in contrast with the traditional top-down models of urban planning, the new digital era with its numerous possibilities regarding new communication technologies has provided new opportunities for the governing structures to create dialogue with their citizens, to find out their specific needs and desires and allow them to participate in urban planning and regeneration processes. In the report Cities of Tomorrow – Challenges, visions, ways forward [European Commission, 2011] it is pointed out that new governance models based on citizens’ empowerment, participation of all relevant stakeholders and innovative use of social capital are needed. The report also stressed that new design and delivery models are needed, and that cities must adopt innovative approaches to major social challenges. The latter is particularly important in damaged post-conflict societies. The benefits of incorporating participatory approaches in urban regeneration processes have been widely explained in scientific literature. Also broadly examined was the power of participation in enhancing collaboration between the stakeholders in achieving their mutual goals. Participation is closely linked to the Right to the city concept which Purcell named as a fundamental ingredient of a necessary new model of urban citizenship. The first concepts of right to the city set by the French sociologist and philosopher Henri Lefebvre described in his 1968 Le Droit a la Ville, gained various meanings in different fields including citizenship, urban studies, human rights and development [Purcell, 2003]. This concept is especially worthy of attention when discussing bottom-up approaches in post-conflict areas where an obvious need for strengthening of identity and rebuilding lost social connections exists. Harvey [Harvey, 2008] stresses out that the right to the city is far more than the individual liberty to access urban resources: it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city. Both the right to the city and the bottom-up approaches are particularly sensitive themes in post-conflict areas where it is essential to obtain the trust of the community that is often lost due to the changes in the governing structures and poor decision-making processes which happened in the past. In this situation digital technologies and social media can possibly serve as a tool to bridge the gap between the community and the governing structures as well as between all the stakeholders involved in the process of urban regeneration. Furthermore, it can serve to promote the visibility of all the actions conducted by either the citizens’ initiatives or the governing structures and ensure the community’s feedback and vice versa. Social networks can improve the participation of users, producing creativity and allowing knowledge circulation [Lorusso, 2014]. The interaction between a high amount of users on a social network can be used as a platform for sharing ideas. Potentially, social media can become a fruitful base of tools for delivering sustainable community participation. By their intent to nurture participatory approaches in the 21st century communities are facing with new model of participation – online social participation. This asks for further investigations regarding how this new model of participation can be used and applied in real participatory actions regarding urban regeneration in cities. The intent of this paper is to provide an answer to this question by examining the case study of urban intervention that took place in the former Žitopromet factory in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Relationship between community participation and social media participation through bottom-up approach Urban areas are live organisms filled with dynamic processes of active communities with a right to take part in the changes and the development of their environment. Governing structures and institutional frames are responsible for allowance of how and to what extent the community will participate in the decision-making processes. In many cases the institutional frame is too rigorous and sluggish, and therefore it is hard to achieve satisfying results of community participation. The bottom – up planning approach, a technique already used in many cases is often the best way to make a change in the city structure which has particularly been seen in reusing neglected heritage buildings. In a situation where the city administration fails due to its sluggishness to react is the moment when active citizenship in the form of different kinds of non-governmental organizations and other associations can act more efficiently. The bottom-up approach can be defined as a locally initiated development from assets contained in a defined area, like a neighbourhood or a city. The literal interpretation of the bottom-up direction can imply that small interventions in the initial phase are followed by medium and, later, large scale interventions. This growth of scale also applies to the power of stakeholders in the development process, which should be initially low and, eventually, high [Karge, Makarenko, 2014]. Many known successful actions are coming from this more active citizen participation. In the light of broader use of social media worldwide it is necessary to examine what is the role that these new technologies are having in encouraging communities to participate in urban regeneration processes through the bottom-up approach. Social networking sites have presented the opportunity for an online community participation. However, it remains to question how this online participation can be used tangibly as a part of real community participation. Many bottom-up approaches are using the online platforms to enhance visibility of their actions and to include the community in reaching their broader goals. Social media participation represents a great potential as a way to increase the motivation and the will of users to participate in bottom-up actions.

BACKGROUND OF THE CASE STUDY The strategy inherited from the socialist period, the top-down planning approach, has been commonly used in all of the ex-Yugoslavia countries. Today, due to the fact that the cities are having a new dimension regarding all the political, economic and social restructuring that they have been going through, in more and more cases it is notable that the top-down approach is slowly getting outdated in order to deal with the ongoing city-wide problems. The political restructuring in particular, seen at the beginning of the 1990’s, has led to more spatial and social inequalities. The transition from socialism to capitalism that occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina after Yugoslavia fell apart, had a great effect in the destabilization of the cities identity among other things. The country has not experienced a slow transition to capitalism: it came suddenly and brought along also the process of globalisation that the country was not yet ready for. The blossoming of the new economy has overpowered familiar systems for city decision-making which has led to a period of an unplanned construction boom without following of any kind of regulations. Factors

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION essential for city planning - architectural values, spatial measures, social needs, heritage preservation – were all ignored to a large extent during this period. As a consequence, the city has been separated from its citizens, making more room for and paying more attention to the needs of the economy and less to the social needs of the community. This is particularly notable in poor dealing with architectural heritage which is still facing numerous problems. Nonrecognition of heritage and failure of the public institutions to provide legal protection of heritage structures in some cases forced citizen actions and NGOs to act on their own in order to protect these structures.

Urban regeneration issues in developing and post-conflict contexts In post-conflict areas, as Calame argues, cities suffered severe losses and depended on international aid in the reconstruction process, but due to weak city administration and lack of coordination between external and local communities, the reconstruction process did not achieve significant improvements in many cities, including Mostar [Calame, 2005]. Within contemporary urban regeneration strategies is imposed the concept of incorporation sustainability initiatives – economic, social and environmental. However, this is often not the case, especially in postconflict areas. The notably missing component in the regeneration processes in these areas, closely connected with reaching sustainable goals of urban regeneration, is the absence of community participation. As stated in Burra Charter, conservation, interpretation and management of a place should provide for the participation of people for whom the place has significant associations and meanings, or who have social, spiritual or other cultural responsibilities for the place [BURRA, 2013]. Regarding this matter there is an overlap in dealing with architectural heritage: regeneration of purely physical structures is often applied without previously setting long-term goals or questioning the needs of the community which often leads to unsustainable patterns being applied further. In order to conduct successful regeneration of the neglected architectural heritage, and to consequently reach urban regeneration sustainability goals, it is essential to ensure communication between all the stakeholders involved in this process [Martinovic, Ifko, 2016]. Efforts should be emphasized on improving and bringing together institutional bodies, local administration, urban planners and local community.

Urban intervention in the Žitopromet factory in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina In the post-conflict situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina accompanied by social disorder, the overall position of architectural heritage remained unrecognized and its values underestimated. In the city of Mostar problems with dealing with architectural heritage and overall urban regeneration of the city are still ongoing. With the exception of the Old Town, included on the UNESCO list, all of the other heritage sites were not recognized on the deserved level. Industrial architectural heritage imposes itself as a particularly endangered heritage category. Up to the present day the question of industrial heritage in Mostar has not been raised or any serious studies regarding the subject conducted. Reasons for this are several: the lack of relevant literature regarding industrial sites; the non-recognition of the important role that industrial complexes have as an inseparable part of urbanism, culture and society and the

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fact that after the last war which took place from 1991 to 1995 renewal projects were primarily focused on residential, educational and healthcare institutions while leaving other uses aside. Still, 20 years after, the city image is covered by war scars and due to the unplanned urbanization cityscape has been irreversibly destroyed.

Figure 1: Grain silos, mills and bakery complex location. Source: author

The case study of this research will focus on the former industrial complex of the Žitopromet factory. The complex is located in the residential area, approximately 2 km from the city centre. The complex of grain silos, mills and bakery structures has been abandoned for years. A bottom-up initiative in the form of an urban intervention in this complex took place in October 2016. This initiative served as a platform for answering the questions mentioned in the introductory part of the paper regarding the connection between online and real community participation through the bottom-up approach.

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RESEARCH METHODS: SOCIAL MEDIA AS A TOOL FOR MEASURING COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION For the purpose of this research both quantitative and qualitative research methods were applied in order to get the results. The necessary data regarding community response and participation was collected on two ways, the online participation was measured through the responses on social media that happened along with in person invitations between the community members. During the actual intervention a survey was conducted in order to gather data about the relation between real community participation and social media participation.

Figure 2: Grain silo’s of former Žitopromet factory. Source: author

Because of the open structure that social networks provide, it is possible to engage a large number of participants interested in a certain topic. In order to achieve visibility and inform the wider community of the urban intervention that was about to take place in the Žitopromet factory an account on one of the social media – Facebook – was created. As noted by Medina and Rufin, the frequency of Facebook use moderates the relationship between trust, transparency and satisfaction [Medina, Rufin, 2015]. The social media account was used as a tool to measure the spread of the event in the community and the quantitative value of online attendance in order to compare it later with physical attendance when the actual intervention took place. Besides measuring the quantity, the time of response to the event was also noted in order to measure the dissemination and flow of information.

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RESULTS: COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND SOCIAL INCLUSION ANALYSED THROUGH URBAN INTERVENTION IN ŽITOPROMET FACTORY The study of social media participation involved 893 participants. The spread of information set on the social media resulted with responses in a very short time: within the first three days of the page’s existence 82% of the total people who clicked attend on the event have responded to the invitation. The amount of time required to reach the users is certainly an advantage of using an online form of communication. Figure 1 shows the percentage of the answers gathered through social media.

Figure 3: Social media participation measured regarding the attendance to the intervention

Findings show that 221 of the total 893 users clicked attend, 105 clicked maybe and 567 users declined the invitation. The other part of the study was set on spreading the information between the community members using the doorto-door way of delivering the information. When the actual intervention took place a survey was conducted among visitors in order to measure participation. The total number of surveys was 343. The results of the survey conducted during the 4 days of the urban intervention are presented in Table 1. Table 5: Results of the survey about community participation at the urban intervention in the Žitopromet factory

Age of the visitors

0-18 18-25 25-40 40-65

Total number of surveys 75 113 89 46

How the attendants heard about the intervention Social media and Other media From another other online sources (television, radio, community member newspapers) 73 % 27 % 65% 4% 31% 43% 19% 38% 12% 35% 53%

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION >65

20

3%

52%

45%

The results show that more than 50% of younger community members, aged between 0-25 have heard about the urban intervention from social media or other online sources. This number decreases within the more adult population where it was found that for the community members in the age group 25-40, 43% who took part in the intervention heard about it from online sources while 38% expressed they found out about it from another community member. In the age group from 40 to 65 only 12% stated an online source as an information tool, and the number decreases further among the oldest members of the community, who are more than 65 years old where this percentage is only 3%. However, the results emphasise that the youngest community members use social media as a communication tool and this shows how this form of raising awareness and visibility can increase interest in this group within the community. Still, the results show that more attendees of the intervention have found out about it in another way rather than from online sources.

Figure 4: Urban intervention in Žitopromet factory – architectural workshops

An interesting finding of the research was the fact that all the other media and online sources (television, radio, and newspapers) named the social media page as their primary source of information regarding the urban intervention. This was measured by a survey conducted among other media and online sources and included 12 of them, where all 12 had the same answer about the source of the information.

Proposal for implementation of social media as a tool for enhancing community participation and visibility The social media offer a large amount of possible ways of their use as a tool in improvement of the community participation as well as in encouraging the communication between other stakeholders, that can be used in urban regeneration process. On the basis of the research results, in order to make better use of the possibilities of

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the social media during the bottom-up approach initiatives regarding community participation certain steps should be followed. Table 2: Steps for enhancement of community participation by using social media

1.

Inform the community

2.

Consult the community

3.

Ensure communication between other stakeholders

4.

Obtain the trust of the community

5.

Involvement in decision-making process

6.

Data collection

Spread the information, provide an in-depth explanation of what the matter of interest is about and how it affects the local community. Ask for feedback, set up online discussions, take into account the desires and wishes expressed by the community members, provide answers to the questions asked. Include local administration and other institutional bodies in the online participation process in order to start the communication between the community and the formal decision-makers. Ensure transparency and express clearly the goals and aims of the matter. Highlight the importance of achieving aims directly connected to the local frame. Before an action takes place, rethink all the possible shortcomings of the presented matter and include the community in finding a solution through discussions. This step is particularly important because it ensures that the community members are being a part of the entire process. Keep tracking the data collected from social media usage for further analysis and research in order to improve social media use in the bottom-up approach techniques.

One of the aims of successful bottom-up approach is strong community participation and this is why it is important to include entire community during the process. Given the above, to achieve the best bottom-up approach results it is necessary to combine different sources for enhancing social inclusion in order to reach to all the community groups. However, from the results provided above it is noted that social media can serve as a good starting point for dissemination of bottom-up initiatives as well as mediator during the entire process.

Conclusion The visibility accomplished in a very short time due to the project’s presence on social media is found as positive in the overall project visibility. Also, the high number of users that expressed their opinion about attending the urban

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION intervention in a short period of time is considered as positive. However, a difference in the number of community members who attended the intervention through online participation and real physical participation was noted. From 221 users who confirmed their attendance on social media, 170 of them responded in the later conducted survey that precisely a social network was how they found out about the intervention. This shows a notable number of community members taking part only through online participation without any real physical participation. For sure, the possibilities that social media provide are seen as positive for the overall visibility of the projects as well as a possible communication tool between the community members and other stakeholders. This should be taken seriously regarding the importance of participation as an inseparable part of a successful urban regeneration. Social media as a tool for enhancing communication and obtaining the trust of the community can be used in a great way during bottom-up approaches which is particularly important in post-conflict areas where the communication between the stakeholders is poor or non-existing. Benefits of social media as a tool for enhancing real community participation is their ability to include different groups of population, economic and social interest groups, private institutions and governing bodies. This is essential for any successful bottom-up approach, but also for urban regeneration: the inclusion of the community in order to identify strengths and weaknesses of a certain issue from their point of view. The community participation has to be included in all parts of the process, from the initial idea to the end, and social media can play a role of the mediator during this path. Social media has a great potential to be used as a tool for raising awareness and reaching the wider population, as well as for getting different interest groups together in one place ensuring mutual communication. However, the management and organization of using social media in this manner should be systematically carried out by initiators of the action in order to get desired results.

REFERENCES BEPA, 2011. “Empowering people, driving change: Social innovation in Europe. Accessed February 7, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/archives/bepa/pdf/publications_pdf/social_innovation.pdf Calame, Jon, 2005. “Divided cities and ethnic conflict in the urban domain” in Cultural Heritage in Post-war Recovery edited by Stanley-Price Nicholas. p 40-51. ICCROM Conservation studies 6, Rome Ec.Europa.2016. “Eurostat database”. Last modified January 2017. Accessed March 13, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database European Commission, DG Regional Policy, 2011. “Cities of tomorrow – Challenges, visions, ways forward. Accessed March 5, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/regionalpolicy/sources/docgener/studies/pdf/ citiesoftomorrow/citiesoftomorrow_final.pdf Harvey, David, 2008. The Right to the City, New Left Review, sept/oct 2008, 23-40. London. ICOMOS Australia, 2013. The Burra charter, The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance. http://australia.icomos.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Burra-Charter-2013-Adopted-31.10.2013.pdf

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Karge, Tony and Makarenko, Andy. 2015. “Bottom-up transformation of Frunze35 in Kiev: The role of NGO’s for Industrial Heritage.” Industrial Heritage Sites in Transformation: Clash of Discourses edited by Harald A. Mieg, Heike Oevermann. Newyork: Routledge. Lorusso, Sara, Sassano Gerardo, et al. 2014. “Involving citizens in public space regeneration: The experience of Garden in Motion”. International conference on computational science and its application, 723-737. New York: Springer International Publishing. Martinovic, Ana, and Ifko, Sonja, 2016. “Adaptive reuse and social sustainability in the regeneration processes of industrial heritage sites”. Third international academic conference on places and technologies, 669-683. Cambridge: CSP Publishing. Medina, Cayetano, and Rufin, Ramon, 2015. “Social media Use and Perception of Transparency in the Generation of Trust in Decentralized Public Services”. 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Purcell, Mark, 2003. “Citizenship and the Right to the Global City: Reimagining the Capitalist World Order”. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 27(3), 564-590. Blackwell Publishing. Urbact.2016. “Interactive cities”. April 19. Accessed March 1, 2017.http://urbact.eu/interactivecities-social-media-relationalurban-governance-interactive-cities-partnership

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CREATIVE CITY CHALLEGING CONCEPT ‘’ALL FOR ONE – ONE FOR ALL’’ Vesna Tomić Phd candidate, PE Ski Resorts of Serbia, Milutina Milankovića 9, 11070 Novi Beograd, Serbia, [email protected] Aleksandra Đukić Associate professor, PhD, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Culture and creativity are today integrated in cities everyday life, as part of official strategies or as action of group of artists and people working in cultural and creative industry. Culture and creativity are part of many concepts of urban development promoted as an acceptable response to the challenges of globalisation. If we speak of Cultural, Creative, Inclusive, Smart, Cognitive city, or any other similar concept, it is always about creating better conditions for living and creativity. Creative cities are based on communication, social networks, technology, with principles of adaptability, synergy and inclusion. As any paradigm, creative cities are challenged on many levels, in theory and in practice. It should be considered as wary important that use of culture and creativity as resource can have significant impact on society. Some arguments for and against creative cities will be presented in this paper, especially according its influence on the public space, individual rights and inclusion. This paper will present case study of Savamala, cultural and creative neighbourhood in Belgrade, as an example of public involvement and creating public space in creative city. Keywords: Creative city, inclusion, Belgrade

INTRODUCTION ‘’City in crisis’’, ‘’Globalization problems’’ or ‘’Sustainability’’, are high topics, today, viewed and challenged at different levels and from many different perspectives. Culture and creativity are seen as one of possible answers on a way to achieve “successful city” and are promoted as an acceptable or even sustainable response to the challenges of globalization. They are integrated in everyday life of cities today, as a part of official strategies or as an action of group of artists and people, working in cultural and creative industry. If we speak of Cultural, Creative, Inclusive (Landry, 2000), Smart (Komnios, 2008; Townsend, 2013), Cognitive city (Novak, 1997; Tusnovics, 2007), or any other similar concept, it is always about creating better conditions for living and creativity (Djukić, at. all, 2016).

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One of advantages of creative industry, as Richards, Wilson are pointing out, is their tendency toward clustering and tendency of creative producers to cluster close to the centre of the cities, which opens possibilities for the regeneration of run-down inner city areas (Richards, Wilson, 2007). Culture is included in urban regeneration as means for stimulating physical regeneration, animating parts of a city and producing benefit for the economy and the society. What is recognized as attractive in the creative city theory, if we look at Florida’s theory, is an affirmative approach based on known principles and acknowledged strategies, attempting to offer a part of the answer to current problems and processes. Those strategies are required to have an optimal and acceptable influence on social development, social justice, and environmental preservation and to secure continuous economic development for a longer time to come (Tomić, 2013). Creative city is expected to create more job opportunities, more leisure activities, healthier environment, culture promotion, social security and greater involvement of its citizens in the city strategies and everyday life (Djukić, at. all, 2016). The question is, are those concepts reaching expected benefits or are they failing? The competitive values as identity, authenticity, continuous regeneration and vitality, depends on creative people, social network and inclusion. As any paradigm, cultural, creative city have strong arguments for and against. The discussion starts in 1970’s, and the scope was changing, as the needs of society and the cultural politics where changing. The late 1990’s, brought a social turn in cultural politics and priorities where changed, so that the economic impact has been less stressed out and local and participatory cultural activities became more important (Stojanović, at. all, 2012).

CULTURAL, CREATIVE CITY – CHALLENGING CONCEPT AND PHENOMENA Cultural, creative cities are based on the concept of consumption (Ritzer, 1999), and include creative environment that encourages innovation, creativity, knowledge-based economy, technology, culture, experience and developed social networks, with principles of adaptability, synergy and inclusion. Analysing phenomenon of cultural clustering strategies in the Netherlands, Mommaas, concluded that they are successful if they are developed as inclusive, integrative and multidimensional (Mommaas, 2004). Some of the strategies of creative cities imply that the city as a whole must be involved in the creative process (Richards, Wilson, 2007), or according to marketing experts, the city is no longer seen as a product, but as an enterprise. Implementing the techniques of place marketing should not rely just on the marketing mix, but more on the other abstract characteristics that have much greater importance, such as identity, image and performance (Djukić, at. all, 2016). The basic contradiction of those concepts lies in their relation to the consumption ideology. Adorno criticize practice of cultural industry, pointing out that culture is assimilated and integrated into profit motive processes and that create a shift that actually debase human beings and affects their individuality (Adorno, 1975.). Altough this could not be denied, the point of criticism changed in 1980s as those strategies where becoming more sophisticated and where creating new interrelation between culture, society and the economy (Bianchini, 1993). These strategies are being

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION developed both vertically and horizontally, to be inclusive, process-oriented, integrative and multidimensional, and there are different actors in completely new roles. Financing projects of cultural clusters are increasingly being implemented as a public-private partnership (Mommaas, 2004). Nevertheless, the question, Mommaas stressed out, should be taken into a consideration, regarding motives and legitimacy in the cultural strategies, whether it is a real interest in the development of culture or Zukin was right, no matter original intention, it is just a ‘’functionalization’’ of culture in the context of ‘’a recentralized landscape of consumption’’ (Mommaas, 2004, pp 508-509). Social turn in cultural politics was part of process that brought to Inclusive city concept. This was a result of a need to overcome the consequences of economic, social and political restructuring (Gerometta, at all, 2005). UN habitat defined inclusive city: “It is a place where everyone, regardless of their economic means, gender, race, ethnicity or religion, is enabled and empowered to fully participate in the social, economic and political opportunities that cities have to offer” (UN habitat, 2001, p.3). At the same time, as social equity was seen as one of essential part of creating sustainable city, the involvement of the community, the development of social networks (Putnam, 2000, at Richards, Wilson, 2007), investment in human resource (Florida, 2002 at Langdon, 2004) were seen as basic elements of urbo-economic development. Both concepts are complementary and they are depending on creating opportunity for their goals to be achived. In Florida’s theory of Creative class Yucht recognize main premises within this theory: natural resources were the basic capital for the most part of human history, but today these are creative people; this new, key economic resource – creative people – is highly mobile, looking for places distinguished by tolerance and diversity; to achieve economic development and vitality, regions need to understand and cultivate Florida's three "T" – talent, technology and tolerance, that form the creative index (Yucht, 2006, Tomić, 2013). Landry (2006) identifies seven groups of factors that are needed in implementation of the concept of creativity: 1) personal qualities; 2) will and leadership; 3) human diversity and variety of talent; 4) organizational culture; 5) local identity; 6) urban spaces and buildings; and 7) networking. He implies that cities can achieve a satisfactory level of creativity if some of these factors are present, but that they would achieve the best creative performances if all factors are there. (Landry, 2006, at Stojanović, 2012) Cultural and creative city strategies and projects are implemented through different organizational and spatial forms. The role of public financing is important but there are more projects with a different forms of coalitions with private enterprises and investors, and projects could be results of top–down planning, bottom–up organic growth, or as their mixture (Mommaas, 2004). In his analyses of cultural clusters Mommaas didn’t favor any of mentioned strategies, but he pointed out that it is problematic to plan these places from scratch, because it depends, as he cited van Vliet ‘’on the cultural atmosphere of the environment’’ (Mommaas, 2004, pp. 10). Different strategies have different methods, Richards, Wilson point out that there are four main types of stimulating economic development: iconic structure, creating and changing image, as Gugenhaim museum in Bilbao; heritage mining, using perserved historic buildings and quarters; mega-events, as Olimpic games, World Expos, EU City of Culture; thematisation, as New York ’’cultural capital of the world’’ or Stocholm, Bruges as ’’Venice of the North’’ (Richards, Wilson, 2007).

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As Baily suggests the success of creative city strategies rely on pre-existing collective sense of local identity (Bailey, at all, 2004). Increasingly, the initiators of the process of creating public spaces of cultural and creative industry rely on attracting people, not capital, as it was formerly usual practice (Smidt-Jensen, 2007). There are present problems of loss of identity through mass production and consumption (Dall, 2002). Analysing cultural tourism, Gronay and Panikkos underline standardisation and creation of series of stereotypical attractions, with flagship museums and galleries, bars and restaurants, which did not follow tourist demand for authenticity (Gronay, Panikkos, 2008), as it was a matter of creating strategies by following one successful formula. Authenticity is important for tourists and it means experience of something different, opposite of standardisation and globalisation (Laliberte, 2005). It must be considered that not well ‘tailored’ plans can lead to failure of the project or affect the community itself. It can happen that local culture is marginalized, or that ‘’the promised prosperity did not arrive, while the aestheticizing of space led to gentrification’’ (Miles, 2013). Cultural and creative city concept is complex phenomena, and there is no single formula for achieving a success (Mommaas, 2004). Florida brought 3T formula, Richard, Wilson stressed out main methods and Landry identifies seven groups of needed factors for successful implementations of cultural strategies. Those strategies depends on organizational forms and skills, inner resources, capability to create social networks and adaptability.

SAVAMALA – CULTURAL QUARTER Savamala is Belgrade city quarter, situated in between the southern bank of the River Sava and the Kalemegdan fortress. The name speaks of Belgrade history, as it is composed of river’s name Sava and Turkish word Mahale, meaning neighborhood or city quarter. It was a port, center of trade and commerce in 19th century, with few historical buildings of impressive architecture. It’s position, cultural heritage, vacant spaces and urban structures makes Savamala one of the most interesting and important waterfront brownfields, with potential of recreating new consensual identity (Mrdjenović, at. all, 2015). In spatial planning and cultural policy in Serbia concept of cultural and creative cities is stressed out but is not clearly defined in a meaning of priority and methodology. In the Spatial Plan for the Republic of Serbia (Official Gazette of Republic of Serbia, 2010) concept of cultural tourism is developed consisting a lack of coordination with concept of protection and sustainable use of cultural heritage. According to Mikić, creative industries are not new in Serbia but are increasingly becoming important component of the path accessing creative economy and society (Mikić, 2014). Creative sector is still considered as an alternative culture and the culture is not observed as the tool of regeneration (Stojanović, at. all, 2012). Savamala started as bottom-up cultural initiatives and it open up city’s unused resources. In the area with heavy traffic and lot of unused buildings first cultural center was opened in a year of 2009, but expansion happened in 2012 with festival of creative industry ‘’Mixer’’, which is now in newly reconstructed ‘’Mixer house’’. It begins according to

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION tendency of creative industry, that Richards, Wilson were pointing out, to cluster close to center of the city. Savamala became an incubator for young creative people, producing an army of creative workers (Vilenica, no date). There is dozen of NGO organizations in several cultural centers, organizing festivals, exhibitions, workshops, performances, arts, conferences, debates, book promotions and other activities, as restaurants and clubs, each with something specific to offer. As Savamala area was neglected in the past decades, this initiatives make an ideal environment for testing out new forms and approaches of city quarter development (Urban Incubator, 2017). Although main initiative comes from NGO, there is a communication and cooperation with local authority in organizing programs and actions. On the other hand, strong national initiative is present in a project ‘’Belgrade waterfront’', project of regeneration of the wider Savamala district, which was proclaimed as a project of main national interest (Djukic at all, 2014). It is the project of public-private partnership, large investment with planned more than 6000 residential units and commercial area with offices, hotels and other similar facilities. This two projects with different approach, one as bottom-up and another top-down, are going on with a lack of open communication and it is one of the major problems in ‘’re-creating and re-generating Savamala district towards Castell’s project identity’’ (Mrđenović, at all, 2015, pp 761). And it is to be considered that the large project-oriented public-private partnerships often result in more exclusionary institutions (Moulaert et al., 2002, 2003, cited at Gerometta et al.). The conflict of official and spontaneously organized development could be seen as a conflict of two brownfield concepts or two market concepts, bringing different quality of space. The first one rely on investing capital for new housing and business area with modern architecture and the other one is about creating cultural district relying on creative people, social network and existing city resources and its history. Savamala cultural quarter have its advantages, it has become vibrant place with developed network, people participate in forming its identity, authenticity and authonomy. On the other hand, there are comments on gentrification and the needed for more mix cultural space, because of opening of too many nightclubs (Coldwell, 2016). New activities brought lot of changes in everyday life of its inhabitants, but this kind of initiatives can strength inclusion of the community (Mercer, 2006). Savamala cultural quarter is not part of wider, general program of regeneration and community development, as Mercer suggests as a necessity (Mercer, 2006). Project of that kind could be ‘’Belgrade waterfront’’, with its scope, organizational and financial resources. The Project ‘’Belgrade waterfront’’ is to create new identity ‘’from scratch’’ and it is a question if it will have qualities to attract people and weather that new image will be seen, as attractive, authentic or not, and it is a question how it will affect the community in economic and social perspective. Example of China urban regeneration shows highly organized, top-down approach with a little of public participation (Hui, 2006). Those impressively executed projects of urban regeneration ‘’from scratch’’ rely on using best-practice model, but have a lack in long-sighted one; although there are pilot projects, testing changes in a cultural system (Hui, 2006), a macro-level of restructuring the ‘’government institutions, information database, and public participation is needed’’ (Ho, 2012, pg 110). There are a small number of creative hubs in Beijing and Shanghai, which started as artists’ initiative. One of the most successful and popular is a hub at 50 Moganshan Lu, in Shanghai, an intentional cluster of artists and designers, created in an old industrial district, that get the support of local

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government, driven with ambition to make Shanghai a global city that surpasses its competitors in region (Zukin, 2008). Despite this success, Zukin points out that local authorities demolished old buildings, like 50 Moganshan Lu, and whole districts near the river, and also that some of the artists needed to move out from 50 Moganshan Lu, because they were no more able to pay the rent (Zukin, 2008). On the other side, experience in Denmark is specific, because of a tradition for an instrumental use of culture about urban economic development (Bayliss, 2007). One of fine example is the Copenhagen, top-down initiative of creating successful city through inclusive concept of tolerance, variety and difference and strong marketing. City of Copenhagen have the Opera house, impressive landmark as Øresund Bridge, new urban center for new lifestyle in Ørestad area, museums and many other flagship attractions, dock area transformed in attractive urban quarter, variety of cultural infrastructure and industry, and lively public spaces for people to meet and create social interactions and to attract ‘’creative capital’’ (Vanolo, 2008, Bayliss, 2007). There are in the action Florida’s 3T formula (Bayliss, 2007), and the concept followed three of four methods that Richard, Wilson point out and at least 5 of 7 Landry factors. Fallowing new concept of creativity, with agenda: ‘’Fundamental to future is economic growth, they favor a city that is dynamic and lively, with identity and a pulse’’ municipality have an idea to establish deregulation strategy as instrument to create free zones for creative industry, to have them cluster and incubate, and which are to be integrated in the planning system after 10 years (Bayliss, 2007). Not solely the idea of working with and promoting explicitly cultural planning methodology by the government is of great importance, but also holistic approach of mobilizing inner cultural resources. If there are any criticism of the concept and its realization it is about social costs: social exclusion (Smidt-Jensen, 2007), gentrification and that ‘’direct top-down planning is unlikely to generate creative environments’’(Bayliss, 2007, pp 900). Some aspects of Savamala cultural quarter have similarity to Shanghai case, although they both have specifics of local culture, history, cultural policy and planning. In both cases, process of regeneration of the city quarter started from initiative of artists and producers and showed a success, which didn’t affect authorities to integrate that concept in wider projects and to cooperate. The case of Copenhagen shows that not all goals are to be achieved. Bottom-up initiatives need, and they encourage inclusion of community, they have more prospect to create space with identity and to offer authenticity, but they can lead to gentrification and they usually need public financial support. Top-down initiatives have resource to organize and develop projects, to create image, they can also lead to gentrification, but they depend on creative people and community and prospect of those projects depends on their ability to adapt, change and be creative.

CONCLUSIONS So, who wins and who loses in the creative city? Those strategies are seen in two extreme, as having magical powers, solution for almost all problems cities are challenging in a process of globalisation, or as smartly hidden agenda of politic and capital which is bringing new problems. Culture and creativity are part of urban life and urban space in a

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION way that is changing, from becoming important part of city economy to becoming a part of in(ex)clusion. Cities are changing and in this process not all are seen as winners or as losers. As Mommaas said, we must be cautious with generalizations from the developmental path of single cases (Mommaas, 2004). But it is obvious that all resources must be considered equally in developing creative city strategies as well as all possible outcomes. No matter if strategies are developed as top-down or bottom up, they can not be successful without the involvement of the community, the creation of an enabling environment, so that inclusion is assured. Quality of space, its identity and auttencity of expirience is needed, but there is a risk of creating an replication, in the proces of mass production, stantardisation, or by using formula of sucesful case. Cultural and Creative City strategies could not be only a matter of statistic in economy, employment, number of tourists, cultural places and activities, square meters of regenerated or new built areas, but they must be a matter of quality of life and space as legacy for the next generations.

REFERENCES Adorno T., Rabinbach A. 1975. Culture Industry Reconsidered, New German Critique, New German Critique, No. 6, pp. 12-19. Baily C., Miles S., Stark P. 2004. Culture- led Urban Regeneration and Revitalisation of Identities in Newcastle, Gateshead and the North East of England. International Jurnal of Cultural Policy, Vol.10, No1., pp. 47- 65. Bayliss D. 2007. The Rise of the Creative City: Culture and Creativity in Copenhagen. European Planning Studies Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 889-903. Bianchini, F. (1993). Remaking European Cities: the role of cultural policies. In Bianchini, F & Parkinson, M, Cultural policy and urban regeneration. The West European experience. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Coldwell, W. 2016. Belgrade’s Savamala district: Serbia’s new creative hub. The Gardian. Accessed March 25, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/feb/07/belgrade-savamala-serbia-city-break Djukic, A, Vukmirovic, M., Vanista-Lazarevic, E. 2016. „Creative Cities:Exclusive or Inclusive places Case study Belgrade“, chapter ininternational monograph „Inclusive/Exclusive Cities.” Editors: Ognjen Marina, Alessandro Armando, City of Skopje, Skopje (pp.104-120)ISBN: 978-608-4809-00-5.

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Djukic, A., Vukmirovic, M. 2012. „Creative Cultural Tourism as a function of City Competitiveness”. „TTEM – Technics Technologies Education Management”, Volume 7, Number 1, (pp. 404-411). Gerometta Julia, Ha ¨ussermannHartmut and Longo Giulia. 2005. Social Innovation and Civil Society. Urban Governance: Strategies for an Inclusive City.Urban Studies, Vol. 42, No. 11, 2007– 2021, October 2005 Ho. Edmond C.M. 2012. Renewing the Urban Regeneration Approach in Hong Kong. Discovery – SS Student EJournalVol. 1, 2012, pp. 110-139. Hui Desmond. 2006. Study on the Relationship between Hong Kong’s Cultural & Creative Industries and the Pearl River Delta. Final Report. Centre for Cultural Policy Research, The University of Hong Kong Laliberte, Michaele. 2005. Authenticity- What do the ttp://tourismintelligence.ca/tag/customer-experience/

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Langdon, P. 2004. The Creative Class and Cities. In Kemp R. (ed.), Cities and the arts: a handbook for renewal (244248). North Carolina: Mc Farlan& CO, InC. MikićHristina. 2014. Creative industries in Serbia. Foundation Creative Economy Group. Belgrade, Serbia. Miles Malcom. 2013. A Post-Creative City?RCCS Annual Review, 5, October 2013: 123-139. Mercer Colin. (2006). Cultural Planning for Urban Development and Creative Cities. Accessed March 9, 2010.http://www.culturalplanningoresund.net/PDF_activities/maj06/Shanghai_cultural_planning_paper.pdf Mommaas Hans. 2004., Cultural clusters and the post-industrial city: towards the remapping of urban cultural policy, Urban Studies41(3),pp. 507–532. MrdjenovicTatjana, Djukic, Aleksandra, Stupar Aleksandra. 2015. Urban design and identity: re-creating waterfront brownfield Savamala case, at International Scientific Conference „Changing Cities 2: Spatial, Design, Landscape & Socio-economic Dimensions”, Porto Heli, Peloponnese, Greece, 22-26 Jun 2015, in organization: Department for planning and Regional development, University of Thesalia, Greeg Ministry for Environment, energy and climate change, editor Aspa Gospodini: pp 759-769. Richards Greg and Wilson Julia. 2007. The Creative Turn in Regeneration: Creative Spaces, Spectacles and Tourism in Cities. U Smith M. (ed.) Tourism, culture and regeneration: pp. 12-24. UK: CAB International.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Ritzer George. 1999. Enchanting a disenchanted world : revolutionizing the means of consumption. Thousand Oaks : Pine Forge Press. Smidt-Jensen Søren. (2007).The roles of culture and creativity within urban development strategies. Outlining a theoretical framework for analysing Scandinavian cities. CSB Working Paper nr. Accessed December 8, 2009. http://www.byforskning.dk/publikationer/Siden%20publikationer/Working%20papers/ssj_rtn_paper_endeligt_jan07. pdf StojanovicMilica, Petkovic Nataša andMitkovic Petar.2012. Culture and Creativity as Driving Forces for Urban Regeneration in Serbia. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering Vol:6, No:7. The Law on the Spatial Plan for the Republic of Serbia. 2010. Official Gazette of Republic of Serbia, 88/2010. Tomić Vesna. 2013. The Creative Class – Truth or urban myth. FactaUniversitatis.Series Architecture and Civil Engineering, Vol. 11, No 2: pp. 179 – 187. UN-Habitat (2001). Inclusive cities initiative: The way forward. Nairobi: UN Habitat. Urban Incubator Belgrade. 2017. Savamala–a city-quarter reinvents itself. GetheInstitut. Accessed March 3, 2017. http://www.goethe.de/ins/cs/bel/prj/uic/sav/enindex.htm Vanolo Alberto. 2008. Urban Images and the Creative City. Language and the Scientific Imagination: The 11th International Conference of ISSEI. University of Helsinki, Finland. 28 July-2 August 2008 Vilenica Ana (no date). The Art of New Class Geography of the City-Culture-guided urban regeneration serving the modernization of the periphery. Accessed March 28, 2017 http://publicationstation.wdka.hro.nl/andre/Gray_Zones/5.%20Vilenica,%20A_%20The%20Art%20of%20FINAL.docx Yucht Madelyn 2006. The Rise of the Creative Class: How Combining Talent, Technology and Tolerance Leads to Regional and Organizational Development. (Power Point presentation). Accessed Decembre 18. 2009. http://www.iegd.org/spanish800/adjuntos/risecreativeclass.pdf Zukin Sharon. 2008. Destination Culture: How Globalization makes all Cities Look the Same. Keynote paper for Conference on “Rethinking Cities and Communities: Urban Transition Before and During the Era of Globalization,” Center for Urban and Global Studies, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, November 14-15, 2008

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HOUSING QUALITY OF SOCIALLY VULNERABLE CATEGORIES AND AFFORDABILITY OF CURRENT SOCIAL HOUSING PROGRAMMES Nataša Petković Grozdanović 76 PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia, [email protected] Branislava Stoiljković Assistant Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia Vladana Petrović PhD student, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia Aleksandar Keković Associate professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia multileve Associate professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Niš, Aleksandra Medvedeva 14, 18000 Niš, Serbia ABSTRACT Poor economic situation, problems brought by transition and specific political circumstances resulted in a large percent of socially vulnerable households in Serbia. Statistical data show that a large number of those households own some kind of housing space, which often isn’t adequate in terms of its standard. Regardless the government intervention to establish a housing model that envisions rental social units, due to its economic sustainability high income limits are set for the allocation of rental social housing unit. This situation caused that rental social housing units are accessible only to the households with sufficient incomes. On the other hand, regarding the current owner structure, the government intervention could contribute to the improvement of owner occupied housing conditions in order to fulfil minimal quality requirement. The paper analyses the affordability of current social housing programmes and presents the possible alternative models in order to overcome the housing issues of the most vulnerable groups 76


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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION and to increase housing supply; improve affordability; and provide better quality housing conditions for wider range of vulnerable households. Keywords: Affordable housing, Social housing, Owner-occupied housing, Housing policy, Serbia

INTRODUCTION Development of market economy in Serbia, as in many countries undergoing transition, has caused social stratification and led to the increase of poverty primarily due to the unemployment and low incomes. In such circumstances the ability for poor households to ensure a living space of adequate quality is impossible without government help. On the other hand, Serbia has just recently started with the introduction of social housing in the overall housing policy. Compared to the other European counties, the social housing sector in Serbia is still marginalized, with its minimal share in the total housing stock. In such circumstances it cannot be expected that the government could provide housing space for everyone who needs it. Therefore it is necessary that the housing policy is closely related to the social one, and developed in a way to be a corrective to the negative economic growth and spontaneous market flows. This article gives insight into the affordability of social housing programmes in Serbia. Before elaborating the programmes’ affordability, the overview of housing conditions of socially vulnerable households is firstly presented. This overview showed that a large number of socially vulnerable household live in a very bad housing conditions, but also that majority own some kind of housing space, often substandard in terms of its quality. On the other hand, the study of social housing affordability is showing that the current social housing programmes are not affordable for a majority of socially disadvantage households. The proposed solution of housing improvement was given based on the practices and experiences of some cities in Serbia in last few years, but also on some international experiences. The emphasis is on approaches that could adjust the usage of spatial and financial resources toward sustainable development of social housing sector according to the existing economical, environmental and cultural atmosphere, in order to target as many vulnerable households as possible.

HOUSING QUALITY AND HOUSING CONDITIONS IN SERBIA Statistical data obtained during the last Census of population, households and dwellings 2011 are showing that there are more housing units then the number of households, that housing stock is relatively new and that almost 90% of the housing units are owner-occupied (Census, 2011). Data are also showing that the poor population live in a far worst condition. The Census 2011 identified that the 12% of the population live in a dwellings made of weak materials that are not safe for living (NSSH, 2012). In addition to this a large number of dwellings with a low level of living conditions were registered, mostly in terms of infrastructure - especially connections to sewerage and water supply; non-standard residential spaces - occupied offices and spaces occupied in necessity; collective dwellings and

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collective centres for refugees and internally displaced persons (Table 1.). Evident misbalance in a housing quality within different areas is present. Housing comfort is much lower in rural than in urban areas. Only 66% of households in a rural areas have the adequate sanitary conditions (water, sewage, electricity) (HSN,2007). The living standard in urban areas is much better. 27.8% of the housing units have all the parameters of residential comfort (local or central heating system, water supply, sewage and electricity), 65.9% have all the parameters except a local heating system, 3.5% have no sewage, while 2.6% do not have a water supply or sewage (HSN,2007). Table 1. Number of substandard units

Units made of weak material Units without the basic services (electricity, sewerage and water supply) Non-standard residential spaces

Collective centres

290,785 145,393 17,921 840 (3,700 persons)

This figures however cannot show the total number of inadequate housing units, because many housing units do not meet the minimal standards in more than one criteria (for example the same housing unit is build of a weak material, is not connected to a local infrastructure network, is overcrowded ad etc.). This points out that the further and much detailed analysis of quality of the existing housing stock is necessary in order to obtain the exact number of inadequate housing units. In the terms of overcrowding the quality of housing stock in Serbia is also on the low level (Table 2.). If the quality of units is observed according the criterion of the housing area per person, situation is apparently satisfied. The average housing area per person in Serbia is around 25m², which can consider as average for European Union. But regardless, the fact is that with this result Serbia would still be very far compared to the figures of most European countries (HSEU, 2010). If the 25m² criterion is applied, only 35% of the housing stock in Serbia could be considered appropriate (IPSSS, 2010), while another 32% could be considered acceptable in terms of 15-25 m² per person. The remaining 33% of dwellings do not meet the usage standard (have less than 15m² per person) and over the 15% of the housing stock is overcrowded (have less than 10 m² per person). Measured by the number of persons per room, housing units in Serbia are small to provide the adequate housing conditions. "Standard usage “of housing space, on the principle of one person one room, has 47.9% of the housing units; "normal usage" (one room for two people) has 23.6% of the units; while every fifth unit (i.e. 19.6%) is overcrowded (IPSSS, 2010). Table 2. Number of overcrowding units

Units with less than 10 m per user Units with more than two users per room Units inhabited by multiple households

94,506 474,949 44,359

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION All this facts show that there are obvious defects in terms of housing quality, which results with a large number of units inadequate for living.

SOCIAL HOUSING AFFORDABILITY Economical statistics, show that the percentage of the population living below the poverty level is 9.2%; the percentage of relatively poor is 17.7%; and that in 2009, compared to the total number of households, 6.6% pay more than 50% of their monthly income for housing costs. In terms of inadequate housing, the poor household suffer the most, and are in the most need of government housing intervention. As social housing is primarily related to household with lower financial status, the issue of social housing affordability is crucial. The self-achieved housing space is out of range for a majority of socially vulnerable. The main obstacle in understanding the real needs and the possibilities of the housing sector in Serbia is a large disparity between the price of average housing unit and the household income. The ratio of the average annual net income and the average price of the average housing unit, which is 1:18 for purchase of an apartment in cash, and 1:29 for purchase of an apartment on loan, shows the proportion of this problem and the price unavailability of housing space in Serbia (NSSH, 2012). If taken into account the practice of developed countries that it is necessary to subsidize, or to provide some other form of government financial support if this ratio is less favourable than 1: 5, it is noticeable that the government should intervene in a large percentage of the housing sector, which currently is not the case. The solution of housing need based on the purchasing of social housing unit under subsidies price is also unaffordable. The prices of those units are such that target the housing shortage of the middle or above middle income class. With the average price of 690 EUR per m², these social housing programmes are not accessible for the poor’s. Even in terms of the rental social housing the issue of affordability is critical. In the current Serbian economic situation, there is no doubt that households chosen for assigning the rental social housing unit will have to contribute to the costs of construction and maintenance of these dwellings. The return of the investment is crucial for the further development of national social housing policy. In order to enable its continuity, it is necessary that the apartments are rented to those households that can pay this type of rent (Ramirez, 2008). The survey conducted for the purpose of National Social Housing Strategy (NSSH, 2012) showed that users of social housing should be the houseless with the incomes that are not exceeding 100% of the average net household income for a single person household. For the maximum income of different household type is needed to apply the scale to align the ratio according to the household size and the average net earnings (the coefficients of OECD- "Oxford" equivalence scale are applied). This shows the government tendency that users of social housing should be the households around average incomes. The Social Housing Strategy, on the other hand, shows that households in the first deciles under the necessary minimum for social apartment do not have enough money for subsistence and cannot pay any kind of rent, while households in the other two deciles may pay a partial amount of rent. In order to help the poorest the rental social housing strategy of the city of Belgrade is faced to help those household which rent is above 30% of their monthly income with subsidies that would cover the difference. However, even with the effort to make rental social housing

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economically affordable the issue of housing unit accessibility is questionable. With the minimal share of social housing units in the total housing stock the government is not able to provide rental social housing for everyone who needs it.

ALTERNATIVE HOUSING SOLUTION In order to help the poorest, the social housing policy had to be adjusted upon the potential of those social categories. Therefore, it is necessary to develop alternative social housing solutions and creates various supporting models, in order to overcome current housing problems and ensure adequate housing space for socially vulnerable groups.

Owner-occupied housing programmes

Figures given in the section concerning the housing quality and housing conditions in Serbia, indicates that a large number of households own housing space, often without minimal standard. According the current owner structure one of the highlight in housing policy should be on the improvement of sub-standard owner-occupied units. Such kind of approach implies a variety of different options, many of which were used in Serbia as a part of the international support programmes (Table 3.). The results of the programmes implementation showed that this kind of housing assistant is very successful. Also the highest invested amount for the reconstruction of the owner-occupied housing unit was far less in comparison with the amount required for the construction of new social housing unit (Ramirez, 2008). However, very few initiatives were taken upon this matter, implemented through the European projects, mostly concerning housing improvement of the refuges and Roma settlers. Table 3. Programmes of the improvement of housing conditions of owner occupies

Increasing of spatial capacity Construction of addition of sanitary utilities Housing repair

Semi-detached extension New-story extensions 4 m² bathroom

3.000 EUR per extension 400 EUR/m² 3.000 EUR per utility

Roof repair One-off Constriction package aid Total housing repair

600 EUR variable 2.0000 - 3.000 EUR

The problem of this approach is the legislative issues regarding required construction work. A lot of owner-occupied housing units inhabited by socially disadvantage are not legal in terms of building and land documentation, in which case this kind of intervention demands notably amount of time and financial resources, and jeopardize the programme sustainability.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Housing provision programmes According to the data obtained by the Census 2011 the 12.5% of population do not own any kind of housing space. The share of socially vulnerable household in this percentage is unknown, however it is expected to be high. Also the affordability of rental social housing programmes, elaborated previously, sowed that this type of programme in not accessible for many of those households. Therefore an alternative housing programmes needs to be introduced. Flexible rental social housing programmes - According to M. Stone (2006) social housing rent should not be viewed in the context of the average income per household, but in the difference that remains when household pay their housing costs. According to the remaining amount, further is possible to determine the scale which marks the ‘shelter poverty’- the amount of money that is left of the average consumer basket when reducing the housing costs; which is the maximum amount that can be used in a programs of social housing. This prevents that solution of housing needs effects negatively on the life quality of social-housing users. The variety of different approaches show that in order to achieve a greater affordability of social housing programmes, but within planed subsidies, the household income should be treated more flexible. Concern needs to be on the end-users of social housing (Oxley, 2000), who should be increasingly subsidized (subject subsidies). The subsidies rents in Serbia were firstly introduced within SIRP programme. The beneficiaries of SIRP social housing pay subsidised rents and all utility expenses (water, heating, garbage disposal, electricity, etc.). In Belgrade, all the households that paid their bills regularly had the possibility of 50% reduction on all utility bills and rent (VuksanovićMacura and Macura, 2014). In several municipalities, some vulnerable households had an option of paying partially subsidised utility bills, but without rent subsidies. In Požarevac, the town owns apartments and families did not pay rent, only utility expenses, while the town and the Social Welfare Centre paid or partially subsidised the utility services for the poorest families. House in the countryside - Since the ownership proved to be an important motivation for orientation toward housing models, it is desirable to promote such models that are able to facilitate the acquisition of the housing unit. One of the successful housing models is the subsidies provide for the purchase of houses in the rural areas, which proved to be good among those households that do not have their own housing unit and are willing to engage in agricultural activities. This model involves the purchase of rural house with the garden plot. The quality of the purchased building had to be such that it does not require big and expensive reconstruction intervention. This kind of approach has already been used in Serbia. The subsidies were from 6,000 to 8,000 EUR for a house with a plot, with an additional 50% of the property value cover by the owner, giving the total value of the real estate to the 9,000 to 12,000 EUR. Also, the subsidies provide the construction and craft materials, in the amount of 800 to 1,100 EUR per household, for the repair and reconstruction of the purchased building (Vuksanović-Macura and Macura, 2014). In addition to provide housing, this model gives the possibility of dealing with minor agricultural activities in order to improve the household economic situation.

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CONCLUSION Social housing construction and current management of social housing policy, which are focused on the economical sustainability, enables that socially vulnerable groups fulfil their housing needs trough the current social housing programs. This fact indicates the necessity for active re-involvement of the government in the housing sector, but not exclusively through the housing supply, but through the management of different housing issues of socially vulnerable households. The application of housing models, which would ensure that the government’s share remains equal in economical terms but at the same time adequate to provide decent housing space for a wider range of socially disadvantage, should be widely investigated. The emphasis has to be on the end users, and theirs exact needs but also their possibilities. Introduction of the innovative approaches is crucial, in order to increase housing supply; improve availability and affordability; and provide better housing quality conditions for a wider range of vulnerable households (especially regarding the current owner structure and economical situation in Serbia). It is certain that the intervention have to be more significant in the cases where household own housing unit which do not fulfil the minimal quality requirement. Existence of the variety of different supporting models allows that the larger number of users fulfil the need for decent housing space. In addition to the genuine concerns of the most vulnerable members of society, the advantage of this approach is reflected in the fact that every household receives a unique package of help, determined upon needs of exact household. In this way, the family can participate and determine the model that would be most appropriate for them. Beside to just help solving the housing needs, this approach affects on satisfaction of end users because it doesn’t solve the problem in a way that one solution is good for all.

REFERENCES Ramirez L. (ed), 2008, “SIRP BOOK- The settlement and Integration of Refugees Programme in Serbia”, UN-HABITAT, Belgrade Damjanovic D., Gligorijevic Z. (ed), „Socijalno stanovanje - Prikaz stambenih politika Srbije i odabranih zemalja Evrope“, Palgo centar, Belgrade, 2010, p. NSSH, 2012 (National Startegy of Social Housing), “Nacionalna strategija socijalnog stanovanja”, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 13/2012, 2012, p.12-21 HSN, 2007 (Housing Strategy of the city of Nis), „Stambena strategija grada Niša“, za izdavaca Djordjevic V., JP Gradska stambena agencija, Nis, 2007, p.22 Census, 2011, “Popis stanovništva, domaćinstva i stanova 2011. u Republici Srbiji”, http://popis2011.stat.rs/

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION HSEU, 2010, „Housing Statistics in the European Union“, Edited by Kees Dol and Marietta Haffner, The Hague: Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, OTB Research Institute for the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, IPSSS, 2010 „Izveštaj o izvodljivosti projekta socijalnog stanovanja u Srbiji“, Vlada Srbije, Ministarstvo životne sredine i prostornog planiranja, p.11 Stone M., 2006. „A Housing Affordability Standard for the UK“, Housing Studies, Vol. 21, No.4, p.453-476 Oxley M., 2000. „The Future of Social Housing – Learning from Europe“, Institute for Public Policy Research, London Vuksanović-Macura Z., Macura V., 2014. “Postojeći modeli za poboljšanje stanovanja Roma Socijalna i pristupačna stambena rešenja za rome i osetljivo stanovništvo u Srbiji”, Misija OEBS u Srbiji, Beograd

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TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SOCIAL NETWORKING – „NEGOTINSKA KRAJINA “CASE Zoran Đukanović 77

Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

Jelena Živković Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

Arnaldo Cecchini Full time professor, Department of Architecture, Design and Urban Planning in Alghero, University of Sassari, Palazzo del Pou Salit - Piazza Duomo 6, Alghero (SS), Italy, [email protected]

Nađa Beretić PhD student, Department of Architecture, Design and Urban Planning in Alghero, University of Sassari, Palazzo del Pou Salit - Piazza Duomo 6, Alghero (SS), Italy, [email protected]

Alessandro Plaisant Associate professor, Department of Architecture, Design and Urban Planning in Alghero, University of Sassari, Palazzo del Pou Salit - Piazza Duomo 6, Alghero (SS), Italy, [email protected]

Elena Battaglini Senior scientist, Fondazione Di Vittorio – ex IRES (Istituto Riserche Economiche e Sociali), Via di S. Teresa 23, 00198 Roma, Italy, [email protected]

Francesca Giofrè Associate professor, Sapienza University of Rome, Department Planning Design Technology of Architecture, Via Emauele Gianturco 2, 00196 Roma, Italy, [email protected]

Ksenija Lalović Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

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ABSTRACT Like many other rural regions in post-socialist countries, Negotinska krajina wine region faces serious decline in wine production and severe depopulation. In order to reverse these negative trends, strengthening local capacities, through development of social networks, exchange and transfer of knowledge, expertise and know-how, is recognised in planning theory and practice as vital for more sustainable development of rural regions. This paper presents a process of developing a complex and dynamic model of collaboration between local institutions, companies and communities from Negotinska krajina region and Serbian and Italian academic and scientific institutions, experts and companies, in order to achieve: a) Increased transfer of knowledge, experiences and practices of local representatives and wine growers from Negotinska krajina region and partners; b) Increased knowhow transfer among academic partners and practical knowledge transfer among local public, private and civic stakeholders and academic institutions from Serbia and Italy; c) Institutionalized inter sectorial collaboration and ‘city to city’ cooperation. Some of the partners in this collaboration are: University of Belgrade-Faculty of Architecture; Department of Architecture, Design and Urban Planning in Alghero, University of Sassari; Municipality of Negotin, Municipality of Alghero, Fondazione De Vittorio (ex IRES – Istituto Ricerche Economiche e Sociali); Department Planning Design Technology of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome; Cantina Santa Maria La Palma – Società cooperativa Agricola per azioni; Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade; University of Belgrade-Faculty of Philosophy, and Italian Embassy in Belgrade. Keywords: sustainable development, wine region, knowledge transfer, social networking, collaboration

Topics: Social networks – inherited and created INTRODUCTION This paper is a result of collaboration between the Municipality of Negotin and Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade that has started in 2011 and it is still in charge. Through several activities, more than 150 students, and more than 100 professors, experts and top-level representatives of the cities authorities from Serbia and Italy has been included in work on areas of the Negotin Municipality, especially on the famous wine cellars called: ‘Negotinske Pivnice’.

THE PROJECTS Everything has been started when the team consisted of students, professors and experts, from Serbia and from Italy, visited the Municipality of Negotin firstly in September 2011. Strong bond between Faculty of Architecture and Municipality of Negotin was established immediately, and first results were made.

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In July 2012, students presented their projects considering revitalization of wine cellars and rural areas. Presentations, with exhibitions ‘VinoGrad - The Art of Wine’ was realized at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade and in the Negotin, as well. The whole project was supported by GIZ (Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit), local Municipality of City of Negotin and local communities of wine producer’s villages. According to the wishes of citizens of Negotin and wine producers, the exhibitions ‘VinoGrad - The Art of Wine’ was repeated in March 2013 in Negotin. After all, some of these projects were implemented. In May 2014, representatives from Negotin Municipality and from GIZ, have been visited Faculty of architecture in the aim to ask for academic support and help for their further plans. They were proposed a new phase of our mutual trilateral cooperation. According to that, in July 2014, Faculty has been organized a working trip to Negotin with an international, interdisciplinary team of professors and experts from Serbia and from Italy (from the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade; from the Italian embassy in Belgrade; from the Faculty of Architecture, University of Sassari and from the Faculty of Architecture, Roma Tre University). Finally, in March 2015, a big team consisted of students and professors from Faculty of Architecture and Faculty of Forestry (University of Belgrade) and professors and experts, from Italy (Faculty of Architecture, University of Sassari and Italian embassy in Belgrade) and Germany (GIZ), visited the Municipality of Negotin. Future collaboration was hardly encouraged. Faculty of Architecture has developed a ‘Participatory Urban Design’ courses, on Master study level, that are dedicated to rethinking main problems of rural areas in Negotin, with special consideration of the wine cellars. Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture and Hotycultyre, with its professors and students are developing a ‘Study of the Cultural Landscape of the Wine Cellars region’. Our Italian friends have been kindly invited to help our activities and efforts. Considering that the area of Negotin Municipality represents an important wine region, with great history, cultural tradition and heritage, the decision to involve Academic Institutions from Italy was crucial. Due to its evident similarity with Negotin area, which will be underlined in the further text, Alghero/Sardinia/Italy was considered as an excellent partner for providing “know how” in developing specific areas of Negotin Municipality. Through surveys and meetings of the representatives of the cities autorities form Negotin and Alghero, that took place during the visit in March 2015 (Negotin) and September 2015 (Alghero) we were able to present preliminary elaboration of our efforts in revitalizing abandoned wine cellars ‘Negotinske Pivnice’, and vision of the main aims of future collaborative and participative development. Aims of future collaborations are several. Providing ‘know how’ strategies for reviving economy in this area are an overall goal. The revitalization of the wine cellars, which have the highest cultural and historic value, but also the highest economic value, through different strategies and urban design projects, could be the first and one of the most important step in the urban renewal of rural areas in the Municipality of Negotin. Finally, on the beginning of 2016 the international, three-years long, project ‘Learning Economies. Modelling Community-Led Local Development for the Sustainable Economic Trajectories оf the Negotin аnd Zlatibor Regions’ has been started and it is still in charge. The project is a part of the international scientific and technological bilateral

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION cooperation between the Republic of Italy and the Republic of Serbia and includes cooperation among several academic institutions, as well as representatives of public, private and civil sector from Serbia and Italy.

PROBLEM AND VISION According to the results of the interviews with people of Negotin, which we had a several times, during our recent field-research in Negotin area, it could be possible to conclude that the Negotin region is one of the most depressive areas in Serbia. People said that there are many reasons for that: the glorious past is helplessly faced with a poor and depressive nowadays; dramatic decrease of the number of the inhabitants; municipality of Negotin is caught in the process of rapid demographic aging; high percent of unemployed people etc. It seems, the hope doesn’t live in Negotin anymore. On the other hand, Negotin region is obviously filled with the extraordinary possibilities for further development: the Danube river as the main pan-European highway; excellent, unique wine terroir; healthy soil; beautiful nature; high valued heritage; unique tradition; multicultural community; a lot of good people... It seems that with a little help from good friends, the perspective for the better future should be more promising and desirable than it looks like today.

GOALS, HORIZONS AND AIMS The main goal of this project and the future collaboration is to bring back the hope to the people of Negotin. Although this goal could look like too much poetic, after the very first view at the statistical data of trends, levels and the reasons of emigration from Negotin to the other Regions, it would be obvious immediately, that hopeless people are emigrating because they need to find their missing ‘holy gral’ of hope. Also, this hopeless homeland is the main reason why many of them, athough fighting with nostalgia, never come back home. Integral revitalization of the Negotin Municipality should be enlightened from different aspects and participatory directed to the visible horizons. These horizons, on which our goals are based, are: Agriculture orientation (vineyard + wine + agriculture) Danube orientation Tourism orientation (wine roads, Danube, heritage, natural beauty, hunting) Cross border cooperation The main ideas and integral visions are developed into the seven primary aims as follows: Providing efficient business and knowledge environment, improving quality and optimize quantity of the wine and agriculture production Reconstruction and revitalization of Negotin Wine cellars Improving the quality and optimize quantity the tourism offerings of the region Networking and connecting through the wider regional cooperation based on Danube orientation Developing cross border cooperation with Bulgaria and Romania Building up the capacity of local municipality – ‘know how’ transfer and build up local municipality infrastructure for better government

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Institutionalization of “city to city” cooperation with foreign ‘sisterhood cities’ as a sustainable base for knowledge transfer and approach to international funds (Negotin+Alghero)

These aims are nor a series of sequential steps, neither hierarchically ordered. They are of similar importance. They are overlapping in time. They have to be realized through an interdisciplinary and participatory approach, as wide as it’s possible. PROVIDING EFFICIENT BUSINESS AND KNOWLEDGE ENVIRONMENT, IMPROVING QUALITY AND OPTIMIZE QUANTITY OF THE WINE AND AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION

Region of Negotin has basic ‘know how’ in the field of wine production, based on traditional procedures. On the other hand, there is an obvious lack of knowledge in the field of accessing the market or development funds. “Know-how” transfer is a necessity. Agronomic values, in the history and in the present times, of different ordinary grapes and typologies of wine can serve as a base-point for future development of wine production in quantity as well as in quality. The climatic conditions of the area and the agronomic changes and innovations introduced during the history (including for instance the set up of the school of viticulture in Negotin) and their effects in shaping and managing the land, represent another interesting aspect regarding cultural relevance in terms of value, and are directly showing the potential of this region to manage agricultural improvement as well as to produce better and more wine. Production values are of great significance considered in relation to the whole communities that are using the cellars during all year. All the life of such places is in fact strongly cantered on a real culture of wine and are intimately regulated by its production stages during different seasons. Such aspect of social life should be in depth investigated also as an essential information to structure a proper, sustainable business plan for the further development.

RECONSTRUCTION AND REVITALIZATION OF NEGOTIN WINE CELLARS Reconstruction and revitalization of Negotin wine cellars are an important step in this project, because it should serve as a serious trigger for the wider future development. The fact, that the Negotin wine cellars are under the Preliminary considerations for the possible nomination of Negotinske Pivince into the UNESCO World Heritage List, seems extremely important, not only because of the cultural point of view, but also because of the huge promotional impact, as much externally - out of Negotin, that much inside the Negotin - it strongly builds up the pride of the locals.

IMPROVING THE QUALITY AND OPTIMIZE QUANTITY THE TOURISM OFFERINGS OF THE REGION Into the “Strategy of Sustainable Development of Negotin, for the period 2012 – 2021”, the municipality of Negotin attaches great importance to the development of tourism, as one of the priorities of local economic development. “Improving conditions for the development and promotion of tourism” is promoted as one of strategic objective with

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION the highest priority. Tourist evaluation of existing tourist and transport infrastructure and tourism market; the formation of a unified tourist offer; formation of clusters in tourism; planning and constructions of missing tourism and traffic infrastructure; education and training of tourism workers; domestic and international promotional activities; financing of development projects, are list of the general aims and actions with which local government provides support and much of its capacity is directing towards supporting projects in tourism. Negotinske Pivnice as a unique, incomparable settlements of wine cellars should be an important stop for every tourist visiting Eastern Europe and one of very important trigger for development of tourism in this region. Proximity of River Danube should be the highest potential for development of tourism but, touristic and navigable infrastructure is very poorly developed. Lack of appropriate port leave Negotin beside of navigational tourism, unfortunately. It’s a big defect, mainly because of a lot of cruisers, with several thousand tourists per year, which passing through Negotin region without any retention. On the other hand, huge artificial lake above the Hydroelectric Power Station looks like a perfect opportunity for different water-sports, but also has potential to be a port for hydro-airplane (seaplane), which would be the cheapest and fastest solution for solving problem of accessibility of this Region - related to far distance from the main airport in Belgrade. Also, related to Danube, trough Negotin is passing Euro Velo 6 cycling pathway which is also called the “Danube route” because it’s followings one of the largest European rivers. “Eurovelo 6″ is roughly 3800 km long (665 km in Serbia) and runs from the Atlantic coast in France east across Europe to the Black Sea in Romania. It’s also pretty big potential for development Negotin tourism. Besides wine tourism, wine roads and the proximity of the Danube river, other qualities of Negotin region could represent basic potential for tourism development, such as: different important events and manifestation with cultural and entertaining character - especially related to music - Negotin has a great and famous music tradition; outstanding natural beauty; high valued heritage - monasteries and ancient archaeological sites; excellent food and rural tourism; unique, calm character of this region; kind and welcomed people etc. There is also great potential for developing of congress tourism, hunting and fishing, sport and recreation tourism and so on.

NETWORKING AND CONNECTING THROUGH THE WIDER REGIONAL COOPERATION BASED ON DANUBE ORIENTATION Danube River, being the second largest river in Europe, passes through ten countries, including Serbia and represents the main connection to European countries. The European Commission in June 2009 received a mandate from the EU Council to develop a joint comprehensive strategy for the Danube Region. In December 2010, the European Commission adopted the final document of the Strategy and submitted it for approval to the Council of Ministers of the EU. With a Strategy document an Action Plan was adopted too. Finally, in 2011, the EU Council issued a conclusion in which all stakeholders are called to actively participate in the implementation of the Strategy. The contribution of Serbia in this Strategy is of great importance; hence Serbia will be one of the coordinators for two aspects of the Strategy - Science and Transportation.

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Prior goals of EU for connecting through Danube Region are: to improve mobility, to encourage more cross boarding activities, to promote culture and tourism, people to people contacts, to preserve biodiversity, landscapes and the quality of air and soil, to improve the development of society through research, education and information technology, to support the competitiveness of enterprises, to include cluster development, to invest in people and skills strengthening the Danube Region and enhancing institutional capacity and cooperation.

DEVELOPING CROSS BORDER COOPERATION WITH BULGARIA AND ROMANIA Serbia boarders with Bulgaria and Romania, and Negotin province is located directly on the three-border area between these countries. River Danube and river Timok representing natural boarder and the connection will be catchment area for all of there three regions. Although river Danube and river Timok were state borders for centuries, there is a lot similarities among those three regions: cultural, natural, economical etc. All those regions are, agricultural, Danube oriented and has a rich wine culture. In everyone of these three regions live multicultural societies. It’s possible to say that this three-border area is true “melting pot”, in which is melting and boiling a lot of opportunities for local mutual life. European Union encourages cross border cooperation, and After the unification of Serbia in EU boarders between countries will fade and all the neighbour regions will strive to Danube River forming joint alliance.

BUILDING UP THE CAPACITY OF LOCAL MUNICIPALITY – ‘KNOW HOW’ TRANSFER AND BUILD UP LOCAL MUNICIPALITY INFRASTRUCTURE FOR BETTER GOVERNMENT

On the beginning of 2016 the international, three-years long, project ‘Learning Economies. Modelling Community-Led Local Development for the Sustainable Economic Trajectories оf the Negotin аnd Zlatibor Regions’ has been started as a part of the international scientific and technological bilateral cooperation between the Republic of Italy and the Republic of Serbia and includes cooperation among several academic institutions, as well as representatives of public, private and civil sector from Serbia and Italy. Main aim of this project is the identification and construction of a CLLDmodel of intervention on the regional development trajectories. This model will consist of a feasibility study for the implementation of a proactive decision-support web-platform aimed at community-led local sustainable development providing a valuable interface between firms, communities, authorities with solution-oriented innovative approaches in a public and participatory dimension.

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF “CITY TO CITY” COOPERATION WITH FOREIGN “SISTERHOOD CITIES” AS A SUSTAINABLE BASE FOR KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER AND APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL FUNDS (NEGOTIN+ALGHERO) After the first academic results that we have had with the municipality of Negotin, it was clear that the municipality needed to go far-out of the frame of academic workload, and it was obvious that local Municipality was ready to start with the ambitious realization of guidelines from their, top actual and new ‘Strategy of Sustainable Development of

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Negotin 2012 – 2021’ and ‘Rural development strategies municipality Negotin 2013 – 2018’, and that they needed foreign experience to reach knowledge and funds for their realization. After all, our decision to invite our friends from Alghero / Sardinia / Italy was more than appropriate. Counting on a lot of obvious similarities between these two cities, it was expected that Negotin would be visible for Alghero. Similarities between Alghero and Negotin are numerous. Both cities have around 40.000 inhabitants, that are living in very diversed multicultural communities. Both cities are “cities on the edge” – on the edge of their countries, but also on the edge between the coast and the big water (Tirrenian sea and the Danube River). Both cities have a unique terroir with a long tradition of vineyards and wine production and specific architecture of wine cellars. Both cities are agriculturaly based with strong orientation to tourism. Both regions have high valued heritage and extraordinary archeological sites, as well as magnificent natural beauties. Additionally, during the sixties, Alghero looked even more like Negotin nowadays. Tourism wasn’t developed as today, agriculture production was oriented only to cover local needs, wine production was oriented to quantity, not to quality. But, to be honest, among all these similarities, there are even more differences between these two cities in frame of same characteristics. Alghero is very well-developed tourist city with highest total income from tourism in Sardinian region. Oppositely, tourism in Negotin is underdeveloped in relation to excellent possibilities of belonging region. Algherian wines are worldwide known by their quality and quantity as well. Negotin wines are famous in Serbia, but not abroad (honestly, quality of the best Negotin wines is mediocre); this is the price of poverty. Alghero is one of most agriculture oriented and developed region in Sardinia; agriculture products from Alghero are very high in quality, especially regarding olive oil and citrus fruits. Negotin agriculture is not well developed in relation to fertile soil around the Danube and Timok river. Another problem in Negotin in this field is the lack of young workers. This is the price of poverty and high emigration. All these similarities and differences, between the city of Negotin and the city of Alghero gave birth to another important idea about official institutionalization of sisterhood of these two cities. In this way, new possibilities for a direct exchange of knowledge and experiences, between these two cities Administration, would be widely open. Also, this sort of cooperation would offer a lot of opportunities for new bilateral relations between nongovernmental institutions from different fields, from both cities (private sector, civil sector, etc.). It would open a wide field for exchange, not only knowledge and experience, but also ideas, technologies, investments and finally friendship. Mutual efforts of both sides can provide a lot of new mutual ideas for new mutual projects, which would be interesting for different EU and other financial funds. It could open new opportunities for funding new development projects. In mutual networking with other cities and regions possibilities are arising.

CONCLUSIONS

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Transfer of knowledge is crucial for building capacity of local municipality in Negotin. Serbia is a country in transition from a socialist regime to liberal capitalism - from controlled into a conditional market economy. Institutions of city governments, as well as small business entities are still not well adjusted for connecting to the global market. During a decade of isolation in the nineties Serbian economy has been destroyed and technological equipment is unsuitable, based on outdated traditional technologies. Serbia is in the front of the door of EU, but still has to harmonize inner state system with EU standards and procedure. Consequently, aid is crucial in the development of technology, as well as in the formation of modern management models, which need to be supported by the widest networking and know-how transfer of different fields of knowledge. Following diagrams show possible networking strategy, which should to provide appropriate knowledge, business, political and financial network environment in the main aim to build up the capacity of local municipality of Negotin to fight with uncertain future and to provide a better condition for improving quality of life for their citizens.

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Diagram 1: NEGOTIN NETWORKING – THE CURRENT AND DESIRABLE LINKS: The diagram below shows main current links among active stakeholders and resources related to recent and current activities of the Faculty of Architecure - University of Belgrade in Negotin region. Moreover, this diagram also shows desirable links, which would be useful, or even necessary to activate in next steps toward the initialization of network for development of the Negotin region. It’s obvious that impact of academic institutions is still very strong.

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Diagram 2: NEGOTIN NETWORKING – THE DESIRABLE CONDITION OF THE NETWORKING: The diagram below shows desirable structure of links in the well-developed network among all wished stakeholders and resources related to further developing activities in Negotin region. It’s obvious that the Municipality of Negotin has to be able to manage this well branched network. It is obvious that academic links with the municipality will become secondary, because, at this stage of the network development, the basic “Know How” transfer will be already successfully completed and will start to bear fruits.

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COOPERATIVE GIS PLATFORM FOR IMPROVING RESILIENCE TO HOUSEHOLD RISKS – CASE STUDY OF ADA MEDJICA ON SAVA RIVER IN BELGRADE Ksenija Lalović 78 Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Aleksandra Đorđević Teaching assistant, PhD student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Jelena Radosavljević Teaching assistant, PhD student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Flooding is estimated to be most serious possible potential shock for Belgrade due to heightened awareness after the floods in 2014. Heavy rainfall and raised level of the rivers Sava and Kolubara in municipality of Obrenovac within the City of Belgrade region, located 30 kilometers southwest of Belgrade’s city center, caused flooding in an estimated 90% of the urban area. Flooding greatly affected buildings, infrastructure and agricultural land, especially in the areas situated along the Sava and Danube rivers. The floods had a particularly damaging effect on hygiene, public health and water supply. The impact of flooding on the productive activities of agriculture, trade and industry and housing negatively affected economic growth, with a corresponding impact on livelihoods, income and employment, and a significant decline in living conditions in the affected areas. As a response to lessons learned from the flooding City of Belgrade identified several priorities. Except the necessity to conduct a comprehensive Belgrade Risk Assessment and establish flood prevention systems and systems for mitigation of post-flood environmental, health, and economical risks, it was underlined the importance to establish better risk disaster management and communications, and to enhance and equip civil protection. The post disaster experience showed that many of these priorities are tightly correlated in a numerous ways with smallest social units – households. Therefore, starting with the assumption that use of smart information and communication technologies and motivating collaborative techniques enables development of cooperative instrument for efficient improvement household resilience, the academy team performed action research with a small community of Ada Medjica. Aim was to develop and test the model of this instrument enacting, and to evaluate its potential uses in all phases of potential shock or disasters. This paper represents the overview of methodology and experimental results achieved by the joint efforts of students, teachers and community. Keywords: cooperation, resilience, GIS

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INTRODUCTION Resilience has emerged as an overarching concept within urban sustainability framework in response to complex challenges faced by cities in the 21st century. Launched for the first time in 2010, trough the UNISDR’s Making Cities Resilient Campaign, concept of resilience was initially aimed to bridge the gap between disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Disaster events recorded over the globe in the past decade have been 90% climate-related, and according the Dr. Robert Glasser, the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Disaster Risk Reduction, have affected almost two billion people and cost the global economy trillions of dollars: “The world has learned the hard way that assumptions about what creates hazard have to be constantly assessed and revised in line with the pace of social and economic development. National governments, local government associations, international, regional and civil society organizations, donors, the private sector, academia and professional associations as well as every citizen need to be engaged in reducing their risk to disasters. All these stakeholders need to be on board, take on their role and contribute to building disaster resilient cities.” (CRPP, 2016). Key efforts of the global resilience movement are directed toward development of a global community of practice focused on generating and providing support to building resilience in cities around the world (UNISDR 2005). Local governments are in focus as they are responsible to ensure the delivery of essential life support services to their citizens and carry key role in mobilizing and coordinating local social forces in responding to crises and emergencies. Local government officials are faced with the threat of disasters on a daily basis and need better access to policies and tools to effectively deal with them and transform urban planning, development and city governance enabling building resilient human settlements strengthened by partnership networks.

CASE STUDY CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND Resilience is broadly considered as a capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses and systems within a city to adapt, grow, and thrive in the face of both shocks - sudden, traumatic events like earthquakes and floods - and more long-term, chronic stresses, like poverty and housing shortages. “City resilience is about making a city better, in both good times and bad, for the benefit of all its citizens, particularly the poor and vulnerable” (100RC, 2015). Resilience focuses on enhancing the performance of a system in the face of multiple hazards, rather than preventing or mitigating the loss of assets due to specific events (ARUP, 2014). Resilience is promoted as a concept that goes beyond conventional approaches to risk reduction, “delivering a forward-looking, multi-scale, multi-sectoral, multi-hazard, multi-stakeholder model for building resilience that recognizes the complexities and unique value of cities, and the inherent interdependencies of each part of an urban system” (CRPP, 2016). It moves away from traditional disaster risk management, which is founded on risk assessments that relate to specific hazards. Instead, it accepts the possibility that a wide range of disruptive unpredictable events may occur as a result of long term stresses and sudden shocks and local communities should have adequate instruments to perform coordinated mobilisation of all resources and enable synergy of best possible effective responses.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Serbia, as the other neighbouring Balkan countries, belongs to the SE European region which experiences more accelerated climate change than the global average and it is considered as a disaster prone area according to numerous climate change research results. Especially vulnerable is Region/City of Belgrade located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube (Djurdjević & Kržić, 2014). Faced with extreme flooding events in May 2014, Serbia was severely challenged to provide appropriate response on the local level. The Belgrade’s municipality of Obrenovac was most heavily affected by the flood events and numerous unfortunate events and dramatic decision making challenges raised a significant social attention. Nevertheless, this experience of confused and semi controlled social response initiated a significant change in overall awareness that broader social transformation has to be undertaken for City of Belgrade future preparedness. Following the 2014 floods experience a significant efforts have been undertaken on a different levels almost simultaneously: adaption of several national documents, several regulatory and normative changes have been undertaken aiming to improve institutional support for emergency situations on a City of Belgrade level. On the other hand, issues of unimplemented pre-disaster activities and high vulnerability of many urban assets and life support systems raised brother public discourse around crucial question: what could have we been done better before? That was the seed of Belgrade’s resilience initiative. City of Belgrade officially applied 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) in 2014 and was selected as the first city in Eastern Europe from among 300 city applicants to participate in the second 100RC challenge. During the 2014 floods numerous non-governmental organisations and volunteers expressed willingness and motivation to be part of the systematic response to shock. Unfortunately, many of them ware not mobilised and got the role of the passive observers. One of such examples, was the volunteering proactive initiative of students of Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade (FABU), with academic institutional support, that was not recognised by the governance system as useful and contributing at the moment. However, fortunately the initiative didn’t fade, on the contrary it was transformed much in deeper social phenomenon. Starting, with the “New Housing Models for People Threatened by Floods” initiative at 2014 mobilizing academic attention toward basic resilience issues, and continuing with the first pilot project of “trilateral” cooperation had been undertaken in Serbia (RC, 2016): academy /international support / local government FABU continued to keep proactive role in overall social transformation toward resilience. Except the upgrading the curricula with contemporary research questions and introducing the new learning model (Lalović, 2015) within the Master academic studies programme Integrated urbanism a new approach to scientific research was also introduced aiming to discover and test new models in field neglected by the official governmental efforts – strengthening social cohesion among all stakeholders and building their capacities to cooperate in the process of Belgrade resilience development.

RESEARCH CONSTRUCT City resilience and its practices have been emerging from disaster recovery, responses and climate adaptations through multi-level territorial actions which are lean on a range of existing expertise and knowledge from engineering to risk management. Urban resilience is increasingly fed by different disciplines and theories in order to provide an

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integrated view of urban challenges and the for file the need of a more comprehensive and multidisciplinary framing retrofitted by practices (ARUP, 2014). Within the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 future challenges were identified in areas of: - governance: organizational, legal and policy frameworks; - determination of risk assessment, monitoring and early warning; - knowledge management and education; - reducing the risk of fundamental factors; readiness for effective response and recovery. Examining the listed areas in case of Belgrade there are many factors of Belgrade’s 2014 unfortunate flood events: - outdated institutional and organisational instruments, - lack of awareness of risk assessment necessity, poor data condition and inaccessibility to the relevant information, outdated early warning systems, - low level of public awareness of potential shocks and practical knowledge of how to react and behave in relation to them. Since the government administration focused on the first, we decided to focus our research on other factors with a key questions: - how to enact comprehensive model of social interaction that would enable reaching the common understanding of basic resilience issued while in the same time producing ready to use practical solutions? Who should be included in this process and what role they can play? What results could be achieved with no material resources available?

Theoretical framework and methodology In order to answer questions we decided to perform an experiment on a concrete research polygon. In the context of Serbia, we have witnessed the emergence of numerous building capacities programs within local communities. However, transformation initiated trough formal educational model in best case became part of the real life of the community after a long period of time. Therefore, the initial assumption of this study is that the way of transferring knowledge within community have to correspond to the cognitive profile and needs of the people, so people at the end recognise its applicability and usability in everyday life. Therefore, as base to tailor collaborative process of knowledge transfer we used previously developed learning model based on integral theory AQAL methodology (Wilber K., Brown B., Esbjörn-Hargens S.) and 4MAT learning methodological approach (McCarthy B.), which was already tested trough several experimental cases within the context in Serbia (Lalović, 2015). On the other side in order to foster not only knowledge transfer but also enactment of a new one contextually practically applicable we used previously model of information support to urban sustainable development in context of Serbia (Lalović, 2014). The main assumption is that usage of contemporary GIS technologies enables not only efficiency in information supports enactment but also enables tailoring the its structure in line with context specificities. The model was enacted from integral theory approach applied on geosciences achievements in territorial development (Brail R., Klosterman R., Batty M., O'Looney J.) and already experimentally tested within six local communities (Lalović, 2013). But in this situation we added another challenge to this experiment initialising the development of city navigating intelligence. According the M. Hamilton it represents the concept of a comprehensive feedback process, reporting mechanism for monitoring vital signals of community and publishing the “health” of the city's system. The assumption is that usage of web based GIS technologies can visually in a easy understandable way present the state of crucial community resilience indicators (Lalović, 2014a).

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Since this experiment is focusing on the solving complex real unstructured problem we choose to Checkland’s Soft Systems Methodological approach (SSM), since it is based on a holistic analysis of the ways of understanding the situation of those who are involved in the problem and then applying the method of systematic reviews in the conceptual modelling of the human activities and relationships to achieve a common goal. The basic premise of this approach is that the effectiveness of actions is directly related to the degree of participation of people in the process of finding out about the problem situation and learning about ways to improve it. Since in this case we had to perform in a local community we realized that the system thinking should not only rely on expert leaded process of understanding the local reality, but also should be open to adapt to the local capacities to conceptualize solutions. Therefore, we decided to include another methodological approach in overall research matrix: action research. In this case, due to the fact that research is motivated by the production of benefits for the community, as a main method we selected community-based critical action research.

Selecting the research polygon In line with the scope of research resources, available human capacity and time, we defined three main criteria for selection of research polygon: - vulnerability of assets and community of higher value for the city, simplicity in urban structure and participants/stakeholder structure, expressed motivation and interest of stakeholders to resilience issues. We have selected Ada Medjica as a case study area because it is one of the most exposed areas in Belgrade in terms of flood risks but with a relatively small coherent community willing to cooperate. Ada Međica presents an island with specific way of life manifested through the existence of 450 raft houses and 86 plots with pile dwelling houses, river transportation and the existence of the local community group "Lovers of the Sava and Danube - Ada Međica". This community was established in the early beginnings of island development and presents the oldest association in Belgrade, active for almost 53 years (Kočišević, 2016). President of the Association pointed out that island development started in 1963, in the moment when association had got plots for temporary use, as well as the permission to set up a raft houses all around the island (Kočišević, 2016). By examining the formal planning documents, this existence of the housing and this community can be barely seen. According to Master plan of Belgrade 2021 the river island was treated as a green area, while in the detailed regulation plan the territory of Ada Medjica is treated as the green forested area with pile dwellings for longer stay. Apart from that, in the plan it was pointed out that this area represents a good of general interest, which implies a special form of recreation in nature with temporary stays in pile dwellings due to the narrow zone of water sanitary protection within which the river island is located. Association is in charge of the river island, both formal and informal, with having its own Statute and Rules for the use of space on the island and the existing natural resources. Preservation and restoration of natural resources has been implemented in cooperation with the institutions in charge for natural resources. Due to the floods risk, every year after flood season, community performs complete arrangement of the island, including plots as well as the public spaces that are in charge of the association (AM, 2016). Most owners of pile dwelling houses and raft houses use their facilities from May to September, but there are also people who live on the island during a whole year, including several members of the Board of the association and president of the association.

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Conceptual enactment of Smart GIS platform Research was conducted during one semester of the Master academic course “Techniques and Tools: Urban Research trough GIS” on the first year of Master program Integrated Urbanism at the Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade. In the research process, professors, PhD students, Master students, private company and citizens took participation and had specific contribution in conducting research. It is important to emphasise that research was supported by leading GIS Company in Serbia- GdiData. Cooperation was formalised trough the agreement between Faculty and GdiData Company which resulted in obtaining twenty-three educational licenses for ArcGis to be used in educational and research purposes. The goal was to conduct systematic reviews in the conceptual modelling, to analyse it from different perspective in order to create unique knowledge base for GIS platform and to achieve a common goal of improving community resilience to household risks. In order to develop cooperative GIS platform with unique geodatabase, several methods and previous researches were necessary. PhD students were included in the process of preparing material for theoretical framework presentation in the form of several workshops. Besides that, they were involved during whole process of the academic course as well. Theoretical and Conceptual framework was based on the analysis of resilience concept, with the focus on UNISDR Handbook (UNISDR, 2012) selected as a guiding book for defining relevant data to be included in GIS platform. The aim of this research process phase was to learn how to develop criteria for polygon research. Data collection was organized through the methods of content analysis of relevant documents, field data collection and analysis, interviews and questionnaires with association “Ljubitelji Ade Međice” and local community in general. The process started with group analysis, and discussion of topics listed in UNISDR's manual, in the context of resilient cities, relevant actors, but also in the context of the Ada Medjica Island, taken as a case study .

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Figure 22. Cooperative GIS platform diagram

Framework for the geodatabase enactment ware following topics: Institutional and administrative Framework; Financing and Resources; Multi-hazard Risk Assessment - Know your Risk; Infrastructure Protection, Upgrading and Resilience; Protect Vital Facilities: Education and Health; Building Regulations and Land Use Planning; Training, Education and Public Awareness; Environmental Protection and Strengthening of Ecosystems; Effective Preparedness, Early Warning and Response; Recovery and Rebuilding Communities. The aim of this cognitive process was to collectively identify contextually relevant topics and stakeholders that can contribute in further deeper understanding of resilience issues of the island. This process resulted in induced scheme of interrelations between stakeholders and key aspects of residence (presented with numbers between T1 and T10, Figure 1.), and in that way starting knowledge base was of cooperative GIS platform was structured. the effects and benefits of cooperative GIS platform for each of them. The idea is that trough web based GIS accessible to all stakeholders and wider public communicative and collaborative process would be initiated leading to the common benefits and effects.

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ADA MEDJICA CASE STUDY ANALYSIS After the conceptual phase we proceeded to data collection though as wider as possible collaboration with all stakeholders. Benefits of this process was in finetuning of geodata base structuring on one side and on the other of deepening of resilience issues understanding. With complete geodatabase containing information about jurisdictions, users, weather, water level, data on urban structure and infrastructure, subjective opinion about risk exposure and preparedness, it is possible to conduct wide range of queries that would provide various effects for each of the actors. It gives possibility for all actors to better understand position and capacities of all. It was recognised that for local authorities, this kind of cooperative platform can contribute to efficient organization and management of resources both on a daily basis and long-term one and effective response at the time of the flood. For the public agencies and academy dealing with the territorial planning and design, it can contribute to planning process improvement toward settlement and community resilience. Effective cost management and balance of the financial losses and profits is probably most important deciding factor for insurance companies to provide insurances for property on the island. Besides risk reduction, GIS platform followed by Android and IOS app can provide effective informing for private owners and help them and insurance companies in the process of damage assessment. From the standpoint of civil society, GIS platform can provide a series of information that can save lives and property; provide safer use of the area and to secure ecosystem protection. GIS platform could become one of the main tools used by locally based civil association used for efficient management of the island. Creation of new forms of engagement in collecting, processing and sharing information about flood risks using Geo-media would have multiple indirect benefits for local communities, local government and educational institutions through the promotion of geospatial technologies, networking of stakeholders, raising awareness and motivation and dissemination of knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS Understanding of the contemporary problems is the key for achieving better future, more stable development and for strengthening the city resilience in relation to natural disasters. This case study shows the potentials of cooperative GIS platform in process of reaching common understanding how key issues of contextual resilience could be reached. It also points the advantages and potentials of the modern technology that are still not used enough due the fact that prominent action is necessary. This kind of research contributes with its methodological construct to the development of the principles of climate sensitive design (Đukić, Vukmirović, & Stanković, 2016), including local community knowledge and initiatives in planning and governance process in the future. Therefore, modern and daily changing and progressing geospatial technologies, beside planning and design, have to be used in the process of efficient response, management and mitigation the hazards and disaster effects in a particular territory as showed in the case study.

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REFERENCES 100RC. 2015. Strategy Guidance Manual, Developing High-impact Resilience Strategies. New York: 100 Resilient Cities, The Rockefeller Foundation. ARUP. 2014. City Resilience Index, Understanding and measuring city resilience. Arup & Partners International Limited, The Rockefeller Foundation. AM. 2016. Interview with members of the Association "Lovers of the Sava and Danube - Ada Međica". Belgrade: (J. Radosavljevic, interviewer). CRPP. 2016. City Resilience Profiling Programme. Barcelona, Spain: UN HABITAT, CRPP HEADQUARTERS. Djurdjević, V., & Kržić, A. 2014. “Analysis of the downscaled CMCC-CM projections performed with the NMMB model”. ORIENTGATE - A structured network for integration of climate knowledge into policy and territorial planning. Đukić, A., Vukmirović, M., & Stanković, S. 2016. “Principles of climate sensitive urban design analysis in identification of suitable urban design proposals. Case study: Central zone of Leskovac competition”. Energy and Buildings, 115, 23-35. Kočišević, J. (2016). Interview with the President of the Association "Lovers of the Sava and Danube - Ada Međica". Belgrade: (J. Radosavljevic, interviewer). Lalović, K. 2013. Model teritorijalnih informacionih sistema za podršku održivom urbanom razvoju Srbije. Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet, Univerziteta u Beogradu. doi: COBISIS 711.4:502.131.1(043.3)

Lalović, K. 2014. “Methodology for development оf Information Support t transitional countries–Experiences of Serbia”. SGEM Scientific Papers DataBase. Online resources of the International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM. Lalović, K. 2014a. “Development of City Navigation Intelligence – Using GIS For Urban Planning Monitoring and Evaluation”. SGEM Scientific Papers DataBase - Online resources of the International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM. Lalović, K. (2015). Learning model for enhancing capacity of local communities in process of reaching higher urban resilience. In Čolić. R., Maruna M. (Ed.), The innovative methodological approach to the development of master work: contribution to the education of urban planners profile (pp. 56-78). Belgrade: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Arhitektonski fakultet, GIZ/AMBERO. RC. (2016). Resilient Cities - Urban Disaster Risk Management in Serbia; Report on the Results of a Case Study Research Project (2015). (C. Z. Joseine Fokdal, Ed.) Berlin: Urban Management Program, TUBerlin. UNISDR. (2012). How To Make Cities More Resilient: A Handbook For Local Government Leaders. Geneva

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MULTILEVEL GOVERNANCE INSTRUMENTS FOR ACHIEVING BALANCED URBAN-RURAL DEVELOPMENT Dr Danijela Milovanović Rodić 79 Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade,, Beograd, Kralja Aleksandra 73/2, [email protected] Dr Ratka Čolić Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Kralja Aleksandra 73/2, [email protected] Dr Marija Maruna Associate Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Kralja Aleksandra 73/2, [email protected] ABSTRACT Sustainable and balanced urban-rural development largely depends on governance system and methods, instruments and practices deriving from it. Just, efficient and effective governance requires collaboration and sharing of responsibility in policy formulation and decision-making processes between different stakeholders at different levels of territorial organization. This implies a complex set of mechanisms, processes and institutions through which stakeholders can articulate their interests and exercise their rights, but also share ideas, negotiate, reach common understanding and agree on solution in given circumstances. This paper discusses process and achieved results of the collaboration between academic institution and local government in the students’ master thesis and integrated projects development for the territory of the municipality of Pančevo, Serbia. The main focus of the curriculum was set on application of multilevel governance instruments in order to achieve balanced development of the municipal territory. Students’ projects address different challenges: devastation of agricultural land; migration of (especially young) population from rural to urban areas; poor services and low income in rural areas; waste management; neglect of natural and cultural heritage. The educational approach was designed in order to create learning environment that foster collaborative learning for all participants involved: students, local stakeholders, consultants and mentors. The paper has three main parts. The first one provides a brief overview of the theoretical background of the multilevel governance and collaborative learning and practice oriented educational approach. Second part presents the objectives of this educational model, methods and structure of the expected deliverables. The third part presents seven students’ projects that are dealing with urban-rural relationships and highlights key multilevel governance instruments for the implementation of proposals. Conclusion discusses process and product outcomes differentiating benefits for all involved, obstacles and challenges and provides recommendations for future work.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Keywords: multilevel urban governance, integrated projects, collaborative learning, practice oriented education

INTRODUCTION In Europe’s complex and rapidly evolving development context, characterised amongst other things by threats to the vitality of rural areas, as well as by urban sprawl and declining quality of life in urban areas due to congestion and pollution, the interdependencies between city and country become a particularly important topic in key European development policies. The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) (EC, 1999), as an indicator of ‘political concern’ for the future of rural areas throughout Europe, promotes ‘urban-rural partnership’. This is a concept applicable to both rural communities and areas blighted by uncontrolled urban sprawl, and its key tenets are the provision of basic public services and public transportation in rural areas; fostering partnership between cities and rural settlements and creation of ‘functional regions’; integration of rural zones into urban areas’ spatial development strategies; encouragement of and support for co-operation between rural areas, as well as between these and small and medium-sized towns (at both the national and international levels), to implement projects and exchange experiences; and establishment of networks between public institutions, small and medium-sized businesses, and local communities in both urban and rural areas. The concept of a spatial and functional relationship between urban and rural areas is based on the movement of people, capital, goods, information, and technology, and the interdependencies of these factors can be examined by means of sociology, economics, geography, and spatial planning (Davoudi & Stead, 2002; Zonneveld & Stead, 2007). According to Davoudi & Stead (2002), urban-rural relationships must be viewed in the context of overall globalisation trends (production, finance, trade, and labour markets), whereby there has to be a shift away from the conventional view of rural areas as exclusively agricultural. Urban-rural linkages are a key segment of territorial development policies exactly because of their major potential to advance the quality of life for both urban and rural populations. The sustainability of urban and rural areas is based on alignment and synergy of their individual development paths that are based on their distinct resources, potentials, and development constraints. In the context of spatial planning and programming, the urban-rural relationship can be made more sustainable through better co-ordination of transportation, land use, and open space planning; limiting growth and increasing the density of existing settlements based on green and compact city principles; constructing blue and green infrastructure; safeguarding agricultural land; and promoting domestic production and the locally-based economy (Nilsson et al., 2014). Within the urban governance, the multilevel governance is a concept that can allow the articulation and execution of appropriate responses to these challenges posed by urban-rural development.

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MULTILEVEL GOVERNANCE INSTRUMENTS The governance model has seen alterations over the past twenty years, spurred by the acceleration and increasing unpredictability of changes to the development context. The key features of the new governance model are more flexibility in decision-making and greater involvement of various stakeholders in articulating and executing decisions, including a greater range of modalities for stakeholder participation. This has allowed those affected by decisionmaking to enter territory that was previously the sole domain of the authorities (public agencies at various levels of government and within multiple departments with divided and very often overlapping powers). This change in the value system has brought about an altered understanding of the role of public agencies, whose position has been shifting from ‘holding power and making decisions’ to initiating, motivating, informing, empowering, organising, and facilitating participation and dialogue by various spatial stakeholders: public agencies at all levels of government and various departments; private businesses; civil society organisations; and citizens. The integration of different government levels (local, regional, and national, as well as European, in the context of EU integration) and other stakeholders into a consistent and integrated governance system constitutes the backbone of multilevel urban governance. This concept was defined in the Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities (EurActiv 24/05/07), which for the first time highlighted the significance of multilevel governance for the execution of urban policies. The Toledo Declaration (2010) was adopted to address the context of the 2008 global financial and social crisis that has affected nations and cities throughout the globe; this document further elaborates on these issues and makes recommendations for the development of instruments tailored to this model of governance. It particularly underlines the need for a new form of governance, the so-called ‘urban alliance’, in which all those with a stake in constructing the city ought to participate. To attain integrated urban development, multilevel urban governance can be put into practice by means of crosscutting policy instruments that facilitate: (1) formulation of solutions based on the integration of environmental, social, economic, spatial, organisational, and cultural objectives of development; (2) constant communication and collaboration between various levels of government; (3) constant and constructive participation by stakeholders from the private and civil sectors; (4) support for the establishment of partnerships between the public, private, and civil sector; and (5) support for integrated local actions (European Cohesion Policy, EC 2010). Below we will present the education model applied and the results achieved in the Integrated Urbanism study programme at Belgrade University’s Faculty of Architecture, where one of the objectives was to familiarise students with the new EU urban governance instruments and promote their critical re-assessment. The goal of the programme is to build capacity of future planning professionals to allow them to better face the socio-economic context of Serbia’s post-socialist transition. For academic year 2015/16 the main topic for students’ master’s projects was ‘Multilevel urban governance instruments: Implementation of the City of Pančevo Development Strategy, 2014-2020’.

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EDUCATION FOR BALANCED URBAN-RURAL DEVELOPMENT The key strategic precept of the education model followed in the Integrated Urbanism master’s course is the creation of a flexible platform for introducing professional experiences from various disciplines (natural sciences, social sciences and humanities, and arts) and fields (academia, practitioners, public institutions, international bodies, activists, the market, etc.) into the teaching process in its entirety. The process of developing masters’ projects, which will be presented in this paper, has been conceived in line with this commitment, which has allowed sound professional dialogue and collaborative and practice-oriented learning, not only for students but for all involved. This has made the teaching process a testing ground for the re-assessment of existing urban governance ideas, concepts, and instruments, and the introduction of new ones into practice. Collaborative learning is a common modern teaching method that entails encouraging students to work together to complete assignments. Learning takes place through collaboration in smaller groups to attain common objectives and maximise both individual learning and that of other students (Johnson & Johnson, 2004). Collaborative learning contributes to the cognitive, social, and emotional development of students ((De Hei et al, 2015). Problem and practice-oriented teaching is a research-based learning approach, as learning is thought to be much more effective when students are actively involved and interested in a topic (Kwan, 2000). Teaching methods and student work are aimed at the solution of practical problems, which students address by working on particular assignments. Practice-oriented teaching is intended to prepare students to perform comprehensive research, planning, and activities aimed at the development and application of scientific and technical achievements (Chuchalin et al, 2013). More generally, the methodological approach to education used in the study programme contributes to the establishment of broad-based dialogue within the profession to re-assess the position of planning professionals in Serbia’s altered socio-economic context and re-define their position in spatial development practice. The process of developing students’ master’s projects is primarily oriented towards creating solutions rooted in professional practice, the quality and complexity of which are products of the involvement of a multitude of different stakeholders. Knowledge creation is directly conditioned by the thematic framework, which is selected so as to reflect the most up-to-date professional experiences and issues of significance for the planning profession globally, and at the same time mirrors topical problems of urban planning practice in Serbia. At the same time, the overall thematic framework provides a platform for permanent communication between all stakeholders during the development of students’ final works. Knowledge is constructed in the process of developing solutions through an exchange of professional experiences from various fields. Different forms of organised discussion – such as meetings, group debates, and workshops – create a broad-based working environment and create space for open professional dialogue.

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Masters’ projects produced by students of the Integrated Urbanism course constitute a set of mutually compatible designs for the City of Pančevo. Some of these designs are predominantly concerned with spatial interventions and changes to physical structure, others focus on social or economic objectives, whilst others still deal with the design of institutions and mechanisms to facilitate change. However, regardless of their primary focus and initial impulse, all of these projects integrate all aspects of development (spatial, environmental, social, and economic) to ensure the proposed solutions are sustainable. The various aspects are integrated by being aligned and consolidated with a number of sectoral policies (articulated in different types of documents) pertaining to the territory of Pančevo that have been defined and are being implemented at various levels of government (Milovanović Rodić, et al, 2016). Below we present students’ projects, problems, solutions, and key principles that underpin balanced urban-rural development of the Municipality of Pančevo. IP1: Farming co-operatives to promote organic production • •

•

Problem: Small farms are not competitive in the market, and consequently their revenues are low. The issues of small farm size and obsolete equipment are compounded by the vulnerability of the soil to inappropriate disposal of municipal and farming waste. Project proposal: In this project the development of small farms is based on the greater revenues that farms can achieve by joining together into co-operatives. Apart from improving competitiveness and market access and facilitating the purchase of farming equipment, co-operatives would promote farmer awareness and encourage the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. Urban-rural synergy: Integration of supply of and demand for farm production; support for the local circular economy.

IP2: Rural tourism as a factor in the development of Pančevo’s rural areas •

•

•

Problem: As in many rural areas of Vojvodina, the village of Ivanovo faces low living standards; in addition, the area suffers from pronounced country-city migration and depopulation. The village fronts the Nadel and Danube Rivers, and its territory includes a river island that has been declared a natural monument (home to protected and rare species of plants, animals, and fungi). There are many holiday homes in the area, which has a tradition as a day-trip destination. Nevertheless, the village’s tourism offering and infrastructure are under-developed, and it lacks accommodation capacity. Project proposal: Under this project, rural development is to be based on greater revenues from tourism that the village can earn by developing recreational fishing, activating existing accommodation capacities and creating new ones, constructing a small boat marina, and developing an integrated offering that links leisure with entertainment. These efforts are expected to improve local products and services and enhance the quality of life. Urban-rural synergy: Integration of urban and rural tourism offering; improvement of quality of life in rural area; and reduction in the rate of daily migration.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION IP3: Supporting social entrepreneurship by allowing access to unused town-owned office space •

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Problem: Publicly-owned office space is under-utilised, which has had an adverse effect on economic activity and general dynamism of the town centre. On the other hand, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are unable to rent publicly-owned premises for their social enterprises at concessionary prices unless they intend to engage in business. Project proposal: This project entails support for social entrepreneurship by (1) mobilising and incentivising NGOs to create social enterprises; (2) providing financial support and education for social enterprises, and allowing them access to unused town-owned office space; and (3) amending the institutional and regulatory environment. Urban-rural synergy: Empowerment and social inclusion (association and revenue generation) of vulnerable groups, including rural women and elderly people.

IP4: Sustainable system to manage hazardous household and farming waste • • •

Problem: The issues addressed by this project are the lack of a system for selective collection of household and farming waste; low public engagement and awareness of this issue, its extent, consequences, and efforts to resolve it; degraded areas; and threats to public health. Project proposal: This project defines a sustainable process for managing waste throughout its lifecycle. It is based on principles of environmental design, which require products to not have adverse impacts on the environment at any stage of their lifecycles. The solution is tailored to the needs and capacities of Pančevo. Urban-rural synergy: Establishment of an integrated waste management and environmental protection, particularly with regard to soil and water.

IP5: Construction of a biogas facility in Pančevo •

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Problem: Pančevo is threatened by high air pollution levels caused by the local chemical industry, as well as, in winter, district heating facilities and individual households that burn solid fuel for heating. On the other hand, farmland accounts for 83 % of the town’s territory, and by-products of farming are routinely either burnt or discarded. Project proposal: The project proposes that organic farming waste should be used to make biogas, which would then be utilised as fuel for district heating across the territory of Pančevo, as well as for the manufacture of fertiliser, a by-product of biogas production. Urban-rural synergy: Establishment of an Integrated waste management; renewable energy; and environmental protection, particularly with regard to air.

IP6: Ensuring inclusion of Pančevo’s cultural offering into the Danube Route cultural network

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Problem: Under-utilisation of resources to develop the cultural offering of the town, in particular in outlying rural areas; poor attendance and overlap between events; absence of prior announcements for seasonal programmes; mismatch between supply and demand; and poor audience participation in the development of the town’s cultural content. Project proposal: This project aims at including Pančevo’s cultural offering in the Danube Route cultural network. It envisages the creation of a network of cultural institutions and events in the town and nine outlying villages, and the deployment of measures to encourage activities at village cultural centres. Preserving the traditions, languages, and customs of these multi-ethnic-confessional areas may make them more attractive not only for the local population, but at the international level as well. Urban-rural synergy: Positioning of Pančevo’s cultural offer, networking between cultural institutions at the local, national and sub national (Danube region) level, and integration and alignment of their activities.

All projects are based upon the integration of different sectoral policies and linkages, co-operation between different levels of authorities, public institutions, and the civil and private sector in the design and implementation of integrated projects.

CONCLUSIONS The opportunity to work on a real, practical case within the framework of collaboration with different actors gained the added value to the learning exercise, and final project ideas. Firstly, it gained the understanding that implementation of the local development strategy is as a set of complementary integrated projects for both urban and rural areas. These projects relay on synergy of development paths that are based on the distinct potentials and constrains of rural and urban areas. Secondly, objectives of the projects were related to: (1) better land management of both agricultural and construction land; (2) improvement of technical and social services; (3) support of low income groups’ employment (women in rural areas); (4) improvement of the natural and cultural heritage in rural areas, and (5) better urban governance. And, thirdly, besides the projects themselves these ideas include different types of networks between public institutions, new types of partnership between private and public sector, and, as well, public participation and improved transparency in order to reach better governance in both urban and rural areas. We relied on the principles of multilevel urban governance that are crucial for attaining integrated urban development are co-ordination, co-operation, participation, and integration of sectoral policies and stakeholders. The teaching model outlined above and students’ projects promote the use of participatory multilevel governance instruments to achieve balanced urban-rural development. Their objective is to facilitate linkages, dialogue, and joint action between authorities at different levels of government, as well as between these bodies and stakeholders in the private and civil sector. ‘Participatory instruments’ here means all policy instruments (such as regulations, plans, strategic documents, designs, etc.) created in the course of a process that encourages, fosters, and motivates the participation

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION of various public, civil, and private organisations, groups, communities, and members of the public in their articulation and implementation. The students’ projects presented above are grounded in the understanding that balanced urban-rural development can only be attained if: (1) there is active and continuous collaboration between various stakeholders in designing and implementing solutions; (2) different sectoral policies are integrated; (3) co-ordination is allowed between different levels of government to implement integrated urban projects; (4) monitoring of implementation is ensured; and (5) institutions are able to change and adapt to an evolving development context.

REFERENCES Chuchalin, A., Minin, M. and N. Vyuzhanina. 2013. ‘’Practice-oriented learning as a means of increasing adaptability and quality of engineering education.’’ International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning (ICL), National Research Technological University, Kazan, Russia, pp: 586-589. Čolić, Ratka. 2015. "Rezultati kolaborativnog i praktično orijentisanog učenja." U Inovativni metodološki pristup izradi master rada: doprinos edukaciji profila urbaniste, urednici Maruna, M. i R. Čolić, 75-94. Beograd: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Arhitektonski fakultet, GIZ/AMBERO Beograd De Hei, M.S.A., J.W Strijbos, E.Sjoer and W. Admiraal. 2015. ‘’Collaborative learning in higher education: lecturers’ practices and beliefs.’’ Research Papers in Education, No. 30:2, pp. 232-247. Davoudi, S, and Stead, D. 2002. "Urban-Rural Relationships: an introduction and a brief history." Built Environment: 28(4): 269277. European Commission. 1999. European Spatial Development Perspective: Towards Balanced and Sustainable Development of the Territory of the EU. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications EU Ministers responsible for Urban Development. 2007. "Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities". Leipzig. EU Ministers responsible for Urban Development. 2010. "Toledo Declaration on Urban Development Declaration". Toledo. Johnson, D. W., and Johnson, R. T. 2004. ‘’Cooperation and the use of technology’’. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 785–811). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlabum Associates. Kwan, C. Y. 2000. ‘’What is problem-based learning (PBL)?’’ Center for Development of Teaching and Learning Brief, 3 (3), 1–6.

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Maruna, M. Čolić,R. Fokdal, J. Zehner, C. Milovanović-Rodić, D. Lalović, K. 2015. ‚"Collaborative and Practice Oriented Learning on Disaster Risk Management in Post-Socialist Transition Countries." Proceeding from the XVI N-AERUS Conference. Dortmund, 19-21.11.2015. pp: 408-421. Milovanović Rodić, D., Maruna, M., and Čolić, R. 2016. "Instrumenti upravljanja integralnim urbanim razvojem na primeru grada Pančeva." Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. Nilsson, Kjell et al. 2014. Strategies for Sustainable Urban Development and Urban-Rural Linkages, Research briefings. European Journal of Spatial Development. March 2014, Zonneveld, W. and Stead, D. 2007. European Territorial Cooperation and The Concept of Urban - Rural Relationships. Planning, Practice and Research, Vol.22 No.3. August 2007. pp. 439-453.

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SMART CITY CONCEPT IN THE STRATEGIC URBAN PLANNING PROCESS. CASE STUDY OF THE CITY OF BELGRADE, SERBIA Dušan Damjanović 80 MSc, PALGO Center, Svetozara Markovića 26, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Marijana Pantić PhD, PALGO Center, Svetozara Markovića 26, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Vesna Mila Čolić Damjanović PhD, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT European regions and cities intensively apply the Smart City concept, pursuing to maximize the use of contemporary technologies and Internet of Things (IoT) in problem solving when it comes to transport, city logistics, environmental improvement, life quality for their citizens, and many other aspects. This concept has been elaborated through smart city strategies dealing specifically with the topics such as smart governance, smart economy, smart environment, smart living, smart people, and smart mobility, but often also as a part of comprehensive urban development strategies. In the case of the City of Belgrade, the Smart City concept has been introduced through several strategic development documents (e.g. City of Belgrade Development Strategy 2017-2021). The aim of this paper is to identify the future long-term development vision rooted in the Belgrade’s most recent strategic documents, by detecting the parts that lay fertile ground for innovation and entrepreneurial culture, inherent elements of the Smart City model. This approach should reveal the city development domains that are the first to encompass innovations in strategic planning and enable the introduction of the Smart City concept on a larger scale. Having in mind that holistic approaches to urban development and resilience and global knowledge-based platforms can lead to important achievements for the future of the cities, it is also important to make, at this point, some useful links between Belgrade and other comparable and innovative European cities. For the purpose of making comparison between the City of Belgrade and advanced European cities of similar demographic and urban features (e.g. Barcelona, Vienna etc.) topics such as development of transparency in decision-making, or improved stakeholders’ participation and collaboration in service provision, will be used to demonstrate the existing gap between them, as well as to point out the direction on which Belgrade should embark on. Keywords: Smart City, strategic planning, City of Belgrade, sustainable community, innovation 80


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INTRODUCTION Generally speaking, principles such as innovativeness, transparency, public participation, competitiveness and information accessibility are advocated by major strategies in Serbia that relate to the smart city concept – Strategy of Electronic Communications Development in the Republic of Serbia for the period 2010-2020 (2010), Strategy and Policy of the Industrial Development of the Republic of Serbia for the period 2011–2020 (2011), Public Administration Reform Strategy in the Republic of Serbia (2014), Strategy for Supporting the Development of Small and Medium Enterprises, Entrepreneurship and Competitiveness for the period 2015-2020 (2015), Strategy for e-Government Development of the Republic of Serbia by 2018 (2015) and Strategy for Development of IT Industries 2017–2020 (2016). Although not specifically addressing the smart city concept, all above mentioned documents strive to follow EU regulations and improve life quality of all citizens. Listed principles, according to those documents, should be applied through investment in and use of electronic communications in various sectors – medicine, health care system, governance, education, traffic management, etc. Besides service provision, electronic communications should secure public participation in decision-making, stakeholders’ accessibility to information, but also a communication infrastructure between governmental bodies e.g. online meetings and work from home saving time and reducing transportation costs and pollution. These strategic documents advocate: rationalisation of government bodies, simplification of administrative procedures, trainings of government employees and life-long learning, and innovative entrepreneurship in relation to the smart city concept. Also, particular attention is given to sciencetechnology-investor system and its strengthening by establishment and investing in science technological parks, technological incubators and a national technological platform. The industry that relies on IT should also involve and stimulate development and small and middle enterprises and entrepreneurial spirit, especially with local ideas and capital.

SMART CITY CONCEPT IN THE BELGRADE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY 2017–2021 A major ambition of the Belgrade Development Strategy [BDS] is to fit to European development priorities and principles, thus inclusion of the smart city concept represents one of its innovations. The vision of the City of Belgrade is competitive, sustainable and smart city devoted to life quality improvement for its citizens, what is generally planned through minimal waste of resources and maximal use of ICT (Damjanović et al, 2016). One of the main objectives is smart governance that provides good quality, efficient and effective service provision to all users. Furthermore, transparency, user participation, involvement of all stakeholders, direct communication between government and citizens and an early involvement of public in planning processes permeate priorities and measures set for the future five years of implementation.

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Smart governance and participatory decision-making in BDS What is to make economic development smart is aspiration to base it on knowledge and to stimulate innovativeness. In order to empower the knowledge, BDS supports a continuous development of human resources that can further improve competitiveness through specialization of attractive industrial branches with added value and through development of creative industries. Attraction of key enabling technologies is expected to help the process, which will also include building of partnerships between science and economy. Some of the proposed tools to achieve this are science technological parks, business incubators, centres of competence and electronic entrepreneurial platforms. Each tool is relevant, but science technological parks are of utmost value because they unite science, entrepreneurs, start-up businesses, innovation, self-employment and small and medium enterprises, which are integral part of the BDS priorities (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Model of smart governance within Belgrade strategic planning - Source: (Čolić Damjanović et al, 2016)

Urban development of Belgrade should be smart after urban development procedures are simplified, and the use of land relying on the principles of compactness and multi-functionality is made more efficient, consequently saving the space and rationalizing its use. The main objective is to open the city to its riverbanks – on the Sava and the Danube, but also to expand pedestrian zones in the city centre. A smart urban development strategy is planned as well as creation of urban GIS and technologically reliable centre for monitoring, coordination and decision-making that will empower citizens’ involvement through e- communication. The smart way of getting financial support is intensification of public-private partnerships.

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The main objective in traffic segment is sustainable mobility and shift in traffic modes hierarchy – first pedestrians, bikers and public transport, at the end car users. In order to make an user-friendly city, the BDS prescribes relocation of railway tracks spreading parallel to the river banks, continuous traffic and parking tracking systems, construction of tunnels in order to dislocate transit traffic from the city centre, construction of metro system, intensified construction of underground parking lots and a logistics centre. A planned smart plan for traffic infrastructure should tie all the elements up and make everyday life of citizens and visitors of Belgrade more comfortable. Objectives in the segment of communal infrastructure are rather not ambitious because the current state needs significant improvement. Therefore, the BDS aims at getting closer to complete coverage of households by water supply and sewage system, by organized waste collection and primary waste selection. Enabling the city to be smarter with this respect means bringing service costs to economically sustainable level, therefore, transition to smart city requires not only technical and organizational measures, but also educational actions in order to prepare the households to new standards. As successful management is the basis for all successful systems, energetics segment of the BDS puts an accent on tightening ecological regulations and introducing new institutes and positions such as energy management for city-owned buildings, fund for energy efficiency, information system on energetics, public-private partnerships and introduction of pay-per-use system. The system also should be improved by increasing the share of renewable energy sources, energy efficient technologies (e.g. heat pumps), etc. Aiming at efficient response to climate change, the BDS advocates development of integral GIS (for water, air, soil, noise, etc.) combined with innovative monitoring system. Other measures in the segment of environmental protection and improvement relate to the projects for acoustic zoning and promotion of green roofs and vertical greenery in the city. Social development segment appears to require major system changes in order to improve its availability to users. Steps recommended by the BDS are intersectoral cooperation, integrated user record system, housing fund database and improvement of accessibility to health care services. In addition, this segment requires awareness raising on relevance of recreational sports and regular physical activity, practically supported by free of charge open-space gyms in public spaces.

THE SMART CITY CONCEPT IN SOME EUROPEAN CITIES – BARCELONA, COPENHAGEN, VIENNA Current status of the City of Belgrade within the local self-governance system does not correspond to its population size and significance; therefore, it is necessary to initiate certain legislation changes. The city municipalities of Belgrade do not have the status of local self-government units, even though they fulfil all necessary requirements for it.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Some European cities, comparable to Belgrade by population size, like Barcelona, Copenhagen and Vienna have either a status of a region or other form of intermediate level of local government. If Belgrade gained the status of administrative region, its jurisdiction would expand significantly and Belgrade would transfer some of the current tasks to the city municipalities. Nonetheless, before City of Belgrade undergoes the decentralisation process, the BDS recommends creation of a body that would bring together representatives of all city municipalities and top city officials for shared planning, experience exchange and recommending modifications of the City Charter and other legal acts of the City. The establishment of comprehensive e-government and participatory planning mechanisms, together with other innovative participation forms is one of the objectives stipulated in the BDS. In addition, smarter government is to be secured through creation of database of own and delegated tasks and introduction of more efficient land ownership management system. Review of the European strategic documents for some European cities – Barcelona, Copenhagen and Vienna – that are similar to Belgrade in population size, leads to a conclusion that the smart city concept for these cities is based on environment and mobility. In order to fight climate change, these cities focus on massive reduction of CO emissions, while transforming energy consumption and traffic into more sustainable patterns. Their sustainability goals do not concern only environment, but also users of the system – citizens and visitors (MD-UDP, 2014a; REM, 2015; CRD, undated). The smart city concept in these cities is assimilated in the overall objective of high quality of living, including greater social inclusion, innovative development and use of ICTs, and the resource use reduction. 2

Encouraging the sustainable mobility means development of efficient low emission transport systems, including minimization of travel time and travel speed. Hence, the mentioned cities work intensively on environmentally friendly public transportation modes. Cycling and walking, electric cars and car-sharing are being dynamically promoted while traffic is monitored and regulated in real time. For some of them the ambition is to become fossil free cities by 2050 (CRD, undated). Energy consumption is being put under control by reinforced monitoring of environmental features. The smart city infrastructure (integrated digital systems) based on the use of up-to-date technology enables sensor monitoring of water, air, waste, weather and its influences on sewage system capacities, e.g. waste containers powered by solar cells that communicate when they should be emptied (MD-UDP, 2014a; CRD, undated; CCC, undated; Nielsen, undated). The key point is that monitoring data are integrated and optimized in real time. Further reductions in resource usage concern reuse and recycling, which reflect in separation of grey water, rainwater deposits and use of regenerated water (REM, 2015). Inevitable aspect is the education that promotes environmental initiatives and overall awareness raising, in accordance with goals such as keeping or achieving the share of green spaces at over 50% (MD-UDP, 2014b; REM, 2015).

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Development of smart infrastructure requires new solutions and innovativeness. Therefore, the examined cities actively work on state-of-the-art urban technologies, their competitiveness and entrepreneurial spirit. Creating spaces where research, high-tech production and start-up entrepreneurs go together (science technology parks, business incubators, centres of excellence) help to specialize production, coordinate various stakeholders and bring added value (Vuja, Čolić Damjanović, 2013). Skilled employees are a prerequisite for innovation and successful SMEs, therefore, Barcelona, Copenhagen and Vienna pay attention to bringing together education and trainings, in line with acknowledged requirements. Among shared principles, objectives and actions, each of the reviewed cities has its own specificities. Barcelona has determined its boundaries one century ago, used as incentive for smart space use, thus creating new urban centres within city territory and reducing travel time on long distances (REM, 2015). Copenhagen turned to be one of the most ambitious cities regarding climate change adaption. By aiming at severe reduction of CO2 emission, they developed a “blue and green” concept to protect the city from the flooding by turning concrete and asphalt areas into canals and green micro parks (Barenholdt Bruun, 2014). It is also ambitious in recycling its waste in share of about 90%. Finally, Vienna is singular by the introduction of district heating systems where local waste produced in a district/neighbourhood is used for heating production (MD-UDP, 2014b).

Smart governance assessment It is noted that the smart city governance of Barcelona, Copenhagen and Vienna is a shared concept relying on three pillars: (1) transparency (open data access and participation), (2) cooperation and partnerships, and (3) holistic urban planning. Transparency implies equity in the public access to aggregated data that concern urban development and inform citizens about action plans and projects implementation (REM, 2015; Nielsen, undated). It is also about open access to certain types of data for academic use in order to connect research and development. Participatory governance is practiced as a full involvement of citizens in the development of projects, involvement of different stakeholders, dialogue with politicians, local authorities, companies, research institutions and citizens. The City of Copenhagen believes that long-lasting tradition in implementing these practices “led the country to become the first in the world to pass an environmental protection law” (CRD, undated) and “to become one of the leading countries in the world when it comes to e-governance” (CCC, undated). Cooperation among different stakeholders is considered to be essential part of successful governance, especially between public and private partners. For Vienna, it is considered a central principle in urban development (MD-UDP, 2014a), while Barcelona focuses on cooperation among the municipalities in the metropolitan territory because that is the only way to strategically integrate systems that cannot be successful if developed along territorial limitations (REM, 2015). Finally, the holistic approach is traditionally practiced in Copenhagen and Vienna (CCC, undated; MD-UDP, 2014a), representing the most relevant component in the implementation of the smart city concept.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION In order to enable practice of all three pillars of the smart city concept, the Cities of Barcelona, Copenhagen and Vienna have developed diverse tools. First of all, they assumed that development of e-governance can achieve its purpose only when almost all institutions and citizens are fully computerised, and educated to use ICTs and broadband services. Therefore, the smart growth includes broadband and comprehensive W-LAN (MD-UDP, 2014b; CRD undated) making available the use of social networks, data platforms or contact forums. Smart city strategies and urban plans can also be considered a tool to the concept implementation. Thus, Vienna has adopted the Smart City Wien Framework Strategy (MD-UDP, 2014b), while Barcelona is working on the establishment of a new model to address the management and urban planning conjointly with the social, economic and institutional actors involved (REM, 2015). When compared to these reviewed cities, Belgrade is at a lower starting position. The completion of infrastructure that is considered elementary in other cities is currently a starting point for the smart development of Belgrade (connection of all households to the water supply and sewage system, waste-water purification system, organised waste collection for all citizens, reduction of coal and oil fuels in heating system, etc.). If current statistics and intended measures of some of the smart city criteria are compared, it is clear that Belgrade will need significantly longer time to achieve the standards: e.g. the expected rise of cycling in Belgrade is 2.8–5.8% by 2021, while the share of cyclists in Copenhagen is expected to be 50% by 2025. In Vienna, by 2025 80% of journeys will be made by public transport, cycling or walking. As Barcelona plans to reduce greenhouse gases by 40% by 2030 and introduce 70% hybrid vehicles by 2022, and as Vienna strives to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases by at least 35% by 2030 (and by 80% by 2050), Copenhagen and consequently Denmark have even higher ambitions of becoming the first carbonneutral country in the world by 2050.

CONCLUSIONS Frequent changes of the economic and environmental settings, as well as regional and global challenges, are imposing on urban planners and city authorities the adjustment of city strategies and making moves towards more efficient, more sustainable and transparent planning and urban management, also by introducing smart city concept. General principles and basic smart city concept in Serbian strategic urban planning processes are assessed in relation to the examples of other European cities of similar population size. Even though the smart city concept is reflected in each segment of the BDS, it seems that segments about traffic and energetics reflect it in the most comprehensive manner and regarding diversity of aspects for adaptation to the smart city approach and technological complexity of suggested measures. The significant lagging behind of the City of Belgrade is notable in the field of implementation because Serbia is still in the infrastructure building process of science technology parks, business incubators, introduction of early public hearings in urban planning, etc. However, the segment of environmental protection and improvement appears to be the least ambitious in bringing innovation and technologically challenging actions.

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Another test for Serbia and the City of Belgrade is the process of extending technology education and empowering urban residents with low technology skills. Therefore, education and introduction of ICT trainings is necessary not only for users, but also for service providers. The future should bring direct communication among administration, decision-makers and citizens – direct debates via ICT in all phases of planning. While the present model mainly restrains citizens of Belgrade from participating in urban planning, and the results of introducing early public hearings are still ambiguous, citizens do need to be involved in decision-making by taking part in all phases of the creation of ideas and determining of goals. By applying smart city concept to Belgrade strategic urban planning processes, key prerequisites are engendered for the improvement of economic results and for the advancement of effectiveness and efficiency in overall urban management system.

REFERENCES Barenholdt Bruun, Kristine. 2014. “A Blue and Green Revolution.” Ramboll (Response – Livable Cities) Issue 01: 1114. Belgrade Development Strategy 2017–2021 (2017), consultant – PALGO Center, draft, unpublished. Čolić Damjanović, Vesna Mila, Gligorijević, Žaklina, Damjanović, Dušan, and Čantrak, Đorđe. 2016. “Introducing Smart Governance Perspective to Belgrade Strategic Planning Processes,” in Proccedeengs of XII International May Conference on Strategic Management, edited by Živan Živković, Bor: University of Belgrade, Technical Faculty in Bor, 815-825. Damjanović, Dušan, Jerinić Jelena, and Čolić Damjanović, Vesna Mila. 2016. “Smart governance in strategic planning process – the Belgrade case study,” in Smart City in Serbia: Possibility of Systemic Implementation, edited by Borislav Stojkov, 171-178, Belgrade: The Academy of Engineering Sciences of Serbia. (In Serbian) Danish Smart Cities: Sustainable Living in an Urban World. Undated. Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster, Copenhagen. Greater Copenhagen – Regional Growth and Development Strategy. Undated. Centre for Regional Development [CRD], Copenhagen. Municipal Department 18 (MA 18) Urban Development and Planning [MD-UDP]. 2014a. Step 2025 – Urban Development Plan Vienna. Vienna: Vienna City Administration. Municipal Department 18 (MA 18) Urban Development and Planning [MD-UDP]. 2014b. Smart City Wien – Framework Strategy. Vienna: Vienna City Administration. Nielsen, Winn. “Copenhagen Smart City”, Accessed March 3, 2017. http://www.vinnova.se/PageFiles/751333230/Copenhagen%20smart%20city%20opl%C3%A6g%20i%20Stockholm 2.pdf.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Public Administration Reform Strategy in the Republic of Serbia (2014), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 9/14, 42/14.

“REM Metropolitan Strategic Reflection – Building the Barcelona Metropolitan Area Strengthening the Local World [REM]”. 2015. Accessed March 3, 2017. www.amb.cat/remreduit-2015. Strategy and Policy of the Industrial Development of the Republic of Serbia for the period 2011–2020 (2011), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 55/11. Strategy for Development of IT Industries 2017–2020 (2016), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 95/16. Strategy for e-Government Development of the Republic of Serbia by 2018 (2015), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 107/15. Strategy for Supporting the Development of Small and Medium Enterprises, Entrepreneurship and Competitiveness for the period 2015-2020 (2015), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 35/15. Strategy of Electronic Communications Development in the Republic of Serbia for the period 2010–2020 (2010), Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 68/10.

Vuja, Aleksandru, Čolić Damjanović, Vesna Mila. 2013. Instant City: Architectural Experiments. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture.

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INTEGRATIVE AND LOCALLY SENSITIVE APPROACH TO THE COMMUNITY PLANNING IN SERBIA Biserka Mitrović Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, [email protected]

Biserka Mitrović 81 Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Creating a sustainable and balanced relation between urban and rural settlements cannot be imagined without the integrative approach to the territorial development, which again, relies upon the environmental protection and economic and social cohesion within the spatial framework. Once neglected and not treated as equally important as the ecological sustainability, the social sustainability and cohesion have been gaining importance during the 21st century. As one of the pillars of the social sustainability and cohesion, public places and services have drawn a great attention worldwide recently. At the same time, public services planning remains one of the most important themes of urban and spatial planning and is actual despite the fact that the wider context- planning of the public sector – was treated exhaustively both in theory and practice. On the other hand, public services have been much less the subject of research - and almost exclusively in the field of urban sociology, while very little in the field of the methodology of urban/spatial planning. In light of this, the focus of the discussion is the spatial aspect and methodological innovation of the planning of public services and its importance within community planning, as a support to the spatial development of the community, with special regard to the locally sensitive approach. Focusing the research on the spatial domain has come from the integrating character of the territory which reflects the relations of the planned activities and land uses, regardless of their spatial characteristics. This choice is entirely in accordance with the integrative character of modern urban/spatial planning, as well as the integrative nature of the sustainable development. The locally sensitive approach ensures better implementation and adaptation of the general concepts to the local needs. The results of the research aim to improve the theoretical basis for planning and contribute to the establishing better practices of the public services planning in Serbia. Keywords: Public services, locally sensitive approach, Urban and rural places, social sustainability and cohesion 81


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INTRODUCTION: THE CONTEXT OF THE PLANNING OF PUBLIC SERVICES IN SERBIA Great challenges faced by urban and spatial planning in Serbia, resulting from its low efficiency and poor implementation warn that, on the one hand, it is necessary to constitute contemporary paradigms of urban and spatial planning and to improve the planning methodology in order to increase the implementation of planning solutions. On the other hand, it is necessary to improve the theoretical and value-based context of planning, based on the fundamental European principles of equality, social cohesion and the concept of socially sustainable community. Additionally, it is preferable to establish a firmer and more direct link with the local community, building the locally sensitive approach and methods of planning work. Planning of the public services, as an integral part of the public sector planning, is one of the most important themes of urban and spatial planning. In this paper, the term ‘public services’ refers to the basic services such as education, health facilities, children day care and social services. The treatment of the public good evolves depending on the changeable social, political, economic and the other circumstances. On the other hand, the public services have been much less the subject of research. In Serbia, the spatial planning of public services has been treated mostly during the period of socialism and planned economy, so this value-based-political platform has largely shaped the fundaments for the public services planning decades ago, basing it on the normative approach. Great influence of the neo-liberal economy model to the managing and planning of the public good, and consequently to the public services planning in Serbia has produced the degradation and weakening of this sector over more than two decades, applying ad hoc solutions and neglecting the role of the public services for the quality of life and general improvement of the local community. The actual situation, when the legacy of the public services’ spatial planning is being degraded and the significant resource - the capacities and the network - being neglected (in actual economic conditions it is practically a non-renewable resource), urges for the shaping of the new approach and methodology of the public services planning, with the aim to re-establish its better practices.

BACKGROUND RESEARCH Social sustainability and cohesion and the rising importance of the public services Contemporary urbanisation faces numerous ecological, economic, social and cultural problems to which the concept of the sustainable development continues to give the majority of answers. The sustainability itself becomes the different living concept for the cities and their tributary areas, emphasising the quality of life and the revitalisation of the local values and identity. Comprising different spheres of human activities, including economy, environment, and social life, the concept of sustainability offers the frame for the urban and spatial planning in theory and practice. Some of its most important features are natural conservation, efficient economy, social progress and the enforcement of the civil society, thus forming the foundation for the quality long term development (Haughton, 1996). Choguill, Hardoy and many others, among the other characteristics of the sustainable development underline rational use of

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the renewable resources, economic vitality, self-sustainable communities and meeting basic human rights (Choguill, 1996, Hardoy, 1992). UN-Habitat introduces the term of sustainable urbanisation which links the basic aspects of sustainability with the urban-rural territory and its relations (UN HABITAT, 2004). The praxis of the sustainable urbanisation is very much supported by the international organisations, such as UN-Habitat, OECD, World Bank and European Commission (Li-Yin Shen, 2011). Well known Sustainable development Goals, SDGs, as a new, universal set of general goals, supported by the members of the states within UN, represent a platform of the sustainable development by 2030. They emphasise the role of the public services, namely the Goal no. 3 –Good health and wellbeing refer to the health-for-all concept, universal health safety and the access to quality health facilities. Sustainable development Goal no. 4 aims to ensure the inclusive and equal quality education for all (United Nations, 2015). Almost all important documents prepared by the agencies of UN treat the public services, but rarely in an integrative manner. Public services have been treated singularly, sectorial and in a non-spatial manner, and that fact was one of the motives for this research. Social sustainability, based on equity and equality – has the common ground with social rights. It is also based on the quality of life, livability, respect for human scale, comprehensive and integrative approach to the urban/spatial planning and social cohesion (Lucas,2001). Social sustainability is described as the harmonious development of the civil society in which the social interaction is encouraged for all segments of the population (Polése and Stren, 1999). Bristol Agreement from 2005 defined four key features of the social sustainability: social cohesion, tolerance and safety, while the Sheltair Group (1998) adds that the socially sustainable community should be capable of functioning safely, healthy and to create places for human interaction – educational, cultural and recreational facilities and employment. Similarly, in the sustainable community, there is equity of chances - spatial segregation or isolation do not exist, while the inhabitants have the access to the basic services and facilities (Beatley et al, 1997). Building the common values in a collectivity is conditioned by the certain degree of social cohesion, which is, on the other hand, a prerequisite for the good neighbourly relations in an urban community (Mlinar, 1979). A solid civil society, along with the market economy and political democracy relies on the civil, political and social rights (such as the right to the education, health and social care). Civil rights allow individuals the chance for equal choices, therefore they rest on the principles of equity and equality (Giddens, 2005). The concept of social cohesion, as an important foundation of the European policies in the future is defined in the document Europe 2020: European Strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth (European Commission, 2010) and is based on the assuring conditions to meet the needs of different population groups in the community, regardless of their political, economic or social power, as well as on the assuring the opportunity to gain the wellbeing to all their members, reducing inequality to a minimum. Although the concept of social cohesion is a new policy platform of the Social Development Goals of the European Union, which are fundamental for the meeting three key domains (human rights, democracy and the rule of law), it is generally not new and has been treated in a theory (Kazepov, 2005). Socially and economically balanced territory tends to reduce the social and economic differences which are manifested through spatial differences that create inconsistency of the spatial and social development.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Balanced social development enhances social and spatial cohesion through minimising the discrepancy between urban and rural areas, the growth of small urban centres and optimal quality of life (Kazepov, 2005). Having in mind the above discussion, the operationalization of the principles of the social sustainability and social cohesion should be expressed through: (1) Implementation of the principles of equity by creating the spatial conditions for the social and spatial cohesion and reduced social differences; (2) Sustainable local planning which takes into account the needs of the local population and economy and is based on rational sustainable land use and local characteristics; (3) Enforcement of the public services’ network aiming to create equal access to all inhabitants and creating the favourable spatial conditions for its growth.

Integrative approach to the territorial development The integrating character of the territory reflects the relations of the planned activities and land uses and is one of the priorities of the global and European urban and spatial policies. In this sense, Global Report prepared by UN-Habitat (UN-HABITAT, 2009) defined the up-to-date demands towards the urban/territorial planning, the most important being: (1)Urban/territorial planning should deal with the functional integration and the integral treatment of the public space, including the spatial dimensions into the strategies; (2)Introducing the new forms of planning that are oriented towards social equity and equality, and which will enable the adequate access to services for all the inhabitants. The unifying idea of the spatial development in the European Union is related to the territorial cohesion, which main goals are to contribute to the sustainable development and competitiveness, to enhance the regions, to promote the territorial integration and develop the coherence of the EU policies. The main task of the territorial cohesion is to contribute to the balanced distribution of economic and social resources among EU regions, bearing in mind the spatial dimension. This also means the equal resources’ distribution among the population which is possible in the integrative approach is implemented. The term territorial cohesion has been introduced in 1986 and it includes the economic and social cohesion (The Treaty of Lisbon, 2007, 2009), while the new high strategy Europe 2020 (European Commission, 2010) sets territorial cohesion goals: • The capitalisation of the strengths of each territory of EU so that they can contribute to the sustainable and balanced development of EU as a whole; • Managing the concentration with the aim to emphasize the positive trends – intensifying of innovation and productivity, and lessen the negative ones – pollution and social exclusion. • Better connectivity of the territory and better accessibility to the public services, efficient transport and energy; • Enhancing the cooperation in order to overcome the negative effects of the climate change, pollution, by macroregional strategies.

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The concept of the territorial cohesion has and important role for the European spatial planning (Faludi, 2006, 2008) and was implemented directly or indirectly in many documents of EU, such as Cohesion report 2000-2006, Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion, 2008, and others. However, the concept of the territorial cohesion, as a backbone of the spatial policies in EU, did not offer clear definitions and the substantial understanding on one hand, while on the other hand did not define the unified policies or mechanisms for implementation. The true value of the concept should be the assessment of its influence on the defining the policies at different spatial levels (Abrahams, 2014).

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING OF PUBLIC SERVICES Although there are widely accepted principles based on the theoretical and international documents, the universal patterns of the planning of the planning services, fully adjusted to the practice do not exist. Therefore, the redefinition of the contextually specific methodological tools is still a challenging task. There are two main pillars that should shape the conceptual framework for the public services planning. The first one relies on the theoretical background and several relevant aspects that are taken into account. The second pillar is related to the problems identified in the present planning practice in Serbia. The internationally adopted approach and principles related to public services include the framework of social rights that imply the implementation of the principles of equity and equality. For the realisation of the social rights (rights to education, health care etc.), the spatial distribution of possibilities to achieve these rights is important, as well as the local level of this distribution, since locally available resources are relevant to the local users (Petrovic, 2013). Following the aforesaid, the role of the planning of public services is important, as well as their spatial distribution based on the criteria of equity and equality. As a planning background, a new model in EU countries which includes the territorial and social cohesion, integrative planning approach, and the sustainable social development should be applied. Public services represent a common ground for all these areas, creating an arena in which they overlap, complement or exclude, so it is a challenge to examine if the harmonisation of these starting points is possible. Recent studies and practice have indicated little or no possibility of direct transferring European and other international experiences, with regard to economic, social, political, and consequently and spatial legacy of Serbian cities. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen and improve the applicability and operability of the adopted principles and concept (Mitrovic, 2016). The research also relies on the wide fundament of various aspects with the aim to create a multidisciplinary framework for the planning. This is very different from the present model, which is characterised by narrow sectorial approach or limited spatial consideration. The renewed approach should be able to connect the plan content ‘vertically’ and horizontally’, linking the socio-demographic, spatial and economic aspects and indicators while being fully adjusted to the planning level and area. For the realistic operationalization of the concept and for the precise estimating of the capacity of the future public services in accordance with the local needs, but also following the thesis that successful public spaces should be responsive to the needs of their users, (Djukic at all, 2016), it is necessary to know the

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION detailed functional, demographic and spatial characteristics of the area. The relations of these criteria and indicators shape the capacity framework not only as per present needs but also bearing in mind the future users, change of their number and structure etc., thus making the concept more flexible and adaptable (Mitrovic, 2016). Flexibility and openness, as well as the self-evaluation process, should be incorporated into the methodology and planning process of public service planning. Rigid models, same principles and the set of unified criteria that aspire to be applicable to any territory are no longer effective. The last part of the concept relies on the research of the urban and spatial planning practice in Serbia. The main problem of the public services planning over a long period is related to the inadequate, contradictory and unfinished development framework, which found itself in the gap between the (almost) abandoned normative approach, and neoliberal, market-oriented economy, privatisation, de-planification and disintegration of the public services. Except for the urban/spatial plan as a product, no other integrative platform for the public services planning existed. The problems are more noticeable at the local and primary level of the public services’ network, which is large and unevenly dispersed. Some of the reasons for such present condition are rooted in the inadequate policy and poorly defined goals and criteria for the spatial development. There is also a problem of ‘spatial insensitivity’, as well as the of poor inclusion of spatial-physical factors regarding public services planning (Mitrovic, 2006). Taking into account the local specificities of the area is a key factor regarding the public services’ planning, thus the right choice of criteria and indicators, deriving from demographic, economic and spatial aspect and which are adjusted to the detailed spatial conditions have to be included in the core of the planning process. The locally sensitive approach ensures better implementation and adaptation of the general concepts to the local needs.

CONCLUSIONS This paper aims to offer the methodology improvement possibilities for the spatial development planning of public services in Serbia. The previous research and insight into the problem of practice of the public services’ planning shaped the motives to contribute to the improvement of its theoretical basis and planning practice. As the long-term policy of the spatial planning of public services in Serbia is hard to recognize, the changes of the existing model seem necessary. They should include a viable, flexible approach to planning that ensures adaptation to local and regional characteristics of the planned area (Mitrovic, 2016). The pillars of the research refer to the concepts of social sustainability and social rights, including equity, equality and social cohesion. The contribution of the paper focuses on the change of the pattern and method of public services’ planning, as well as on the chosen methodological tools, such as locally sensitive criteria and indicators. The results should undoubtedly reflex the local characteristics of the planning territory, making it unique in the sense of defining the planning strategy and the concept of development. The research is most applicable to the publicly financed and owned services, managed and/or regulated at the local, regional or national level.

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The operationalization of the proposed concept relies on several points: flexible model which is tailored specifically to a chosen planning area; the choice and definition of relevant criteria and indicators, in accordance with the area; synergic effects that arise from the chosen and analysed aspects. It should fulfil the demands regarding the simplicity, operability, flexibility, implementation and efficiency of the future planning document. These are also the instruments of better and more efficient planning institutions and procedures. The proposed methodological changes can be directly implementable in the form of guidance and manuals, thus filling the gap between the (inadequate) legal framework and the planning practice in the tight financial circumstances. That way, the improved concept of planning of the public services could uniform the quality of urban and spatial plans in this domain, as the contemporary urban/spatial plan has to meet the strict standards and be consistent, clear and of standard quality. The ‘traditional’ patterns of the market behavior are changing in the contemporary world, establishing new relations with public sector and services; therefore their relation is not only possible but also needful. The results of the research aim to improve the theoretical basis for planning and contribute to the establishing better practices of the public services planning in Serbia, but are also applicable in other countries in the region which are in the process of economic and socio-political transition.

REFERENCES Book: Beatley T, Manning K. 1997. The ecology of place: Planning for environment, economy, and community. Washington, DC: Island Press Giddens, A. 2005. Sociology. Belgrade: the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economy Hardoy, J. E. 1992. Environmental problems in third world cities. London: Earthscan Haughton, G., Hunter, C. 1996. Sustainable cities. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Kazepov, Y. (ed.). 2005. Cities of Europe - changing contexts, local arrangements, and challenge to urban cohesion. Blackwell Publishing, UK Lucas K. et al. 2001. Local Agenda 21: When is it a model for joined-up community-based activity? London: Centre for Sustainable Development, University of Westminster. Retrieved from http://home.wmin.ac.uk/cfsd/reports/JRF_LA21_Literature_review.pdf (April 2016) Mitrovic, B. 2016. Improving the concept of spatial planning development of public services in Serbia in accordance with the principles of sustainable development. Doctoral Dissertation. Belgrade: the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture Mlinar, Z. 1979. Urbanism and sociology. Belgrade: the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture Postgraduate studies, no.36 Petrovic, M. 2013. Sociology 1. Belgrade: the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture (authorised material 2012/13)

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Polése, M. and Stren, R. (eds) 1999. The social sustainability of cities: Diversity and the management of change. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Book chapter: Mitrović, B. 2006. “City of social balance”, in Belgrade Capital, edited by Milić, V. and Djokić, V., 48-60. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, Berlage Institute, Rotterdam, Fakultat fur Architektur der RWTH Aachen Journal article: Abrahams G. 2014. “What “Is” Territorial Cohesion? What Does It “Do”?: Essentialist Versus Pragmatic Approaches to Using Concepts”. European Planning Studies, 22:10: 2134-2155. Choguill, C. L. 1996. “Toward sustainability of human settlements”. Habitat International, 20(3), viii. Djukic, A., Vukmirovic, M., Stankovic, S. 2016. „Principles of climate sensitive urban design analysis in identification of suitable urban design proposals. Case study: Central zone of Leskovac competition” Energy and Building, Vol 115, (Мarch): 23-35 Faludi, A. 2008. “Territorial Cohesion under the Looking Glass: Synthesis Paper about the History of the Concept and Policy Background to Territorial Cohesion, From European spatial development to territorial cohesion policy”, Regional Studies, 40(6): 667–678. Li-Yin Shen, J. J. 2011. “The application of urban sustainability indicators - A comparison between various practices”. Habitat International 35: 17-29 Documents: Bristol Accord - Conclusions of Ministerial Informal on Sustainable Communities in Europe (2005). Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London, UK, retrieved from http://www.eib.org/attachments/jessica_bristol_accord_sustainable_communities.pdf (April 2017) EUR-Lex Access to the European Union law (2007, 2009) The Treaty of Lisbon, retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/en/ALL/?uri=OJ%3AC%3A2007%3A306%3ATOC (April 2016) Division for Sustainable Development UN (DSD UN) (2015) Sustainable cities and human settlements, retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sustainablecities (April 2016) European Commission (2001, 2000–2006) Cohesion Report, retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/reports/contentpdf_en.htm European Commission (2008) Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion Turning territorial diversity into strength. Brussels, retrieved from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2008:0616:FIN:EN:PDF (April 2017)

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European Commission (2010). Europe 2020: A European Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and inclusive Growth, Brussels Sheltair Group (1998) Visions, Tools and Targets: Environmentally Sustainable Development Guidelines for Southeast False Creek, Vancouver (B.C.). Planning Department, Sheltair Group Inc. UN-HABITAT (2009). Global Report on Human Settlements: Planning Sustainable Cities. London: Earthscan United Nations (2015) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform UN HABITAT (2004) Urban indicator guidelines, Kenya

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THE “DYNAMIC EDGE”: RE-CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE URBAN FRINGE Jasmina Siljanoska¹ Prof. PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”, Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Macedonia, [email protected] Ivana Angelova MA, Director of URBANATOR, Orce Nikolov 176a, Skopje, Macedonia, [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper deals with natural and artificial, as well as with social and environmental boundaries of the city of Skopje, and especially parts of the border lands that undergo physical, environmental and social degradation. The paper explores how edge conditions and position of certain abandoned or misused structures in the period of transition have affected permeability of the “membrane”, and how have this resulted to commuting from the rural and suburban areas to the inner city every day, changing use patterns over the years. These areas/structures have originally influenced the surrounding area by their users, and now they are largely neglected, abandoned, empty or underused and need an intervention that would return them to beneficial use. Mostly dominated by industrial complexes and outdated technologies, military camps/zones or cultural clusters, many buildings have lost their function due to the transformation of social and economic environment. The survey aims to reveal the possibilities and modalities for reshaping and redefining the programme and functionality of the derelict and unused buildings/ structures on the border, most of them being in poor condition, or even harmful to the environment. This possibilities we count on come from the changing economy performances we face today. The technology is paving the way to a more beneficent society where new forms of exchange are emerging, aiming to equality and yet independence. The information technology and automation havecontributed to reduced need of labour work and changed employment relationships. Citizens self empowerment trough technology will play a key role on the future cities’ development. The collaborative production/ peer to peer production is increasing and social entrepreneurs are even bypassing the banking establishment and using crowdfunding to finance startup businesses as. Everything and everyone are connected by the IoT, while new technologies are the new means of the market today. We support the view that there is significance in conceiving of a “edge effect” of the revitalized and re-habited social and industrial fringe structures and that they should be given more consideration in the context of new economies. We believe that the future of architecture is in the “power” of the community, thus inclusion of all the actors in the participative design process could revitalise and rebirth such places in the most meaningful and responsive way to the needs of both, urban and rural, population. Keywords: Urban Boundaries, New Economies, Participative Design

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Modern societies are constantly exposed not only to their own internal dynamics, but also on the impact of global changes, embracing an ideology of multiple urban transformations. This rapid transformation, economically and socially, as well as spatially, is shaping the new character and gradually is becoming recognizable in almost all the cities in the region of Western Balkans. The method of forming the edges of the city, its quality and the subsequent consequences, is basically a result of the social system and spatial organization in today's cities. The concept of edge itself can be defined as both borderline of division and meeting place that allows interaction. Border lands besides the spatial aspect concerns include the social aspects, as well, such as segregation or integration between city residents and their activities and the residents of the exurban-suburban territories on the fringes. There is social fragmentation in today's globalized cities that separates today's society of internal homogeneous groups and creates fragmented structures. Migrations and the changing economy system have proven to be the cause of high fragmentation that manifests itself in social and physical structure of cities. The border space defined as borderland has been always interest of urban planning. An edge node between urban and urban, urban and rural, urban and nature, rural and nature, although specific, it is not always possible to comprehend. It defines discontinuous route which gradually perforated casing urban structure of the city as a direct influential on the development of the city and the dialectical relationship between inward and outward (the different typologies and morphologies). On the other hand, it is interesting form typological and morphological point of view to consider the constitution of space that occurs outside of the urban network, through the phenomenon of suburbanisation in order to clarify the vague spatial morphology and landscape between urban and suburban, as well as rural areas. Urban planning aims in providing examples of how porosity and resistance can combine and defines both legal entities and limits, but also allows interactivity, porosity, flexibility and confluence of the urban and extraurban territories and realities. Skopje is a city with changing planning paradigms and conceptual misalignment of different periods of development. Former lines that define the border of the city are assimilated into its urban tissue and suburbs. Rapid urbanisation of Skopje during the XX century and constant increase of the territory has brought ever-changing borderline of the legal perimeter. Comprehensive changes in the early 1990s, after the establishment of new political, economic and social relations, inevitably caused changes in the urban structure inherited from the pre-socialist period and again become the subject of transformation. The planning structures of public amenities were first to bear the negative consequences. Especially

affected with these processes were small cultural centers and amenities with suburban position as part of the decentralised model of city planning. Even more affected were the border industrial zones, as the

industrialization process was dominant in the economy of the City of Skopje after the WWII, when Skopje has a status of the first industrial center with about 1/3 of the total industrial capacity of the Republic. The transformation confirms multifunctional fragmentation of the former industrial zones in the city. Both functional and spatial structures described above

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION have lost their position in urban fabric and meaning as important generator of activities and demographic exchange and interconnectivity of the urban-suburban-exurban territories. DYNAMICS OF BORDERLAND TRANSFORMATION

Political and system changes in the 1990s and post socialist transformation caused economic decline with clear signs of structural crises and collapse of old structures, deindustrialization and large-scale unemployment. New social and political concepts changed planning paradigms. Shifting paradigms leaded to a spatial and spiritual transformation. In this process massive lost all industrial capacity has happened. All economically unviable branches and whole industrial sectors were shut down. Efforts to move modern service companies into old factories halls have been only partially successful. The cities particularly hit the restructuring of the economy in which the dominant role had big systems that must got transformed due to the inability to survive the competition and economy according to market oriented method of management (Манасова, 2011). Outdated industry in the city and destructiveness of the deindustrialization process, where socialist industry is not replaced by new production alternatives or by the service industry, has caused the dominant modes of transformation of industrial sites and multifunctional fragmentation of former industrial zone in the city. The former exclusive industrial areas are transformed in the reconstruction process of the industry, some with functional transformation, and other with urban renewal, or most of them with permanent abandonment of industrial activities. We are interested in the transformation of industrial urban space in Skopje in the post-socialist period, and in particular in the industrial spaces transformation of the abandoned structures on the fringe, some undergo intensive spatial restructuring of production activities due to the effect of the processes of deindustrialization and reindustrialization. The emergence of new special forms of production activities in transition period in Skopje and the new spatial distribution of industry appeared as a way the city should change its future development. In this process of transformation of the industrial space predominant role “play locations of abandoned industries and that the dispersed distribution of industrial activities beyond the urban boundaries of the city “(Мицковски, 2015). By identifying these areas within the city, and especially of the industrial zones on the borderland of the city, it is possible to assign the potential of reuse, or as Eva Kiss has emphasised to re-evaluate their importance as 'the gold reserves' for the future city growth. (Kiss, 1989).

The process of deindustrialization has created large abandoned industrial areas in the urban territory of the post-socialist cities in the country, and Skopje shows all the characteristics of the process. Rehabilitation and re-utilization in profitable projects by new users of these sites could enable redevelopment of the urban fabric of post-socialist city, and change the situation in which abandoned and troubled industry on the borderland have turned city edges into inactive territories. Page | 361


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Although there is not accurate statistical data on the area of the abandoned industries in Skopje, according to data from the General Urban Plan of Skopje 2012-2020 total area of abandoned industry is 51.47% out of the total analyzed industrial areas in the city, or 56.76% of the total industrial area of the city set in this plan. The latest General Urban Plan of 2012 provides establishment of a new model of urban development of the city and is based on new approaches in urban planning: the complexity and integrity, multidisciplinary and interactivity, as well on the principle of sustainable development. Proposed spatial organization is based on the assumption of a recovery, modernization and expansion of inherited capacities and change of their industrial activity on their current location. The plan defined the city limits but also its contact zone in the wider area of the region. All the heavy industries need to be relocated from the city and replaced by light industries or commercial activities. New dispersed distribution of industrial activities beyond the urban boundaries of the city or on the edge space between urban and rural, where most of the abandoned industrial structures are positioned, will transform to modern service industry and be based on new economy programmes, and thus become attractor of users from both the city and its surroundings.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION FIGURE 1: GENERAL URBAN PLAN FOR THE CITY OF SKOPJE 2012 -2022, INDUSTRIAL ZONES

FIGURE 2: ABANDONED INDUSTRIES ON THE FRINGES OF THE CITY

NEW ECONOMY AND THE SENSEABLE CITY: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Global trends in energy consumption, climate change, aging population and migrations impact the concept on nowadays capitalism and make it unsustainable and ineffective in a long run. What many experts today agree upon is that the use of the financial capital as we know it today changes its very foundation, as well on the stance that new taxation systems and new types of governing should be expected in the near future. The change we experience now and will evolve in the near future brings all advancements in automation which will most certainly contribute to reduced need of labour work and change employment relationships, thus employment of new social partnership between capital and labour is expected. In this process the new information technology plays crucial role in the new economy. While markets are hit of undersupply, information is abundant and expected to be able to erode the market prices. According to the Kondratieff wave theory of economical cycles this service based economy will end in the 2040s. The question is: where is the next cycle taking us or is it going to be the last of its kind, or these lead towards a more benevolent society? (Kondratiev, 2000)

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The immensely complex system of capitalism as we know now is yet about to start changing and transforming itself into something entirely new. We face a spontaneous rise in the collaborative production. Goods, services and organizations appear not longer responsive to the dictates of the market and the managerial hierarchy (Armstrong, 2016). New forms of ownership, new forms of lending, new legal contracts, and a whole business subculture have emerged over the past 10 years, which the media has named as “sharing economy”. The sharing economy combined with the AI, VR and the automation in the production industries influence the built environment. It has become important for the city and its structure to keep up with the innovation in the technology. We witness changes trough the reuse and re-programming of the old factories from production of goods to production of knowledge, culture and leisure, reshaping into new hybrid objects which meet the needs of citizens and the new economies, as well. Marx imagined an economy in which the main role of machines was to produce, and the main role of people was to supervise them. With the advancement in automation there will be a significant reduction in time for labour and leaving lots of leisure and free activities time to the people. He imagined a free distribution of goods provided by the ample technologies to happen by 2050. By that time, in an economy where machines did most of the work, the nature of the knowledge locked inside the machines must, he writes, be “social” (Marx, 1993). The dilemma we face is if machines produced everything we need, will the outcome depend on how the things are distributed? Will everyone enjoy a life of luxurious leisure if the machine-produced wealth is shared, or most people can end up miserably poor if the machine-owners successfully lobby against wealth redistribution? (Hawking in Kaufman, 2017) Prognosis is that unemployment worldwide would increase when information technology eliminated tens of millions of jobs in the manufacturing, agricultural and service sectors. Devastating impact of automation on retail and wholesale employees is expected. While small elite of corporate managers and highly knowledgeable would harvest the benefits of the high-tech economy, the middle class would continue to shrink. But here we have the rise of infocapitalism that has created a new agent of change in history: education plus connectivity. The millennial children are beginning to see that their entrepreneurial spirit is best advanced by being entrenched in massive networks. (Rifkin, 2014; 1995) All these tendencies and shifting paradigms should affect the way the cities are planed and governed. The sensible city is a paradigm that leverages information technology and artificial intelligence along with human cognition for improving decision-making and resource allocations in urban services delivery. This city is able to sense, understand and respond to changes in its environments. One of the most important tendencies is the shift form smart to sensitive city where the sensitive contains the smart. The transition from smart to sensitive city is by adding the component of equity into the equation. Today is a period of an ending steady economic growth which causes stagnation and economic decline in many cities, particularly in the old industrial cities of Western Europe. The ageing population, the

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION low-density urban sprawl threaten sustainable development and make the services more expensive and difficult to secure. The over-exploitation of resources, the lack of public transport networks, the risk to biodiversity and finally the issues related to the protection and maintenance of the land are all considered issues and problems of contemporary society. We witness a very active logistics and “industrial” urbanism on the outskirts of the city, transforming the industrial city to the city of services. The danger of smart cities to become agglomerations with poor communication between citizens and institutions could be overcome if the idea of the equity which leaded to the SenseAble city of equality and inclusion of all stakeholders and citizens is added. The sensitive city creates a new approach to urban planning and the effective use of the networks, while promoting discussion and inclusion of informed participants to find out solutions that reflect the values of various stakeholders in the urban environment. (Greco and Bencardino, 2012) The emerging of the city of Skopje into a sensitive city of the future is a challenge for the urban planning which will have a significant impact on the city development based on autonomous systems of energy and resources selfsufficiency within its borders. Flexible organization of production, the introduction of new computer-based technologies and changes in employment relationships have created new forms of organization of production that caused a change in the configuration of modern industrial space. Innovative approach includes the internet, nanotechnologies, telematics and bionics, among others. The idea is that the new “generative” points on the outskirts of the city will bear a program based on the new economy that is a result of transitioning from manufacturing based economy to a service based economy, such as business incubators and clusters, or establishment of innovation centers and technology parks, etc. THE CASE OF FACTORY KUPROM The project chosen to be presented entirely belongs to the category of abandoned industries that did not survive the competition and economy according to market oriented method of management and must got transformed and rid of the so-called redundant production. Rehabilitation of the site is expected to enable the redevelopment of the urban fabric of post-socialist city and activate the border zones of exchange. The project itself explores the transformative urban typologies and underpins innovative approach to participatory urbanism and more inclusive planning process of insufficiently developed bottom-up local governance up to date. It is a real challenge to involve a different approach than the existing one with inflexibility and lacking transparency in the urban policy making which makes long-term sustainable solutions almost impossible. It should have effect on the perspective the future development offering opportunities for renewal and re-construction within the existing urban context and complex ecological environment in order to achieve the desired sustainable development with minimal ecological footprint.

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It would represent a model of mixed partnerships with new method of management and horizontal organization. Complementary programmes and public amenity should enable mixed cultures, religions and people of social statuses, of inclusion and equality to participate in operation. It should support new types of economy and share synonymous “DNA” with some other places in the rural-urban fringe of the city. Proposed mix-uses include: administration building, restaurant + bio shop ,a vegetable garden, small artist residency, incubator and technology park, musical tower, co-work space + workshop, laboratories and workshops for small bio tech businesses and robotics, craftsmen workshops + bar and an open multi-functional stage. Because of the participatory and speculative design method engaged which is most appropriate to the survey undertaken, proposed design is open ended. The designers are the users themselves, as well, and they could gradually restore the space and shape it according to their needs, helped and managed by the architects on the way through. The facilities should be opened to everyone and are intended to stimulate the production of creativity and goods. This way the whole space becomes a large workshop which constructs and maintains itself. The proposed project aims to respond to the needs of the major economic changes young people are faced with today and to the actual situation of the post-socialist city where changes in urban development, in particular transformation of the abandoned industrial structures on the fringe, are necessitate.

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TOPIC III: SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND PARTICIPATION Figure 3. The site and its program.

CONCLUSION

We arrived at a time when responsive environments and transformation of the cities change planning paradigms. Redevelopment of abandoned buildings and even whole city areas as a consequence of shrinking process or economy and system changes brings new possibilities through the methods of re-utilising and re-programming with participatory design involved. We believe that the future of architecture is in the “power” of the community, thus inclusion of all the actors in the participative design process could revitalise and rebirth such places in the most meaningful and responsive way to the needs of both, urban and rural, population. The emergence of new special forms of production activities and the new spatial distribution of industry seems to be the way the city changes its future development in which predominant outcomes of transformation of the industrial space play abandoned industries and industrial activities on the city border and beyond. In this process technology

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and citizens self empowerment will play a key role. The new sharing economy is offering an escape route, but we need to protect and promote the micro-level projects by a fundamental change in our governments. A sensible city describes contemporary paradigm shift in the way the cities are governed and citizens included in the planning process for improvement of services delivered and urban transformation towards the goal of a creation of sustainable and efficient environments.

REFERENCES Armstrong, Martin. 2016. PostCapitalism: A guide to our future. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Greco, Illaria and Bencardino, Massimiliano. 2012. Papers: “The paradigm of the Modern City: SMART and SENSEable Cities for Smart, Inclusive and Sustainable Growth”. UN-Habitat - World Urban Forum: “The Urban Future”, no.6 (Naples, April 2013) Harvey, David. 1990. The Condition of Postmodernity. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers. Kaufman C. Alexander. 2017. “Stewen Hawking says we Should Really Be Scared Of Capitalism, Not Robots”, The Huffington Post U.S., January 5. Accessed Jan. 6, 2017. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/stephen-hawking-capitalism-robots Kiss, Eva. 2007. “The evolution of industrial areas in Budapest after 1989” In The Post-Socialist City: Urban Form and Space Transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after Socialism, edited by Kiril Stanilov, 148. Dordrecht: Springer. Kwaves. 2000. “The Kondratieff theory”. Last modified March 2002. Accessed January 20, 2016. http://www.kwaves.com/kond_overview.htm Манасова, Соња. 2011, Просторен развој на индустријата, Експертски елаборат, ГУП за Скопје 2012-2020, Агенција за планирање на просторот на РМ, Скопје. Marx, Karl. 1993. “Capital : A Critique of Political Economy, Volume 3”, In The Fragment on Machines, 690- 712. London: Penguin Classics. Мицковски Д. Горан. 2015. Трансформација индустријских простора у контексту пост-социјалистичке транзиције града Скопља, Универзитет у Београду - Архитектонски факултет, докторскa дисертација, Београд. Rifkin, Jeremy. 2014. The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The internet of things, the collaborative commons, and the eclipse of capitalism, London: Palgrave Macmillan. 1995. The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era, New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.

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SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND RESEARCH: THE ROLE OF THE ARCHITECT Iva Muraj Dipl.Eng.Arch., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Academic institutions are addressing sustainable development issues in a variety of ways through their functions and operations. Universities have been using different approaches to implement sustainable development practices. Some concentrate on minimizing their ecological impact through changes in campus operations, some emphasize sustainability in the curriculum, others introduce new teaching methodologies or include sustainable development principles in their overall development strategy. The Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb has the 98-year-long tradition of architect education. Available study programme Architecture and Urban Studies is a five-year-long programme in accordance with the Bologna process divided into two cycles: first cycle (three years) with bachelor's degrees and second cycle (two years) with master's degrees, which responds to the needs of the society, relevant legislation and standards of professional associations which award professional licenses. This paper focuses on integration of sustainable development in teaching and learning. The purpose is to investigate curriculum changes and re-orientation at the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb. Those identified in this paper include mainstreaming in traditional disciplines and developing interdisciplinary courses on sustainable development. The design studios and technical courses at architecture degree programs offer students the opportunity to develop an integral approach to energy efficient and sustainable building design, complex use of technical systems, use of materials and development detailed design. By comparing a selection of students' works, in relation to a particular situation, the paper will present some achieved results, which can be used as a platform for new concepts, methodologies and approaches which exert influence on architectural practice and encourage the development of architectural discourse. Keywords: architecture degree program, curriculum changes, integral approach, technical courses

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INTRODUCTION / SUSTAINABILITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION The need to include sustainable practices in all aspects of our lives, in particular in the field of education, has become an imperative and positive challenge. Environmental sustainability and sustainable development, has never been higher on national and international political agendas. The Higher Education Sustainability Initiative aims to get institutions of higher education to commit to teach sustainable development concepts, encourage research on sustainable development issues, green their campuses, and support sustainability efforts in their communities. (8) The United Nations has declared a Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014) to integrate the principles, values and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning. (9) The initiative calls for integration of sustainability into all levels and aspects of education and breaks down the traditional educational scheme and promotes: interdisciplinary and holistic learning rather than subject-based learning, values based learning, critical thinking, multi-method approaches, participatory decision-making and locally relevant information rather than national. Sustainability can be embedded in learning and teaching in many ways: administratively, procedurally and substantively. A review of programs and courses on sustainability offered by faculties and departments worldwide indicates various options for incorporating sustainability in the curriculum ranging from minor adaptations of existing courses to a full degree. (3) The most common method of incorporating sustainability in the curriculum is to include consideration of sustainability issues in the content of existing courses. The other possibility is to develop new courses. Although not titled as courses in sustainability, the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, offers interdisciplinary courses that cover many of the issues that are today considered as sustainability teaching. In 2005 the implementation of the Bologna process had a crucial influence on certain segment of the teaching process in Croatia. The paper is focusing on ten years of pedagogic development of the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio, which is a mandatory course in the second year of undergraduate studies at the Zagreb Faculty of Architecture. Since its inception, the Studio has been enhanced through continuous modifications of the content, the workshop programs and the changes of the location. This paper is an attempt to show its relevance in a modern educational discourse.

CURRICULUM CHANGES AT THE FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB In 2005, leaders from government and university sectors implemented the so-called "Bologna process", an agreement between European countries to ensure comparability in the standards and quality of higher-education qualifications. The University of Zagreb has included sustainability as one of its guiding principles. The vision for the University is based on sustainable development. (7) Sustainability is viewed and implemented in different ways by different academic communities of University of Zagreb. At the Faculty of Architecture, the reform took place within the European TEMPUS program (Trans-European Mobility Scheme for University Studies) called "Reform of the

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES architectural curriculum in Croatia" (TEMPUS RACCRO) and was realized in cooperation with several European architectural faculties (ETH Zurich, IUAV Venice, RWTH Aachen, TU Delft and TU Vienna). (4) The basic framework is three cycles of higher-education qualifications. The typical length of study is three years for a bachelor's degree, two years for a master's degree and three years for a doctor of science. The Faculty has chosen the strategy of reorganisation of courses, which prefers quality and flexibility concerning studies. The first generation to begin the studies of Architecture and Urban Planning at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb under the new curriculum was the generation of students in the academic year 2005/2006. Embedding sustainability in the curriculum is an essential step to realizing the graduate framework and the learning and teaching plan. Faculties can incorporate teaching of sustainability in individual units, in degree programs and throughout whole Departments. (3) Gone are the days when faculties delivered subject knowledge and developed skills related only to narrowly defined areas - when each Department was a separate unit, promoting graduates with purely discipline specific expertise. Curriculum review and reform at the Faculty’s degree programs reveals many interdisciplinary units in which sustainability has already been included. Thematically related courses were grouped into modules. All the workshops were reorganised, which in the old, pre-Bologna program were organised through a series of courses in particular departments. The coursework gets further developed and enriched in line with different course leader’s methodical approaches.

TEACHING PRACTICE The undergraduate study “Architecture and Urban Planning”, according to the new Bologna program, consists of interdepartmental courses, and each puts emphasis on a certain area: design, technical aspects or urbanism. (4)

Interdisciplinary Undergraduate Construction Course The courses of the Technical Module implemented a new organized scheme of lecturing and teaching. According to the adopted new criteria, it was decided that beginning from the academic year 2006/2007 the workshops of the Technical Module courses in the second year should be linked into a joint project - the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio. According to this scheme, the pre-Bologna courses Architectural Technology and Materials, Building Structures, Buildings Physics and Building Services are held jointly. (5) All the lectures and workshop programs at the Department of Architectural Technology and Building Science focus on a creative component of design, which is interrelated with engineering aspects. The attention is given to sustainability in construction. Such an approach has become a priority at the Faculty of Architecture with the implementation of the Bologna Process and it has been constantly modified in relation to the content of lectures and workshop programs. The work on the curriculum continues. For example, the current academic year 2016/2017 is again experimental. The impulse to change the 4th semester (2nd year) was organized by student representatives and

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supported by the faculty authorities. The workshop courses and lectures of the 4th semester are held intensively through a cycle of nine weeks instead of fifteen.

Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio The highest integrative level of the technical disciplines is reached within the practical course Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio in the 4th semester of the bachelor's degree programme. At the first stage of the course, in a series of workshops students are faced with a simulated "life cycle" process of project development. Students undergo a process of simulation of real project development in an architectural studio, from a conceptual solution to the detailed design, with parallel work on complementary designs of the load-bearing structure, building physics and installation systems. Students become familiar with the complexity of spatial relations, with the shaping, construction and technical solutions, as well as with the selection of materials and application of basic principles of sustainability within a clear concept of the project and a readable solution for a load-bearing structure, in compliance with all prescribed requirements for the building. (5) The topic of the assignment is a multifunctional freestanding pavilion. The theme always varies in content and location. The objective of the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio is to acquaint the students with an integral approach to design of buildings in the context of energy efficient and sustainable building. Students learn about the mandatory interaction of experts from all fields of design involved together with architects in the process of design and construction of buildings. During the semester, presentations and discussions are organized, where each group presents their project in front of other students and teachers. The aim of this presentation is to practice publicly displaying one's own project, as well as to provide opportunity for criticism from other participants. I have had a chance to trace the evolution of the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio through participation in teaching as well as being the co-author of the issues published in recent years, which document its didactic significance. (5, 6)

Teamwork / Collaboration between Disciplines Teamwork is practised in the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio, not only because of the scope of the task, which is developed from a conceptual to the detailed architectural design, but also because of the dialogue and cooperation between the experts who work within the course. Students are divided into groups of three to five students per group. Every mentor, together with other lecturers in the group, is responsible for mentoring three to four groups of students. So far some fifty teachers altogether have participated in the Studio. A team of students, assistants and professors research around problems in search of the best possible solutions. This is a collaboration-idea exchange in an unanticipated way, with a free flow of information - that may explore experimental work leading to new solutions.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Such an approach is a preparation for professional work, and it teaches the students about the coordination of the working on a project, within a team and between professions involved in the design process, all the way to the implementation itself. They experience - within the group - contacts with colleagues of different sensibilities, capabilities and work capacity knowledge. It is at the same time an exercise in tolerance and socialization, which is necessary in life. In the end, the students learn the interrelations, the frustrations, the positive solutions and the unresolved problems they have experienced in the design process. Teamwork is the reality, which all students will experience later in practice. The graduates must have a range of valuable attributes when they emerge at the end of their higher education experience. Today, the work of an architect relates to much broader fields of knowledge then in the past. Collaboration between disciplines is required from the earliest possible stage in the design process for integrated sustainable and energy efficient design. The course is an attempt to explain the importance of the architect as a creative person who has a key role not only in design but in coordinating the complex design process which leads to the final construction of a building. (1)

Ecological and Sustainable Building Design The threat of climate change, has given architects a fundamental obligation to minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings. Ecology, sustainability and energy efficiency, are definitely a trend not only in architecture but also in all aspects of contemporary technology. The design of a building envelope has radically changed from a monolithic mass to a series of specific outer layers. A building's envelope takes engineering input and integration between form and performance analysis to create an energy efficient and sustainable solution. With greater complexity of the building design comes a greater level of specialization. (2) The technical courses are following new trends in technology and legal building regulations and increasingly demanding regulations on energy efficiency of buildings and sustainable building. (1) The thing to which we should strive in contemporary concepts of the design is to use an integrated design strategy as a coordinated response to the issues of structure, building materials, assembly and environment in buildings. The implications of sustainability must always be immediately included in the problems of architectural forms.

CASE STUDIES The students work in this section identifies projects that have successfully finished the Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio. Students were engaged in a variety of programs for pavilion-type models according to the academic year. In all the selected projects the concept of the pavilion is readable through all the segments: functional scheme, load-bearing structure, shape, materials, details of the construction and provision of solutions for installation systems.

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Figure 1 (on the next page) is showing final results of the teaching and research reduced to a poster size image for the final and later public presentation. Mentors were Z. Protić, I. Muraj, A. Marković, I. Cetinić and T. Rengel. 2013/2014, location: Travno - New Zagreb, theme: Multifunctional pavilion in the residential area A - students: M. Jurković, D. Rubinić, T. Truta, L. Zaninović B - students: M. Petković, F. Tomaško, T. Zin, S. Žonja 2014/2015, location: Maksimir – Campus of the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, theme: Multifunctional pavilion – Centre for Sustainable Development C - students: S. Došen, M. Duić, A. Gamilec, N. Goluban D - students: L. Bosnić, D. Karamatić, M. Kolar, A. Lipej

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Figure 23: Posters, final presentation, Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, A - B: 2014/2015, C - D: 2015/2016

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CONCLUSION The promotion of sustainability and its integration into education is a positive challenge for us all to face and act on. There is plenty of room for different approaches to embedding sustainability into the curriculum. Although not titled as courses in sustainability, the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, offers interdisciplinary courses that cover the term of sustainability teaching. Charged with preparing students for the profession, the design studios and technical courses of architecture degree undergraduate study program can be used as a platform for new concepts, methodologies and approaches on architectural practice. The Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio developed over the course of more than a decade is the testimony to a synergetic and enthusiastic work, carried out first and foremost by the students and by teaching staff. In the end, the students have certainly not learned everything about design, however, they have kept up to the more complex questions, the interrelations and the positive solutions and the unresolved problems. They have experienced the creation of an integrated, sustainable building design process.

REFERENCES 1. Godišnjak Arhitektonskog fakulteta u Zagrebu 2011/12 / Faculty of Architecture, Zagreb, Yearbook. 2012. Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb. 2. Lovell, Jenny. 2010. Building Envelopes, An Integrated Approach, Princeton Architectural Press, New York. 3. Sustainability in the Curriculum Project, Macquarie University. 2009. Learning and Teaching centre, Macquarie University, Sydney. 4. Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Arhitektonski fakultet, Preddiplomski sveučilišni studij arhitekture i urbanizma, Studijski programi / University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Undergraduate and Graduate Studies in Architecture and Urbanism, Curricula. 2008. Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb. 5. Tehnički studio / Polivalentni paviljon, pregled studenstkih radova ak.god. 2013./14. / Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio / Multifunctional Pavilion, selection of students work 2013/2014. 2015. Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb. 6. Tehnički studio / Izbor studenstkih radova ak.god. 2014./2015. – 2015./2016. / Architecture and Integrated Disciplines Studio / Selection of students work 2014/2015 – 2015/2016. 2017. Arhitektonski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb. Internet sources: 7. University of Zagreb, Vision and mission. Accessed April 2, 2017. http://www.unizg.hr/homepage/about-university/visionand-mission/ 8. United Nations, Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. Accessed April 2, 2017.https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/commitments_hesi.html 9. UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, 2005-2014. Accessed April 2, 2017. http://www.desd.org/about.html

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INTEGRATION OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS INTO THE BUILDING ENVELOPE OF THE MULTIFAMILY HOUSING BUILDING IN BELGRADE Prof. Dr Aleksandra Krstić-Furundžić 82 Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, [email protected] Dr Tatjana Kosić Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bul. kralja Aleksandra 73/II, [email protected] Dr Vesna Kosorić ABSTRACT Application of solar thermal collectors as one of the modern architectural concepts, which are based on reduction of energy consumption in buildings and the use of solar energy as a renewable energy source, give the new and significant role to the roofs and facades that become multifunctional structures. The purpose of this paper is to show different design solutions and benefits of integration of solar thermal collectors into the envelope of multifamily housing building in Konjarnik settlement, Belgrade. Considering complexity of integration of active solar systems, the following aspects of integration of solar thermal collectors are discussed: energy, architectural and ecological aspects. Hypothetical models of integration of solar thermal collectors into the existing building envelope are created in order to reduce energy demands for water heating, and thus reduce CO2 emissions. Methodological approach entails the following steps: creation of different models of solar thermal collector integration in terms of position and slope, evaluation of the reduction of energy consumption for water heating and thus CO2 emissions for different models and their combinations, and comparison of the results (models). Keywords: Energy savings, Solar thermal collectors, CO2 reduction.

INTRODUCTION New energy-efficient buildings represent a small percentage in relation to the total building stock. Until 1970s, buildings were designed without consideration of energy demands and consumption. According to the data collected by Serbia’s Statistical Office, about 55 percent of the total of 583,908 existing housing units in Belgrade was built in this period (Krstić-Furundžić and Bogdanov, 2003). This figure reveals that Belgrade’s building stock has a significant 82


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number of buildings whose energy performance has to be improved. It should not be disregarded because significant energy savings and reduction of fossil fuels consumption can be achieved. At the other hand, the Renewable Energy Framework Directive sets a 20% target for renewables by 2020. According to Soteris A. Kalogirou (2013), one way to achieve energy savings and to reduce fossil fuel dependence in our buildings is the use of renewable energy systems (RES), both integrated photovoltaics (PV) and solar thermal systems (STS), which are generally environmentally clean. To confirm this claim, he states that in some mediterranean countries, such as Cyprus, renewable energy systems and in particular solar water heaters are used extensively, with almost all domestic dwellings currently equipped with one of such systems. In the paper, solutions for reducing energy consumption for water heating in existing housing are proposed and examined from energy and ecological point of view. The methodological approach includes creation of different models of the solar thermal collectors‘ integration, thermodynamic simulations of the models, evaluation of reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions, as well as a comparative analysis of achieved results (models). Criteria for the energy and ecological analysis include the energy consumption for water heating before and after integration of solar thermal collectors, and thus energy demands reduction, as well as reduction of CO2 emissions. According to the adopted criteria, the most suitable models are selected. This approach could generally be applicable for building refurbishment, but generalization of technical solutions and possible benefits have to be carefully individually considered.

METHODOLOGY During 1950’s to 1970’s, lot of suburban settlements had been built in Belgrade. The typical residential building in settlement “Konjarnik“ (Fig. 1 and 2) is selected as the model on which possibilities for improvement of energy performances by application of solar thermal collectors (STC) are analysed in the paper.

Figure 1: Location of Konjarnik on the Belgrade map

Figure 2: Typical building disposition

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES The analysis in the paper is hypothetical and it aims to show energy and ecological benefits of solar thermal collector system application on residential buildings in Belgrade climate. Methodological access includes description of the models-design variants of STC application, evaluation of energy and ecological efficiency of variants and comparative analysis of achieved results.

Existing building state and consumer Settlement “Konjarnik” begins 4 km south-east of downtown Belgrade and stretches itself over 2 km (Fig. 1). It is selected for analyzes as settlement consisted mainly of typical buildings built in 1960s and 1970s (Fig. 2). Existing refurbishment strategies applying on these residential buildings are transformations of flat roofs into slopping roofs by attic annex, which is municipality organized action (Fig. 3 and 4) and glazing of loggias, which is usually realized by tenants as illegal action.

Figure 3: Typical building before attic annex

Figure 4: Typical building after attic annex

Belgrade is the city with global irradiance of 1,341.8 kWh/m2 (Polysun 4). According to data provided by Republic Hydro meteorological Service of Serbia, the number of sunny hours/year is 2,123.25 and the highest insolation of about 10 hours/day is in July and August, while December and January are the cloudiest, with insolation of 2 to 2.3 hours/day. The subject of the analyses is typical multifamily housing (the 8-storey building – ground floor, 6 floors and attic), which has rectangular and compact form and consists of 5 lamellas (Fig. 3). It is located in a semi-closed block, on the south oriented hillside. Its longer, east-west axis is parallel to the isohypses. The neighbouring buildings are sufficiently far to prevent overshading. Facades are consisting of rows of windows and parapets and verticals of loggias.

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Possibilities for solar thermal collectors application on south-west oriented facade and roof surfaces were analyzed for selected lamella. There are 28 apartments in the lamella and 90 occupants inside them altogether. The initial idea was to explore potential and effects of solar system based on solar thermal collectors to meet energy demands for hot water. In calculations, real thermal and electrical energy consumption were taken into consideration. Amount of hot water consumption is 7,200l (20-50˚C) per day for one lamella which presents 251 kWh per day, i.e. 91,618.3 kWh/year for lamella (Krstic-Furundzic and Kosoric, 2009b).

Solar thermal collectors system Calculations and simulations of solar thermal systems for all design variants were done in Polysun 4 Version 4.3.0.1. In calculations, the existing water heating system fully based on electricity was substituted with the new system – flat solar thermal collectors with liquid working medium (Table 1), with the auxiliary system powered by electricity. Table 1: Characteristics of flat solar thermal collectors with liquid working medium used for integration in building envelope (*the type dimension from catalogue-is different for different examples and can be changed)

Absorber area (m2)* Glazing area (m2)* Total area of the foreground of the chasing (m2)* Max temperature (°C) Max flow rate (l/h) Heat capacity (J/K)

Institut fur Solartechnik SPF

1.8 1.8 2 220 2,000 5,000

Models of architectural integration of solar thermal collectors Modern architectural concepts, which are based on rational energy consumption of buildings and the use of solar energy as a renewable energy source, give the new and significant role to the roofs and facades that become multifunctional structures (Krstic-Furundzic, 2006). Due to functional complexity, building envelopes with integrated STC and PV modules can be treated as multifunctional structures (Krstic-Furundzic et al., 2017). In the case of Konjarnik case study, the design of integration of solar thermal collectors is defined consequently according to the actual characteristics of: • The building location – the context (considering urban planning, social, climatic and geographical aspect). • The building (considering the compatibility in respect to the building construction type, building materials, the shape, the function and design of the building).

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES • The facade and roof (considering the building physics characteristics, mounting, physical and appearance characteristics of solar systems). For analysis four distinctive variants of position of solar thermal collectors on building enve-lope are selected and shown in Figure 6 (Krstić-Furundžić and Kosorić, 2009a): • I Design Variant: solar panels mounted on the roof and tilted at 40˚, area of 100 m2 (Fig. 5-a), • II Design Variant: solar panels integrated in parapets (vertical position-90˚), area of 90 m2 (Fig. 5-b), • III Design Variant: solar panels integrated in parapets and tilted at 45˚, area of 120 m2 (Fig. 5-c), • IV Design Variant: solar panels integrated as sun shadings (horizontal position-0˚), area of 55 m2 (Fig. 5-d).

Figure 5: Design Variants I – IV (a - d) cross-sections

RESULTS OF SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS INTEGRATION INTO THE BUILDING ENVELOPE Results of numerical simulation (Krstić-Furundžić and Kosorić, 2009a) of solar thermal integration into the building envelope include thermal energy production, hot water energy demands satisfaction, annual energy savings for water

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heating and reduction of CO2 emissions. Contribution of application variants of solar thermal collectors to energy performance improvement of the existing building is estimated through comparative analysis of predicted variants.

Comparison of achieved results Thermal Energy Production per m2

Thermal Energy Production and Hot Water Consumption per year 91618.3

80000.0

Roof 40˚

60000.0 49269.5 40000.0

Parapet 90˚ 47409.5

Sun Shading 0˚

32114.8 21475.5

20000.0

Parapet 45˚ Hot water consumption

0.0

Figure 6: TE production and HW consumption per year

600.0 Thermal Energy Production (kWh/m2)

Thermal Energy (kWh)

100000.0

500.0 400.0

492.7 356.8

395.1

300.0 200.0

390.5

Roof 40˚ Parapet 90˚ Parapet 45˚ Sun Shading 0˚

100.0 0.0

Figure 7: TE production per m2 by STC

For comparative analysis of energy performances of collector integration design variants at the yearly basis, calculation of thermal energy (TE) production and hot water (HW) consumption, as well as average thermal energy (TE) production per m2 per year are carried out and shown in Figures 6 and 7. At the yearly basis, it is evident that design variants with integrated solar thermal collectors can produce thermal energy from min 21,475.5 kWh (Sun shading 0˚) to max 49,269.5 kWh (Roof 40˚). Thermal energy production per m2 varies from min 356.8 kWh/m2 (Parapet 90˚) to max 492.7 kWh/m2 (Roof 40˚).

Benefits of predicted improvements Benefits of integration of solar thermal collectors can be identified through satisfaction of water heating energy demands, i.e. energy savings and CO2 reduction. Satisfaction of monthly water heating energy demands is related to integration variants and amounts (Fig. 8): • Solar thermal collectors mounted on the roof and tilted at 40˚ can meet demands for hot water from min 19.6% in December to max 84.9% in August; • Solar thermal collectors integrated in parapets (vertical position-90˚) can meet demands for hot water from min 23.9% in January to max 47.8% in September; • Solar thermal collectors integrated in parapets and tilted at 45˚ can meet demands for hot water from min 22.9 % in January to max 79.3 % in August;

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES • Solar thermal collectors integrated as sun shadings (horizontal position-0˚) can meet demands for hot water from min 2.7 % in January to max 45.3 % in August.

Monthly Water Heating Energy Demands Satisfaction 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Hot Water Energy Demands satisfaction per year 60.0

Roof 40˚ Parapet 90˚ Parapet 45˚ Sun Shading 0˚

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12

Months

Figure 8: Satisfaction of energy demands for HW heating per months

Demands satisfaction (%)

Hot Water Energy Demands Satisfaction (%)

At the yearly basis, it is evident that design variants of solar thermal collectors’ integration can meet from min 23.4% (Sun Shading 0˚) to max 53.6% (Roof 40˚) hot water demands, as shown in Figure 9.

53.6

51.7

50.0 40.0 30.0

Roof 40˚

35.0

Parapet 90˚

23.4

20.0

Parapet 45˚ Sun Shading 0˚

10.0 0.0

Figure 9: Satisfaction of energy demands for HW heating per year achieved by STC

The application of solar thermal collectors significantly contributes to energy savings, i.e. enables reduction of energy consumption. Annual energy consumption for domestic water heating, which could not be substituted by solar thermal system, is shown in Table 2. The design variant I of solar thermal collectors’ integration into building envelope, in which panels are 40˚ tilted on the roof, is indicated as optimal. This variant is selected as optimal considering preferable angle of collector surface for maximum solar gains in the climate of Belgrade and less shading effect present on the roof than on the facade (Krstić-Furundžić and Kosić, 2017). At the same time, combination of design variant I and II provides the greatest energy savings of 89% (Table 2). Even more energy saving is achieved by combining the roof (40˚) and facade (45˚) solar thermal panels providing energy surplus of 6% or by combining the roof (40˚), facade (90˚) and sun shading (0˚) solar thermal panels providing energy surplus of 12% (Table 2). Values for CO2 emissions reduction are presented in Table 3 for all proposed design variants of thermal collectors’ integration and their combinations. The problem of emissions is analysed with assumption that mentioned consumer heats hot water by electrical energy. Estimation of emissions of the electrical power networks is based on the fact that for production of 1 kWh, CO2 emission amounts 0.53 kg in Serbia (according to the Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings).

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Table 2: Annual energy savings for water heating according to the design variants and their combinations

Design variants (and their combinations) of Annual energy consumption for STC integration into the building envelope hot water (kWh) Existing building 91,618 42,349 Design Variants I - Roof collectors 40° 59,503 Design Variants II - Facade collectors 90° 44,209 Design Variants III - Facade collectors 45° Design Variants IV - Sun shading 0˚ 70,143 Design Variants I and II (combination) 10,234 Design Variants I and III (combination)

--

Design Variants I , II and IV (combination)

--

Energy savings (kWh)

Reduction of energy consumption (%)

49,269 54 32,115 35 47,409 52 21,475 23 81,384 89 +5,060 100 energy surplus (6% en. surplus) +11,241 100 energy surplus (12% en. surplus)

Table 3: CO2 emissions and reductions according to the design variants and their combinations

Existing building Design Variants I - Roof collectors 40° Design Variants II - Facade collectors 90° Design Variants III - Facade collectors 45° Design Variants IV - Sun shading 0˚ Design Variants I and II (combination) Design Variants I and III (combination)

Annual CO2 emissions (kg/year) 48,558 22,445 31,536 23,430 37,176 5,424 --

Design Variants I , II and IV (combination)

--

Design variants (and their combinations) of STC integration into the building envelope

CO2 reduction (kg/year)

CO2 reduction (%)

26,113 54 17,022 35 25,128 52 11,382 23 43,134 89 +2,682 100 carbon credits (6% carb. credits) +5,958 100 carbon credits (12% car. credits)

CONCLUSIONS This paper has highlighted the problems of poor energy performances of existing Belgrade’s building stock and necessity and possibilities of energy performance improvement of buildings and thereby ecological impact. Through design scenarios given and discussed in the paper, it can be concluded that building energy performances improvement, achieved by application of solar thermal collectors, provides numerous benefits which can be identified briefly as reduction of conventional energy consumption, reduction of environmental pollution and obtaining opportunities for new aesthetic potentials in refurbishment of existing buildings.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES The results presented in the paper can popularize the application of solar thermal systems in building refurbishment. As in other parts of Serbia, as well as Europe, there is a significant number of housing settlements with the same or similar prefabricated buildings, the presented improvement measures can be transferred into the regions with similar climatic conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research is done within the COST Action 1205 ″Building integration of Solar Thermal Systems (BISTS)″ supported by European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research and the scientific research project “Physical, environmental, energy, and social aspects of housing development and climate change–mutual influences“(TR36035), financed by Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.

REFERENCES Kalogirou, A. Soteris. 2013. “Building integration of solar thermal systems.” In Proceedings of ELCAS 3, edited by Coroneos J. Christopher, Dimitrios C. Rovas and Paris Th. Dompros, 217-224. Nisyros: COST. Krstic(-Furundzic), Aleksandra. 2006. “Multifunkcionalne krovne strukture energetski efikasnih zgrada.” (Multifunctional roof structures of the energy efficient buildings) Arhitektura i urbanizam, no. 18/19: 34-47. Krstic-Furundzic, Aleksandra, and Ana Bogdanov. 2003. “Collected data formation of building stock in Belgrade, Serbia.” (Formiranje baze podataka o gradjevinskom fondu u Beogradu) In Energy Optimization of buildings in context of sustainable architecture (Energetska optimizacija zgrada u kontekstu održive arhitekture), Part 1, 59-77. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade.

Krstić-Furundžić, Aleksandra and Vesna Kosorić. 2009a. “Improvement of energy performances of existing buildings by application of solar thermal systems″, Spatium International Review, No. 20: 19-22. Krstic-Furundzic, Aleksandra, and Vesna Kosoric. 2009b. “Improvement of Energy Performances of Existing Buildings in Suburban Settlements.” In Architecture, Energy and the Occupant's Perspective, Proceedings of the PLEA 2009, edited by Demers Claude and Andre Potvin, 597-602. Quebec City: Les Presses de l'Universite Laval, Canada. Krstić-Furundžić, A., and Kosić, T., 2017. Multicriterial optimization of the selection of the best measures for energy performances improvement of the multifamily housing in Belgrade. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Building integrated renewable energy systems-BIRES, Eds: Soteris A. Kolagirou, COST-European Cooperation in Science and Technology, paper 13. Accessed March 16, 2017. http://www.tu1205-bists.eu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2017/03/Proceedings-of-BIRES-2017-0101.pdf

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Krstic-Furundzic, Aleksandra, Andreas Savvides, Gerald Leindecker, Constantinos Vassiliades. 2017. “Architectural planning/integration″. In: COST Action TU1205 BISTS – Design and Applications Handbook, edited by Soteris A. Kalogirou, 251-262. Brussels: COST-European Cooperation in Science and Technology. Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings, Official Gazette RS, no. 72/09, 81/09 – revise, 64/10 and 24/11: 58– 59.

Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia, Basic climate characteristics for the territory of Serbia, Accessed October 25, 2012. Accessed December 15, 2016. http://www.hidmet.gov.rs/.

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TESTING THE MOST OPTIMAL SCENARIO OF IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCES OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN SERBIA, CONSTRUCTED IN THE PERIOD OF 1971-1980 Vladimir Bojović Phd student, University in Belgrade – Faculty of architecture, King Aleksandar Boulevard 73/II, Belgrade, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The biggest part of residential buildings in Serbia was built during the time with no thermal regulations. This has resulted by huge number of residential buildings, with very bad thermal characteristics of envelope, that are huge consumers of energy and environment pollutants. Although the energy rehabilitation of buildings is very popular in Serbia in recent years, the question is which level of rehabilitation is most appropriate considering the thermal envelope and size of building, climate conditions in Serbia, the current market situation, impact of economy as well as impact on environment. Considering that the most frequent type of residential buildings in Serbia are buildings built in period of 1971-1980, even 23,79%, for further research as a referent object in category of free-standing buildings was chosen building in Trstenik with the B+Gf+3 floor scheme. This multifamily residential building of energy class G is a typical representative of economical construction particulary common to small towns in the interior, where industrial construction was not feasible due to a small number of residential buildings. Then, in this paper were created different scenarios of improving energy performances in aim to achieve the reduction of energy consumption and environmental protections. First it was created five different models of energy performance improvements, which were combined with three different scenarios of electricity production, by aplication of active solar systems. By this were obtained twenty differenet solutions of energy rehabilitation of the building. For those solutions it was analysed energy demand for heating, energy class of building, cost-effectiveness of investments and savings during the life cycle of the object, pollutant emissions, as well as comparative analysis of the obtained results. As a final step of this research were compared all considered scenarios by SAW (method of multiple criteria desicion making) based on net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR),payback period (PP) and CO2 emission. By all this criterias, it was obtained the most optimal solution of energy rehabilitation for this type of residential buildings. Key words: residential building, energy rehabilitation,life cycle savings , CO2 emission, SAW method

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INTRODUCTION Buildings as a large energy consumers have a significant impact on the environmental pollution, thus are the topic that the scientific community have to seriously deal with. The biggest part of residential buildings in Serbia was built during the time with no thermal regulations. The aim of this study is to determine the most optimal solution of energy rehabilitation of selected category of residential buildings through the analysis of different scenarios of improving energy performance and SAW (simple additive weighting) method of multiple criteria decision making. In the period of 1971-1980, almost a quarter of the present Serbian building stock was built (23.7%). Due to the fact that this was a period of intensive and massive construction, most buildings are freestanding (40%) and had an entirely residential function – as many as 77%. In this group of freestanding buildings is allocated type of building which makes most of the current housing stock in Serbia (9.41%). That are smaller buildings of simpler form and materialization, evolving from the technology of the post-war period. Due to the fact that such buildings can be found both in small and large urban areas, within or without housing estates, for further analysis as a representative object of this topological category was chosen residential building in Trstenik, in street by Queen Milica.

THE CASE STUDY This multifamily residence with the GF+3 floor scheme is a typical representative of economical construction, particularly common to small towns in the interior, where industrial construction was not feasible due to a small number of residential buildings. The building has an exclusively residential function with no commercial content. The house is massive, with 25cm structural walls, TM3 type ceiling and a reinforced concrete stairwell in the central bay. The façade walls are without insulation and have Terranova and decorative plaster as final cladding. The pitched roof rafters rest on a concrete slab while the ceiling to the top floor is a TM3 type (the loft is unoccupied). Standard –size windows are wooden, double-framed narrow or wide sashes in narrow casing, originally only fitted with internal canvas roller shades. The basement and loft areas are unoccupied. Energy performances of such buildings are rather poor as no elements of the envelope are thermally insulated; in addition, the walls and floor constructions have a lower thermal mass than the older types of the massive construction system. Table 6: Review of existing envelope elements

Elements of thermal envelope

U (W/m²K)

Façade wall (Fw1) Wall to unheated space (Uw1) Floor construction to the attic (Af1) Floor construction to the basement (Bf1) Window

1.68 1.46 1.73 1.16 3.3

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Such architectural forms offer various possibilities for energy rehabilitation. The least demanding measures would include installing external thermal insulation and facade re-cladding, as well as replacing windows. Since such buildings are low-rise and geometrically plain, the interventions do not pose technical problems and could become cost-effective without much delay. By insulating the floor construction to the basement and the loft and possibly the stairwell walls, the entire thermal envelope could be improved without excessive investment. The current building consumes even 191kwh/m², which classifies it in building energy class G, as a type of building which are the largest spendthrifts of energy.

MODELS OF IMPROVEMENT ENERGY PERFORMANCE As it was mentioned before, such type of architectural forms offers a lot of possibilities for energy rehabilitation. Therefore, in further research will be analysed five different levels of energy performance improvement, from the least demanding measures of interventions to completely rehabilitation of the building. During the analysis of various scenarios of improvement the most of attention will be on investment costs, annual reductions of thermal energy, annual savings and reduction of CO2 emissions. Table 7: Levels of interventions by models

Fw1 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5

Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=10cm Stone wool d=15cm Stone wool d=20cm

Uw1

Af1

/

/

/

/

Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=10cm

Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=10cm

Bf1 / Stone wool d=5cm Stone wool d=10cm Stone wool d=15cm Stone wool d=20cm

window Wooden with a double layer insulated low-emission glass Wooden with a double layer insulated low-emission glass Wooden with a double layer insulated low-emission glass Wooden with a double layer insulated low-emission glass PVC with a double layer insulated low-emission glass

As it is represented on the table above, the first model of energy performance improvement includes installing external thermal insulation of walls and replacement of facade windows with new wooden windows. The second model of improvement, beside that, includes insulating the floor construction to the attic, also with the stone wool d=5cm. In the remaining three models energy rehabilitation includes all elements of the thermal envelope, total rehabilitation of the building, but the level of interventions varies. In contrast to the previous models of improvement, the fifth model beside the largest size of interventions involves setting the windows of the highest quality.

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Table 8: Comparison of energy consumption by models of improvement

Investment costs (€) Final energy (kWh) Specific energy (kWh/m²) Energy class of building Energy for heating (kWh) Primary energy (kWh) CO2 emission (t) Annual reduction (kWh) Annual savings (€)

Existing building / 133.851 191 G 153.928 277.071 91 / /

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Model 4

Model 5

32.699 72.900 104 D 83.835 150.903 49 70.093 2.164

40.940 51.727 74 D 59.486 107.074 35 94.442 2.917

61.900 41.291 59 C 47.484 85.472 28 106.444 3.287

67.683 36.661 52 C 42.160 75.888 25 111.768 3.452

86.136 32.588 47 C 37.476 67.457 22 116.452 3.666

Various models of improvement have given quite different results, in terms of investment costs as well as in terms of reduction of energy needed for heating, annual savings and CO2 emissions. Energy classes of building vary from “D” category in the first two models, to “C “ category in the next three models. Model 5, as the most extensive form of energy rehabilitation, has the largest annual energy savings, but also the greatest investment costs. The first model of energy performance improvement, which requires the lowest investment, has upgraded the building for three energy classes. So it can be concluded that each model of energy rehabilitation has given significant results in terms of energy savings.

APPLICATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM In addition to the energy rehabilitation of the building, by which were formed five different models of improvements, in further research will be analysed feasibility of application active solar system on the roof of the building. This kind of investment is now in huge expansion in Serbia, especially due to the large support of the state, which offers a purchase price of 0.2066 €/kWh to producers of energy from renewable sources (according to the tariff of EPS and the regulation on Incentives for the production of electricity using renewable energy sources and combined production of electrical and thermal energy). The building has a gabled roof at an incline of 13°, with the ridge oriented east-west, which opened the possibility for the installation of solar panels on the roof plane facing the south. There were analysed three different solutions of applying the solar system in the area of 20m², 50m² and 100m². During the calculation of the produced energy was used Photovoltaic Geographical Information System, for climate conditions of Trstenik, available on the site EUMETSAT.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Table 9: Review of different scenarios of solar system application scenario 1

scenario 2

scenario 3

Surface area (m²) 20.00 50.00 100.00 13.00 13.00 13.00 angle (°) Investment costs (€) 3740.00 9350.00 18700.00 Panels efficinecy (%) 17.00 17.00 17.00 Efficiency of system (kw) 3.40 8.50 17.00 Annual production (kwh) 3590.00 8970.00 17900.00 Graph 1: Correlation between investment costs and annual revenues by scenarios 24000,00 18000,00 investment costs (€)

12000,00

annual revenues (€)

6000,00 0,00

scenario 1

scenario 2

scenario 3

It was adopted 17% efficiency of solar panels, as a medium value for products available on the Serbian market. In calculating costs for the application of the solar system, beside the costs of solar panels were calculated costs for setting substructure on the roof, as well as costs for the new electric meter and the inverter. Considering that producers of solar panels give guarantees on system efficiency up to 80% after 25 years, for the building life-cycle was adopted period of 25 years. As it is shown on the graph above, annual revenues of producing electrical energy represent almost 1/5 of the total investment costs for each scenario, which indicates that this type of investment is very profitable considering the producers guarantee of 25 years.

EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT SCENARIOS As a final step of this research were combined models of energy rehabilitation with all versions of applying solar system, in order to form a more complex sample in the calculating the most optimal scenario. During the analysis of different scenarios focus was primarily on the economic aspect and the environment impact. The criteria used in determining the most optimal scenario are: • Payback period (PP)

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• Net present value (NPV) • Internal rate of return (IRR) • CO2 emissions The overall calculation was done in Euros (€), so it was considered average interest rate in countries of Western Europe. All future costs were discounted by discount rate of 3%. In this case, NPV was calculated for savings – as a kind of project profits. By combining different models of energy performance improvement with various scenarios of applying the solar system were obtained 20 different solutions, which were compared on the basis of the PP,NPV,IRR and CO2. Table 10: Analysis of savings and investement costs by scenarios

M1 Sc.1 Sc.2 Sc.3

M1 M2

M3

M4

M5 M5

32699 36439 42049 51399 40941 44681 50291 59641 61900 65640 71250 80600 67683 71423 77033 86383 86137 89877 95487 104837

83835

59486

47485 42160

Sc.1 Sc.2 Sc.3

M4

83835

47485 Sc.1 Sc.2 Sc.3

M3

Total investment costs (€)

59486 Sc.1 Sc.2 Sc.3

M2

Energy needed for heating (kwh)

42160 37476

Sc.1 Sc.2 Sc.3

37476

Annual reduction of energy (kwh) 70094

Annual savings (€) 2165

70094

2165

94443

2917

94443

2917

106444

3288

106444

3288

111769

3452

111769

3452

116452

3597

116452

3597

Annual revenues of produced energy (€) 0 742 1853 3698 0 742 1853 3698 0 742 1853 3698 0 742 1853 3698 0 742 1853 3698

Total annual savings (€) 2165 2907 4018 5863 2917 3659 4770 6615 3288 4029 5141 6986 3452 4194 5305 7150 3597 4339 5450 7295

The total annual savings were calculated as the sum of savings achieved during the year and the revenue achieved from the sale of electricity. As it is represented on the table above, the energy required for heating is the same for all combinations within one model of improvement, because all the produced energy was directly sold, without any use. By observing the payback period , it can be concluded that it decreases with the increasing volume of the electricity

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES production in each scenario within the corresponding model . The shortest paypack period have the scenario M1+SC3 (8.8 years), while that period is the longest on the scenario M5, and amounts 23.9 years. But for the observed project life-cycle of 25 years, it can be concluded that all the scenarios are profitable, because neither scenario have PP longer than 25 years. Graph 2: Review of payback period by scenarios (years) 30,0 25,0 20,0 15,0 10,0 5,0 0,0

sc1 sc2 sc3 М1

М1

sc1 sc2 sc3 М2

М2

sc1 sc2 sc3 М3

М3

sc1 sc2 sc3 М4

М4

sc1 sc2 sc3 М5

М5

By considering IRR, it can be noticed that all scenarios have positive values except scenario M5 which has an IRR of -0.01%. The maximum value of IRR is obtained in scenarios M1+sc3 and M2+sc3 and amounts 9%. So, according to this criteria, it is evident that all the solutions are acceptable except scenario M5, which proved to be inefficient. Graph 3: Review of internal rate of return by scenarios (%) 0,10 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 0,00

sc1 sc2 sc3

-0,02 М1

М1

sc1 sc2 sc3 М2

М2

sc1 sc2 sc3 М3

М3

sc1 sc2 sc3 М4

М4

sc1 sc2 sc3 М5

М5

Analysis of NPV, has been shown that scenarios M3,M4,M5,M5+sc1 and M5+sc2 are unprofitable because of the negative value of NPV. On the other hand, scenario M2+sc3 has been shown as the most optimal with the NPV of 55.551 €. In this way, it can be seen that by observing different criteria can be made different conclusions about the project efficiency, and that neither criteria observed isolated shows the true picture of its efficiency. Emissions of CO2, as the last criteria in selecting the most optimal solution for energy rehabilitation of residential building in

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Trstentik, has been shown the expected results. The larger intervention size, the lower CO2 emission is. Consequently, model M5 has been shown as the most efficient, because of its minimum influence on the environment. In contrast to it, the scenarios M1+sc3 and M2+sc3 ,which have proved to be the most effective from an economic point of view , have a far greater negative impact on the environment , and a far higher CO2 emissions. However, it can be concluded that in comparison with the annual CO2 emission of the existing building which amounts 91.000 kg, all scenarios have been proven as acceptable and better than the current situation. Graph 4: Review of net present value by scenario (€) 60000 45000 30000 15000 0 -15000

sc1 sc2 sc3

-30000 М1

М1

sc1 sc2 sc3 М2

М2

sc1 sc2 sc3 М3

М3

sc1 sc2 sc3 М4

М4

sc1 sc2 sc3 М5

М5

SAW METHOD OF MULTIPLE CRITERIS DECISION MAKING Multiple criteria methods are used for solving the problems of decision making when needed to be respected a large number of criteria, which is exactly the case here. SAW method is a very simple method of multiple criteria analysis which takes into account the weights of criteria. In order to equalize the values under the considered criteria, in the next step of this research has been done normalization, where each value was divided by the maximum within the corresponding criteria. By this, all the values had been equalized. All analysed criteria were treated as equally important, so that the adopted values of ponders for each criteria were 0.25.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Graph 5: Review of efficiency of analysed scenarios 1,00 0,80 0,60 0,40 0,20 0,00

sc 1 sc 2 sc 3 М1

М1

sc 1 sc 2 sc 3 М2

М2

sc 1 sc 2 sc 3 М3

М3

sc 1 sc 2 sc 3 М4

М4

sc 1 sc 2 sc 3 М5

М5

As it is shown on the graph above, during the calculation of values by SAW method, it is established that the scenario M2+sc3 is the most optimal solution for energy rehabilitation of this type of building taking into account considered criteria. The M5 is the most unfavorable scenario, while as equally good solutions can be characterized M1+sc3 and M3+sc3. Observing only the models of improving energy performances, without the application of solar system, it can be concluded that scenario M2 is the most optimal, while the scenario M5 is far the worst again.

CONCLUSIONS This research has shown that the most optimal level of energy rehabilitation of freestanding residential buildings, build in the period of 1971-1980. includes installation of thermal insulation on facade walls (stone wool d=5cm), insulating the floor construction to the attic, also with the stone wool d=5cm as well as replacement of facade windows with new wooden windows. The most efficient type of intervention is achieving with addition of 100m² of solar panels on the south roof plane. Also, this paper presents the methodology for solving similar problems, which can be used as a tool in the selection of an adequate level of energy rehabilitation of buildings. The SAW method has proven to be a highly effective tool for decision making, and enables us to see the problem as a whole. However , in such studies the criteria selection and clear hierarchy among them in terms of significance, is of crucial importance. This paper deals with the selection of the optimal scenario from the economic aspect and the aspect of environment, as some of the basic principles of sustainability. But, during such researches in the future, it is necessary to include all other criteria, such as comfort issues, the impact of rehabilitation on the architectural value of the building, which is particularly problematic during the interventions in buildings that are under some form of protection.

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REFERENCES Books: Jovanović P. (2010): Upravljanje investicijama.Beograd:Zuhra. Jovanović Popović M., Ignjatović D., Radivojević A., Rajčić A., Đukanović Lj., Ćuković Ignjatović N., Nedić M.(2013): Nacional typology of residential Buildings in Serbia, Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade Krasulja D.,Ivanišević M. (2007): Poslovne finansije. Beograd: Čugura Print Čupić M., Sunković M. (2010): Odlučivanje. Beograd: Newpress Journal article: König, H., Kohler, N., Kreiβig, J., Lützkendorf, T. (2010) A life cycle approach to buildings. Munich: DETAIL Green Books, pp. 60. Roberto De L. Vollaro., et al., Building energy performance analysis: A case study, Energy and Buildings, 87(2015), pp. 87-94 Regulations: EN ISO 13790, Energy performance of buildings – Calculation of energy use forheating and cooling, 2008. ***, Regulations on Energy Efficieny in Buildings (in Serbian), the Government of the Republic of Serbia, “Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia’’61/2011, Belgrade,2011 Softwares: Ecotect Analysis - Sustainable Building Design Software – Autodesk, 2011 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE, 2012), FEMP (Federal Energy Management Program) software: BLCC (Building Life Cycle Cost) Rajčić A. (2011.) : „KnaufTerm2“, softver za proračun energetske efikasnosti zgrada, naručilacKnauf Insulation, dostupno na www.knaufinsulation.rs U.S. Department of Energy. 2004. Monthly Energy Review. Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration, U S Department of Energy.

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DAYLIGHT AND ENERGY ENHANCEMENT WITH VENTILATED FAÇADE SYSTEMS FOR RENOVATION PROJECTS Katerina Tsikaloudaki 83 Civil Engineering Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, P.O. Box 429, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece, [email protected] Dimitra Tsirigoti Civil Engineering Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, [email protected] Stella Tsoka Civil Engineering Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, [email protected] Theodore Theodosiou Civil Engineering Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper involves the study of the daylight conditions prevailing on an indoor space before and after the integration of a ventilated system on the building’s façade. Its aim is to analyze the visual environment and propose solutions for confronting the impact of the ventilated façade system on the indoor daylight conditions. It is expected that the ventilated facade system would influence the daylight levels on the indoor space negatively, since the view to the sky vault would be partially obstructed. Therefore, the installation of the ventilated façade system on the building’s façade would obstruct the sky view from the interior of the room, since it would form a further casement around the window, and the indoor daylight levels would decrease. In fact, the analysis showed that the presence of the ventilated façade system influences the indoor daylight conditions at a rate that ranges from 9% to 21% as regards the average values. By analysing the new daylighting conditions formed with the installation of the ventilated facade, appropriate measures can be proposed in order to counterbalance these negative impacts. The measures involved simple solutions, such as the increase of reflectivity on the casing around the window, but also more elaborated ones, such as the formation of inclined lateral and upper sides of the casing and the introduction of an anidolic system. Among them, it was found that the optimum solution is the inclined casing around the window, which will allow for a less obstructed view to the sky. This solution counterbalances the presence of the ventilated facade system on the window wall by increasing the indoor daylight levels, while the uniformity ratio remains at acceptable levels. Keywords: daylighting, visual comfort, ventilated facades

83


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INTRODUCTION The building sector contributes significantly to the final energy consumption, given that in 2011 its share was equal to 38% for the EU-28. For residential buildings, which correspond to 75% of the European building stock, the share of consumed energy is equal to 25% for EU-28 and concerns mainly gas (36%) and electricity (25%). At the same time, a substantial portion of the building stock in Europe is older than 50 years, while many buildings in use today are hundreds of years old. More than 40% of the European residential buildings have been constructed before the 1960’s, when energy building regulations were very limited. Provided that currently the construction rates remain at low levels across Europe, the perspectives of applying effective energy renovation measures on existing buildings seems very promising. The external insulation of facades is the easiest way to improve the thermal insulation of building envelopes and one of the most common measures used. Recently, the positioning of thermal insulation is often accompanied with the installation of an external cladding, offering architectural and aesthetical upgrade along with the enhancement of the building energy performance. However, the majority of research concerning daylighting conditions resulting from energy upgrading interventions of the building shell, neglect the effect of the additional thickness on the façade wall, which results in a larger obstruction of the sky view [1], [2], [3]. Within this context, the research project E2VENT, standing for Energy Efficient Ventilated Façade and funded by the H2020 program, focuses on developing an innovative façade refurbishment solution, which comprises of (i) a modular heat recovery unit that enables operation in series or parallel, depending on heating/cooling requirements, (ii) a latent heat thermal energy storage unit, based on phase change materials and aiming at a reduction of peak of electricity consumption for summer cooling, (iii) a smart management system and (iv) a ventilated façade system that consists of the bearing structure, the thermal insulation and the external aluminium cladding [4]. However, the installation of a ventilated façade system with a considerable thickness may cause problems to the formation of the indoor visual environment due to the decrease of daylighting. This paper involves the study of the daylight conditions prevailing on an indoor space before and after the integration of the ventilated façade system (E2VENT) on its façade. Its aim is to analyze the visual conditions and propose solutions for confronting the potential impacts. Within this framework, not only would the ventilated façade contribute to the improvement of the building energy performance, but it would also ensure that the indoor visual comfort conditions will be achieved.

METHODOLOGY The objective of this research is to indicate the changes in indoor daylight conditions caused by the integration of the ventilated façade system (E2VENT) on the building envelope and the proposal of design measures to mitigate this effect. Within this context, a reference building unit was selected, encompassing typical geometric characteristics of

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES residential buildings. It is worth mentioning that a room with similar geometry was used for other studies under the project’s framework, i.e. the estimation of the ventilation requirements. The daylight levels were estimated before and after the E2VENT integration. On the basis of the results, design measures were proposed, including the special configuration of the window’s side and head jambs, as well as the increase of reflectivity of the casing around the window. Further calculations showed the performance of the proposed solutions.

The examined room configurations The reference room is of square plan, with 4.50 m side length and 2.80 m height (Figure 1.a.). It is side-lit by one window, 1.70 m wide to 1.20 m high, with a sill elevated by 1.00 m above the floor. The area of the window corresponds to 10% of the floor area, a requirement that is often found in national legislations all over Europe. The window is single glazed and its visual transmittance is set equal to 0.89. The thickness of the wall, which actually refers to the thickness of the window casing, is 0.25 m. The reflectivity of the walls is equal to 0.80, representing a light coloured smooth finish, while the reflectivity of the floor was considered equal to 0.50, representing common floor finishes, such as wood, carpet, tiles, etc. Moreover, the reflectivity of the ceiling was regarded equal to 0.85, representing common light coloured plastered surfaces. Additionally, the reference room has an unobstructed view to the sky vault and no shading devices. The window orientation does not play a significant role in this analysis, especially regarding daylight factor, given that the conditions examined refer to overcast skies. It has to be noted that within the project alternative room geometries and windows sizes were studied. In this paper, the squared plan reference room was chosen to be analyzed in detail, as in this case the reduction on average illumination levels presents the larger percentage of reduction after the installation of the E2Vent system. One of the advantages of ventilated facade systems is their adjustability to satisfy different requirements of the building envelope; therefore its thickness may vary with regard to the thickness of thermal insulation and the desired U-value of the wall component. In this study, the worst case scenario was assumed, i.e. the case that a very low U-value is anticipated and an approximately 30 cm thick layer of thermal insulation is positioned. That leads to a wall thickness (after the E2VENT installation) of 0.584 m, as shown in Figure 1.b. It is noted that for the daylight simulation it is not necessary to provide a full detail of the system, but only the new dimensions of the casing around the existing window. The reflectivity value of the casing around the window, which is a part of the E2VENT system, is considered equal to 0.60.

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b.

Figure 24: Simplified axonometric view of the examined building before (a.) and after (b.) the installation of the ventilated façade system (E2VENT).

The parameters for daylight assessment The daylight levels were estimated before and after the ventilated façade system integration. Given that the quantity and quality of available daylight varies significantly with the hour of the day, time of year and meteorological conditions, the indoor daylight conditions are very often assessed through the estimation of daylight factor. Daylight factor represents the illuminance at a specified point indoors, expressed as a percentage of the simultaneous horizontal illuminance outdoors under an overcast sky. The orientation of the opening does not play an important role on the determination of daylight factor, since the standardized overcast sky presents only altitudinal asymmetry, featured by illuminance at the zenith three times greater than on the horizon [5]. On the contrary, differentiations on the angular height of the visible sky patch and on the glazing transmittance influence the daylight factor patterns significantly. The minimum, maximum and average value of daylight factor was calculated, in order to provide the general picture of the visual performance of the room. Values of daylight factor above 2% are considered as acceptable for most of the national regulations of the EU countries, especially when artificial lighting is complementary used. Especially for residential buildings, even lower values of daylight factor are allowed; for example, UK BS 8026-2 recommends that in dwellings the average daylight factor should exceed 1.50%, 2.00% and 1,00% in the living room, the kitchen and the bedroom respectively [6]. However, it has to be highlighted than when the daylight factor values of an indoor space are reduced below 2% and the activity taking place into the room requires optical acuity, the use of artificial light is needed almost throughout the day. However, when studying the adequacy of daylight or the energy consumption for lighting, it is very important to examine the illumination levels as well. In this study it was attempted to study whether the minimum daylight requirements are fulfilled after the integration of the E2VENT system. Within this context, the worst case scenario was assumed, i.e. the estimation of daylight levels under an overcast sky. Within this context, the illumination levels of all

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES examined cases were plotted in isolux lines with a standard scale ranging from 40 lx to 15000 lx to allow for comparison. Additionally, the uniformity of daylight distribution was estimated, as one of the qualitative criteria of visual comfort. It is expressed as the ratio of minimum to average daylight factor and usually the acceptable values range above 0.3 [7]. All daylight metrics are estimated on the working plane, i.e. at a horizontal plane elevated by 0.80 m above the floor level. For the calculation of the daylight metrics Autodesk Ecotect analysis 2011 software was used, which employs the split-flux method. The design sky illuminance value equals 7564 lux and was calculated through Tregenza formula.

The examined measures for enhancing the indoor daylight conditions From the initial stage of this research, it was expected that the installation of the E2VENT system will influence the admission of daylight into the room, since the significant thickness of the system will act as a short barrier projecting from the existing wall around the window, blocking thus the view to the sky vault. In order to counterbalance this effect two solutions were studied: - Increase of the reflectivity of the extended casing around the window. It was assumed that the casing around the window will be made by an aluminium cladding with a reflectivity value of 80%, which would support the admittance of daylight into the room. - Formation of inclined lateral and upper sides of the casing. The inclined surfaces can allow for a less obstructed sky view when compared with a window casing with horizontal and vertical sides. The larger the inclination angle is, the less obstructed the view to the sky vault would be. However, for constructional reasons it was not possible to take into account large inclination angles, i.e. larger than 45°. Constructional details of this configuration are presented in Figure 2, along with the axonometric model of the examined building unit encompassing the ventilated façade system with this special window casing configuration.

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Figure 2. Axonometric view of the examined building unit with the integrated ventilated system, in the case of inclined lateral and upper window casing and construction detail wall sections.

THE DAYLIGHT CONDITIONS PREVAILING IN THE EXAMINED ROOMS Figure 3 presents the illumination levels prevailing on the working plane of the examined room (a.) before and (b.) after the installation of the ventilated façade system. For the initial case, daylight levels range from 77 lx to 760 lx with an average value of nearly 200 lx. For the areas that are close to the window (i.e. at a distance of 1.5 m from the window wall –one third of the room’s depth-) the illumination exceeds 300 lx, while at the rear areas of the room the illumination is poor and artificial lighting is needed. The average daylight factor is equal to 2.59%, indicating that although the room is not bright, there is adequate daylight. For specific tasks, support with artificial lighting is needed, though. Additionally, the ratio of minimum to average illumination is equal to 0.39, indicating that the daylight distribution can be regarded as uniform. When the ventilated façade system is installed, daylight levels range from 67 lx to 417 lx with an average value of nearly 155 lx. This accounts for a 45% reduction of maximum daylight levels and a 22.5% reduction on average illumination levels. This indicates that the installation of E2VENT influences mostly the areas that are close to the window, since the view to the sky vault from these points is more significantly obstructed. The zone with adequate daylight (i.e. above 300 lx) is limited to a depth of 1.0m from the window wall, comparing to 1.5m before installing E2VENT system.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES The average daylight factor is equal to 2.05%, just slightly above the general acceptable value for the most “demanding” area of the dwelling, which is the kitchen. However, illumination values are low for most of the working plane area, which indicates that if specific tasks are going to be performed, artificial lighting may be needed. The ratio of minimum to average illumination is equal to 0.42, indicating that the distribution is now a little more uniform than before (changed from 0.38 to 0.42), given that the average value is significantly reduced, while the minimum value is practically unchanged.

136.03

138.89

116.23

136.1088.17140.17

119.12 140.33 140.31

137.69 133.84 139.07 138.02 140.25

135.23 132.51

135.44

129.30 135.45

116.81

134.10 117.56 111.22

130.19

86.76133.36

126.36

88.12

113.29 116.86 138.07

149.79 126.34 168.94

139.42 134.02

138.53 147.82 141.04

131.9680.94134.22

131.38

138.44

139.48 137.93 144.12 133.44

141.27

144.46

90.66145.82 101.90 143.52

117.05 139.08

141.46

92.14

145.31

134.58

139.30

119.02

137.6889.70142.08

137.15

125.42 114.63

135.84 90.50 141.48 121.71 139.56

153.86 167.68 170.09

92.93137.8790.51

144.81 156.26 75.91146.63

151.55

176.89 175.19

159.84 107.41 136.81

116.25

158.59

151.78 117.67

118.67 158.81 87.18 77.04

124.70 162.93 763.69

143.64 147.04

81.59 133.97

a.

b.

Figure 3: The daylight levels prevailing on the work plane of the examined building unit before (a.) and after (b.) the installation of the ventilated façade system.

MEASURES FOR ENHANCING DAYLIGHTING It was proved that the integration of the ventilated façade system has a direct influence on the admittance of daylight in indoor spaces. This was expected, given that the E2VENT system embraces the windows of the building as an external casing, providing solar protection on one hand and reduction of the visible sky view on the other. What was not known, but was revealed through the previous analysis, is the quantitative assessment of this reduction (approximately 22% on the average values). Although the impact can be regarded as moderate and only in certain cases is considerable, the resulting visual performance of the indoor spaces may be poor, especially in rooms where daylighting is limited. For these reasons it was decided to study and assess measures that could mitigate the impact of E2VENT installation on daylighting.

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As mentioned before, two measures were examined; the increase of reflectivity on the casing around the window and the formation of inclined lateral and upper sides of the casing. Figure 4. shows the illumination levels prevailing on the working plane of the examined building unit when these two measures are implemented. With the higher reflectivity panels (Figure 4.a), the average illumination ranges at approximately the same levels as before. There is only a 1% increase on illumination levels observed on the areas near the window, but the average values remain practically unchanged. So is the daylight factor. These findings reveal that the increase of reflectivity of the window casing is not effective in terms of mitigating the impact of the ventilated façade system on the daylight conditions of indoor spaces. Figure 4.b. presents the illumination prevailing on the working plane of the examined building unit, when the lateral and upper sides of the casing are inclined. With this specific configuration of the window casing, the illumination levels range from 64 lx to 660 lx with an average value of 187 lx. This corresponds to an increase of daylight levels by 21% with regard to the conditions formed with the standard E2VENT installation. In fact, the illumination values are very close to, yet lower than, the initial daylight conditions, i.e. before the installation of E2VENT. It is worth mentioning, however, that the increase of daylight levels concerns mostly the front half area of the room, which results to the non-uniform increase of daylight on the working plane. The new uniformity ratio equals 0.34, 20% lower than the standard situation.

a.

b.

Figure 4: The distribution of daylight on the working plane of the examined building unit with the integrated ventilated façade, when (a.) reflectivity of the window casing is increased and (b.) the lateral and upper window casings are inclined.

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CONCLUSIONS The analysis showed that the installation of E2VENT influences the indoor daylight conditions at a rate of 22% as regards the average values. The reduction of daylight levels is observed mostly at the areas that are near the window wall, therefore the uniformity ratio is increased, producing a more even distribution of daylight on the working plane. Although this impact can be regarded as moderate and only in certain cases is considerable, the resulting visual performance of the indoor spaces may be poor, especially in rooms where daylighting is limited. The study of the potential measures to mitigate the impact of E2VENT on the indoor daylight conditions revealed that the optimum solution is to configure the casing around the window with inclined panels, which will allow for a less obstructed view to the sky. This solution counterbalances the presence of the E2VENT on the window wall by increasing the indoor daylight levels, while the uniformity ratio remains at acceptable levels. However, such a solution interferes with the architectural configuration of the building and changes its façade. Although the installation of the ventilated façade system inevitably alters the façade, the formation of inclined sides on the window causes additional changes, by giving emphasis on the windows. In fact, the inclination of the casing around the windows will appear as a frame around their lateral and vertical sides, the width of which may change with regard to the inclination angle. However, the adoption of such measures constitute the optimal way for integrating ventilated façade systems on existing buildings with the purpose of obtaining advanced building energy performance and visual comfort conditions at the same time. REFERENCES Vanhoutteghem, Lies, Skarning, Gunnlaug Cecilie Jensen, Hviid, Christian Anker and Svendsen, Svend. 2015. “Impact of facade window design on energy, daylighting and thermal comfort in nearly zero-energy houses”. Energy and Buildings 102: 149–156. Unver, Rengin, Ozturk, Leyla Dokuzer, Adıguzel, Sükran and Celik, Özlem. 2003. “Effect of the facade alternatives on the daylight illuminance in offices”. Energy and Buildings 35: 737–746. Reinhart, Christoph, Jakubiec, Alstanand and Ibarra, Diego. 2013. “Definition of a reference office for standardized evaluations of dynamic façade and lighting technologies”. In Proceedings of the 13th Conference of International Building Performance Simulation Association, 26-28. anon. 2016. D3.6. Light guide design. Deliverable of the research project E2VENT submitted to European Commission. Baker N., Fanchiotti A. and Steemers K. 1993. “Daylighting in Architecture: a European reference book”. Brussels: James and James. anon. 2008. BS 8206-2:2008 Lighting for buildings. Code of practice for daylighting. UK: BSI. anon. 2016. BREEAM UK New Construction technical manual. BRE.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been developed under the project “E2VENT: Energy Efficient Ventilated Façades” funded by the Horizon 2020 framework of the European Union, Project No. 637261. http://e2vent.eu/

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INTEGRATED DESIGN IN THE PROCESS OF ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION Aleksandra Nenadović 84 PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Serbia, [email protected] Ljiljana Đukanović PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Serbia, [email protected] Ana Radivojević PhD, Associate Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Integrated design represents a contemporary approach of conceiving and development of building projects. It is defined as a design which results in buildings that successfully perform their function, in accordance with all aspects of sustainability: social, economic and environmental. The key issues to be considered during the design are related to the environmental protection, with special emphasis on harmful emissions, energy efficiency and materials and waste, as well as to the social benefits for building users, with special emphasis on protection and safety, comfort, spatial organization, space adaptability, maintenance and visual stimulation. This approach implies that different disciplines are involved in the decision-making from the very beginning of design process, with the idea to respond to the increasingly complex requirements. The paper discusses the innovative educational model, partially applied within the studies of architecture at University of Belgrade, which should address this new reality. Whereas integrated design requires system thinking and continuous interaction of all participants in the design process, research strategies that cross the boundaries of individual disciplines are applied. The learning is based on the integration of the theoretical knowledge in the field of architecture and engineering in function of problem-solving. It implies a holistic view on the design, within which education, research and practice are integrated into a single process that encourages critical thinking directed to multidisciplinary optimization of design solutions. The basic elements of the discussed educational model are presented in this paper, as well as its potential and limitations. Keywords: Integrated design, Architectural education, Design studio

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INTRODUCTION In the last decades increasing criticism of the traditional approach to education of architects can be seen, as well as significant changes in architectural design education. The basic assumptions, theories and practices are reconsidered (Al-Qawasmi and Velasco, 2006). One of the main deficiencies of the existing systems of education is the absence of multidisciplinary, integrating and systems approach (Devon et. al., 2004). Bearing in mind the increasing complexity of architectural practice and the introduction of new sustainability criteria, concerning the reduction of the negative environmental impacts with a simultaneous increase in quality of life (Working Group for Sustainable Construction, 2001), it is necessary to redefine certain educational concepts. Architectural space planning based on the principles of sustainable development requires a qualitatively new approach to the design, that is, integrated approach based on the system analysis of social, economic and environmental aspects (Birkeland, 2002). Integrated approach to building design implies the active, continuing and organized collaboration of architects, users, code officials, building technologists, cost consultants, civil engineers, mechanical and electrical engineers, structural engineers, specifications specialists, and consultants from many specialized fields. In this process architects and engineers work together as a collaborative design team from the early stages of design. To provide effective processes and methods in context of sustainability architectural educators must clarify the goals, approaches, and outcomes. ”The educational challenge is to design a curriculum that captures the complex design processes, methods, and integrated thinking” (Guzowski, 2011). Architectural education should be the framework for establishing connections between parties which are mainly isolated or antagonistic in traditional system of education. ”The academy can become an instance of discussion, publication and instruction that brings together students, practitioners, clients, the public sector, media channels and research councils” (McQuillan, 2005).

INTEGRATED APPROACH TO DESIGN - INNOVATIVE EDUCATIONAL MODEL The paper discusses the following basic elements of innovative educational model, partially applied within the studies of architecture at University of Belgrade, as well as its potential and limitations. The presented educational model should serve as a basis for the creation of curriculum which will enable adequate participation of students of architecture and other disciplines involved in the design of buildings in the complex process of integrated design.

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Work in studio Studio is a pedagogical construct which involves three basic functions: information seeking, new knowledge generating and decision making. Studio teaching should simulate design practice based on client interaction (Sorvig, 2005) and environmental concerns (Radivojević, Ćuković Ignjatović, and Nedić, 2010). It should be based on and real-world projects in order to integrate education, research and practice into a single process (Incedayi, 2005). In addition, the work in studio should be based on multidisciplinary, integrating and systemic approach. However, the interconnection of architecture students with other disciplines is usually not present within traditionally conceived studio (Lueth, 2008). This interconnection needs to be established, primarily in the function of expanding the research base (Boyer and Mitgang, 1996). In this regard, it is necessary that architectural design studio became the place where all involved disciplines are transformed into a synthesis (Incedayi, 2005). Studio teaching should combine three methods of education: teacher-centered method – in function of theoretical knowledge transfer; student-centered method – in function of search, collection and aggregation of knowledge, that includes active participation of students under the supervision of educators which should help students to build up a consistent mental model in the subject matter; and finally, teamwork-centered method that implies creation, construction and development of knowledge, in order to encourage innovation. It is working on solving unique and complex problems, that is, where outcome is not predetermined. In this process the differences between students and educators concern the experience and theoretical knowledge. The individual and team work are encouraged. Individual work is related to creative input, especially in the phase of concepts creation, as well as to motivation for work, whereby design is seen as a competition (Anthony, 1991). The goal of group work is to encourage collaboration, that is, group learning and designing, during which students “create and share knowledge, and invent new design solutions” (Cramer, 2011). The objective of group work is also to prepare students for practice, given that effective architectural practices are associated with the culture of teamwork and collaboration (Nicol and Pilling, 2000). In this process it is important to avoid “one-sided thinking” trough more emotional experience throughout the act of design. The educators should allow the felt world to infiltrate and if necessary disturb the architectural know-how (Levitt, 2007). In addition, bearing in mind that new forms of knowledge should be to developed, education should primarily “develop judgment rather than to package up knowledge” (Hughes, 2003). It is necessary to develop critical thinking directed to multidisciplinary optimization of design solutions. Students should critically rethink design situation, not just to accumulate knowledge and information.

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Integrative approach to architecture Design of buildings in function of achievement of ecological quality is the design according to requirements that building as a whole need to comply, based on targeted integrated building performances during its life cycle. It is process in which the requirements for performances are translated and integrated in building solution (Spekkink, 2005). Integrated project objectives derived from indicators of ecological quality 85 become the basis for the design. The key issues to be considered during the design are related to the environmental protection, with special emphasis on harmful emissions, energy efficiency and materials and waste; the social benefits for building users, with special emphasis on protection and safety, comfort, spatial organization, space adaptability, maintenance and visual stimulation; and economic benefits for building users, with special emphasis on operating and maintenance costs, building's usefulness and financial affordability (Nenadović, 20014). The integrated design is based on the principle of contextuality, which implies that any solution results from its inherent set of parameters. In addition to the integrated project objectives, which can be considered global, the outcome will be affected by conditions of the local environment, which may be interpreted as limitation, but also as potentials (Nenadović, 2014). In this context, the work in design studio should be based on solving real-world problems. In the process of architectural education integrated design should encourage the development of system thinking, through research strategies that cross the boundaries of individual disciplines, and also to develop individuals who are sensitive to the environment and capable of designing and transforming the world on the basis of this sensitivity (Incedayi, 2005). The aim is to move from designing “objects” to designing “relationships” (Reed, 2006). In that context, design educators must teach in ways that foster a more synthetic, concurrent, and dynamic integration of design issues, with a constant awareness that design is “creative activity, involving imagination, intuition and deliberate choice” (Arup and Partners, 1986).

Multidisciplinary approach Integrated design is a holistic approach, which requires systemic thinking and continuous interaction between all participants in the design process. It is based on a multidisciplinary team whose members make decisions together in accordance with a common vision and a holistic understanding of the project (Ritchie, 1995). Complete design team is involved in the design process from the beginning, allowing early changes and improvements. In this process the architect becomes a strategic organizer of multiple, often disparate forms of knowledge and processes (Moe, 2008). However, in schools of architecture supremacy still belongs to individual (Nicol and Pilling, 2000), which does 85 Ecological quality can be interpreted as the extent to which performances of the building meet the needs and expectations of its users, which refer to social and economic well-being achieved with simultaneous protection and improvement of the environment throughout the life cycle of the building (Nenadović, 2014).

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not prepare students to real conditions in architectural practice, where they will face with the role of integrator (Worthington and Orbasli, 1996). In terms of educational requirements, it becomes increasingly important to train architects to work collaboratively and effectively with many other professionals in the building process. Various subjects should be included in the curriculum, which gives the opportunity to explore the different dimensions of the design process. Students from other disciplines should come to the studio, working side by side on the same project (Lehmann, 2006), with the participation of educators and experts from different fields, thus making a multidimensional approach the focal point of education. Educational institutions should develop common interdisciplinary platforms using new technologies and media. New dynamics developed through interdisciplinary dialogue could contribute in a fundamental way to the educational process (Incedayi, 2005).

Integrated design process In order to simulate integrated practice, students of architecture and other engineering disciplines need to work together in a studio on a project that is "real world problem". All indicators of sustainability should be analyzed through collaboration. Collaboration among students is encouraged from the very beginning, in order to blur the boundaries between disciplines and to assure the transfer of information and knowledge, that is, to provide relevant inputs. The educators from various faculties, as well as experts from practice for each individual field, are included in the work in studio. The objectives and outcomes for each subgroup of students are defined, in order to minimize unwanted omissions. The process takes place through the design charrette, that is, through focused and collaborative brainstorming sessions that encourages an exchange of ideas and information and allows truly integrated design solutions to take form. All participants are encouraged to cross fertilize and address problems beyond their field of expertise. Architectural educators and students of architecture are facilitators of all knowledge in this process. The phases of the process are:

•

Research of literature and analysis of project examples and realized buildings - critical rethinking of examples from the architectural practise derived from the process of integrated design.

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Simultaneous consideration of the potentials and limitations of the environment in which the building is implemented and the integrated project objectives.

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Work on the creation of concepts that takes place through collaborative brainstorming sessions.

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Nonlinear, iterative design of the building that takes place through critical debates between all the participants in the design process, with the aim to achieve adequate building performances.

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Evaluation of the solution from the standpoint of all participants in the design process and final corrections - performances evaluation - evaluation is based on an aggregation of fact and value judgments. Page | 412


APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACH AT FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE The presented innovative educational model, that should address new reality, is partially applied within the studies of architecture at University of Belgrade. In the course “Studio project – Project development” two fields of research are integrated within the studio, the field of architecture and the field of structural engineering, with the participation of educators from individual disciplines. The outcomes are wider knowledge base, greater understanding of the problems of individual disciplines, as well as greater ability to integrate acquired knowledge in practice, through simultaneous development of students' and educators' creativity. This model is becoming more common in extracurricular students' activities, through full integration of all disciplines involved in the process of building design. An example is common work of students from different faculties, educators from different disciplines and experts from practice on development of project for the Solar Decathlon Middle East 2018, through the implementation of an integrated, multidisciplinary approach to design. The examples of application of integrated approach to education of architects and engineers are still fragmentary, given the fact that systemic reform of the educational process is lengthy and complex process. INTEGRATED APPROACH'S POTENTIALS AND LIMITATIONS The potentials of the presented educational model: •

Creation of new knowledge and widening of the research base, as a result of integration and synergy of topics and disciplines in the framework of the design studio.

•

Development of students' creativity, considering the new requirements that lead to non-standard solutions, that is, focus on intuition and imagination which are the basis of this type of design.

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Development of students' ability to solve specific real-world problems, and thus their greater ability to work in architectural practice, as a result of the integration of theoretical knowledge, research and practical work in the framework of the design studio.

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Development of students' ability for collaboration and knowledge transfer, as a result of early involvement of different disciplines in the design process and teamwork on solving design problems.

The limitations of the presented educational model (which should be overcomed):

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Educators are narrowly specialized which makes their transition to system thinking harder. They should be further educated and trained. During the model implementation, improvements in educators' approach to design are expected, that is, further development of system thinking during the process of integrated design in studio.

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The current design process is mostly based on a linear approach, in which the architect through individual work produces the solution, while other participants take part in later design stage, that is, in the phase of project development. This ingrained way of designing represents a constraint for architectural educators and for educators from other disciplines, given that new design process implies collaboration of all parties from the very beginning. During the model implementation, gradual adaptation of educators to a new work model that integrated design implies is expected.

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The presented educational model implies continuing education of all educators, which should be institutionally provided and which should give the access to the new current knowledge in the field of sustainable construction.

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The implementation of presented model implies development of common interdisciplinary platforms for exchange and integration of information and knowledge.

•

Multidisciplinary optimization implies development of methods for efficient transfer of data between disciplines, related to the achieved building performances, in function of their evaluation. It is necessary to develop building modelling methods, which should be based on related models of different disciplines. A particular challenge concerns the development of efficient simulation tools for modelling and analysis, which integrate different physical phenomena.

•

One of the key limits to the implementation of presented educational model in the regular classes is the current mode of organization of universities and individual faculties related to the process of building design. It can be noted that there is a low level of cooperation and insufficient knowledge exchange. In order to implement the presented innovative educational model, it is necessary to reform the existing plans and programs at individual faculties, as part of a joint reformation which will include harmonization of objectives and expected outcomes of teaching, coordination of teaching hours fund and allocation, as well as provision of necessary space and equipment.

CONCLUSIONS The presented innovative educational model is based on work in studio, integrative and multidisciplinary approach to architecture and integrated design process. The main goal within this model is to train students of architecture and engineering for optimisation of the design solution based on multiples analysis of many aspects of ecological quality, through application of research strategies that cross the boundaries of the individual disciplines, as well as through study of the problem of system-building from the perspective of different interactively connected disciplines. The model relies on holistic view on design, where education, research and practice are integrated into a single process within which critical thinking is encouraged, based on assumptions and questions concerning the finding of many

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES possible solutions. The complex nature of this type of design leads to widening of the knowledge base and scientific interpretation of the research field of architecture at the contact areas of research. The integrated design should enable students to comprehend the complex interdependences of multiple aspects in the field of architecture directed towards achieving the ecological quality of buildings. It should also enable deeper and fuller understanding of complexity and plurality of responses in the area of architecture directed towards the sustainability.

REFERENCES Al-Qawasmi, J. and G. V. Velasco. 2006. Editors’ Preface. In Changing Trends in Architectural Design Education, The International Conference of the center for the Study of Architecture in the Arab Region, edited by J. Al-Qawasmi and G. Velasco. Anthony, K. 1991. Juries on trial: Analysis and critique of design juries and studios. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Arup, Ove & Partners. 1986. Ove Arup and Partners: 1946-1986. London: St. Martin’s Press. Birkeland, Janis. 2002. Design for Sustainability: A Sourcebook of Integrated Eco-logical Solutions. London: Earthscan. Boyer, E., and Mitgang, L. 1996. Building community: A new future for architectural education and practice. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Cramer, J. 2011. Fostering Better Schools, Challenging Conventions. DesignIntelligence. Devon, R. et al. 2004. “Integrated Design: What Knowledge is of Most Worth in Engineering Design Education?“. International Journal of Engineering Education, 20(3): 424-432. Guzowski, M. 2011. “The next generation of architectural education: integrating a regenerative approach to sustainabile design.“ In Proceedings of the American Solar Energy Society National Solar Conference, 764-771. Hughes, W., 2003. “De-Professionalised, Automated Construction Procurement.” In The Professional’s Choice: The Future of the Built Environment Professions, edited by Foxell . London: Building Futures. Incedayi, D. 2005. “Architect as a facilitator. The Changing Education (of Architecture).“ In Writings in architectural education, edited by Ebbe Harder. Copenhagen : EAAE c2005. Lehmann, S. 2006. “Rethinking the Design Studio: Art+Architecture - a Case Study of Collaboration in an Interdisciplinary Context.“ In Changing Trends in Architectural Design Education, edited by Al-Qawasmi, J. and Vasquez De Velasco, 91–106. Morocco: Center for the Study of Architecture in the Arab Region. Levitt, A. 2007. The Inner Studio: A Designers Guide to the Resources of the Psyche. Riverside: Architectural Press.

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Lueth P. L. O. 2008. The architectural design studio as a learning environment: a qualitative exploration of architecture design student learning experiences in design studios from first- through fourth-year. Doctoral dissertation, Iowa State University. McQuillan, T. 2005. “Informed Architecture: Three Tensions.“ In Writings in architectural education, edited by Ebbe Harder. Copenhagen : EAAE c2005. Moe, Kiel. 2008. Integrated Design in Contemporary Architecture. NewYork: Princeton Archi. Press. Nenadović, A. 2014. Integrisano projektovanje konstruktivnih sistema zasnovanih na primeni ferocementa. Doctoral dissertation, University of Belgarde. Nicol, D. and Pilling, S. 2000. “Architectural education and the profession – Preparing for the future.” In Changing Architectural Education: Towards a New Professionalism, edited by David Nicol and Simon Pilling, 1-21. Radivojević, A., Ćuković Ignjatović, N. and Nedić, M. 2010. “Ekološki aspekti građenja kao okosnica studentskih projekata.” In Instalacije & Arhitektura 2010, edited by G. Ćosić. Belgrade: University of Belgrade – Faculty of architecture. Reed, B. 2006. “The Trajectory of Environmental Design.“ Integrative Design Collaborative. Inc., Regenesis, Inc., and IDP, Inc. Ritchie, I. 1995. “Synthetic Thinking between Engineers, Architects and Developers.“ In Redefining the Design Team. Cambridge: Interdisciplinary Design for the Built Environment. Sorvig, K. 2005. “Virtual and Real: Teaching the Paradoxes of Design.“ In Writings in architectural education, edited by Ebbe Harder. Copenhagen : EAAE c2005. Spekkink, D. 2005. Performance Based Design of Buildings. PeBBu DOMAIN 3 Final Report. Rotterdam. Working Group for Sustainable Construction. 2001. Competitiveness of the Construction Industry: An agenda for sustainable construction in Europe. Worthington, J. and A. Orbasli. 1996. “The Assessment of the Role of Practice Architectural Education: A European Comparison.“ 84th ACSA Annual Meeting. PRACTICE: 330-337. University of York.

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EVALUATION OF WALL THERMAL PERFORMANCE FOR VEGETATION WALL Dr Budimir Sudimac 86 University of Balgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia [email protected] Andjela Dubljević University of Balgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia [email protected] ABSTRACT Application of vegetation walls is not a new concept in the realization of facade layer. The integration of vegetation in architectural objects can be a viable approach for the implementation of the facade of new and existing facilities. The vegetation walls are one of the more innovative and developed concepts of green building technology. This fact is based on the original scale buildings with vegetation walls that contribute in improving the overall design performance of buildings and become a significant factor in the process of improving the thermal characteristics of the buildings. This paper explored the potential of new technologies in the realization of vegetation walls in architectural buildings, their thermal characteristics and design potential of the building envelope in the climatic conditions of Belgrade. Research has shown that the application of the proposed design principles vegetation walls may be successful project solutions applied to the building envelope in the climatic conditions of Belgrade. The thesis provides an overview of technical innovations that can be applied in the design process to minimize thermal effects on objects. The study confirmed the possibility of improving the thermal facility by using vegetation wall as the building envelope.

Keywords: Vegetation wall, technology, design, energy performance

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MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING PROJECT - Facility relaying on energy efficient technologies in order to prevent abandonment and decay of rural communities in Vojvodina Jovana Stanišić Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad , Trg Dositej Obradovic 6, [email protected]

ABSTRACT For more than two decades, villages in Vojvodina are exposed to decay, as more of young people are turning to the city and urban lifestyle, looking for more comfortable working conditions in non-agricultural activities. Therefore, there is a potential risk of complete disappearance of rural areas in Vojvodina. These villages, along with its unique rural architecture, represent the identity of the area, therefore with their disappearance Vojvodina would lose its identity. Since the agriculture is the main source of income in rural areas, but also in the whole country, leaving villages greatly negatively affects the further development of economy in Serbia. Aim of this project is to stop degradation of villages in Vojvodina and prevent further departure of young people by giving them new opportunities to live and work here. This will only be possible in rural areas where will come to reconciliation between rural and urban, or where it will be established an urban-rural synergy. The MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING project is a project of a new type of facility in villages which would serve for work using modern technologies of energy-efficient construction. Simultaneously placing the production, processing and consumption of one certain agricultural product in such facility, work in agriculture would be greatly simplified. With the construction of more such facilities, the village would be "urbanized" in a certain way and approached to the urban lifestyle. Also, it would provide the new possibilities of employment for the young rural population. The project MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING represents an attempt to improve economic and social situation in villages of Vojvodina. Within this paper the project of MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING was presented with an explanation of its construction, operation, implementation of energy efficient principles and system functioning of several such facilities within a single rural community. Keywords: Rural areas, Vojvodina, Energy efficiency, Monoculture factory building

INTRODUCTION

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES More than a half of the total population of Vojvodina lives in cities today, although almost 90% of its territory are villages. Population censuses which have been conducted within last few years reveal a constant decrease of rural population in the region. The results from two last censuses only show how fast the situation in rural areas has been changing, indicating a possibility of their complete abandonment. In 2002, the rural population of Vojvodina comprised 43.27% of the total population, and in 2011 this number was already reduced to 40.64%. The abandonment of agriculture, as well as increasing urbanization and industrialization of cities, inevitably entails depopulation of rural areas. Although agriculture has always been one of the main economic activities and sources of income in Vojvodina, the population engaged in this activity today is minimal, only 8,08%, as opposed to 51.7%, which was the agricultural population of Vojvodina in 1961. These facts suggest the need to take urgent steps for saving villages. Despite numerous studies that have been dealing with this subject, a unique strategy that would solve this problem and which would make rural areas better and more desirable places to live, has not been established yet. The need to incorporate environmental protection and application of sustainable development principles in new directions of agricultural and rural policy is growing. Agriculture is an activity that requires consumption of large amounts of energy, so the rationality of its production and consumption has a major influence on economic development and improvement of rural areas. Without agriculture and economic stability, rural communities decline. "A village is a socio-spatial community, a human settlement, with a specific sociological (rural) structure and the corresponding (rural) development where inhabitants lead a specific way of life."

Mitrovic M.: Rural Sociology, Sociological Association of Serbia, 1998 Certain sociological characteristics and behavioural patterns that are typical for traditional rural society in Vojvodina, like the stability of relations, unity and equality, represent one of the greatest values of this area, raising its significance to a higher level. By moving to cities people have lost their social relations which represented an important support for them while they lived in villages. The identity of Vojvodina is defined by its rural communities and the unique rural architecture. If these local communities disappear, Vojvodina will lose its identity. It is necessary to find a way to reconcile the traditional and the modern (urban) in rural areas, examine the old problem of relations between villages and towns in a new light of modern society. This paper presents a Monoculture factory project that will establish a rural-urban synergy by making the rural communities sustainable and more advanced places to live. In order to obtain a good quality of life, organization of these facilities is in accordance with the needs of the local rural population.

"MONOCULTURE FACTORY BUILDING" PROJECT

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The project presented here focuses on the construction of a building as a new type of facility in rural areas of Vojvodina. By "urbanizing" villages, these buildings stimulate their growth, improve the economic situation, but at the same time preserve their tradition and maintain social communities. The facility, called “Monoculture factory building”, involves the production, processing and selling of one specific agricultural product at the same time. All three phases of the agricultural goods life cycle are carried out within the building and the order of these phases is organized according to the levels of the facility, so that the life cycle of the culture and the building make an inseparable union. That’s why the priority is given to the production of agricultural goods within the boundaries of monoculture factories, instead of using the land. There would be several facilities of that kind built in one village and each of them would enable the production of a certain type of agricultural product. Each of these buildings functions as a small factory in rural areas. Monoculture factories are designed with a possibility to apply the principles of energy-efficient construction.

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF THE BUILDING Functional Organization of the Facility The Monoculture factory building is designed and functionally organized in such a way that it fully meets the needs of production, processing and selling of goods. The ground floor of the building is divided into three sectors. The processing of products is carried out in the factory lab in the last part of the ground floor, while the part of the ground floor which is oriented toward the street is reserved for the restaurant-exhibition space and mobile containers that serve as stands for the sale of products. Facades of this part of the building are fully made of glass in order to promote products in the hours when the market is closed. Passers-by can see exhibited products on the shelves of the stands and the restaurant through the glass. At the time when the market is open, cubes are taken out of the facility, unfolded and placed on the inner part of the plot (Figure 1). The indoor part of the first floor is a space for the processing of products, factory lab, while the open terrace is a garden for the production of a specific plant (Figure 2). The last (second) floor of the facility is also divided into two parts: the factory lab and terrace garden for production. Solar collectors and panels are installed on the roof of the second floor (Figure 4). The simple shape and design of the facility allow for its expansion or increasing the square footage of its surfaces to the depth of the plot and in the height, with an aim of getting larger production areas in case it needs to produce more plants. The building is designed according to the principle of modules that can, if necessary, easily be "reproduced" without violations of its construction and function.

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Figure 1: Ground floor function

Figure 2: First floor function

Figure 3: Legend

Figure 4: Second floor function

System functioning The most difficult thing for young people in Serbia today is to find a job. Employment of young rural population in these new facilities in a village gives them an opportunity to get a job, to learn activities related to production, processing and sale of agricultural products and later on to become independent and start manufacturing within their own households. New young people would come to take their place afterwards and so the whole process of "a social program" would be rounded: employment, training and independence. In order to ensure that the project is successful, different key players should be engaged: experts in production and processing of planned cultures. Young people are the ones who are currently employed and trained, but later on, when they start an independent manufacture, other family members would also be hired. This way the problem of unemployment of rural population in general is solved, regardless of the age of participants. In order to simplify the whole process of production and processing, the plan is to have a number of such facilities in one village, with only one crop (e.g.: peppers, tomatoes, cucumbers, various spices...) produced within each of them. The monoculture system makes it easier for employees to master one particular job and to specialize and really learn about the production process of one product. This system allows for easier equipping of the space for processing cultures because the purchase is done for the equipment and technology for the processing of only one product, as each plant is not processed in the same way. Although it is only one culture that is produced inside the building, the processing would yield a variety of products. For example, the following products can be made from peppers: fresh peppers, chutney, dried peppers, spices, etc. At the end, these manufactured products are being sold on the "markets" that are organized on the ground floor of these buildings. Money that is earned from the sale is again invested in production and processing, and so the whole system becomes sustainable.

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Production, Processing, Promotion and Sale The production of agricultural crops takes place in the context of green roofs and vertical gardens of a terraced facility. The building is terraced so that the roof area would be as large as possible and in this way we would utilize the maximum of production space. In addition to excellent thermal insulation, the installation of extensive green roofs in these facilities allows the cultivation of various plants and agricultural products of low growth whose processing would be conducted in the building. Green roofs and vertical gardens are organized on terraces of buildings, oriented to the south, and are situated within glasshouses. In order to save electricity for heating and lighting, glasshouses are built with reflective surfaces. Reflective surfaces are the cheapest source of energy, and in addition to thermal radiation, they reflect light as well. For faster growth and maturation of plants, a reflective surface is attached to a glasshouse. The thermal effect is achieved by less dissipation of heat on the north side because of reflective surfaces installed, and in addition to that, insulation is doubled in the cheapest way. Each green terrace has its own heating and led lighting system providing optimal farming during winter months. The processing part of the building with the necessary equipment for manufacturing and packaging the products is located under the production areas. This part is called Factory Lab and it occupies the enclosed spaces of the building. The processing of products is not a "wholesale" because it is still a small production area. The promotion of manufactured and processed products is carried out in a restaurant that is organized as a part of the ground floor. The restaurant is intended for potential customers to become familiar with the primary and secondary processed products. This area functions as exhibition space. It is possible to organize festivals, which will draw attention to a specific plant. These festivals would attract many tourists and residents of neighbouring villages. The sale of raw, finished and processed products is carried out in the context of the last part of the plot where, at a certain part of the day, the so-called market is organized. The stands on which the products are presented on the market are cube-movable containers that are "pulled out" from the building. These movable containers are an integral part of the ground floor of the facility, but not a necessary part of the building because the skeletal system of the construction allows the facility to be maintained without them. Each container is a functionally independent unit for itself. Their mobility allows them to be "pulled out" of the building to the inside of the plot where they unfold and set so they become sale stands at the market (Figure 5). In the hours when the market is closed, cubes are drawn to the ground floor of the building where they fit perfectly so they become a part of it and then the facility is "closed" toward the street which ensures its privacy. When the market is open, the part of the ground floor, which is designed for cubes, becomes an open, fluid area which allows visitors access to the market from the street. Containers are assembled within the last part of the plot so as to allow for the maximum use of the area to display as many products as possible.

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Figure 5: Unfolding system of the cubes

Applied Principles Monoculture factories are designed with a possibility to apply the principles of energy-efficient construction including the installation of a system for producing electricity, solar collectors and panels, rainwater collection systems, vertical gardens, green roofs, etc. Solar panels that produce and provide the whole building with sufficient energy for heating and cooling are set at the top of the building, on the last terrace, and are oriented to the south in order to have the greatest possible gain from solar radiation. The building has the system for collecting rain water and waste water from the factory which provides water for irrigation of green roofs and vertical gardens as well as the water used in toilets (Figure 6).

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Figure 6: Section with applied principles

Orientation The facility has favourable orientation. The roof, vertical gardens and solar panels are oriented towards the south resulting in good day lighting and solar radiation gain is available throughout the whole year. The east side of the building is provided with movable sun breakers on the windows and glass surfaces as prevention of overheating of rooms oriented to this side. The east side has good morning lighting and heat gains during this period which may be a problem in the summer when overheating may occur. The west side also has sun breakers on the windows to prevent overheating in the afternoon during the summer period. The north side of the building will not have enough daylight during the whole year so on this side the ancillary rooms of the factory are oriented and the trees are planted in the front of this area to ensure protection from cold winds in winter.

Environment of the Building The form of the building can be rectangular in the plan or in the form of the capital letter L in order to fit the environment of villages in Vojvodina whose plots are conceptualized in a specific way. The first possible version (Figure 7) is that the plan of the facility is rectangular and pulled to one side of the plot, with the front facade facing the street. This is one of the oldest types of housing organization in Vojvodina villages, so the building, in this case, would completely fit the environment. However, with this kind of organization the privacy of the facility would not be preserved. The second version (Figure 8) is that the plan of the building is in the form of the capital letter L, with the shorter side

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES facing the street, which is also one of the oldest principles of organization of the housing in rural areas of this region. This version would be more favourable for the organization of the planned facility. By closing the plot toward the street, the privacy of the building and the market in the back of the plot is preserved. For these reasons, the plan of the new facility-factory is organized in accordance with the second variant shown. Also, in case larger production and sales areas are needed, it is possible to connect two neighbouring plots which would make the building plan in the form of the capital letter T, multiplying the module of the facility form (Figure 9).

Figure 7: Version 1

Figure 8: Version 2

Figure 9: Version 3

IMPLEMENTATION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT This project represents an opportunity for saving villages in Vojvodina and preventing further departure of people from these areas. It is a strategy that implies modernization of technology and equipment in agricultural production with the rational and efficient use of energy. Construction of several such facilities in one village in Vojvodina facilitates the work of the rural population, creates new job positions and changes the rural tradition and an established rule that land in villages is only for work and not buildings. It gives an opportunity to the rural population to transit from agricultural land to man-made facilities and employment in them, this being one of the reasons for them leaving and moving to cities. It could be said that the village is "urbanized" in a certain way and becomes "closer” to the city and urban lifestyle. In this way, the project offers reconciliation between the traditional and the modern and establishes a synergy of the rural and the urban. The disappearance of previous forms of villages does not necessarily mean the destruction of cultural models that rural areas have created through history. Cherishing rural traditions and customs is also possible in a new form of a rural settlement. With the implementation of this project and establishing the presented system of organization of work in villages, we preserve traditional local rural communities from decline but in a new form that is in accordance with the conditions of modern society, considering the needs of local population. Taking into account conditions of local environment during construction of these facilities and without compromising traditional architecture and urbanity of rural areas, the identity of Vojvodina is preserved.

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CONCLUSIONS

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Figure 10, 11, 12: 3D model project views

Abandonment of rural areas represents a current problem for the entire world. People are increasingly turning to cities and metropolitan lifestyle under the influence of modern urban processes. "Monoculture factory building" is an attempt to improve the economic and social situation, not only in villages of Vojvodina, but also in the entire country, since agricultural production which always takes place within the boundaries of rural settlements is an activity which is one of the primary sources of income in Serbia. The use of renewable resources as an energy source has a significant meaning for the organization of work and improvement of comfort and quality of life in rural areas, and it can also be an important element of their development, which would encourage migrated population to return. Although the cost of construction of low energy buildings is higher by about 10% compared to the conventional construction, long-term and permanent savings in energy consumption make it a better and a less expensive option.

REFERENCES Book: Farming the city: food as a tool for today's urbanisation, Cities Magazine and Trancity, Netherlands, 2013. Kostres M.: Urban-rural connections and relationships between settlements, PhD thesis, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, 2012. Mitrovic M.: Rural Sociology, Sociological Association of Serbia, 1998. Milkovic V.: Ecological houses, TIM-NT '90, Novi Sad, 1991. Pusic Lj.: City, Society, Space: sociology of the city, the Institute for books and teaching resources, 1997. The Census of Population, Republic Institute for Statistics, Serbia, 2011. Journal article: Jones L.W.: The hinterland reconsidered American sociological review, vol.20, no. 1, 1955 Internet source: www.ekokuce.com www.scribd.com

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NEGOTIATING SUSTAINABILITY IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF TECHNICAL BUILDING EQUIPMENT AT DAS ECKWERK, BERLIN Benjamin Scheerbarth 87 Eckwerk Entwicklungs GmbH, Holzmarktstr. 25, 10243 Berlin, Germany, [email protected] Eva Vaništa Lazarević Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Beograd, Serbia, [email protected] ABSTRACT Whether or not the buzz is justified, the technophilic concept of the smart city and its promise of unprecedented resource efficiency became the central urban paradigm of today. However, with a few notable exceptions - mostly in the form of prestigious smart or green buildings - the day-to-day praxis of local urban development carries forward its struggle to negotiate the expectations of the triple bottom line. While the advancement of eco-innovative technologies outpaces itself, the way buildings are planned, built, used and demolished has not changed significantly in recent history. Drawing on experiences from the planning of Das Eckwerk, a major bottom-up urban development initiative in Berlin, it is suggested that the bottleneck to sustainable urban development is not a lack of innovative technology but rather the linearity of value chains in real estate and architecture, which often disincentivize the most sensible solutions. With a focus on technical building equipment, this paper reports on the lessons learned of ‘developers by circumstance’ in quest of enabling investment and innovation. In line with the intellectual lineage of the performance economy, the adopted approach at Das Eckwerk is outlined in four stages: (a) a contextual analysis of locally available resources and capacities, (b) the reversal of the demand and supply logic, (c) a recognition of technologies in their life cycles of innovation, and (d) the early involvement of manufacturers in the planning process. Lastly, the structural implications this approach might entail, including a shift in professional roles from producers to service providers, are outlined. Keywords: sustainable urban development, performance economy, technical building equipment, case study

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INTRODUCTION Technology and the messy reality of local urban development Whether or not the buzz is justified, the technophilic concept of the smart city and its promise of unprecedented (resource) efficiency became the central paradigm of present-day urban development politics. Cities have begun to deploy innovative technologies, sensing, regulating and monitoring their activities and flows - from energy to traffic. Simply put, we are heading towards urban space “at the convergence of bits and atoms” (Ratti & Claudel, 2016, p. 162). At the opposite end of the scale, an increasing number of smart and green buildings see the light of day - some of which deploying a vast array of the latest technologies (BIM, IoT, patch cabel-LED, DC, PV, CHP, etc.). 88 However, with a few notable exceptions, the vast majority of local urban development projects carries forward a struggle to depart from conventionality and to negotiate the expectations of the triple bottom line. 89 While the advancement of innovative technologies outpaces itself, the way buildings are planned, built, used and demolished has not changed significantly in recent history. Criticism comes even from within the industry, “We are still building as if it were the Stone Age” (Rhomberg, 2015, p. 55). What are the reasons for this apparent contradiction? Cuttingedge technologies being purchased and deployed either city-wide or building-specific on the one hand and ancient construction methods and the sheer number of unoriginal urban development projects on the other. Neither technology itself not a lack of availability seem to be the limiting factor. A possible answer to this discrepancy might lie in the nature of the in-between scale of most urban development projects; a scale which is complicated, messy, and usually dependent on lengthy negotiations between many actors (of various positions from various fields). With a multitude of stakeholders come multiple interpretations of what sustainability refers to (i.e. different understandings of that, which should be sustained): profitability for manufacturers, developers, and financiers, environmental sustainability for idealists and conformists, affordability for future users and tenants, conformity and replicability for administrative and municipal staff, etc. Recognizing obstacles to the implementation of eco-innovative technologies and circular economy solutions, the EU recently established the pilot program Innovation Deals, whereby firms facing disincentivizing regulatory barriers are invited to chime in on legislative reform. 90 However, based on the practical experiences with the planning of Das Eckwerk, Abbreviations stand for Building Information Modeling, Internet of Things, patch cable-controlled LED lighting, direct current, photovoltaics, combined heat and power. 89 While the widespread adoption of sustainability as one of the most dominant post-war visions reaches back to the 1972 Stockholm Declaration, its broadening into the concept of the Triple Bottom Line (environmental, social, financial) is attributable to social entrepreneur John Elkington (1994). 90 The Government of the Netherlands had previously launched a similar program by the name of Green Deals with the aim of removing regulatory barriers for local sustainable projects. 88

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES the single biggest obstacle seems to be neither the availability of relevant technologies nor the presence of regulatory barriers but rather, as the next chapter shows, the linearity of value chains in architecture, real estate, and urban development.

A brief introduction to Das Eckwerk, Berlin The recently opened Holzmarkt quarter, of which Das Eckwerk will be the northern neighbor, is a unique example of bottom-up urbanism in the center of a major Western capital. In a 2012 open tender, and to the great surprise of all parties involved, the city accepted the bid of a community of friends, who proposed an alternative to the priory envisioned glass-and-steel office development so typical of recent projects in the area: a self-sustaining urban village based on creative and cultural production. Importantly, the acceptance is not only attributable to the newly-formed cooperative having offered the highest nominal price 91 but also to their willingness and ability to solve long-standing disputes associated with the land in question. Das Eckwerk, a building complex of 40.000 m2 GFA, is conceived to become an affordable place for students and entrepreneurs to work and live temporarily. Its idea is born out of an observed discrepancy between the reality of student and start-up life and local planning law. Students either live in dorms or in (arguably gentrifying) flat shares, neither of which encourage (let alone permit) a start-up life. Although Das Eckwerk dramatically contrasts the Holzmarkt village with its massing, it is equally ambitious to set new standards for property development; especially in the fields of user-centric development, sustainable construction methods and planning regulation. This five-part paper focuses solely on the topic of technical building equipment. The second chapter recounts our lessons learned and introduces what we came to identify as the critical issue. The third part then situates the practical reflections in their intellectual tradition and wider context. Chapter four describes the ambition and approach we are following at Das Eckwerk. The fifth and last part then outlines some structural implications of said approach and comments on the wider applicability of this experience report. We should emphasize that we are no typical project developers, no architects, let alone consultants for technical building equipment. Rather, the reflections on common practice, the lessons learned, and the adopted approach are results of ‘developers by circumstance’ asking naive questions. Regarding technical building equipment, the guiding question has always been, “What kind of energyconsuming technology does one need to create which kind of spaces?”

REFLECTIONS ON COMMON PRACTICE 91

More precisely, Swiss pension fund Stiftung Abendrot purchased the land and granted the Holzmarkt team leasehold rights.

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Absurdity of linear value chains In quest of identifying good practice in the field of sustainable development, we noticed a tendency of convenience: a narrow and inward focus of property development. Among other projects, we visited Elbarkaden, a 2013 addition to Hamburg’s HafenCity and headquarter of Greenpeace Germany. Developed by Green Office Development, the double-gold-certified building complex is lauded for its use of highly efficient energy solutions including photovoltaics, pellet stove, geothermal energy, ground source heat pumps, and rooftop wind turbines. While all these technologies are commonly understood as ‘being sustainable,’ we noticed that many HafenCity projects were conceived of, designed, and developed in isolation. Developers were wearing convenient blinders, forgoing potential synergies and efficiencies of scale, which may offer more efficient results at lower cost. We further stumbled upon the absence of LED lighting at Elbarkaden, a technology we had expected to be a staple. The wind turbines were on hold, too; apparently due to high maintenance costs. Lamenting in luxury? Maybe. What these observations allude to, however, are unexpected results of conforming to linear value chains in property development. When researching high-rise office developments, we learned about another trend: demolition over renovation. A significant number of high-rise office towers are torn down instead of upgraded, often years before their theoretical end of life. A study by real estate investment management company Jones Lang LaSalle (2014) analyzing the situation in Frankfurt/Main (Germany’s high-rise capital) confirms that the average lifetime of a highrise office tower is between 30 and 35 years and thus considerably less than its constructive use life. In the study span between 1988 and 2014, out of 90 towers, ten were demolished and 35 renovated. Reminiscent of mobile phones’ inbuilt obsolescence, ways must be found to facilitate and incentivize the upgrading of technical building equipment. Two years into the planning process of Das Eckwerk, we learned of yet another tendency: peak-demand driven overequipping and oversupply. Before accepting the preliminary design stage as submitted by architects and technical consultants, we took the time to re-examine whether the proposed plan was still in line with its founding objectives, e.g. a decidedly low-tech approach. We concluded that it was not and consequently adjusted the design so that the necessary technical space got halved despite almost identical program and floor area. If these adjustments are valid (as all parties have now verified), why were they not proposed earlier? Part of the answer might be the direct correlation of fees to overall project cost. The more expensive the project, the higher the revenues of architects and technical consultants. For another example, we had entered a partnership with a green energy provider to identify the most sustainable solution for district-wide energy supply. Conflicts of interest arose quickly since the client (us) aimed at higher resource efficiency while the provider was caught in a calculus of economic optimization, which rewards the sale of maximum volumes. Schmidt-Bleek puts it as good as many others, “only those who conserve resources can be truly green” (2015, p. 210). Need for new business models

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Innovative technology has undoubtedly a vital role to play in the design and creation of sustainable places. Based on above experiences, however, we find ourselves in an environment, which promotes a number of inhibitive tendencies: maximized resource consumption, inflexible, isolated solutions and technological over-equipping. It is against this background that we had to ask, “What are favorable conditions for the implementation of innovative technologies, where do they make sense, and at what cost?” Arguably the bottleneck to developing smarter, greener and more sustainably is not the availability of innovative technologies but rather the linearity of value chains in urban development, real estate and architecture, which often disincentivize sustainable solutions to be deployed. Consequently, there is a need for new business models, which reverse present day linearity and incentivize circularity. These models need to identify ways to recoup inhibitively high capital outlays necessary for eco-innovative technologies, which currently hinder small and medium-sized manufacturers to bring their technologies to market and which hinder developers to depart from conventional solutions.

INTELLECTUAL ORIGINS AND CONTEXT Early thinkers of performance over product The origins of a performance-oriented economy are rooted in the broader concept of the circular economy, whose first applications to industrial processes (then called closed-loop) date back to the 1960s (e.g. Boulding, 1966; Stahel and Reday, 1976). A good thirty years ago, industrial analyst Walter Stahel began to develop the notion of an economic model, which specifically prioritizes product performance and utilization over the product itself and its production. His theories are referred to as the utilization-oriented economy (1986), the functional economy (2005) or the performance economy (2006, 2010), respectively. The innovators of this new economic model, the “avoidance engineers” (1986, p. 191), recognize that sustainable operations do not continuously increase production volumes but reduce system operation cost over a given system lifespan. Stahel (2005, p. 121) defines the functional economy as one that optimizes the use (or function) of goods and services and thus the management of existing wealth [...]. The economic objective [...] is to create the highest possible use value for the longest possible time while consuming as few material resources and energy as possible. Combining Stahel’s analysis with Womack and Jones’ (1996) waste-reducing business logic of Lean Thinking, management theorists Hawker, Lovins and Lovins (1999) developed a similar concept, the economy of service and flow. Hawker et al. argue that closed loops and greater resource productivity increase service quality for longer periods

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while reducing materials and cost. A point, which gains relevance with shortening product life cycles and rising energy and resource prices. Their message to companies is straightforward (p. 134): Instead of selling the customer a product that you hope she’ll be able to use to derive the service she really wants, provide her that service directly at the rate and in the manner in which she desires it, deliver it ever as efficiently as possible, share as much of the resulting savings as you must to compete, and pocket the rest. What makes these and similar economic strategies compelling is the hope to have found a way to serve all three pillars of sustainability. The strategy of selling and procuring use, performance or results incentivizes and rewards resource productivity for all three sides (Hawken et al., 1999; Stahel, 2005; Russo, 2008). By retaining ownership of the product and providing a service, firms have a strong incentive to invest in innovative technologies, to extend life cycles, to innovate continuously, and to adapt to both changing needs and technological progress. Avoidance pioneers in the field of technical building equipment Long before the European Commission released its Action Plan for the Circular Economy (2015) to help businesses transitioning, early adopters of performance economy principles developed economic models that begin to transcend the distinction between product and service. In 1990s metropolitan France, Hawken et al. report, millions of buildings are heated by chauffagistes, i.e. firms selling warmth instead of oil or gas. Clients pay a certain cost for a certain amount of floorspace to be within a specified temperature range during certain hours. How much materials or energy is used to reach this condition is secondary or even irrelevant to the client. To be sure, the fewer materials and energy is needed to achieve the result, the more profitable the chauffagistes, who are incentivized to invest in more efficient technologies and better building insulation. In contrast to the aforementioned green energy provider, Gothenburg’s municipal utility company recognized, “the most environmentally friendly kilowatt hour is the one that is not used” (Göteborg Energi, 2017). Today, some major utility companies across Europe are providing heat (and increasingly also cooling, ventilation, electricity, and water) in a similar manner. The same logic was applied to the service of coolth by early adopter Carrier, a leading US air-conditioning manufacturer (Russo, 2008). Motivated to capitalize on efficiency and reliability of their products, Carrier first offered to lease coolth as a commodity to its customers while retaining ownership of their machines. In collaboration with other service providers, Carrier later expanded this concept to one of leasing comfort. This conceptual twist allowed traditional manufacturers to have a joint financial interest in upgrading customers’ buildings in a broader sense so that they ultimately consume less energy. To the best of our knowledge, on of our collaborators was among the first to adopt the performance principle to the service of light. Faced with customer difficulties to invest in efficient lighting solutions (despite long-term savings in operating costs), manufacturer and SME Lichträume launched a service in 2010 to provide a certain light quality in

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES certain spaces at certain times. More recently, a collaboration between manufacturer Philips and consultancy Turntoo markets essentially the same model as Pay-per-lux (2017).

STRATEGY AND NEGOTIATION Ambition Emerging out of the experiences with above-described customary practice (and before tracing the intellectual origins of this topic), developed the ambition to enable investment and innovation. This objective hinges first and foremost on the creation of the conditions, in which eco-innovative technologies can materialize while avoiding a narrow focus, which precludes recognizing neighborhood potentials. We thus plan and budget only for strictly necessary technologies (e.g. emergency power system or XFMR) but identify ways to enable investment into innovative technologies (e.g. LED lighting or smart monitoring) outside of conventional cost estimations. Further, close ties to the neighboring Holzmarkt quarter and open communication with project developers of surrounding projects present an opportunity (and perhaps a responsibility) to identify technologies and solutions that benefit from clustering effects extending a single building. For reasons of flexibility in use, affordability, and aesthetic preference, another ambition is to develop a distinctly lowtech building with visible installations. Besides architectural solutions minimizing the need for mechanical ventilation, this enterprise requires engagement with the fundamental question of how we want to live. The decision to radically plan for temporary and affordable living from a user-perspective allows for the exclusion of certain use cases/situations from the outset: individual ownership of energy-intensive appliances (shared freezers and washing machines), a room temperature beyond a reasonable range, or the tactile pleasures of a light switch (mobile switches or automation). Approach In quest of enabling investment and innovation, leveraging neighborhood synergies, and building low-tech, we first embarked on a contextual analysis of locally available resources and capacities; an investigation of the environment, into which we plan to build. Where are we? Who else is here? And, perhaps more importantly, who will be here? As an urban infill project, spearheaded by people who had priorly occupied the plot for interim cultural use, the process was partly intuitive. This analysis helped us, among other things, to better understand the sustainability gradient of certain technologies in given context. For example, the sustainability of a decentralized CHP station graded on a curve may depend on the size of the unit, the cost of land, the proximity to and the kind of alternative sources, etc.

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The wider understanding also proved helpful for the reversal of the demand and supply logic as regards energy provision. Rather than customizing systems and services to meet assumed peak usage requirements of Das Eckwerk, we are working with energy providers, patrons of existing building stock, and fellow project developers to put to good use the amount of energy, which can be optimally produced by a given system. In short, optimal supply defines demand. While heating is the most obvious application for this holistic approach, others services such as cooling and even fire protection (high-pressure water mist systems) can be optimized, too. Further, we recognize technologies in their life cycles of innovation. As has been established earlier, a building’s lifespan is all too often determined by its most vulnerable component - technical equipment. Decoupling the shorter innovation cycles of technology from the longer maintenance cycles of buildings is arguably a precondition for performance-oriented business models to take hold. For example, a leasing contract of mobile lighting units that are independent of switches and miles-long copper cables allows for quick adjustments to kind and intensity of use or for the possibility of upgrading or replacing the units at their end of life. Any of the above benefits from an early involvement of manufacturers, whose products and technologies might set boundary conditions for the planning process. For example, before concluding the preliminary design stage, we decided to deploy capillary tube mats for heat and coolth distribution from a particular manufacturer at an agreedupon price. Not only did this decision contribute to a more reliable cost projection, but it also became a guideline for architects and consultants, who incorporate the system (and its associated digital models) into their planning. The involvement of industrial partners commonly occurs at a stage in which it unavoidably triggers some form of plan adjustment (presumed the developer troubles herself to depart from conventional solutions in the first place). From the architects’ and planners’ perspective, the inclusion of industrial partners and service providers in the design process required getting used to.

CONCLUSIONS Experience gained while analyzing good practice and developing Das Eckwerk led us to believe that radical change towards an eco-innovative revolution in urban development may only be feasible if the inhibitive linearity of relevant value chains is broken. Manufacturers are producing higher qualities and efficiencies whenever the entire product lifecycle lies within their responsibility. Equally, developers invest in higher quality solutions if they find ways to profit off resource savings in the long term. Despite principles of the performance economy gaining traction, they have not yet arrived in the day-to-day operations of our partners. Nonetheless, architects, consultants, manufacturers, and investors involved at Das Eckwerk are receptive to exploring new business models using the project as a large-scale testing ground.

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TOPIC IV: ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES Outsourcing technical building equipment, enabling longer lifecycles, transcending the boundaries between the sale of crude utilities, the provision of services, and the feeling of comfort all entail certain structural changes on the social, cultural and organizational level. The roles we play as producers, service providers, developers, architects, consultants, and consumers are recast. Technology producers take on the responsibilities (and opportunities) of service providers or even investors. Tenants are becoming co-producers, yet need to adopt to predefined frameworks. The challenge is to make the unsustainable uncomfortable. Despite a level of site and context specificity of Das Eckwerk, the questions, lessons and partly precedential solutions being developed here are expected to be of high relevance to urban development projects grappling with issues of profitability, sustainability, and affordability.

REFERENCES Boulding, K. E. (1966). The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth. In H. Jarret (Ed.), Environmental Quality in a Growing Economy, Essays from the Sixth RFF Forum on Environmental Quality (pp. 3-14). Baltimire: The John Hopkins Press. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2013). Towards The Circular Economy: Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition. Göteborg Energi. (2017). Energy Services. Retrieved from http://www.goteborgenergi.se/English/Products/Energy_services Hawken, P., Lovins, A. B., & Lovins, L. H. (1999). Natural Capitalism: The Next Industrial Revolution (2010 revised ed.). London: Earthscan (Routledge). Jones Lang LaSalle. (2014). Abriss nach durchschnittlich 35 Jahren - Lebenszyklen von Frankfurter Bürohochhäusern [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www.jll.de/germany/de-de/presse/1447/lebenszyklen-vonfrankfurter-buerohochhaeusern Philips Lighting. (2017). Nieuwe Businessmodellen voor enn Circulaire Economie. Eindhoven. Ratti, C., & Claudel, M. (2016). Dimensions of the Future City. In O. Nel-lo & R. Mele (Eds.), Cities in the 21st Century: Academic Visions on Urban Development (pp. 162-177). London, New York: Routledge. Rhomberg, H. (2015). Bauen 4.0: From the Ego Principle to the Lego Principle. Hohenems, Vienna, Vaduz: Bucher.

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Russo, M. V. (2008). Environmental Management: Readings and Cases (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Schmidt-Bleek, F. (2015). The Green Truth. In H. Rhomberg (Ed.), Bauen 4.0: From the Ego Principle to the Lego Principle (pp. 208-239). Hohenems, Vienna, Vaduz: Bucher. Stahel, W., & Reday, G. (1976 (1981)). The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy. New York: Vantage Press. Stahel, W. R. (1986). Product Life as a Variable: The Notion of Utilization. Science & Public Policy, 13(4), 185-193. Stahel, W. R. (2005). The Functional Economy: Cultural and Organizational Change. International Journal of Performability Engineering, 1(2), 121-130. Womack, J. P., & Jones, D. T. (2003). Lean Thinking: Banish Waste and Create Wealth in your Corporation (2nd ed.). New York: Free Press (Simon & Schuster).

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE

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WEARABLE DEVICES HELP THE WALKER TO EXPLORE THE CITY Ralf Risser 92 FACTUM OG, 1210 Vienna, Hermann-Bahr Straße 9/11, [email protected] Daniel Bell FACTUM OG, 1210 Vienna, Hermann-Bahr Straße 9/11, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Wearable devices (WD), for example smart-glasses, smart-phones or smart-watches support those who do not sit in cars by providing information and facilitating tasks like orientation, scheduling, ticketing, etc. However, such technological innovation does not work well if it is not well adapted to the users. It is therefore crucial that the development of a new product is based on a sound understanding of customer needs when moving in the public space. The main objective of this study was to provide a knowledge basis concerning the needs of persons outside cars moving about in the city. This knowledge should be made available to software and WD developers, public transport (PT) operators, governmental organisations etc. In order to meet these objectives a literature study, a focus group discussion with potential system users and an expert workshop were conducted in Vienna. This presentation concentrates on the collection of verbal data in focus-group discussions and expert interviews. The target group was composed of citizens with the mentioned function of travellers outside cars, and the afore mentioned experts and stakeholders. Comfort and costs were reported to be the most important aspects for mode selection (e.g. easy access to public transport). The good PT system in Vienna supports mobility without "motor-help", while confusing information or lack of information may be barriers. Real and clear information about costs and handling (e.g. ticketing) should be offered. The potential of a smart-watch with those functions to impact the mobility behaviour of different road user groups and to help explore the city efficiently was anticipated by the experts to be positive. However, usability should be given: it should be effective, i.e. give you the benefits that it promises; it should be efficient, i.e. provide information in a smooth and easily understandable way; and satisfying, it should be comfortable to use. 93

Keywords: Urbanity, Life quality, Walkability

92 93

Corresponding author FACTUM Chaloupka & Risser OG, Institute for Traffic and Social Analysis, Austria, Vienna

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ITS FOR VULNERABLE ROAD USERS? BACKGROUND AND QUESTIONS Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are used more and more in all areas of transport, from infrastructural systems which intelligently activate traffic lighting and adapt it to actual traffic flow, to in vehicle technologies such as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). Today, these developments do not focus merely on motorized road traffic (5) any more. Recent projects deal with the potential of ITS-based solutions with respect to VRU’s needs and expectations (4), and some prototypes have been evaluated in experimental field trials (7). Lately, for instance the EC co-funded project VRUITS (Vulnerable Road Users and ITS) assessed societal impacts of selected ITS and provided recommendations for city planners, traffic planners and decision makers. Safety and mobility of VRUs should be in the focus, but also their comfort. One may assume that the relation of a pedestrian who feels comfortable to the city where he/she moves about tends to be positive. The results reported here represent the findings of the first stage of the project which focussed on identifying actual needs of different road user groups in view of technologies in a traffic-related context. In the project VRUITS, for instance, one main goal was to involve vulnerable road users according to the marketing model (Kotler et al. 19..). According to this model, members of any addressed target group should be asked thoroughly with respect to their needs and interests before one starts developing any technical products, or any communication strategies to address the target groups. Solutions that are developed without involving target groups tend to be no solutions at all, in the end. One may assume that this is especially valid for vulnerable road users, as they are an enormously heterogeneous group, and a segmentation into many subgroups is necessary: e.g. adults, parents, adolescents, older people, ladies with prams, etc. In this study two activities were combined: One, out of existing types of wearable devices – spectacles, smart watches, smart phone applications – the one should be chosen that looked most appropriate to give quick and clear information about everything from time tables of public transport to sight-seeing advice; and two, this selection was done with intensive involvement of the user group.

A MIXED METHODS APPROACH For the identification of user needs a mixed methods approach (Creswell and Plano Clark) is recommended. Qualitative steps are taken, to start with. On basis of the results of the first qualitative round other measurement methods, often quantitative ones, are develop in order to test assumptions, or, in other words, to measure the distribution of phenomena discovered with the help of qualitative methods, in given populations. In the case of VRUITS and similar projects members of the different subgroups of VRUs are questioned in the frame of focus-group interviews, concerning their wishes, needs and expectations with respect to design, costs and usability of both existing and potential ITS. At the same time, experts from different fields, including traffic and spatial planning, public transport service providers, decision makers, etc. are involved in expert interviews. The reason for this is that decision makers assumedly have only limited insight into the wishes of the target groups (6). At the same time, such a step provides research teams with input from industry and planning practice.

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Focus Group Discussions The focus group discussion as a method of qualitative sociological research is characterized as a moderated discussion structured by a predefined guideline which aims at covering all research questions and to guide the participants in regards to the discussed contents (1). A specifically trained moderator steers the communications processes. He or she interferes only to support the discussion and to ensure that all discussed contents are recorded for later data analysis. One focus group session with 5 to 15 discussants lasts between two to three hours. Expert Interviews In the area of city planning and transport planning usually experts from the fields of technology (including infrastructure, technology development and application), policy (structural aspects, legal issues, etc.) are interviewed. Interest groups of pedestrians and infrastructure service providers should also be involved, as the pedestrians are most important in the sense that they make the city lively (3). The issues that should be discussed in the frame of such interviews are VRU mobility needs, critical scenarios and barriers for walkers, aesthetic issues in connection with what makes walking attractive, and in which sense ITS could support this. And do experts agree with the VRUs themselves? Questionnaires In this paper it is suggested that all research that deals with the question how different groups of people perceive the city should start with a qualitative part as described above. The reason is that such an approach improves the probability that any questionnaire that us used later will contain questions that are relevant for the addressed groups. The researcher who develops the questionnaire without such a preparation, maybe based on earlier research, takes the risk that important questions relevant for the new situation, the new context, or the new groups involved are missing, or that the given questions are not relevant any more.

WHAT IS USUALLY DISTURBING PEDESTRIANS? Disturbing situations that are usually identified and that are much related to comfort are the following: • • •

high (car) speeds lack of respect by motorised road users complexity and density of traffic

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lack of appropriate infrastructure for walking maintenance of infrastructure weather conditions and lack of protective elements

Overall, the potential of technological innovations supporting general mobility and increasing traffic safety is assessed rather positively. Although some important reservations remain among potential users, with the costs involved (for new gadgets and applications) and the fear of over-relying on a system which is not failsafe being the main barriers for actual usage. Wearable devices (WD), as for example smart-glasses, smart-phones or smart-watches support those who do not sit in cars by providing information and facilitating tasks like orientation, scheduling, ticketing, etc. However, such technological innovation does not work well if it is not well adapted to the users. It is therefore crucial that the development of a new product is based on a sound understanding of customer needs when moving in the public space. The main objective of this study was to provide a knowledge basis concerning the needs of persons outside cars moving about in the city. This knowledge should be made available to software and WD developers, public transport (PT) operators, governmental organisations etc. In order to meet these objectives a literature study, a focus group discussion with potential system users and an expert workshop were conducted in Vienna. This presentation concentrates on the collection of verbal data in focus-group discussions and expert interviews. The target group was composed of citizens with the mentioned function of travellers outside cars, and the afore mentioned experts and stakeholders. The focus group discussion aimed at identifying mobility behaviour and the use of information when planning locomotion in the city. The research questions addressed following topics: (1.) General mobility behaviour, (2.) mode use and combination of modes; (3.) Information use and demands and (4.) use of mobile services. Eleven participants (5 male, 6 female) from 18 to 75 years participated in the focus group study. One of the participants was impaired due to a stroke she had in the past. Five participants described themselves as technophile and six were not especially interested in technology. Comfort and costs were reported to be the most important aspects for mode selection (e.g. easy access to public transport). The good PT system in Vienna supports mobility without "motorhelp", while confusing information or lack of information may be barriers. Real and clear information about costs and handling (e.g. ticketing) should be offered. Information is needed before and during the trip. Information demands exist particularly when planning trips on unknown routes. Tourism suffers from this, and also roaming fees and unknown costs for using information services are a challenge, there. For wearable devices, according to the participants they should be fast, simple and uncomplicated. Information provided should be well understandable and precise. Most importantly, it should include salient points (such as points of touristic interest like monuments, museums, interesting streets and places, market places etc.). The workshop with experts from the areas of Intelligent Transport System (ITS) technologies, software development, Human Machine Interface (HMI) design, travel information and service provision as well as with representatives of local authorities (Viennese public transport provider Wiener Linien) and federal ministries (Austrian Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology) was held in February 2015 in Vienna. The experts highlighted that WD are considered to play an integral role in future travelling in the city. They consider the smart-phone to remain the most important wearable device at least in a mediumterm

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE perspective. There was a consensus that all other WD have to provide an additional value to its users in order to be successful, e.g. when the smart-phone is considered as not practical or not usable for some purposes or in some contexts (i.e.: in bad weather or lighting conditions, to heavy or unpractical to carry, during sports, etc.).

WHAT WAS OUR CONCLUSION? Smartwatches, smart-glasses, etc., are perceived as potential devices that could fill these gaps. The favourite in the end was the smart watch. The arguments resulted from the dialogue with experts, expert interviews, and with the final users, focus group interviews and questionnaires. They were as follows: Most people wear a watch anyway, no additional gear is needed; it is proven that information about ticketing, concerning navigation, and e.g. about points of interests, can be given easily and in a well perceivable way via the watch. The potential of a smart-watch with those functions to impact the mobility behaviour of different road user groups and to help explore the city efficiently was anticipated by the experts to be positive. However, usability should be given: it should be effective, i.e. give you the benefits that it promises; it should be efficient, i.e. provide information in a smooth and easily understandable way; and satisfying, it should be comfortable to use, which also includes design aspects. To this end, more experimentation is needed in the future in order to achieve a well working and well usable product.

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REFERENCES Bell, D., Risser, R., Morris, A., Hancox, G., García, A., Martín, O., Scholliers, J., Schirokoff, A., Penttinen, M., Johansson, C., Goede, M. de and González Luna, J., ‘VRUITS: Improving the Safety and Mobility of Vulnerable Road Users Through ITS Applications, Deliverable D2.1, Technology potential of ITS addressing the needs of Vulnerable Road Users’ [The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under Grant agreement n° 321586.] Merton, R. K. (1987), The Focussed Interview and Focus Groups: Continuities and Discontinuities. In: The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 51, Nr. 4, S. 550 – 556. Gibbons, M. (1994), The new production of knowledge. The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. illustriert, Neuauflage. SAGE. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. Methorst, R. (2010) Identification of quality needs. In proceedings of International Co-operation on Theories and Concepts in Traffic Safety Seminar, Den Haag, NL. Brookhuis K.A., de Waard, D. & Janssen, W.H. (2001), Behavioral impacts of advanced driver assistance systems - an overview. EJTIR, 1, no. 3 (2001), pp. 245 – 253. Feypell, V., Methorst, R. & Hughes, T. (2010) Non-Motor Pedestrian Accidents: A Hidden Issue, Results of the ITF/OECD report on Pedestrian Safety, Urban Space and Health, 11th International Walk21 Conference. The Hague, The Netherlands, November 16-19, 2010 Pécheux, K., Bauer, J., & McLeod, P. (2009). Pedestrian Safety and ITS-Based Countermeasures Program for Reducing Pedestrian Fatalities, Injury Conflicts, and Other Surrogate Measures. New Jersey: United States Department of Transportation, Research and Innovative Technology Administration.

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EXPLORING THE CITY WITH THE BICYCLE AND TECHNOLOGY HELP TO IDENTIFY HAZARDS MET THEREBY Christine Chaloupka 94 FACTUM OG, Hermann-Bahr Straße 9/11, 1210 Wien, [email protected] Elisabeth Füssl FACTUM OG, Hermann-Bahr Straße 9/11, 1210 Wien ABSTRACT The bicycle is an appropriate means to explore the city. The speed is slower than that of a car and this allows a better preception of details, it is smooth in the sense that many places can be accessed more easily than by car. Not least because the bicycle, in the worst case, can be pushed. From a touristic point of view, the bicycle seems to be a very attractive „old technology“: Many city administrations all over Europe already offer bicycle renting systems to visitors who use it for different touristic transport purposes within city limits. The problem point, however, is that cycling poses some traffic safety risks. In order to learn more about possible risks the authors of this abstract set out to develop a method that would help to find out, where bicyclists direct their visual attention on their ways. To study this visual behaviour we made use of an eye marker camera system that is used in marketing in order to find out were customer look in shops or on websites. Of course, it should be fully possible to also use the system to analyse points of interest in order to find out where the focus of the attention of vistors in a city is. In our presentation we will show some results of our development work that clearly show that points of interest can be identified via gaze plots. But we also take in many things with the help of our peripheric vision, and to our knowledge there is no technology yet that helps us to register mechanically what is perceived with the help of peripheric vision. The conclusion: any method that helps to register where cyclists, or customers, or visitors, direct their attention to has to be completed with verbal data from interviews, questionnaires etc. Keywords: Urbanity, Safety, Comfort, Human centred

INTRODUCTION The bicycle is an appropriate means to explore the city. The speed is slower than that of a car and this allows a better perception of details, it is smooth in the sense that many places can be accessed more easily than by car. Not least because the bicycle, in the worst case, can be pushed. From a touristic point of view, the bicycle seems to be a very

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attractive „old technology“: Many city administrations all over Europe already offer bicycle renting systems to visitors who use it for different touristic transport purposes within city limits. The problem point, however, is that cycling poses some traffic safety risks. Cycling is an increasingly popular alternative transport mode, but there were far too many cycling fatalities over the past decade (European Transport Safety Council 2015). 138,400 pedestrians & cyclists were killed in EU in the space of time from 2001 to 2013. According to recent safety analysis data from ETSC (2015) bicyclists face a high accident risk. Vulnerable road users account for 29% of all road deaths across EU (pedestrians: 21%, cyclists: 8%). According to a TRL report (Knowles et al 2008) more than a quarter of all cycling deaths in 2005-07 happened when a vehicle ran into the rear of a bike. This occurred to more than one-third in rural areas and to 40% in collisions that took place away from junctions. According to the same report it seemed that one cause for cyclists´ accidents was that car drivers as well as cyclists “failed to look properly” as was the interpretation in the TRL report. Therefore, it is necessary to find out how traffic safety for bicyclists can be enhanced – especially in cities with dense traffic and a lot of interactions. In order to learn more about possible risky interactions that bicyclists get involved in the authors of this paper, together with colleagues from Salzburg Research, Prisma Solutions EDV Dienstleistungen GmbH, Plansinn GmbH and the University of Salzburg, Institute of Geoinformatics – Z_GIS, set out to develop a method that would help to find out, among other issues, where bicyclists direct their visual attention on their ways. The project was financially supported by the Austrian Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology. The hypothesis was that bicycle riders direct their attention to road users or infrastructure elements that are relevant regarding critical events. To study this visual behaviour an eye marker camera system was used that usually is used in marketing, with the goal to find out were customer look to in shops or on websites or in the last time is used in geographic studies (e.g. Brychtová & Coltekin, 2014). A video system (GO PRO) was also used, carried on helmets by the riders. The study was carried out in two cities – Vienna and Salzburg. Therefore, the outcomes of this study and the methods in question are related to city traffic. Of course, it should be fully possible to also use the system to analyse points of interest in order to find out where the focus of the attention of visitors in a city is. And – according to the specifications of the bicycle - it should be possible to use the technical system when being in motion, focussing on subjects or objects being themselves in motion (like other road users). In this paper some results of the development work will be shown that clearly tell that points of interest can be identified via gaze plots. Having said this we must add that knowing where the focus of the vision of persons is does not necessarily mean that we also know what has been really perceived altogether. The reason is that we take in many things with the help of our peripheral vision, and to our knowledge there is no technology yet that helps us to register mechanically what is perceived with the help of peripheral vision. The conclusion is that any method that helps to register where cyclists – or customers, or visitors – direct their attention to has to be completed with verbal data from interviews, questionnaires etc. Till now literature shows that the

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE peripheral vision has not been taken into consideration thoroughly when interpreting eye movement data. Mainly the focus of the eyes has been taken into account. As the target of the study has been the evaluation of different registration methods for analysing the interaction of cyclists with their environment in the context of a naturalistic cycling study concerning their feasibility, the presentation will discuss pros and cons of an existing technological investigation tool for critical incidences as well as points of interest in general. The theoretical framework includes communication necessities of cyclists and infrastructure both providing preconditions to explore safety critical events. The results of the study are mainly qualitative as the number of the observed riders has been 24 both in Salzburg and Vienna, so there will not be a statistical data presentation.

THEORY - SAFETY CRITICAL EVENTS As crash data show (see introduction), cycling safety is a pressing issue. In order to prevent cyclists from crash it is necessary to focus on problems in traffic that occur before crash happens (Hydén 1987). These critical events in traffic are embedded in communication processes (resp. behaviour), but there is no standardized methodology how to identify critical events. Within an Austrian research project BIKEALYZE (financed by the Austrian Ministry of transport, innovation and technology) such a methodology was developed. In the following the theoretical background of the developed methodology is presented: 1) psychophysical conditions of critical events, 2) concept of communication, 3) causing factors for critical events and 4) a systematic for identifying accident causation especially for bicycles.

Safety-critical events in traffic - in general Safety-critical events arise in the context of interaction between persons and/or environment. Besides the objective safety risk, the subjective feeling of (un)safety (fear of accidents) related to man (the cyclist) have to be considered alongside usability issues (related to infrastructure) including comfort. Crash data only contain “objective” data but never “subjective safety” elements. The latter often are responsible for misinterpretation of special situations or infrastructure conditions. Both data have to be considered and examined separately with different qualitative & quantitative methods.

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THEORY - MAIN FACTORS CAUSING SAFETY-CRITICAL EVENTS Environment Black spots show where the interplay of human and infrastructure does not function in an optimal way. However, the environmental conditions are rarely the only reason for crashes or traffic conflicts. On the contrary, safety relevant events occur often within the process of interaction between different road users. Especially at intersections where special attention is required when negotiating a limited space between all traffic participants.

Man According to many international studies human failure is responsible for accidents in traffic in approx. 90 % of cases (NHTSA 2008; Singh 2015). Parts of these failure occur because of neglecting of rules and/or hindrance of communication between road users (because of the environment/infrastructure or psychophysical condition of the road users) resp. misinterpretation of actions.

Communication Communication is necessary in traffic in order to inform other road users about one’s intentions and needs, to coordinate mutual actions and to give feedback if a situation/interaction tends to be complicated, uncomfortable or unsafe. Besides formal rules, informal rules play an important role in road traffic as they guide road users´ actions. According to findings of accident analysis studies, it appears that the ability to recognize information subjectively proved to be the main source of errors in traffic (Otte et al. 2009). This corresponds with findings of the NHTSA (Singh, 2015) which show that the recognition error, consisting of driver’s inattention, internal and external distractions, and inadequate surveillance, was the most frequently recorded critical reason (41% ±2.2%).

OPERATIONALISATION - RESULTS The following section will give an overview of the operationalisation of ‘critical events’ related to information admission and will illustrate how interaction data is registered by the different methods in the BIKEALYZE project. As said before ‘information admission’ is the most problematic part within the process of information processing. Therefore this category has been used to illustrate the development of the methodology for identifying critical events.

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE The main question related to this category is, “could all relevant information be recognized objectively and subjectively?”. The baseline hypothesis (H0) therefore is: Necessary information is available for the bicyclist at least objectively and is possible to be recognized by the cyclist objectively (according to Otte et al 2009). The following overview will give information about the assumed possibilities to operationalize some aspects of the category “information admission” by different technological tools as described above. Table 1: Overview of possible methods for operationalization of behaviour related to lack of information admission in the road infrastructure and to elements obstructing information admission

Elements in road infrastructure and behaviour that Appropriate methods affect information admission Barriers for orientation: (traffic) signs, trees etc.

Video, interrogation, eye tracking

Lacking orientation points

Video, interrogation, eye tracking

Deceleration before intersection or encounter

Video

Distraction because of special traffic sounds, mobile Video, eye tracking, interrogation phone, shop window etc. Distraction because of maintenance of bicycle (e.g. mud

Video, eye tracking, interrogation

guard broken)

Video observation When it comes to bicycle studies in natural environment, video recordings are quite popular and therefore frequently used because they are cost-efficient and an easy way of using a method which is able to provide highly precise information of the driving situation. In the current study helmet cameras (GO PRO action cams) were used for data

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collection (see Johnson et al. 2010). The cameras, pointing in the driving direction, were fitted on the helmets of the test persons. Thus the cyclists’ line of sight and the surrounding situational context like traffic density, physical barriers or weather conditions could be captured. Former studies discussed the advantages and disadvantages of certain positions for fitting of the camera (e.g. camera mounted on handlebar see Gustafsson & Archer 2013, Dozza et al. 2012, or usage of helmet camera see Johnson et al. 2010). An advantage of helmet cameras is that one is able to register head movements (turning of head) which are an important way for cyclists to either communicate with other road users (look at them, show them that they are active in searching for information) and/or to collect information from the surrounding.

Elicitation interviews During the video observation, the researchers interviewed the participants about their subjective feeling of safety while riding on this specific route and their feeling of comfort. Although the videos showed the behaviour of the driver and the other road users as well as the environment/infrastructure there was no information about the subjective feelings of the cyclists resp. if they would categorize a situation or an infrastructure as problematic or “normal”. The participants e.g. informed the researchers that they had recognized unsafe, uncomfortable feelings whenever they had been overtaken by car-drivers without decent side distance and they interpreted this as a bad communication act. They also very often had perceived a lack of information about further route guidance. Both – careless car drivers and were classified as critical events. One result of the study therefore is that video data can be relevant to find out hypothesized critical events but it is an insufficient method to find out about the subjective feelings of safety and/or comfort of riders. As a consequence this could result in avoidance of roads as well as special cycle lanes.

Mobile Eye-tracking

Mobile Eye Tracking (MET) data is used in order to analyse gazes of persons in specific environment. In naturalistic cycling studies these data provide information about the areas bikers fixate, the direction and duration of their gazes. So called areas of interest (AOI) can be defined in order to investigate if persons are assumed to notice specific elements in their environment. Recently eye tracking has been used in geoinformatic studies (e.g. Brychtová & Coltekin 2014, Popelka 2016) but scarcely in naturalistic cycling studies. In the BIKEALYZE project the riders who explored the potential of the MET have not been the same as those who were carrying the Video camera because the eye tracking system including the analysis tool could not be borrowed for a long time. Moreover the riders should not be equipped with too many technical facilities. The eye tracking data has been collected with Tobii Pro Glasses 2. The glasses record gaze data which include fixations as well as saccades. Additional various metrics about the gaze data, e.g. interval duration and area of interest (AOI) and specific metrics can be deduced from the data when the analysis software Tobii Pro Glass Analyser has been used. The use of MET for naturalistic cycling studies is an uncharted field in traffic science; except for a few studies, (see Vansteenkiste et al. 2013), there is hardly any reference available. Thus still it cannot be made sure that the cyclist – although gazing at a special item – has definitely been

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE able to “recognize” this item consciously resp. if he/she has not been gazing at it maybe could recognize it anyway by the peripheric vision. Again – as already mentioned regarding the Video method, interviews after the riding would have been necessary to understand more about the riders information admission process but have not been done as at the beginning of the project the focus lay on the sheer evaluation of the MET data, not taking into consideration that there would be a lack of interpretation possibilities.

RELATION BETWEEN CATEGORIES ”INFORMATION ADMISSION” AND “COMMUNICATION” Conclusions out of specific detected behaviour according to Table 1 therefore could be: an uncertain lane keeping might indicate lack of information access or processing (error in communication or coordination with other traffic participants). This is relevant as information (e.g. for orientation) has to be provided in due time so that it can be processed in a short time e.g. if the cycle lane ends and if there is no information via the infrastructure how the route for the bicyclists will got on (see Fig. 1). So if there is lack of information, the time to coordinate one´s behaviour with other road users will be limited or there will be none at all. In the worst case this may result in a crash. The gaze plot in Figure 1 gives an impression about data obtained from the eye tracker (Tobii glasses) showing all gazes during a time span of 1,92 sec of approach of a cyclist to an intersection. The arrow in the middle of the picture indicates the way the cyclist had to take and shows his searching activities within this very short time span (less than 2 sec).

As a result, one can see, that the focussed elements are mainly other road users (car drivers), who are possible interaction/communication partners as well as (un)safety factors. But seldom infrastructure is focussed or searched for by the riders, like traffic lights (gaze 75) or street markings (gaze 43, 36 or 69), which don´t exist anymore as a help for orientation after the end of the cycle lane.

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Figure 1: Eye tracking Gaze Plot (interval length of all gazes = 1,92 sec.): Was the relevant information perceived? (© FACTUM & Salzburg Research)

CONCLUSIONS This study has presented the development of a methodology for identifying critical events as an important indicator for improving infrastructure and prevent cyclists from crash. Behaviour data, infrastructural conditions and gaze behaviour data can be interrelated and could finally provide an improved understanding of their reciprocal influence on each other. But it should underline the importance of considering communication in naturalistic cycling studies to provide a more informative and complete picture of events which are relevant for comfort and safety. It could be shown that quantitative investigation methods need qualitative methods to understand what really is happening (objectively and subjectively) and not only count events. The obtained results can be adapted and used for drivers’ and cyclists´ training, with the target to improve communication between different road users. In addition, recommendations for the adaptation and/or improvement of cycling infrastructure especially regarding route guidance measures can be given on a more objective basis than just by feedback given by riders by chance using a mobile phone platform. A challenging issue with regard to analysing communication and critical events based on different methods is the integration of the resulting data (video data, eye tracking data and interview data) into a joint category system. This is a time consuming task, as concepts and theoretical approaches have to be linked considering their epistemological foundation. Especially the use of eye tracking data in the field of traffic is a rather new issue - and seems to be a fancy tool - but much further research is necessary to clarify what the instrument eye tracking glass is exactly able to measure.

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REFERENCES Brychtová, A., Coltekin, A. (2014): An Empirical User Study for Measuring the Influence of Colour Distance and Font Size in Map Reading Using Eye Tracking. The Cartographic Journal Maney Publishing, 14s. Chaloupka-Risser, C., Risser, R., Zuzan, W. (2011) Verkehrspsychologie: Grundlagen und Anwendungen. Wien: Facultas. Hydén, Ch. (1987) The development of a method for traffic safety evaluation: The Swedish Traffic Conflicts Technique. Bulletin 70. Department of Traffic Engineering, Lund University. Knowles, J., Adams, R., Cuerden, R., Savill, T., Reid, S. and M. Tight (2008). Collisions Involving Cyclists on Britain’s Roads: Establishing the Causes, TRL (PPR 445). NHTSA (2008). National Motor Vehicle Crash Causation Survey, Report to congress No. DOT HS 811 059. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Øvstedal, L., Ryeng,E.O. (2002): Understanding Pedestrian Comfort in European Cities: How to improve walking conditions? Paper presented at the European Transport Conference 2002, September 9-11 2002, Homerton College, Cambridge, UK. Otte, D., Pund, B., Jänsch, M. (2009): Unfallursachen-Analyse ACAS für Erhebungen am Unfallort. In: Zeitschrift für Verkehrssicherheit, 122–128. Popelka, St. (2016). Eye-tracking with dynamic stimuli. Dep. of Geoinformatics, University of Olomouc Sanders, R. L. (2015). Perceived traffic risk for cyclists: The impact of near miss and collision experiences. Accident Analysis & Prevention 75, 26–34. doi: 10.1016/j.aap.2014.11.004 Singh, S. (2015). Critical reasons for crashes investigated in the National Motor Vehicle Crash Causation Survey. Traffic Safety Facts Crash•Stats. Report No. DOT HS 812 115. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Vansteenkiste, P., Cardon, G., & Lenoir, M. (2013). Dealing with head-mounted eye-tracking data. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Eye Tracking South Africa – ETSA, 13, 55–57. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. doi:10.1145/2509315.2509325

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Web sources: European Transport Safety Council 2015: Europe must boost safety for cyclists and walkers. Assessed 27.6.2016. http://etsc.eu/europe-must-boost-safety-for-cyclists-and-walkers/ European Transport Safety Council 2015: PIN Flash 29 Making walking and cycling on Europe’s roads safer, p. 17. Assessed 27.6.2016. http://etsc.eu/wp-content/uploads/ etsc_pin_flash_29_walking_cycling_safer.pdf Gustafsson, L., & Archer, J. (2013). A naturalistic study of commuter cyclists in the greater Stockholm area. Accident; Analysis and Prevention, 58, 286–98. Assessed 30.6.2016. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457512002266 Johnson, M., Charlton, J., Oxley, J., & Newstead, S. (2010). Naturalistic cycling study: identifying risk factors for on-road commuter cyclists. In Annals of Advances in Automotive Medicine/Annual Scientific Conference, 54, 275–83. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine. Assessed 30.6.2016. Retrieved from http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi? artid=3242541&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract

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AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY ENHANCING ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION WITHIN URBAN AREAS Ivan Jakovljević PhD student, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Olja Čokorilo Associate Professor, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Vojvode Stepe 305, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Air transport records alarming increase of aircraft operations on the airport world map. This issue is limited by many of geographical and social factors and therefore the paper tries to provide answers and the roadmap for future air transport development particularly within urban areas. Aircraft noise and engine emissions have been recorded and monitored on local, national and/or international level but still increment of those treats generates significant negative impact on air transport travellers and inhabitants. It seems that aircraft extend their flight time into the air, spending much more time in holding above congested airports, especially in Europe. This directly influences concentrated noise and greater emissions which could be hardly limited by fiscal and operating measures. Therefore aircraft manufacturers are forced to implement high technologies and to provide fast, safe and efficiency technological measures in aircraft design and production. This paper analyses future trends and technology achievements regarding environmental friendly air transport. Keywords: Air Transport, Noise, Emissions, Aircraft, Technology

INTRODUCTION The importance of air transport emissions reduction is defined within ten goals for a competitive and resource efficient transport system (EC, 2011): benchmarks for achieving the 60% GHG emission reduction target: Low-carbon sustainable fuels in aviation to reach 40% by 2050; also by 2050 reduce EU CO2 emissions from maritime bunker fuels by 40% (if feasible 50%). During the recent years, air transport records significant growth, and that growth can be felt especially in densely populated areas. ICAO Annex 16 “Environmental Protection” (ICAO, 2008) is currently under revision, specifically Volume I “Aircraft Noise” and Volume II “Engine Emissions”. Noise and air pollution is not only concentrated around big hub airports which tend to be congested, but also around them due to high intensity of incoming aircraft, which are either landing, taking off, or holding. Not much can be done regarding the existing infrastructure, so the best way to act is to implement the newest aircraft technology. (EC, 2011) states that

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technological innovation can achieve a faster and cheaper transition to a more efficient and sustainable European transport system by acting on three main factors: vehicles’ efficiency through new engines, materials and design; cleaner energy use through new fuels and propulsion systems; better use of network and safer and more secure operations through information and communication systems. This research was focused on measuring the benefit of implementing the latest aircraft technology, by measuring the difference in output between last and current generation of aircraft. Emissions during the LTO cycle are measured, but also the CO2 emissions during the cruising phase (this is crucial due to current development of ICAO Annex 16, Volume III – for aeroplane CO2 emissions). Measurements were taken from a fleet of A320 aircraft and compared with latest A320 NEO. This corresponds to current trend of fleet renewal, as many national airliners tend to follow.

MEASURING THE EMISSIONS The main conclusion from ICAO's 39th Assembly (held on October 6th, 2016) was to recommend adoption of a final Resolution text for the new global market-based measure GMBM to control CO2 emissions from international aviation. ICAO’s Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) is designed to complement the basket of mitigation measures the air transport community is already pursuing to reduce CO2 emissions from international aviation. These include technical and operational improvements and advances in the production and use of sustainable alternative fuels for aviation. As it was confirmed, implementation of the CORSIA will begin with a pilot phase from 2021 through 2023, followed by a first phase, from 2024 through 2026. Participation in both of these early stages will be voluntary and the next phase from 2027 to 2035 would see all States on board (ICAO, 2016). Therefore the provided research should give some important facts regarding technology advantages by using new aircraft in fleet. In this research, emissions from the aircraft are measured in two ways: LTO cycle and CO2 emissions in cruise phase. ICAO provides technique for calculating aircraft emissions based on the database and quality of data (EASA, 2015). This paper is based on Simple approach which is also applied in several contemporary research papers (Čokorilo and Čavka, 2016; Čokorilo et al., 2010; Nešić et al., 2015; Ivković et al., 2016; Čokorilo, 2016).While measuring the emissions from last generation fleet of A320 (Eold) , the aircraft degradation is also considered (Edeg) and this was done by taking the data from the actual aircraft during the flight. Measurement of A320 NEO was based on the PEM (Performance Engineers Manual), and because the aircraft is considered new, degradation is not included. For the fleet of i number of aircraft, emissions reduction (er) is calculated: 𝑛𝑛

𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = �{(𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 +𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 ) − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 } 𝑖𝑖=1

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LTO Cycle emissions LTO cycle emissions are defined by the ICAO as emissions released by the airport sources during the aircraft takeoff and landing, and this is one of the key factors of urban pollution. LTO cycle is shown in Figure 1 (EASA, 2016).

Figure 25: LTO cycle

ICAO has defined exact emissions for each type of engine (et), and in this research, LTO emissions (ELTO) are calculated for i number of aircraft with j number of engines for last generation aircraft (degradation factor – df included) and current generation aircraft as shown in following equations. 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖=1,𝑗𝑗=1

𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = � 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖=1,𝑗𝑗=1

LTO emissions are calculated in Table 1, the fleet is consisting of four A320 aircraft (i=4,j=2).

Table 11: LTO emissions

Emissions

etold (CFM 56 3B-1)

df1 / df2 / df3 / df4 (%)

ELTOold

etnew (PW 1127G)

ELTOnew

EIHC (kg/LTO)

0,418

5,4 / 5,8 / 6,2 / 5

3,531

0,021

0,168

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EINO (kg/LTO)

3,595

5,4 / 5,8 / 6,2 / 5

30,370

3,24

25,920

EICO (kg/LTO)

6,517

5,4 / 5,8 / 6,2 / 5

55,055

3,348

26,784

EISO2 (kg/LTO)

0,196

5,4 / 5,8 / 6,2 / 5

3,252

0,1585

3,080

EICO2 (kg/LTO)

1238,721

5,4 / 5,8 / 6,2 / 5

10464,706

1001,72

8013,760

Decrease in total emissions is evident, especially in EIHC and EICO, while EISO2 can be contributed to degradation (old versus new). Application of the new technologies represents significant leap in reducing the emissions, and LTO cycle emissions closely represent emissions generated by the airport.

CO2 emissions in the cruise phase In the urban areas, aircraft can often be seen flying over or near the cities. With the increase of frequency, the airports tend to be congested. Standard procedure in this case is holding until the permission for landing is given. For the purpose of the research, mean cruise time (mct) is 30 minutes and the fuel flow (ff) is measured directly from the aircraft. During the cruise phase CO2 emissions are measured by using the total fuel burned multiplied by ICAO CO2 factor (3,16 CO2 per fuel unit) as shown in the expression. 𝑛𝑛

𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 3,16 ∙ � 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑛𝑛

𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 3,16 ∙ � 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Total emissions in the cruise phase are show in table 2. Table 2: CO2 emissions during the cruise phase

Emissions

CO2(kg)

Ecruiseold 2067,458

𝑖𝑖=1

Ecruisenew 1757,340

Calculating total emissions reduction

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE The new engine and structure technology applied in aircraft has a significant effect on total emissions reduction. In order to fully acknowledge and apply this solution in urban areas, comparison is given. The difference is shown on the Figure 2.

Figure 2: Comparing total emissions of A320 (Eold) and A320 NEO (Enew) fleet in urban area

Emissions reduction (er) is calculated as a difference between emissions in LTO cycle and cruise phase for the fleet of A320 (Eold) and A320 NEO (Enew). The results per one LTO cycle for fleet of four aircraft are shown in table 3. Table 3: total emissions reduction per flight

Emissions

EIHC (kg/LTO)

EINO (kg/LTO)

EICO (kg/LTO)

EISO2 (kg/LTO)

EICO2 (kg/LTO)

CO2(kg) (30 min cruise)

er (i=4)

3,363

4,45

28,271

0,172

2450,946

310,118

As the number of aircraft and flights is increasing, each replacement with new, more efficient version adds to emissions reduction. The number of pollutants is reducing exponentially, and this can be felt directly in urban areas. Global effect is even greater, with climate change and overall pollution having impact on environment.

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CONCLUSIONS With ever growing need for transport, and the rise of air traffic, the need for regulating and controlling the emissions is greater than ever. This can’t be done easily, as the infrastructure is oversaturated and the airports are reaching their maximum capacity. Urban areas are not only suffering from road transport emissions and noise pollution, but also from air traffic. The fastest and best way of resolving this issue is by applying the latest aircraft technology as it is shown in this research. Each new aircraft means emissions reduction, and with each use the number of emissions is reduced. Authors measured and presented the concrete data which shows the need for proactive thinking and acting in order to solve the problem of urban pollution.

REFERENCES Čokorilo, Olja. 2016. "Environmental Issues for Aircraft Operations at Airports." Transportation Research Procedia, 14: 3713-3720. Čokorilo, Olja. Čavka, Ivana. 2016. "Building environmental perspective of aircraft operations around Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport." In Proceedings of international academic conference on places and technologies, Belgrade, April 14-15, 2016, pp. 805-811. Čokorilo, Olja. Gvozdenović, Slobodan. Vasov, Ljubiša and Mirosavljević, Petar. 2010. “Impact of Aircraft Emissions on the Environment.” Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 8(3): 123-138. EASA. 2016. “ICAO LTO emissions database”. Last modified November 2016. Accessed 5. https://www.easa.europa.eu/document-library/icao-aircraft-engine-emissions-databank

April 2017.

EC. 2011. "WHITE PAPER Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system." European Commission. p.31. ICAO. 2008. "ICAO Annex 16, Volume II Aircraft Engine Emissions." Montreal: International Civil Aviation Organization. p.108. ICAO. 2016. "Historic-agreement-reached-to-mitigate-international-aviation-emissions." Last modified 6 October 2016. Accessed 8 April 2017. http://www.icao.int/Newsroom/Pages/Historic-agreement-reached-to-mitigate-international-aviation-emissions.aspx Ivković, Ivan. Čokorilo, Olja. Kaplanović, Snežana. 2016. "The estimation of GHG emission costs in road and air transport sector: case study of Serbia." Transport, (in print). Nešić, Aleksandra. Čavka, Ivana and Čokorilo, Olja. 2015. "Shifting to more environmentally friendly modes in long-distance transport." In Proceedings of 2nd international academic conference on places and technologies, Nova Gorica, Slovenia, June 1819, 2015, pp. 479-484.

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CARSHARING – USING INSTEAD OF OWNING Ljupko Šimunović 95 Associate Professor, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Vukelićeva 4, Zagreb, [email protected] Dino Šojat Assistant, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Zagreb, Vukellićeva 4, [email protected] Ivana Krijan Fleet manager, Urban mobility d.o.o., Zagreb, Zagrebačka cesta 143A, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Sharing instead of possessing, or using instead of owning is a commonly present buzzword which refers to using modern solutions in terms of joint ride systems by private cars, known in the world as carpooling, carsharing, or ridesharing. This paper will present in detail car sharing service which is a part of the smart city concept, referring to using private cars by more people in short time periods. The concept is based on the idea that the people, using their own private cars, directly increase the number of private cars on roads and air pollution and thus, they could use the system with cars available to everyone in every moment instead. The paper will present the functional system architecture, i.e. user demands, and support subsystem for carsharing service providers. Keywords: carsharing, private car, smart city

INTRODUCTION Because of the economic development, population increase, and urbanisation, traffic congestion in cities poses a great challenge on global, national and local level. Traffic congestion in cities is currently at its peak moments, and it is quite clear that such condition cannot be sustainable. Because of the economic development and the widespread Internet usage through smartphones, the user behaviour gained the characteristic of sharing economy. By the definition in the Oxford dictionary, sharing economy is a system where assets or services are being shared among private users (free of charge or paid) usually by a web service. Such a system can put almost everything into usage – vehicles, bicycles, houses, apartments, services, etc. In addition, everyone can use anything owned by another people, if available. Nowadays, consumerism among people 95


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is replaced by post-material values, and contrary to owning and purchasing, more importance is being put onto accessibility, experience, adventure, environmental awareness, and sustainable mobility. In this manner, private car sharing, instead of owning, has become a part of the sharing economy worldwide. To put it at its simplest, carsharing is a service in which cars are being shared. The idea for the service came for the first time in Switzerland in 1940s (Shaheen, 1998). Since the sharing economy is relatively recent concept, the idea in which cars are being shared was not recognized, nobody approved it, and it slowly diminished in the next 40 years. The first company offering carsharing service as it is known today was the Mobility Carsharing Switzerland (also from Switzerland), founded in 1987 (Shaheen, 1998). A carsharing system offers users to have car fleet available to them 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, without the expenses related to fuel, insurance, vehicle registration, tire purchase and replacement, and parking costs. The availability of the vehicles ensures citizens better mobility without the costs related to the car ownership. The citizens can use the vehicles anytime, anywhere, and must pay only for the vehicle usage costs. The main idea of the carsharing concept is to use private cars by sharing, instead of owning a vehicle. According to the estimations, vehicles drive on the roads only 5 % daily, and the remaining 95 % belongs to remaining still in a car park (Brčić, 2012). This vehicle stillness, only by itself, causes demand for parking and low vehicle utilization due to parking, which can be gradually reduced if a carsharing system is implemented. A single carsharing vehicle can replace between 9 and 13 private cars, reducing the number of vehicles on roads and improving the network level of service (Innovative Mobility, 2014). Also, the need for parking reduces, and the existing, poorly utilized infrastructure designed for car parking can be replaced for other socially beneficial purposes. The less the number of vehicles on the roads, the better the quality of life for the citizens, because the reduced number of vehicles results in less impact on the environment. The impact on the environment is even more less if the carsharing fleet consists of hybrid and electric vehicles.

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Figure 26: Carsharing market trends (Berkley, 2016)

The carsharing service is being developed and increased in volume worldwide, as shown in Figure 26. At the end of 2014, carsharing service was present in 33 countries, 5 continents, and 1,531 cities. In the same year, there were 4.8 million users and 104,000 vehicles. The largest carsharing market is Europe, where 46 % of the total users have 56 % of the world carsharing fleet available. The second largest market is North America, with 34 % of users and 23 % of the car fleet (Berkley, 2016).

TWO CARSHARING BUSINESS MODELS Peer-to-peer or customer-to-customer (P2P or C2C) model enables private cars to be rented by other people when their owners do not use them. There is no central fleet management present, because each vehicle is taken care of by its owner, who provides maintenance and ensures roadworthiness (Hampshire, 2011). The idea behind this model lies in increasing incomes or reducing costs for private car owners by leasing them in periods when they do not use them. The first step is the user registration (the owner or the client) at the offered platform – a web site or an app designed by the company offering such kind of carsharing service. At the registration, the users must provide personal data and vehicle data. In some cases, the users should provide the photos of the vehicle that will be leased. The price is determined by the service provider considering vehicle type, production year, etc. The owners are compensated for the service with 65 % to 75 % of the fee charged to the driver (user). The vehicle rental begins when users are given the vehicle documents and keys. The system is more often modernized with information technology equipped into the carsharing system. The costs of the carsharing equipment and its installation in the vehicle must be covered by the vehicle owner (Autotrader, 2015).

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Business-to-customer (B2C) model is currently more popular among carsharing users. In this model, the carsharing company is the sole owner of the vehicles, leasing them for users. Based on the decision by the company, the distance crossed or the time spent are usually charged. The price of one minute or kilometre includes fuel, insurance, parking, registration and maintenance. To access the vehicles, the users have to register on the web site of the provider, usually paying for the registration fee. The vehicles can be rented 24 hours a day and 7 days a week, by a smartphone and the app installed on them, or by website. The car keys are always in the vehicle, and the vehicle can be unlocked by the application or by the member card recognized by the vehicle card reader. The same process applies to locking – the keys remain in the vehicle, and the vehicle is locked by the application or the member card recognized by the card reader.

THREE CARSHARING OPERATING MODELS A station-based model is characterized by one-directional trips – the users can pick up a vehicle at a spot or car park, and then return it to another spot or car park. These parking spots and parking spaces are dispersed throughout the city, and only carsharing vehicles can use them. Also, if the fleet consists of electric vehicles, some spots can be also equipped with charging infrastructure. In this model, the service is less flexible for users; however, car fleet management is much simpler for the provider (Le Vine, 2014). A round-based model is characterized by circular trips – the users must return the vehicle to the same spot where they picked them up (Le Vine, 2014). Like the station-based model, the vehicles are parked at certain parking spaces or the parking spaces of the service provider. The implementation of this kind of model significantly reduces flexibility for the users; however, car fleet management becomes even simpler. A free-floating model is characterized by picking up and returning vehicles at any parking space in the determined zone (usually a city). Like in the station-based model, the trips are one-directional (Le Vine, 2014). The difference between the models is in the way the vehicles are returned – in the free-floating model, the vehicles can be returned at any parking space in the zone, ensuring maximum flexibility for the users. An additional advantage from the user perspective is spontaneity. The vehicle reservations are possible, but they are not necessary; instead, the users can spot a vehicle and unlock them to drive instantly.

THE CITY OF ZAGREB As the capital of Croatia, the City of Zagreb, as the rest of the cities in the world, did not sustain the urbanisation process and the population increase. In addition to every other problem, this led to traffic problems, especially in private car traffic, to satisfy the needs of citizens. In 2015, the City of Zagreb had a population of 790,177 and 346,230 vehicles; these two values result with a motorisation rate of 438 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants (Grad Zagreb, 2016).

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE Private car occupancy in Zagreb is 1.38 passengers per vehicle (Grad Zagreb, 2017). According to the data from Zagrebparking (car parking authority in the City), there are 32,327 parking spaces in Zagreb, divided into private car parks (29,661 spaces in three zones), and business car parks (2,666 parking spaces) (Brčić, 2016). These numbers clearly indicate that there is a great demand for car parking in the City, with supply obviously not meeting the demand. This leads to traffic congestion in the City, especially the city centre, which increases the impact on the environment. If the average vehicle age is considered as well (13 years in the Republic of Croatia), the whole situation has even worse image, having impact mostly on the air quality and liveability. The citizens are required to be informed about the new sustainable modes of transport in the City, and they need to be encouraged into using them. The Spin City was firstly presented to the City of Zagreb in June 2016 as the first carsharing service ever. Spin City is a project of the private company Urban Mobility d.o.o., which is focused on developing shared, connected and sustainable modes of transport in the urban environment. The goal is to provide the citizens with better mobility by upgrading the existing public transport network in form of a car-sharing scheme, as an alternative to private car and its ownership costs. The purpose is to unburden the existing road network with environment-friendly sustainable transport in the city. The business model is B2C, and the operating model is free-floating. The vehicle fleet currently consists of 30 VW Up! Vehicles (20 conventional and 10 electric). The Spin City sharing zone covers almost the City of Zagreb entirely, and the vehicles can be picked up and left at any parking space within that zone. There are also nine parking spaces intended for carsharing vehicles exclusively. The first step for the users is the registration on the official website, with a fee paid for the registration. After a successful registration, the users send their documents via e-mail (ID or passport and a driver’s license) for validation. After the driver passes the validation, the member ID, used to unlock the cars, is delivered to the driver. Besides the member ID, the vehicles can be unlocked via the app. The app provides the information about vehicle availability, including the vehicle information (conventional or electric, fuel or battery level, and the shortest path to the vehicle considering the current location of the user).

CASE STUDY The research on habits and experiences of using the Spin City carsharing service was conducted by a survey. The survey was sent to the users by e-mail. At the time, the user database consisted of: •

Users who provided their information on the website, but they still have not paid for the registration fee

•

Users who paid for the registration fee, but they still have not sent their information to validation

•

Users who passed the entire registration and validation process

The survey did not encompass the potential users who have not decided for the service yet. The goal of the survey was to get the insight about the user attitude and thoughts, for improving the service and predicting future trends and

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future behaviour change among the users. The questionnaire included eight questions, and 80 users successfully completed it.

RESEARCH RESULTS Figure 27 and Figure 28 show that more than a half of the users (43 users or 54 %) live in a household with one vehicle, and 34 users (42 %) have two household members with a valid driver’s license.

Figure 27: The number of private cars per household (by authors)

A half of the users tried Spin City service due to curiosity, i.e. they only used it once just to try it. The number of people who use the service several times a month is slightly less (47.5 %), and the least percentage (2.5 %) belongs to the people who use the service several times a week. According to the survey, there are no people who use the service daily, although the experiences suggest other – the presumption is that a few users who require the service daily have not completed the questionnaire. Most users would not sell their private car, if they used only the carsharing service (64.4 %). The rest would sell their vehicle in such a scenario. This question was answered by only the users who own a private car (73 users).

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE Figure 28: The number household members with a valid driver’s license (by authors)

The crucial factors in mode choice for the most users were speed, time and costs. The third place on the factor scale belongs to comfort and availability (Figure 29).

Figure 29: Factors influencing mode choice (by authors)

If the users had every mode of transport available to them, 46 % users would still decide upon using their private cars. The ones who would choose the carsharing service, nevertheless the situation, make up the 23 % (Figure 30).

Figure 30: Factors influencing mode choice (by authors)

The lower service price would encourage 65 % of people to use carsharing service more frequently, and 22 % would use the service more if the availability of the vehicles (number of available cars) was higher. If the service was better integrated with other modes of transport (taxi or Uber, public transport, or public bicycles), the service would be used

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more frequently by 9 % of the users. As little as 3 % of people would use the service more just because it offers the comfort and independent driving.

CONCLUSION The results of the survey show that most carsharing users have one vehicle in their households, and that the vehicle is used mostly by both household members – the ones who possess a driver’s license. Therefore, one household member can move freely, and the other is limited, so the carsharing service perfectly compensates for the people who are occasional private car users in the household. A half of the people used the carsharing service only once to get familiar with the concept. The experience suggests that such users mostly wanted to try out the electric vehicle, because they did not have an opportunity to drive one. In addition, it was noted by the observed vehicle routes that users, for whom the electric vehicle was not the nearest one, drove with the conventional vehicle to the nearest electric vehicle, so they could continue their ride in an electric one. Approximately one third of users would sell their own vehicle if they decided to use only the carsharing service. That percentage could be higher if the users were more aware of the financial and environmental benefits of carsharing. Travel time and low prices are the leading factors influencing the mode choice. Theoretically, if most people used the carsharing service, there would be less vehicles on roads. This would result in improved traffic flow, and reduced travel times. The reduction of travel time would then result in the reduction of travel costs, because the carsharing service is mostly charged by the time spent in a vehicle, (Spin City also charges per in-vehicle time). The relatively large proportion (46 %) of users would still use their private cars, if every mode of transport was available to them. This number of users needs to be reduced by information, education and behaviour change. According to the responses, the people would use carsharing service more frequently if the service was cheaper, and if more vehicles were available. Spin City is constantly working on offering better service for the price. In less than a year of providing service in the City of Zagreb, the carsharing was expanded several times to satisfy user needs and requirements for mobility. There are several charging schemes which are, by price and by experience, competent to every mode of transport in the city, especially private cars. The information and education among citizens is the most important part whenever a carsharing service is going to be implemented. If the users are properly introduced with the multiple advantages of the service, the carsharing is likely to succeed in any type of urban environment.

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REFERENCES Autotrader. 2015. “The Good, Bad and Ugly of Peer-to-Peer Car Sharing”. Last modified February, 2015. Accessed March 2017. http://www.autotrader.com/car-shopping/the-good-bad-and-ugly-of-peer-to-peer-car-sharing-234961 Berkley. 2016. “Innovative Mobility Carsharing Outlook – Winter 2016”. Last modified February 2016. Accessed March 2017. http://tsrc.berkeley.edu/node/968 Brčić, Davor and Šoštarić, Marko. 2012. Parkiranje i garaže. Zagreb: Fakultet prometnih znanosti Brčić, Davor et al. 2016. “Učinci mjera održive urbane mobilnosti.” Vrednovanje učinaka mjera i strategija održivog transporta u gradovima” Grad Zagreb. 2016. “Statistički ljetopis Grada Zagreba”. Accessed http://www1.zagreb.hr/zgstat/documents/Ljetopis%202016/STATISTICKI_LJETOPIS_2016.pdf

March

2017.

Grad Zagreb. 2017. “Izvješće gradonačelnika o biciklističkom podsustavu unutar prometnog sustava Grada Zagreba”. Last modified September 2016. Accessed March 2017. http://www.zagreb.hr/default.aspx?id=96221 Hampshire, Robert Cornelius and Gaites, Craig. 2011. „Peer-to-peer carsharing: Market analysis and potential growth.“ Journal of the Transportation Research Board, no. 2217 (December): 119-126 Innovative Mobility. 2014. “Mobility and the Sharing Economy: Impacts Synopsis”. Accessed April 3, 2017. http://innovativemobility.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Innovative-Mobility-Industry-Outlook_SM-Spring2015.pdf Le Vine, Scott; Zolfaghari, Alireza and Polak, John. 2014. Carsharing: Evolution, Challenges and Opportunities. London: 22th ACEA, Scientific Advisory Group Report, Centre for Transport Studies, Imperial College Shaheen, Susan; Sperling, Daniel and Wagner, Conrad. 1998. “Carsharing in Europe and North America: past present and future.” Transportation Quarterly, no. 52 (3rd): 35-52

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CONCEPT OF THE REGIONAL PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT Milan Simeunović University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Pavle Pitka 96 University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Dejan Radivojev University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Ivan Škiljaica University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Organization of the urban and suburban public transport system (UPT) is under jurisdictions of local administrations, while intercity transport is under jurisdiction of the Ministry of transport. Intercity transport is transport that takes place on territories of different municipalities. Key problem of organizing UPT in local areas in the Republic of Serbia is the lack of possibility of organizing quality system in all municipalities, due to numerous restrictions. This problem is specially expressed in small municipalities. This concept of managing the system of UPT has numerous drawbacks. Certain, smaller local administrations in the Republic of Serbia can’t organize efficient UPT, primarily due to financial, personnel and other obstacles. One of possible solutions is connecting several municipal areas and larger regional center into unique regional public transport system management. Keywords: Regional public transport, Municipalities, Local administrations.

INTRODUCTION

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE The purpose of urban and suburban public transport system (UPT) as a traffic activity is to provide transport service in a certain area. This activity needs to promote social-economic development of cities and municipalities to realize programs of complex spatial arrangement. At the same time, it needs to reduce the degree of disturbance of environment by noise and pollution, to contribute to economic use of resources and to increase mobility of the population. UPT has a dual function: it is spatially economic mode of transport, which in one hand reduces traffic congestions on urban roads, and on the other it provides transportation to those who don’t own any other means of transport. In most European cities UPT is considered to be public interest, whose advantages are not only measured as a function of number of transported passengers and the cost of transport, but equally as a function of factors such as: •

reduction of traffic congestions,

•

increase of traffic safety,

•

improvements in the environment,

•

increase of population’s mobility, etc.

Now there is no need to prove the meaning and the role of public transport system, since it is widely accepted stance, that it is irreplaceable function of each citizen’s life, economy and all activities in a city and its surroundings. Basic problem is how to ensure that this system functions efficiently in a certain area, or in other words, how to provide financial means to cover the expenses of functioning and to achieve satisfying level of service at the same time. In the Republic of Serbia stated problem is especially emphasized in smaller municipalities. This paper presents concept of organization of urban and suburban transport systems for passengers which would allow smaller municipalities to overcome problems in organization and management of the system of public transport.

ORGANIZATION MODELS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT Depending on the importance of UPT in city’s and region’s transport system, as well as economic potentials, regional and national institutions responsible for monitoring of work and support for work on public transport, organization models and managing the market of UPT varies as well. In general the formula for optimal model for connecting local companies that are involved in UPT, in organization areas, management, current work and development, in technicaltechnological and economic-financial sense simply does not exist.

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Even though organization forms (models) of UPT differ from city to city they all have some characteristics in common. Those common characteristics lay in coordination of transport service in urban and suburban areas, competition between operators, integration of physical, tariff, management, control and information systems, solid financing of their work and solid financing of the development of UPT. Based on available literature and high number of published papers in the world, it can be concluded that there are three basic concepts, or groups of models of organization of the market of UPT. 1.

Regulated regime model (classic model)

Regulated regieme model of public monopoly in UPT mostly dominates UPT systems whre operator is owned by the city. In this frame certanin modalitys are possible. Regulated regieme system-system management of UPT can refer to „public“ but to „private“ operators as well (Vuchic, 2005). 2.

Limited competition model

This model has two variations: different forms of tenders on line levels and choice of operator with lowest cost (Denmark, Finland, Sweden – so called Scandinavian model) or contract based management of line network (France, Norway – so called French model) (van de Velde, 1999; Velde, 2001). 3.

Deregulated regime model

This is a free market model based on competition between operators for certain lines (Beesley, 1991; Savage, 1993). These models are mostly used in Great Britain (outside London).

FINANCING MODELS OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT The activity of urban public transport is not profitable because it hasn’t got standard economic characteristics, mainly due to the fact that it is a public service (Banković, 1994). Stated ascertainment refers to the case of performing this function by public companies which are owned by local or regional authorities, since they operate in surrounding which don’t have standard principles of free market (limited fares, privileged fares for certain passenger categories, lower increase in fares in relation to the increase of cost of operations etc.). In this case the lack of funds up to the price of current operating expenses of the company (without

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE creating conditions for creating profit) as well as needed finances for development (investments) are all provided from different sources. If urban public transport is performed by private companies they only work with the condition of making profit based on free market principles. In this case privet companies use economic fares for all the passenger categories (except when subventions are arranged for certain passenger categories), vehicles usually work on urban lines, in periods of higher demands of passenger transport and similar. In the end it should be mentioned that introduction of market logic as a base for operation of private companies has a goal to reduce grants and subventions, by which local authorities create (and creates responsibility) conditions for raising the quality of service to a higher level (Simeunović, Leković, Radojković, & Pitka, 2010). Experience shows that private companies realize better rationality in their operations then public companies do. Managing social policies significantly determines the financing policy of public transport regardless to the ownership structure. Having in mind this fact organization models of public transport systems should be developed based on rational operations on one side and quality level which is provided by the system on the other side.

REGIONALIZATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT Organization and management of public transport is within the authority of local administrations in the Republic of Serbia. Such management concept has numerous drawbacks which are primarily in the areas of financial, human resources and other obstacles for local administrations to organize efficient public transport (Simeunović, Gladović, & Pitka, 2013). When positions of cities are analyzed from geographical point of view it is possible to make conclusion that on a wider geographical area there always is a regional center to which number of municipalities gravitate to. By analyzing statistical data on the territory of the Republic of Serbia finite number of regional centers and settlements surrounding them can be defined in such a manner that the whole territory of Republic of Serbia can be covered. In the existing conditions smaller municipalities don’t have urban and suburban public transport organized and these areas are dominated by intercity transport. In the existing conditions municipalities provide considerable funds to

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finance cost of transportation for certain categories of citizens, pupils and students, employees of public companies etc. It is also common case that municipal administrations don’t have any authority over transport. Only on the territory of the Autonomous province of Vojvodina a large number of municipalities can be stated, which don’t have urban and suburban public transport of passengers, such as: Beočin, Temerin, Sečanj, Titel, Irig etc. Based on the data obtained through research conducted for the needs of several studies of public urban and suburban transport of passengers, it can be concluded that due to the low transport demand for trips inside municipalities, stated municipalities are not able to organize system of public urban and suburban transport on their territories. Existing, applied solution for realization of transport on territories of these municipalities is registration of intercity lines. Needs for suburban transport on the territories of Beočin and Temerin are solved by intercity transport mostly towards Novi Sad, while municipalities Sečanj and Titel solve this with transport towards Zrenjanin. Existing solution excludes municipal administration from the process of management of public transport and has a direct influence on poor service quality which is offered to users in stated municipalities. (Simeunović et al., 2011; Simeunović et al., 2015) Due to these facts the only rational organization model of urban public transport is on a wider regional area including the bigger regional center-the city.

CONCLUSION One of possible ways to rationally organize urban public transport system is regionalization. This means that on certain area main centers are defined to which certain municipalities gravitate to. Public transport should be organized in such a manner that strategies are defined hierarchically. It is necessary to connect main centers and to determine: subsystems (transport carriers) capacity of lines, time frame of work on lines etc. The second hierarchical level would present connection between surrounding municipalities and centers to which they gravitate to with full integration with the previous hierarchical levels in physical, tariff, information and planning levels. The lowest hierarchical level would be organization of local lines in administrative area of each individual center in a sense of support to previously defined levels.

REFERENCES

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TOPIC V: ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY MODES OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUTE Banković, R. 1994. Organizacija i tehnologija javnog gradskog putničkog prevoza. Beograd: Saobraćajni fakultet. Beesley, M. E. 1991. “Bus deregulation: lessons from the U.K.” Transportation Planning and Technology, 15(2–4): 95–106. Savage, I. 1993. “Deregulation and privatization of Britain’s local bus industry.” Journal of Regulatory Economics, 5(2): 143– 158. Simeunović, M., Gladović, P., & Pitka, P. 2013. “Organizing the public transportation system in Serbia.” In „Towards a humane city“ 4rd International Conference (pp. 437–444). Novi Sad: Faculty of technical sciences, University of Novi Sad. Simeunović, M., Leković, M., Radojković, M., & Pitka, P. 2010. “The financing public transport model in the function of quality services.” In “Dependability and quality management” ICDQM-2010 (pp. 423–431). Beograd: Istraživački centar za upravljanje kvalitetom i pouzdanošću. Simeunović M, Pitka P, Leković M, Saulić N. 2011. “Sistemsko–generalno brojanje i anketa putnika u javnom gradskom i prigradskom prevozu putnika na području Novog Sada.” Faculty of technical sciences, University of Novi Sad. Simeunović M, Pitka P, Gladović P, Saulić, N. 2015. “Studija javnog saobraćaja na teritoriji grada Zrenjanina.” Faculty of technical sciences, University of Novi Sad and Traffic&transport solutions doo, Novi Sad, 2015. Van de Velde, D. . 1999. “Organisational forms and entrepreneurship in public transport: classifying organisational forms”. Transport Policy, 6(3): 147–157. Velde, D. M. van de. 2001. The evolution of organizational forms in European CountriesH. In 7th Conference on Competition and Ownership in Land Passenger Transport (p. 19). Vuchic, V. 2005. “Urban Transport Operation, Planning and Economics”. New Jersey: John Viley & Sons Inc.

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE

TOPICS VI: CLIMATE CHANGE

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ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL OF THE REFURBISHMENT OF BUILDING ENVELOPE OF THE EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSES IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Darija Gajić 97 University of Banja Luka - Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/3, Banja Luka, [email protected] Erdin Salihović University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Architecture, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, [email protected] Nermina Zagora University of Sarajevo - Faculty of Architecture, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, [email protected] ABSTRACT Emerging from the results gained through the two year research project “Typology of residential buildings of Bosnia and Herzegovina”, this paper focuses on the potential energy savings which may be obtained by refurbishing the building envelope of the existing single-family houses. Based on the postulate that the energy needed for heating may be regarded as an indicator of EE, this paper is structured around the three main segments. The first segment will present the quantitative data related to the residential sector, concentrating on the individual-collective housing ratio, and furthermore, on the urban-rural ratio of the individual housing. The second part will comprise of the analysis of the correlation between the characteristics of the building envelope, building technology quality and the shape factor (A/V ratio) of existing buildings with the energy needed for heating of the existing buildings. The third segment will show the energy savings potential of the application of conventional measures of the refurbishment of the building envelope of the single family houses, while maintaining the same shape factor. The relevance of this research is in showing the potential savings of the energy needed for heating of the existing single-family houses, which are affected by the features of the building envelope and the shape factor, while at the same time comparing its potential impact in the residential stock in urban and rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This research aims to contribute to the improvement of the existing EE regulations and legislative and to future strategies in urban planning and architectural design of residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: single-family houses, energy characteristics, building envelope, A/V ratio, energy need

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INTRODUCTION The key approach for climate change mitigation is the reduction of the level of energy consumption, that is, reduction of energy intensity by preserving the same or enabling greater comfort that such energy effect offers. This approach represents the foundation for all activities being undertaken in the field of energy efficiency increase. A number of strategic documents in Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the level of entities, region and local communities, concluded that the most of the energy, about 58.44% of the total energy, in Bosnia and Herzegovina is used in the residential sector (NEEAP, 2012). The aforementioned evaluations have not been done based on energy efficiency indicators, or energy need for heating building (Gajić, 2014), but based on statistical data, energy balance and energetics development plans, at the level of final energy and energy generating products (electric, heat, natural gas, oil and oil derivatives, coal and biomass). Scientific-research project "Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina" (AksićArnautović et al, 2016), except that leading indicator of energy efficiency, delivers key information on the quantity, type and the manner of construction, as well as the energy need for heating existing residential buildings in urban and rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The methodological framework of typology of residential buildings research of Bosnia and Herzegovina is based on European international research project „TABULA“ 98 harmonized with the directives 2002/91/EC and 2006/32/EC and co-financed from the European Commission IEE 99 program. The „TABULA“ project, whose initiators come from the IWU 100 from Darmstadt, defines a single framework of classification of typology of residential buildings in Europe, with a defined methodology of calculation of energy characteristics of buildings. Results of the scientific-research project point to the fact that there is a significantly greater proportion of existing individual/single-family housing 101 (97.6%) compared to the existing building of collective/multi-family housing 102 (2.4%). The present paper demonstrates the potential of the building stock of individual housing through the three segments, which are important for energy efficiency in buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

THE QUANTITATIVE DATA RELATED TO THE RESIDENTIAL SECTOR IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA The first segment of the paper comprehends: quantitative ratio of individual and collective housing in the total building stock, and the relationship between urban and rural areas within the category of individual housing, and quantitative presence of buildings by period of construction. Due to the absence of data on the existing building stock, as well as

Typology Approach for Building Stock Energy Assessment Intelligent Energy Europe 100 Institut Wohnen und Umwelt GmbH 101 The individual housing refers to a segment of the building stock, which includes both, the Single-family houses and Terraced houses 102 The collective housing refers to a segment of the building stock, which includes all, the Multi-family houses, Attached apartment 98 99

building in urban blocks, Apartment blocks and Highrise.

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in the case of research in the residential typology of Serbia (Jovanović-Popović et al, 2013.) 103, BiH team of experts decided to implement the building survey and the application of statistical analysis as the basis for a reliable classification of building according to similarity of their general and specific characteristics. In the period between June and September 2015, the statistics agency 104 processed, by computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), 13,044 buildings of individual and collective housing in Bosnia and Herzegovina with an estimated sampling error of +/- 0.92%. The model of the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina 105 and preliminary results of 2013 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings were used with the goal of obtaining as precise data on the number of dwelling units per municipalities and optimal zone mapping, starting points and enumerators′movements as possible. According to the statistical survey by the total number of buildings, the dominant share in the total number of buildings is accounted for individual/single family housing typologies (97,63%). Quantitative overview of the number of dwelling units shows that the difference between the individual and collective housing is less pronounced (66.5% versus 33.5%), but still indicates that the individual housing typologies represent the dominant category, accounting for the two-thirds of the entire building stock (Figure 1) .

Figure 1: The relation of individual/single family housing and collective/multi-family housing by total number of buildings (left) and total number of dwelling units (right) - (source: Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016)

Throughout the history, urban areas have undergone further development. Based on the data from the existing building stock (buildings built by 2014) and the statistical estimates, 23% of the buildings belong to the urban areas and 77% belong to the rural areas (Figure 2.). of the European research teams, participants of the "TABULA", typology buildings perform on the basis of available statistical data, a team of experts from the University of Belgrade, for the specific needs of the research project "National Typology of Residential Buildings in Serbia "(Jovanović -Popović et al., 2013) conducted a dedicated inventory of residential buildings with statistical data processing. 104 Statistics agency IPSOS, BiH 105 Statistical Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina; http://www.bhas.ba/ 103 Most

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Figure 2: The relation of individual/single-family housing in urban and rural area (left) and relation of individual/single-family housing through the period of construction (right) - (source: data from the project Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014-2016)

Development of building stock in urban areas was due to the requirements of regulations and legislation, which directly influenced on the energy performance of buildings. Most of the buildings of individual housing (60%) were built after 1981. (Figure 2, right). In the urban areas, there is about 95% of the individual housing - single-family houses, while there is about 5% of the terraced houses. Most of the individual housing was built within the period 1992-2014 (31%), but due to the length of the period, the most productive period was from 1981 to 1991. (29%, Figure 2, right and Table 1.) It is necessary to point out the fact that 40% of the building stock of individual housing (single-family houses and terraced houses) is older than 40 years, which would require the refurbishment of the envelope according to the practice in the European Union (Giebeler et al, 2009). The quantitative analysis indicates that there is, in the entire residential building stock, a predominantly represented typology of individual housing (97.61%, by number of buildings, or 66.5% by number of dwelling units), and that 77% of existing buildings of individual housing are located in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina, out of which 40% is over 40 years old.

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Table 1. Gross surface of residential buildings per type in Bosnia and Herzegovina (m²) - (source: Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016) INDIVIDUAL HOUSING

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD

up to 1945

COLLECTIVE HOUSING

SFH

TH

MFH

AB1

AB2

H

TOTAL

Singlefamily house

Terraced house

Multyfamily house

Attached apartmen t building

Apartment block

High-rise building

All types

TOTAL

5.200

1.453.973

0,89%

353.420

49.777

5.246.660

3,22%

1.192.969

3.122.201

485.596

18.005.448

11,05%

3.587.596

1.101.982

8.758.838

489.698

41.891.319

25,71%

1.035.435

1.048.335

56.310

3.280.277

76.832

43.779.843

26,87%

42.653.964

1.145.208

4.666.418

846.958

3.200.171

38.669

52.551.387

32,25%

TOTAL

120.100.130

4.583.578

14.295.068

4.089.175

18.714.906

1.145.772

162.928.630

100,00%

TOTAL

73,71%

2,81%

8,77%

2,51%

11,49%

0,70%

100,00%

970.333

116.098

168.460

193.882

1946-60

2.356.517

149.959

1.639.913

697.074

1961 -70

9.132.251

888.085

3.184.346

1971-80

26.704.411

1.248.793

1981-91

38.282.654

1992-2014

THE ENERGY CHARACTERISTICS DATA RELATED TO THE EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSES IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA The second segment of this paper shows the potential of the building stock of individual housing in saving the energy needed for heating, according to the energy performance of envelope and compactness (shape factor or A/V ratio) of existing buildings, which affect the energy efficiency indicator. The energy performance of an envelope and compactness of buildings were derived from the representative samples, i.e. typical buildings, which correspond to the average values of the survey by their dimensions, while the characteristics of the current state of the envelope reflect the technical requirements and technological possibilities of the relevant period, and the experts' assessment of the degradation of building envelope through time periods. Energy need for heating of the individual typical building/house is the basis for the determination of total energy need for heating for residential buildings in the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Table 2.).

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE Table 2. Energy need for heating of residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina (MWh/a) - (source: Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016) INDIVIDUAL HOUSING

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD

COLLECTIVE HOUSING

SFH

TH

MFH

AB1

AB2

H

TOTAL

Singlefamily house

Terraced house

Multyfamily house

Attached apartment building

Apartment block

High-rise building

All types

TOTAL

290.512

1,48%

1.026.397

5,24%

58.326

3.590.706

18,32%

34.574

7.393.657

37,74%

197.170

3.506.571

17,90%

35.918

105.050

3.786.038

19,32% 100,00%

up to 1945

244.439

8.433

17.488

20.151

1946-60

719.865

28.327

195.151

58.365

24.688

1961 -70

2.752.871

87.198

327.081

80.437

284.792

1971-80

6.350.897

156.250

189.255

662.681

1981-91

3.101.309

89.498

115.571

3.022

1992-2014

3.528.879

116.191

TOTAL

16.698.261

369.706

960.738

197.893

1.274.382

92.900

19.593.880

TOTAL

85,22%

1,89%

4,90%

1,01%

6,50%

0,48%

100,00%

Data on the total annual energy need for heating in residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina were obtained based on the statistical data on the total number of buildings as well as the calculated energy need for heating in actual typical buildings (Table 2). Energy consumption data on the level of typical buildings were projected to the level of the entire category with introduction of the coefficient of the ratio between the average gross surface of a relevant category and gross surface of the typical building, and the coefficient of the ratio between net and gross surface of a typical building (Table 2). Individual housing typologies built in the period of 1971-80 are characterized by the maximum value of the energy need for heating, as 37.74% of the total energy needed for heating of the whole residential building stock, wherein particularly the single-family houses stand out, with a proportion of 32.14% of the total energy needs for residential buildings.

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ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL OF THE REFURBISHMENT BUILDING ENVELOPE OF THE EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSES IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA The third segment of this paper indicates the reduction of energy need for heating after applying standard measures of refurbishment of building envelope, keeping the same compactness of the building. Standard improvement measures defined in accordance with usual measures applied during building reconstruction in the territory of BiH (improvement of thermal characteristics of walls and ceilings by technically common procedures) as well as a possible replacement of the existing windows with new ones, with better characteristics (defined minimal values of heat transfer coefficient) - Table 3. Table 3. Energy efficiency Improvement measures - (source: Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016) CONSTRUCTION TYPE

IMPROVEMENT

Exterior wall

Thermal insulation thickness: 10 cm (λ=0,041W/mK)

Ceiling toward non-heated attic


Ceiling toward non-heated basement


Flat roof


Sloped roof


Windows

Windows with double insulation glass (U=1,6 W/m2K)

Table 4 shows the shape factor (A/V ratio) of representative samples of the individual housing typologies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is highly expressed in the existing buildings from all periods, while for the buildings built up to 1981 the values are particularly high. The A/V ratio indicates the smaller net areas of the heated residential space or that the surface of the envelope enclosing the heated space is larger than the volume of the space.

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE Table 4. Energy need for heating in kWh/m²a and shape factor of representative residential buildings (SFH and TH) in Bosnia and Herzegovina before and after implementation of standard measures - (source: data from the project Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2014-2016)

TYPES

building category

SFH Singlefamily house

TH Terraced house

PERIODS

Net area of the heated spaces

Heated space volume

Shape factorf0= A/V ratio

Transmission losses

Ventilation losses

Hv

Energy need for heating Qh,nd,interm

Ht

Hv

Energy need for heating Qh,nd,interm

(before)

(before)

(before)

(after)

(after)

(after)

Transmission losses

Ventilation losses

Ht

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD

m2

m³

-

W/K

W/K

kWh/m2a

W/K

W/K

kWh/m2a

up to 1945

68,4

213,4

0,91

541,42

78,65

452,34

187,93

35,75

148,45

1946-60

43,2

98,2

1,49

318,08

35,85

473,96

120,64

16,30

172,09

1961 -70

55,6

139,1

1,36

396,65

41,95

464,90

148,14

23,30

171,85

1971-80

67,8

149,2

1,04

405,92

44,99

381,59

145,79

25,00

134,11

1981-91

101,4

250,2

0,83

229,25

50,28

135,93

123,27

41,90

72,71

1992-2014

121,1

298,7

0,92

238,13

50,04

127,61

155,04

50,04

86,04

up to 1945

135,9

407,6

0,71

427,11

122,90

183,16

232,23

68,28

89,97

1946-60

36,4

93,2

1,36

209,74

27,85

321,27

94,29

15,47

138,40

1961 -70

118,8

286,1

0,69

372,13

72,77

196,42

155,77

47,88

79,25

1971-80

131,2

328,4

0,91

394,35

83,61

199,04

223,52

55,01

109,05

1981-91

81,1

205,1

0,95

308,19

41,22

219,20

117,50

34,35

81,27

A/V ratio analysis of the individual housing typologies in Bosnia and Herzegovina shows that: - heated space is compact in single-family houses built until 1980 (area of floor plan is below 72 m², which is characteristic for onestory buildings of dimensions less than 9 m x 8 m), - after 1980, there are most of the single-family two-story buildings with both stories heated, but heated space is not compact (inside buildings there are unheated spaces - garages, storages), - terraced houses have a lower shape factor than the single-family houses, because they share two exterior/facade walls with other heated spaces of other terraced houses,

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- most of the terraced houses were built after 1960 and they do not have a compact heated space (non-heated spaces – garage, storage, attic) inside the house. Table 4 shows that the standard improvement of the energy characteristics of the envelope, wherein the compactness, or the shape factor of the heated space will stay unchanged, the transmission and ventilation losses are reduced, as well as the energy needed for heating by 1.5 to 3 times. By introducing standard improvement measures for envelopes of the existing residential buildings, it is possible to reduce the total annual energy needed for heating by 55.23%. Comparison of Table 2 and Table 5 indicates that energy need of 19,593,880 MWh (70.53 PJ) could be reduced to 8,771,954 MWh (31.58 PJ) if the set of standard improvement measures is implemented. Results indicate that singlefamily houses, even after implementation of the standard improvement measures, dominate as a category in the overall reduced consumption of energy, accounting for 86,98%, hence this category has the potential for highest absolute savings, while the relative savings amount to 54%. The study showed that individual single-family houses built in the period from 1981 to 2014 (490,874 buildings with a gross floor area of 80,936,618 m²) have the energy need for heating of 6,630,188 MWh, while in the period 1971-1980, only for 194,076 buildings (with a gross floor area of 26,704,411 m²) energy need to heating is 6,350,897 MWh. Table 5. Energy need for heating of residential buildings after implementation of standard measures in Bosnia and Herzegovina (MWh/a) - (source: Typology of Residential Buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2016) INDIVIDUAL HOUSING

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD

up to 1945

COLLECTIVE HOUSING

SFH

TH

MFH

AB1

AB2

H

TOTAL

Singlefamily house

Terraced house

Multyfamily house

Attached apartment building

Apartment block

High-rise building

All types

TOTAL

97.191

1,11%

356.533

4,06%

14.632

1.298.032

14,80%

10.927

2.661.448

30,34%

90.838

1.819.038

20,74%

20.680

62.961

2.539.712

28,95%

365.111

67.785

513.730

25.560

8.771.954

100,00%

4,16%

0,77%

5,86%

0,29%

100,00%

80.221

4.142

6.396

6.433

1946-60

261.376

12.203

60.137

15.687

7.130

1961 -70

1.017.597

35.182

117.788

23.982

88.851

1971-80

2.232.026

85.606

68.938

263.950

1981-91

1.658.914

33.184

35.099

1.003

1992-2014

2.379.318

76.753

TOTAL

7.629.451

170.318

TOTAL

86,98%

1,94%

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The smallest relative savings are achievable in case of single-family houses built in period 1992-2014 (32.43%), and in multi-family houses/buildings from period 1992-2014 (33.77%), due to better thermal performance of envelope elements of buildings built in the specified period. The presented comparative analyses indicate that the greatest potential savings of energy needed for heating, after the application of the standard improvement measures on energy performance of envelope and heating systems, are located in single-family houses, and that, within this typology, buildings built in the period 1971-1980 especially stand out as a priority for refurbishment/reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS The population in Bosnia and Herzegovina dominantly prefers single-family houses, which is evident in the structure of the existing residential building stock by 2014, in which buildings of individual housing account for 76% of the total gross floor area. Survey of residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina showed that out of buildings of individual housing 23% belong to the urban area and 77% belong to the rural area. Furthermore, the energy need for heating of buildings of individual housing in the rural area of Bosnia and Herzegovina amounts to 12,480,471 MWh, accounting for 63.7% of the total energy need for heating of residential buildings. Shape factor (A/V ratio) of typical buildings of the individual housing from all of the periods of construction in Bosnia and Herzegovina is highly expressed, while in case of buildings built after 1981 the A/V ratio is particularly high. Foregoing considerations lead to the conclusion and recommendation of the advantages of the design of terraced houses and semi-detached houses because of the lower A/V ratio (expected the lower energy need for heating). The results show that, in terms of refurbishment of building stock, the priority buildings are those which originate from the period 1971-80, because the renewal of their envelope can realize the greatest savings of energy need for heating.

REFERENCES Arnautović-Aksić, Dragica, Burazor Mladen, Delalić Nijaz, Gajić Darija, Gvero Petar, Kadrić Džana, Kotur Milovan, Salihović Erdin, Todorović Darko i Zagora Nermina. 2016. Tipologija stambenih zgrada Bosne i Hercegovine/Typology of Residential buildings in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu Bosnia and Herzegovina First National Energy Efficiency Action Plan 2010-2018. 2012, final draft, Sarajevo Gajić, Darija. 2014. Energetska optimizacija omotača reprezentativnih uzoraka postojećih stambenih zgrada grada Banjaluka – doctoral disseration, Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu

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Giebeler, Georg, Fisch Rainer, Krause Harald, Musso Floran, Petzinka Karl-Heinz and Rudolphi Alexander. 2009. Refurbishment Manual, Basel, Boston, Berlin: Birkhäuser, pp. 23. Hegger, Manfred, Fuchs Matthias, Stark Thomas and Zeumer Martin. 2008. Energy Manual: sustainable architecture, Basel: Birkhäuser, pp. 85. Jovanović-Popović Milica, Ignjatović Dušan, Radivojević Ana, Rajčić Aleksandar, Đukanović Ljiljana, Ćuković Ignjatović Nataša, Nedić Miloš, 2013. Nacionalna tipologija stambenih zgrada Srbije, Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu Pravilnik o tehničkim zahtjevima za toplotnu zaštitu objekata i racionalnu upotrebu energije, Sl. novine Federacije BiH, br.49/09. Pravilnik o minimalnim zahtjevima za energetske karakteristike zgrada, Sl. gl. Rep. Srpske, br. 30/15. Pravilnik o energetskoj efikasnosti zgrada i Pravilnik o uslovima, sadržini i načinu izdavanja sertifikata o energetskim svojstvima zgrada, Accessed June 10, 2013. http://www.ingkomora.org.rs/strucniispiti Tehnički propis o racionalnoj uporabi energije i toplinskoj zaštiti u zgradama, Narodne novine, Sl. list Republike Hrvatske br. 128/15, Appendix B, Table 8. Typology Approach for Building http://episcope.eu/iee.project/tabula

Stock

Energy

Assessment.

2012.

Accessed

September

20,

2015.

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(R)URBAN SYNERGY RECONSIDERED: THE ROLE OF INFORMATION NETWORKS IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION Dr Aleksandra Stupar Associate Professor, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Dr Vladimir Mihajlov Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Ivan Simić University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/2, 11 000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The paper is focused on the relationship between urban and rural settlements, established via information networks and oriented towards climate change adaptation and mitigation. The first part of the paper provides a review of emerging ideas and innovations related to the (un)conventional use of information networks in reducing the consequences of climate change, while the second part examines the strategic role of networks in the exchange of data and knowledge. Two levels are especially emphasized - the domain of public communication of climate change, and the level of connectivity within (r)urban hybrid systems (i.e. their effectiveness, accessibility and low-carbon outcomes). In accordance with recent environmental and technological trends, as well as the possible spatiofunctional flexibility of (r)urban hybrid settlements, the paper indentifies and analyses three areas of networks applicability, targeting main challenges of the anticipated climate-friendly development - human behaviour, ecological awareness and general efficiency. Keywords: climate change adaptation and mitigation, (r)urban systems, information networks, environmental quality.

INTRODUCTION The beginning of the 21st century has increased global awareness related to the problems of climate change and global warming, underlining a necessity of reducing GHG emissions (IPCC, 2007c, 2013). Adaptation to climate change, as the ability of environment to support change without creating hazardous situations (Giddens, 2009), has become an important ideological issue between the neoliberal and green perception of future development. The global

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scale of climate change has also stirred up a hyper-production of studies, discussions and theories tackling a number of issues related to nature, mechanisms, causes and effects of this process. Although the emphasis has mostly been on mitigation, the importance of adaptation becomes more important after the adoption of the Cancun Adaptation Framework (2010) which supports the development of national adaptation plans and strategies. All these steps have generated some improvements, especially on the level of urban settlements, addressing the issues of energy, carbonneutral environment, green modes of living, sustainable mobility and urban systems, although their impact has been very limited (European Commission 2013a, 2013b). Nowadays, cities represent main nodes of global comprehension targeted by numerous adaptation and mitigation strategies. At the same time, the role and character of rural areas is significantly redefined - the expansion of urban activities and the decreasing share of agriculture in overall economy of rural areas have instigated their transformation and altered their traditional characteristics. Stressing the role of green urbanism and cohesion (via social and technical networks), the efficient relationship between urban settlements and their rural 'backup' is identified as a base for higher overall sustainability (Beatley, 2000; Pflieger and Rozenblat, 2010; Simic i Mihajlov, 2016; Wood, 2007). Simultaneously, the characteristics of (r)urban hybrid systems, such as diversity, sustainable transportation, density, land use, passive solar design, greening and compact form (Jabareen, 2006), represent important factors in achieving the necessary dynamic of urban-rural relationship. Since the influence of growing urbanisation is visible both on the morphological level and on the level of urban-rural connectivity, rural areas have to be considered in the process of climate change adaptation and mitigation. Therefore, the climate sensitive rural development policies have been created within the EU framework, dealing with the wide range of economic, environmental and social challenges instigated by climate change. Sharing a number of objectives with other European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF), the EU Framework for rural development programmes promotes resource efficiency, supports the shift toward a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy and emphasizes the importance of social inclusion, poverty reduction and economic development in rural areas (European Commission 2013a, 2013b). Obviously, the higher level of connectivity between urban and rural areas, recognized as an important element of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), gradually becomes a necessity which might be achieved by stimulating a hybrid character of urban-rural systems supported by information networks. Underlining the strategic role of material and digital information networks in the process of climate mitigation and adaptation, the paper will focus on a relationship between (r)urban systems, information networks and climate change, manifested both in the domain of public communication of climate change and on the level of (r)urban synergy. Based on the review of key literature and Internet searches, it provides an overview of current trends and practices, discussing the possibilities and effects (un)conventional use of ICT flows in understanding and reducing the consequences of climate change. The selected literature covers three main topics - the effects of climate change; adaptation and mitigation strategies/policies; and information networks in (r)urban areas. Internet searches were directed to three major areas of networks applicability in the process of climate adaptation and mitigation - human behaviour, ecological awareness and general efficiency. The results of the analysis were classified according to website content, mode of use and anticipated impact/audience.

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ICT NETWORKS VS. CLIMATE CHANGE The simultaneous and interlinked existence of the material/physical environment and its electronic/digital counterpart represents an inevitable element of modern comprehension, which has been analyzed by different authors (Aurigi and De Cindio, 2008; Bucher and Finka, 2011; Drewe, 2000; Fusero, 2009; Graham and Marvin, 1996; Light, 1999; Mitchell, 2000 etc.). New modes of communication transform the nature of our interactions and structure of our needs, creating a different kind of life and work which reflects in different spatial patterns and typologies (Castells, 2004). On our way toward climate-friendly environment, we have to be aware that anticipated transformations have to follow the logic of global networking, as a prerequisite for an efficient multi-sectoral response to climate shifts. From the perspective of climate change, information networks could be seen as a unique data resource, available to different groups of consumers. However, in order to increase their usability, their flows should be transparent (Booher and Innes, 2002). Furthermore, the produced data have to be easily interpreted, understood and incorporated into decision-making processes oriented toward climate adaptation and mitigation (Lemos et al., 2012). Describing the so-called E-topia, Mitchell (2000) envisioned the development path of a green human settlement with smart elements, which we gradually accept and follow. He distinguished several principles - dematerialization, demobilization, mass customization, intelligent operation and soft transformation - which would stimulate life with a minimized production of waste and reduced traffic and pollution (enabled by ICT networks). E-reinforcement would lead to an intelligent adaptation, automated personalization and the creation of efficient, responsive markets for available resources, while soft transformation would enable adaptation of existing spatial structures by inserting ICT networks with minimal physical change. The current development paths of urban and rural settlements demonstrate the application of numerous elements proposed by Mitchell, while their elaboration could be found in different documents, emphasising the importance of low carbon economy and smart solutions. For example, 'SMART 2020 report' by The Climate Group (2008) promotes 'Clean revolution' enabled by ICT and focused on the SMART framework. The report also recognized basic steps/imperatives - standardize, monitor, account, rethink and transform - necessary for reducing the carbon footprint and GHG emissions. Similarly, the ARUP's report suggests smart solutions for low-carbon cities in which the reduced emission should be achieved simultaneously with increased living standard and economic success (Hill et al., 2009). Both documents suggest that information and communications technologies could provide new users' experience and smart behavioural change also influencing the development of low carbon urban economies. Consequently, the increased intensity and extent of connections are underlined as important factors in providing a continuous communication/feedback related to different activities and services, while smart interfaces enable efficient and personalized experience. Obviously, the synergy of information and technology, integrated in both urban and rural systems via ICT networks, could play a significant role in the mitigation of climate risks and adaptation to changing conditions. The main task is to connect environment and people by supporting an efficient exchange through learning and understanding of environmental processes and (r)urban systems.

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NETWORKS OF/FOR 'GREEN' INFORMATION The digital form enables better (and instant) detection of changes, increases the efficiency of data transmission and analyses, and provides a better understanding of processes, their potentials and setbacks. Therefore, the modern technologies directly influence the ability of both urban and rural settlements to be resource-efficient and oriented toward reduction of GHG, while open information play a significant role in minimising the carbon footprint. Information networks also support communication and cooperation between all levels of governance and stakeholders, which is very important for raising awareness (Kousky and Schneider, 2003), identification of potential climate risks and adaptation priorities (Bulkeley, 2010), management of complex ecosystems (Bodin and Crona, 2009) and implementation of collaborative planning (Healey, 2006). Information flows reinforce formal and informal social networks, especially on a local level which represents an optimal scale for creating and implementing adaptation strategies (Kern and Alber, 2008) and developing adaptive capacity (Pelling and High, 2005). The use of readilyavailable technologies and real-time systems for information transparency, monitoring and decision-making is increasing, and this process creates a promising setting for new trends of environmental responsibility, eco-oriented economic development, energy efficiency and community support. Connecting social, technological and natural systems, while targeting sectors of services, mobility and government, new technologies influence built environment and society through different media, systems, tools, gadgets and applications able to detect, collect, analyze and process different kinds of data. The impact of widely available information becomes visible in our everyday life - from a perception of environment and improvement of (r)urban performances, to communication and movement of individuals, groups and goods.

Changing the behaviour The delicate consequences of our carbon-intensive activities certainly influence gradual modifications of our behaviour, determining a new global comprehension of environmental problems. Playing an important role in dissemination of information and knowledge numerous projects and trends have been conceived, discussed and implemented during the last few decades (Balaban, 2012; Castán Broto and Bulkeley, 2012, Hunt and Watkiss, 2011; Stupar and Mihajlov, 2016), while advanced technological performances of information systems have frequently facilitated these processes. The variety of target groups, as well as local socio-cultural, economic and technologic circumstances demand and/or generate different possibilities of access, data-processing, decision-making and acting. Communication, transmission and exchange of information, therefore, have to be conducted via both physical and electronic networks, in order to provide wider and deeper coverage of climate problems. Consequently, we can identify two basic approaches for raising eco- and climate- consciousness, differing in transmission/reception method and anticipated initial scale and timing of impact (Stupar and Mihajlov, 2016) - digital gateways (online resources of innovative approaches and cases) and real-time diffusion (education programs and projects conducted in-situ). The first approach, completely based on new modes of communication, allows global visibility of presented examples fostering accumulation of world-wide knowledge and skills, as well as their mediation and transmission

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE towards unknown recipients. These 'gateways' usually act as passive inductors of behavioural changes and climatefriendly trends, although they include a certain level of interactivity between their creators, administrators and users. In general, they tackle issues of environmental changes, sustainability, resilience, transition and/or transformation of life styles. The second approach to developing climate-awareness and changing carbon-intensive behavioural patterns is based on interchange in real space, exclusively demanding an active response of already defined users. Usually conceived as a part of a specific project, with an estimated timeline and detectable outcome, the real-time diffusion actually 'produces' case-studies which could be overlapped, combined or just transmitted via digital 'gateways'. One of the most inspiring examples, highly applicable within urban-rural systems, represents the project 'The new climate generation', launched by the Municipality of Copenhagen in 2009, as part of Copenhagen's climate plan 'Carbon neutral in 2025' (2012). Inspired by the important global event COP15, the project included 1500 school students, their teachers and nurseries, in order to raise general awareness about climate and to train so-called 'climate ambassadors' able to transmit and use new knowledge ('Copenhagen: The New Climate Generation', 2014). The Information Network Village project (INVIL, 2017), initiated in Korea during the 1990s, is another good example, although specifically focused on the urban-rural relationship. Fostering self-sufficiency of settlements, this project supports the sustainable growth of rural communities via the high-speed internet access and education. Similarly, the Causeway Rural & Urban Network (CRUN, 2016), which enables the sustainability of local communities, provides different services, trainings and collaboration. These activities are used for raising environmental consciousness, organizing the climate-sensitive (r)urban projects and supporting the exchange of ideas and knowledge applicable both in urban and rural realm.

Sensing the environment , protecting the resources On our way to climate-friendly behaviour, digital systems are recognised as key-elements of our raising awareness due to their capability to detect environmental data (via sensors) and make them broadly and immediately visible and available (via networks). Using two basic types of interfaces - personal (smart phones, notebooks, tablets etc.) and public (wi-fi nodes, urban touch-screens, info-beamers) citizens are able to have an insight into urban and natural resources, processes and activities influencing their attitude toward environmental protection. Besides global leaders in this filed (IBM, Cisco, CH2M HILL), a number of smaller multi-professional firms and non-profit groups (MySociety, Code for America, Open Knowledge Foundation etc.) also deal with similar activities, creating software, web-services and applications focusing on environmental conditions, transportation, urban services and resources. Monitoring the environment has become an important issue in the age of climate change since it provides a better understanding of atmospheric processes and their influence on our lives. Although the focus of climatological observations is nowadays shifted to urban areas covered by denser networks of sensors, the continuously collected data are used on global level for further research of climate impacts - from spatial patterns and infrastructural systems, to social and health issues. Furthermore, the applicability of interactive web service, such as 'Urban EcoMap' (implemented in Amsterdam and San Francisco), could be extended to (r)urban settlements and areas since it displays

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environmental footprints for selected zones. The data includes average annual emissions per household, as well as a share of energy, waste and transportation. Considering that transportation sector represents one of major emitters of GHG (IPCC, 2007a), reducing its negative impact on environment has become an imperative. The relation between ICT networks and transportation has been frequently used for increasing the efficiency of movement, providing a higher visibility of real-time information (about choices, availability and surrounding activities), enabling multimodality and monitoring the condition. In the context of cities and its surrounding/complementing rural areas, this aspect demands special attention. Currently, there is a number of web-services and applications combining sensors, public displays and smart mobile phones (e.g. 'CalTrans Quick Map' in San Francisco), which is also a win-win combination in the domain of services. Dealing with problems of maintenance, management, quality or accessibility of (r)urban infrastructure and activities, they enable real-time interaction with users affecting their environmental awareness and participation. Good examples of this practice are projects 'TrashTrack' - related to waste management, or 'City Sourced' - a platform for identifying and reporting to urban problems, which could be used in complex hybrid systems of (r)urban settlements. In line with these initiatives, it is interesting to mention an application - 'Personal action plan calculator'. Its role is to measure ecological footprint and carbon emissions of every user, providing a personalised action plan which includes practical tips for reducing negative impact on the environment. Having in mind that the global share of energy sector in total GHG emissions is more than a quarter (IPCC, 2007b), a growing number of policies and strategies is oriented toward energy transition, reduction of energy consumption and possible vulnerabilities and risks which should be identified and mapped (Burton et al., 2002; Satterthwaite et al., 2009). The IBM's weather modelling technology 'Hybrid Renewable Energy Forecasting' (HyRef) certainly fits well into this category, since it increases the reliability of renewable energy resources providing data related to wind and solar forecasting (one month in advance, or in 15-minute increments). Simultaneously, it enables higher level of data integration into the power grid and influences reduction of carbon footprint (IBM, 2013). Apart from these application and projects, there is a number of initiatives specifically related to rural development simultaneously targeting the issues of resources/environment, networking, innovation, collaboration, funding and program implementation. The main European digital platform represents The European Network for Rural Development (ENRD, 2017), while numerous national portals additionally elaborate this issue (e.g. UK rural networks, Rural Development Program of Croatia etc.).

Managing the efficient life The imperative of efficiency influences information services and applications, as well as the physical features of settlements and their interconnectivity. From transportation, energy and infrastructure, to food production/consumption and solid waste management, this kind of challenge has generated a number of creative solutions with different territorial and (cross)sectoral impacts. Oriented toward individuals, specific groups or raised

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE to a level of municipal, regional or transnational systems they facilitate or complement management, directly or indirectly contributing to the reduction of GHG emission. The initiatives related to transportation, especially important in the context of complex (r)urban systems, include carpooling/rideshare networks and freight transport, potentially rationalizing transport costs, lowering fuel usage, decreasing traffic volume and congestion. A good example of this practice is a web-service 'RoadSharing.com', which emphasises its cross-European, environmental, economic and social dimensions. It enables travellers to arrange share rides for free, while saving money, polluting less and socializing. Similar services could be found on regional and national level, mirroring the increased interest in this model of time/resource management (e.g. 'timskavoznja.com' - focused mostly on countries of ex-Yugoslavia). Simultaneously, there are networks aiming for the rationalisation of freight/cargo transport (e.g. 'Cargo Shipping Networks' or 'Fixemer portal'). The imperative of energy efficiency could be found in many projects focused on smart grid concept (for ex. the case of 'Model City Mannheim'), which connects different networks, energy companies, producers and every household in order to improve the efficiency of energy supply, reduce energy consumption and carbon-footprint (MOMA, 2014). Furthermore, the contemporary society has created several concepts targeting interlinked aspects of production, transport, consumption and waste, comprising problems of carbon emission and energy efficiency while focusing on food. Initiatives such as 'Food miles', consider the environmental impact of food systems, while some (e.g. 'Philadelphia Fair Food Project', 'San Francisco’s farmers’ markets') stimulate more interaction between urban and rural settlements, local farmers and restaurants, stimulating and developing solar-based and organic agriculture. Unfortunately, the limited scope of these initiatives still cannot influence a significant environmental impact, but its global popularity might improve the current situation. Meanwhile, the globally accepted trend of urban farming represents another stream of (r)urban activation. In all these cases the role of information networks is significant either in the form of digital gateways or as a mean of real-time diffusion.

CONCLUSIONS The latest technological trends of Open Network Environment, Internet of Things (IoT) or Cloud Computing, combined with the Open Data approach, Big Data challenge and environmentally friendly, low/no-carbon concepts, have generated a number of innovative solutions for sensing the actual condition and environmental changes. Connecting the different realms and users, while merging the knowledge and needs of the contemporary society, they facilitate intensified flows of valuable data which are analysed and processed in order to guide our behaviour, actions and decisions toward climate mitigation and adaptation. The integral approach to urban and rural development, frequently emphasized as a preferred option for the climate-friendly future, represents a multi-disciplinary reaction to growing environmental concerns. Based on material and digital information networks, the concepts and tools created within this framework directly influence emerging visions. Adapting to changing climate, mitigating negative effects and breeding highly wired and eco-conscious generations might indeed have a positive effect on our environment. However, the global attention still has to reach its peak finally

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enabling humanity to erase a boundary between intellectualization and action. Multiplying the points of information access and upgrading their performances, while simultaneously extending their reach and real impact, is certainly a next challenge for developing built environment and its digital alter-ego. Therefore, the options analysed in this article - due to their high accessibility, development flexibility and usability - should be considered as a starting point for a further integration of available approaches and tools into new strategies of climate-responsible (r)urban development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The article was realized as the part of the research project "Studying climate change and its influence on the environment: impacts, adaptation and mitigation" (43007) financed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia within the framework of integrated and interdisciplinary research for the period 2011-2017.

REFERENCES Aurigi, Alessandro, and Fiorella De Cindio, (Eds.). 2008. Augmented urban spaces: articulating the physical and electronic city. Aldershot: Ashgate. Balaban, Osman. 2012. “Climate Change and Cities: A Review on the Impacts and Policy Responses.” METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, no. 29 (June): 21-44. Beatley, Timothy. 2000. Green Urbanism – Learning from European Cities. Washington, D.C: Island Press. Bodin, Örjan and Beatrice Crona. 2009. “The role of social networks in natural resource governance?” Global Environmental Change, no. 19 (August): 366–374. Booher, David E., and Judith E. Innes. 2002. “Network power in collaborative planning.” Journal of Planning Education and Research, no. 21 (March): 221–236. Bucher, Ulrike and Maro Finka (Eds.). 2011. The Electronic City. Berlin: BWV, Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag. Burton, Ian, Saleemul Huq, Bo Lim, Olga Pilifosova, and Emma Lisa Schipper. 2002. “From Impacts Assessment to Adaptation Priorities: The Shaping of Adaptation Policy.” Climate Policy, no. 2: 145- 59. Castán Broto, Vanesa and Harriet Bulkeley. 2013. “A survey of urban climate change experiments in 100 cities.” Global Environmental Change, no. 23 (February): 92–102. Castells, Manuel. 2004. “Space of flows, space of places: materials for a theory of urbanism in the information age.” In The Cybercities Reader, edited by Stephen Graham, 82-93. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Causeway Rural & Urban Network. 2015. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://crun.org/?doing_wp_cron=1491135028.5418028831481933593750. City of Copenhagen. 2012. “CPH 2025 Climate Plan: A Green, Smart and Carbon Neutral City - draft version 4 June 2012.”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://subsite.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfCopenhagen/SubsiteFrontpage/Business/Growth_and_partnerships/~/media /F5A7EC91E7AC4B0891F37331642555C4.ashx. City Sourced: Mobilizing Civic Engagement. 2015. “City Sourced: Mobilizing Civic Engagement”. Accessed November 11, 2015. https://www.citysourced.com/.

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TOPIC VI: CLIMATE CHANGE DAC & Cities. 2017. “Copenhagen: The New Climate Generation”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.dac.dk/en/daccities/sustainable-cities/all-cases/education/copenhagen-the-new-climate-generation/. Drewe, Paul. 2000. “ICT and urban form.”, Urban planning and design – Off the beaten track, Design Studio “The Network City”, Delft University of Technology: Faculty of Architecture. European Commission. 2013a. “An EU strategy on adaptation to climate change – Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions (COM (2013) 216 final)”. Brussels: European Commission. European Commission. 2013b. “Guidelines on developing adaptation strategies (SWD (2013) 134 final)”. Brussels: European Commission. European Network for Rural Development. 2017. Accessed March 11, 2017. https://enrd.ec.europa.eu/ Fixemer. 2017. “Fixemer e Logistic”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.fixemer.com . Fusero, Paolo. 2009. E-City: Digital Networks and Cities of the Future. Barcelona: LIST Laboratorio. Giddens, Anthony. 2009. The Politics of Climate Change. Cambridge: Polity Press. Graham, Steve, and Simon Marvin. 2006. Telecommunication and the City: Electronic Spaces, Urban Places. London: Routledge. Healey, Patsy. 2006. Collaborative planning: Shaping places in fragmented societies (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave MacMillan. Hill, Dan, Lean Doody, Mark Watts, and Volker Buscher. 2011. “ARUP - The smart solution for cities”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.arup.com/~/media/Files/PDF/Publications/Research_and_whitepapers/UrbanLife_SmartSolutionForCities IBM. 2013. “Made in IBM Labs: IBM Drives the Future of Renewable Energy with New Wind and Solar Forecasting System”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/41310.wss . INVIL project. 2001. “Information Network Village (INVIL) project”. Accessed March 11, 2017. https://www.oecd.org/governance/observatory-publicsectorinnovation/innovations/page/informationnetworkvillageinvilproject.htm#tab_implementation. IPCC/Intergovermental Panel on Climate Change. 2007a. Climate Change 2007: synthesis report contribution of Working groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IPCC/Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007b. Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, editors Solomon, S. et al. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. IPCC/Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007c. Summary for Policymakers. Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, editors Metz, B. et al. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1-23. IPCC/Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2013. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. Jabareen, Yosef R. 2006. “Sustainable Urban Forms - Their Typologies, Models, and Concepts”. Journal of Planning Education and Research, no. 26 (September): 38-52.

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Kern, Kristine and Gotelind Alber. 2008. Governing climate change in cities: Modes of urban governance in multi-level systems. Proceedings of the OECD Conference on Competitive Cities and Climate Change, 171-196, Paris: OECD. Kousky, Carolyn, and Stephen H. Schneider. 2003. “Global Climate Policy: Will Cities Lead the Way?” Climate Policy, no. 3 (August): 359-72. Lemos, Carmen M., Kirchhoff, Christine J., and Vijay Ramprasad. 2012. “Narrowing the climate information usability gap”. Nature Climate Change, no. 2 (November): 789–794. Light, Jenniffer S. 1999. “From City Space to Cyberspace”. In Virtual Geography, edited by Crang, Mike, Phil Crang and Jon May, 109-130. London: Routledge. Mitchel, William J. 2000. E-topia: “Urban life, Jim - But not as we know it”. Cambridge, MA; London, England: MIT Press. Modellstadt - Mannheim. 2014. “MOMA – The power supply system gets intelligent”. Accessed November 11, 2015. http://www.modellstadt-mannheim.de/moma/web/de/home/index.html . One Planet Living. 2017. “Personal Action Plan Calculator”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.oneplanetliving.net/takeaction/personal-action-plan-calculator . Pelling, Mark. 2011. Adaptation to climate change: From resilience to transformation. Abingdon: Routledge. Pflieger, Géraldine and Céline Rozenblat. 2010. “Urban Networks and Network Theory: The City as the Connector of Multiple Networks”. Urban Studies Journal, vol. 47, no. 13 (November): 2723–2735. Quick Map. 2017. “California Transportation Quick Map”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://quickmap.dot.ca.gov/. Road Sharing. 2017. “Autostop and Carpooling for commuters, free Car sharing and Hitchhiking service”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.roadsharing.com/ . Satterthwaite, David, Saleemul Huq, Hannah Reid, Mark Pelling, and Patricia Romero Lankao. 2009. “Adapting cities to climate change in urban areas: the possibilities and constraints in low and middle income nations”. In Adapting Cities to Climate Change, edited by Bicknell, Jane, David Dodman and David Satterthwaite, 3-34. London: Earthscan. Simić, Ivan, and Vladimir Mihajlov. 2016. “Small towns as mediators towards spatial resilience: the case study of network of settlements in Vojvodina region”, FACTA UNIVERSITATIS Series: Architecture and Civil Engineering, vol. 14, no. 3 (December): 331 – 342. Simić, Ivan, and Vladimir Mihajlov. 2016. “Towards the ‘green city’ concept: spatio - morphological development resources of small towns in Vojvodina”, Arhitektura+Urbanizam, no. 43 (December): 35-45. Stupar, Aleksandra, and Vladimir Mihajlov. 2016. “Climate change adaptation in Serbia: The role of information networks”, METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, vol. 33, no. 1: 37-59. The Climate Group on behalf of the Global eSustainability Initiative GeSI. 2008. “SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the information age”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.theclimategroup.org/_assets/files/Smart2020Report.pdf . Timska voznja. 2017. “Timska vožnja”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://www.timskavoznja.com . Trash Track - MIT. 2017. “Trash Track”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://senseable.mit.edu/trashtrack/ . Urban Eco Map. 2017. “Working together to Improve Urban Environments”. Accessed March 11, 2017. http://urbanecomap.org Wood, John. 2007. “Synergy city; planning for a high density, super-symbiotic society”. Landscape and Urban Planning, vol 83, no. 1 (November): 77-83.

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR

TOPICS VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR

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ROLE OF TWIN CITIES AND SATELLITE TOWNS IN INTENSIFYING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Sankalp Shukla Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Twin Cities and Satellite Towns are an eternal part and parcel of the growth process. Twin Cities are the settlements, which grow in vicinity of each other, with little inter-dependence, whilst Satellite Towns are settlements, which grow due to the affinity of a major urban area, and depend on it, mainly for the employment opportunities. The study of such settlements is crucial as they show a peculiar kind of growth and development pattern. Albeit, they have their distinctive demography and economy, they are closely related and depict interdependence. The paper describes about genesis and morphology of Twin Cities, based on the locational attributes, political and demographic structure. It enquires about the emergence of Satellite Towns, and their evolution with respect to parent city. This was done taking four cases of Durg-Bhilai and Minneapolis-St. Paul urban complexes, and PimpriChinchwad and Gary satellite towns. The paper tries to enquire about relationship between these formulations, in the regional context, digging through their growth patterns. Critical analysis of individual settlements was carried out to probe through interdependence, the role played by industrial development in regional growth. The study concludes that multiple towns in a system of urban areas rather hampering individual growth, enhance development potential and support urbanization that eventually embarks creation of mega urban regions. Keywords: Regional Growth, Industrial Development, Interdependence, Urbanization

INTRODUCTION Twin Cities and Satellite Towns are an eternal part and parcel of the growth process. Twin Cities stand for a pair of cities, which lie together in geographical proximity. These can be of two types: one, which get established close to each other, grow together and then, ultimately merge; other being the ones, which albeit, were not so contiguous in the past, but then, lost their buffer zone, due to growth, as the time passed. It is of course, possible that, both of these settlements differ politically, economically, demographically, socially and culturally. In most of the cases, like Budapest, it has been observed that, the twin cities lose their individual identities, and the border or barrier between them. Examples, like Albury and Wodonga, Australia, exist, where a river separates the twin cities. Satellite towns refers to the small urban areas located in the outskirts of big cities. They are usually, located in a metropolitan area, are dependent on the parent city, for luxury and most of services, but not restricted in function.

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR Satellite towns can be classified as: consumer satellite, the towns, which function to house the people, working in the parent city; or production satellite, which function to employ the people. Generally, they have their own municipal bodies, but are subjected to cross-commuting, with the larger city. Ergo, according to these concepts, sometimes two settlements grow together, and survive hand in hand, whilst sometimes, a bigger settlement leads to the birth of a small settlement, which grows under its shelter. The paper tries to enquire about a relationship, between these formulations, in the regional context, digging through the growth patterns and morphology of a few cities, probing for the role of industrial development.

DURG-BHILAI TWIN CITIES, INDIA Bhilai Bhilai is a city in Chhattisgarh, India situated at about 30 kilometres, from the capital of Raipur. It lies in Durg district, and is a part of the Durg-Bhilai urban agglomeration.

Durg Durg city lies on the banks of river Shivnath. The district forms third largest district of Chhattisgarh state of India. The capital city of Raipur is situated about 40 kilometres away.

Formation of Durg-Bhilai Urban Complex During the 1950s, the area around Durg, was surrounded by villages like Boria, Hingna, Khursipar, Kosa, Bhawali etc. Bhilai existed as a village as well, with a population of about 7116 people. In order to modernize the region, and eradicate poverty, the Government of India in collaboration with the Soviet Union, decided to establish a Steel plant, under the second five year plan (1956-1961). Acquisition of land, and construction of houses, for the officials and workers was done. Increase of population demanded provision of infrastructure and facilities, and the development of city saw a new dawn. Around 5000 dwellings were built in sector 1 to 4. Further, the Bhilai Township, expanded to amalgamate few villages from the surrounding areas, like Khursipar and Kohka, and about 1000 houses were constructed, in sector 5 and 6. By 1962, the Himmat Steel Foundry and Dharmsi Morarji Chemicals, were installed around Bhilai. In 1965, Associated Cement Factory was established, in an area of 1250 acres. Till about 1973, the townscape had spread, to an area of 90 km2. Approximately, 19000 residential units were added, and sector 7 to 10 and a hospital sector, were constructed. The vogue of haphazard growth and development of settlements, in this region, led the state government to form the Bhilai Special Area Development Authority, in 1973. Around 1977, new

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housing colonies came into existence, in Newai and Maroda with 3200 residential units. In 1980, Bhilai Refractory Plant was set up, near Newai, which led to the southwards development, and in 1987, a residential colony was established, near Kohka. By 1991, Bhilai had inflated, to occupy about 270 km2 area, and had 452066 inhabitants. A paper mill, and residential colonies by HUDCO, were developed, and encouraged the growth of Bhilai, towards the west. A township, known as Bhilai Nagar was planned, to render residences. Under the 74th amendment, in 1998, Bhilai Municipal Corporation was constituted. With time, several other industries and factories were set up, in the area because of the strategic location. This led to the development of adjoining villages, and hence, Bhilai expanded due to the urban sprawl. Earlier in the British era, Durg existed as a tehsil of Bhandara district (now in Maharashtra). In 1857, it was separated, and made a tehsil of Raipur district. Finally, in 1906, Durg district came into existence, with Durg town as the headquarters. The town of Durg developed, with the land acquisition. Trade and commerce were the major activities, which led to the growth. As the surrounding area had been rich in fertile soil, rice production had been prevalent. Mineral deposits were also situated, and hence, mineral and cereal transportation had been the major source of income. The affinity of Bhilai Steel Plant attracted industries, which had been other contributors, for the development of Durg. Durg initially, restricted the growth of Bhilai, towards west, and the latter did it, from the east. With time, both the cities enlarged, and interspersed with each other, such that a boundary demarcation became difficult, and this led to the formation of Durg-Bhilai urban agglomeration.

Population Growth The population of Durg was higher, than that of Bhilai in 1951. With the establishment of the steel plant, migration occurred, and the population began to inflate. The population of Bhilai rose to about 558%, in the decade 1951-1961. People from other areas began to move towards this region, in search of work, and settled nearby the steel plant. (About 70% of the population of the area, was of the migrants). Hence, Bhilai surpassed Durg, in the next census itself. The ones who could reside in Bhilai, grabbed the golden opportunity, while those who did not find a home, moved towards Durg.

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Population Growth 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 1951

1961

1971

1981 Bhilai

1991

2001

2011

Durg

Figure 31 Population growth of Bhilai and Durg cities 1951-2011, Source: Census of India

Inferences Albeit, Bhilai was a faster growing settlement, the growth did not occur on the cost of Durg, instead Bhilai Steel Plant, the major element behind the development of Bhilai, accelerated the growth of Durg, as well. Planners need to focus over ensuring organized development, of this area. This can be done at the regional level, by delineating a region consisting of Durg, Bhilai, along with the adjacent cities of Raipur, Bilaspur and Korba, in Chhattisgarh, India to regulate urban growth.

MINNEAPOLIS-SAINT PAUL TWIN CITIES, U.S.A. Minneapolis Minneapolis lies on the western banks of river Mississippi, and is the fifteenth largest metropolitan area, of the United States of America. It is the largest city, in the state of Minnesota.

Saint Paul

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St. Paul is the capital, and the second largest city, in the state of Minnesota, USA. It lies on the eastern banks of the Mississippi river. The city is known as the Capitol city, the Saintly city and the Pig’s eye.

Formation of Minneapolis-St. Paul Urban Complex The genesis of the city of Minneapolis and Saint Paul, can be associated to the establishment of Fort Snelling, a military fortification, which came into existence in 1819, near the Saint Anthony Falls, on the confluence of Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. Roads were built by soldiers, and vegetables, wheat and hay were grown, in order to serve as supplies, to the fort. In 1822, lumber and flour mills were set up, to ensure smooth flow of supplies. In 1830s, a settlement was envisioned on the eastern banks, by the commander of Fort Snelling. The survey of the land was done, and a map was sent to the War department. Around 1838, the settlement evolved, with the construction of a dam and a saw mill. The area was largely inhabited by the French Canadians, and was termed as L'Oeil de Cochon" (French for ‘Pig's Eye’). In 1849, a town site was planned under the name ‘St. Anthony’. Soon, the area flooded with workers, and then, a grist mill was installed in 1851. Under a treaty, the land to the west of the river, was also caught hold of, where the settlement began in 1852. Streets were laid and aligned with that of St. Anthony. Soon, the land controlled by the fort, was reduced, and hence, the Minneapolis village sprung up, on the south west banks of the river. The area prospered, with the development of roads, bridges and railways in 1855. Saint Anthony, which came to be known as St. Paul, was recognized as a town in 1855, whilst Minneapolis in 1856. Saint Paul developed around Lambert’s Landing, on the Mississippi river. It was the gateway to Upper Midwest, and served as a major trading centre. St. Paul was designated as the capital of Minnesota in 1849, which led the city’s growth to heights. In 1862, rails were laid, and helped to connect the area with Milwaukee, by 1867. Minneapolis came to be identified as the Mill City. Various sawmills and flourmills were set up, in this region. During this golden period of the flourish of Minneapolis, St. Paul experienced a decline, in the manufacturing sector. Although, St. Paul remained to lead, in terms of population and railways, ideas evolved about the merger of both the cities. It was during the collapse of St. Anthony falls, that both the cities joined together, in 1872. By 1876, eighteen gristmills were built on the west banks of Mississippi, and the largest one of Pillsbury, was built in 1881 on the east. With the Minneapolis Street Railway Company beginning with services, a streetcar system took shape in 1875. Soon the company joined hands with St. Paul Railway Company, and came to be known as, Twin City Rapid Transit. The extent of the merger of Minneapolis and Saint Paul can be understood, taking the example of the University of Minnesota, which has its campus both, on the eastern and western banks of the river. With the technological developments, many roads, like the Minnesota State Highway 62, were built connecting downtown Minneapolis to

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR Saint Paul, in the twentieth century. In 2014, the light rail extended its green line project, to connect the downtowns of both the cities, which form a single urban agglomeration.

Population Growth

Population Growth 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0 18501860187018801890190019101920193019401950196019701980199020002010 Saint Paul

Minneapolis

Figure 32 Population Growth of Minneapolis and St. Paul cities 1850-2010, Source: United States Census Bureau

Albeit, Minneapolis had no such considerable existence in 1850s, the establishment of several mills around it, led to a population shoot, and it began competing with Saint Paul. The notion of bringing the cities together, in 1872, had a much positive impact on Minneapolis, such that, it was able to surpass St. Paul, by 1880 itself. Thereafter, both the cities developed together, but Minneapolis retained its position, and still lies ahead of the capital city. The influx of population, which was initially less towards Minneapolis, in comparison with Saint Paul, increased with a greater pace, which can be associated with the establishment of mills. It is evident that, this led to the installation of mills, in the eastern side too. Ergo, it can be said that, the development of Minneapolis had a positive impact, over that of Saint Paul.

Inferences Although, Minneapolis grew at a greater pace, it did not hamper the development of Saint Paul, instead affected it positively. For the regulation of the growth and development, a planning region as required, was created, termed as

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the Twin Cities region. This has a designated council which, prepares plans for the entire area under infrastructure and housing.

PIMPRI-CHINCHWAD SATELLITE TOWN, INDIA Pimpri-Chinchwad developed as a satellite town of Pune, India, and is governed by a separate municipal body. The city was formed with the aggregation of towns like Pimpri, Chinchwad, Bhosari, Moshi and Sangavi, and developed in order to decongest the metropolis of Pune.

Emergence and Growth

Population Growth 2000000 1800000 1600000 1400000 1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 1941

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

2011

Population Figure 33 Population Growth of Pimpri-Chinchwad 1941-2011, Source: Census of India

Industrialization began in Pimpri-Chinchwad, with the establishment of Hindustan Antibiotics Limited and Hadapsar Industrial estate, in 1956. In 1960, Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC) developed a 4000 acre large industrial complex, at Bhosari. Pimpri-Chinchwad evolved in 1970, in an area of 87 km2, with the formation of Pimpri-Chinchwad Council. In the 1970s, a phenomenal growth of industries was observed in this region, due to state government’s restrictions over the expansion of industries, in Mumbai and Thane. The Pimpri-Chinchwad New Town

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR Development Authority (PCNTDA) was created in 1972, to regulate the growth of this region, and to assure organized development. The city expanded its wings in 1982, with the establishment of the Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation. Soon in 1997, the area under the corporation, increased to accommodate 18 more villages, and the city spread to an area of 171 km2. Pimpri-Chinchwad transformed from a rural area, to a highly industrialized and urbanized area, in 50 years. It is one of the largest, and most developed industrial regions of India, and one of the fastest growing municipal corporations. The city has become, one of the favourite destinations for business investments by companies, as it houses over 2000 engineering, rubber, chemical, pharmaceutical and automobile factories. In 2013, Pimpri-Chinchwad was ready to absorb 20 more villages, into its municipal boundaries. It just did not grow industrially, but has developed, as one of the most preferred localities for home-buyers, with a property growth rate of about 10%.

Inferences The population growth of Pimpri-Chinchwad clarifies to the success of this satellite town, in reducing the population burden and congestion of the parent city of Pune. Moreover, the city had shown such an impressive growth that, now it stands along with Pune, and at times, they are referred to as twin cities.

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Figure 4 Spatial Growth of Pimpri-Chinchwad 1951-2011, Source: Pimpri-Chinchwad Municipal Corporation

GARY SATELLITE TOWN, U.S.A. Gary is located in the south-eastern portion of the Chicago Metropolitan Area, United States, bordering the Lake Michigan, 40 kilometres away from downtown Chicago. The city is ninth largest in the state of Indiana.

Emergence and Growth The genesis of Gary dates back to 1906, when Gary Works was established, by the United States Steel Corporation. The presence of the Calumet River played a major role in the development, as it allowed the flow of goods. The Gary Land, Heat, Water and Light Companies were set up to provide infrastructure, to the inhabitants. By 1917, Gary had a 58 mile long network of roads. The city grew up in the shadow of mills, and lived its first 25 years with great prosperity. Broadway, the main street in downtown Gary, transformed into the commercial centre of the region.

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR Throughout the 1920s, the city’s success remained dangerously dependent on a single industry, a situation which backfired during the Great Depression. Due to increasing competitiveness, the value of US steel started to decline, and so did the city. The economic demands of the World War II, revived Gary. By late 1940s, as the wartime consensus shattered, racial segregation, industrial pollution and political corruption earned Gary the status of a ‘troubled town’. The composition of population changed drastically, with an increase in the number of African – Americans. During 1960s, the city faced a complicated situation, due to the white flight, and closing down of coal mines. The coal production had declined by 28%. Through the 1980s, due to political distress, out migration began, and the population declined dramatically. The roads started to close, buildings initiated to abandon, and unemployment had its outbreak. As per the scenario of 2014, the city has a decaying infrastructure, and low education attainment levels with the closing down of various schools. With time, this ‘City of the Century’, got modified into the ‘Murder Capital of the US’, due to increase in the crime rates.

Population Trend 200000 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

Population Figure 34 Population Trend in Gary 1910-2010, Source: United States Census Bureau

Inferences The initial population growth of Gary, suggests its triumph as a satellite town. History states, the significant role played by the city, in the United States’ economy, as a ‘Steel City’.

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CONCLUSIONS •

Twin cities intermingle to such a great extent that, any demarcation between them becomes difficult to build up. Most of the times, it is just the physical barrier, which prevents this convergence.

•

Although, in a pair of twin cities, one city shows higher growth rates than the other, this does not cripple the development of the counterpart, which rather gets accelerated in the long run.

•

To ensure a sustainable growth, proper planning of twin cities is indispensable. This can only be done at the regional level, where both, their dependence and independence, are studied.

•

Satellite towns clearly serve as a solution, by distracting the influx of population, from the parent city. They play a vital role, in the urbanization of a nation. Proper steps just need to be taken, to keep them lively and progressive.

•

An explicit relationship exists between, the twin cities and satellite towns, as they both are a system of two settlements. Initially, a satellite town depends completely over the parent city, but as the time passes, it tends to gain self-sufficiency, provided the growth factors do not perish. Ultimately, it attains individual status, with the maximization of development forces. Thereby, a satellite town with its parent city, can be termed as a preliminary stage of a complex of twin cities.

•

Twin cities and satellite towns can be presented, in one perspective at the regional level only if, the satellite town achieves certain amount of independence, and loses its sole consumer or productive nature.

REFERENCES About Us: Pimpri-Chinchwad New Town Development Authority. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2017, from Pimpri-Chinchwad New Town Development Authority Web site: http://www.pcntda.org.in/aboutus.php Aby, A. J. (2002). The North Star State: A Minnesota History Reader. Minnesota Historical Society Press. Adams, J. S. (1993). Minneapolis-St. Paul: People, place, and public life. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Agnihotri, P. (1994). Poverty amidst prosperity: Survey of slums. New Delhi: MD Publications Pvt. Ltd. Baker, S. (2006). Sustainable Development. Routledge. Berger, A. S. (1978). The city: Urban communities and their problems. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown Company Publishers. Bhailume, S. A. (2012). An assessment of urban sprawl using GIS and remote sensing techniques: a case study of Pune-PimpriChinchwad area. Pune: Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth. Chaison, G. N. (1986). When unions merge. Toronto: Lexington Books. Chand, M., & Puri, V. K. (1983). Regional planning in India. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. Damle, J. Y. (2011). Pune: Tradition to Market : a Study of Changing Trends in Consumption with Special Reference to Service Sector in Hotel Industry. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications.

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TOPIC VII: GEOGRAPHY AS DEVELOPMENT FACTOR Garay, R. G. (2011). US Steel and Gary, West Virginia: Corporate Paternalism in Appalachia. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. History: District Court Durg. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2017, from District Court Durg Web site: http://ecourts.gov.in/durg Introduction: Municipal Corporation Bhilai. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2017, from Municipal Corporation Bhilai Web site: http://www.bhilainagarnigam.com/enparichay.aspx Lane, J. B. (1978). City of the century: A history of Gary, Indiana. London: Indiana University Press. Roy, S. (2009). Investigations into the Process of Innovation in the Indian Automotive Component Manufacturers with Reference to Pune as a Dynamic City-Region. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Sardeson, F. (1916). Description of the Minneapolis and St. Paul district, Minnesota. US Geological Survey, 76-78. Singh, R. C. (1994). Geography of Industrial Complex. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications. Singh, S. B. (1995). Emerging frontiers of urban settlement geography. New Delhi: MD Publications Pvt. Ltd. Swanson, E. B. (1939). Minnesota, a State Guide. Minnesota History, 64-66. Who We Are: Metropolitan Council. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2017, from Metropolitan Council Web site: https://metrocouncil.org/About-Us/Who-We-Are.aspx

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SMALL URBAN CENTERS AS DRIVERS OF DAILY MIGRATIONS AND AGENTS OF TRANSFORMATION OF RURAL BACKGROUND: EXAMPLE OF BLACE MUNICIPALITY Dušan Ristić PhD student, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Studentski trg 3/III, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Milena Ivanović 106 PhD student, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Mario Miličević MSc in Geo-Information Science and Earth observation, [email protected] Marjan Marjanović MSc student, T33 Srl, via Calatafimi 1, 60121 Ancona, Italy, [email protected] ABSTRACT Decades of regional polarity in Serbia conditioned the adoption of a polycentric territorial development as one of the main strategic goals of country’s spatial development. Politics of polycentrism specifically highlights the role and importance of small urban centers in generating a more balanced regional development (as a counterweight to big urban centers). In particular, in constellation with their rural surroundings, they can serve as strong agents of change towards sustainable spatial development and transformation of rural background, and thus, contribute to the balanced spatial development of the whole country. Furthermore, dynamic urban-rural synergy, reflected in spatial and functional interconnectedness of rural and urban areas, has a significant role in achieving balanced spatial development. Daily migrations are a well-known indicator of spatial and functional integration of rural areas and urban centers, with the latter serving as potential drivers of functional cohesion and spatial transformation. The paper analyses the field of functional influence of small towns on their rural surroundings on the example of Blace municipality through determining intensity of daily migrations and other characteristics and patterns emanating from the daily urban system. Effects of the urban center on its rural background are analyzed by identifying the nature of the ongoing functional and socio-economic transformation of rural areas. The main aim of the paper is to examine the potential of small urban centers to generate spatial and functional integration, that is, to explore the possibility for small towns to integrate and transform their rural surroundings. Keywords: daily migrations, urban centers, urban-rural relations, polycentric development, Blace municipality 106


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INTRODUCTION Polarized development and significant regional disparities in Serbia directly affect the adaptation of planning documents to the concept of polycentric spatial development, promoted by the European Spatial Development Perspective back at the turn of the century and later introduced as a leading concept of the national planning discourse. Commitment to the policy of polycentrism and a necessity of decentralization with an aim of establishing balanced regional development impose the need for exploring development potentials of small urban settlements in Serbia and evaluation of demographic flows. The spatial and functional organization of the territory and the development of urban centres are based on European models and instruments among which are dominated by the concept of nodal region with a strongly emphasized role of urban (primarily small- and middle-sized) centres. Within the network of settlements, smaller urban centres are expected to take on the role of nodes, i.e. of promoters of regional development and drivers of transformation of undeveloped and weakly integrated rural hinterland, while together making functionally coherent system. This paper argues that municipal centres and small urban settlements within a rural area can integrate their rural hinterland and impact its functional and socio-economic transformation.

METHODOLOGY The present paper analyses development potentials and the current level of development of Blace municipal centre by identifying its economic capacities and availability of public and social services. The study applies Schmook’s method (Schmook, 1968) of determining the degree of centrality of municipal centres as a drivers of transformation of their rural surrounding. Likewise, the index of urban primacy (Jefferson, 1939) is also used as a quantitative method (numeric indicator) for estimating dominancy and centrality of the central urban area. The integration and coherence of the main urban centre in the municipality and its rural hinterland, as well as dynamics of urban/rural structure are defined on the basis of transport connections and, more specifically, on the basis of the coefficient of transport network. The accessibility of the municipal centre from the position of rural settlements is evaluated in GIS by determining relevant isochrones. The adopted travel speed used in calculations is 60 km per hour for state roads and 50 km per hour for municipal roads. The scope and intensity of the municipal centre’s gravitational reach is explored by analysing indicators on the mobility of labour force, pupils and students (daily migrants) from rural areas to the municipal core. This segment of the work relies on the method of determining the gravitational field of urban centres through the evaluation of intensity, routes and directions of daily migrations (Tošić, Krunić & Petrić, 2009). The effects of the urban settlement on its rural hinterland are investigated by analysing functional and urban (socioeconomic) types of settlements and by defining the degree of functional and socio-economic transformation. The study used published and specially processed data of Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia.

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ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PROVISION OF PUBLIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS AS DRIVERS OF DAILY MIGRATIONS Municipality of Blace located in Toplica district of the southern Serbia. Blace municipality is relatively small, with only 306 km2 of surface and with the population of 11.756 (in 40 settlements). Municipal centre, Blace, is the most populated settlement in the whole municipality with the population that amounts to 5.353, which is almost half of the total number of municipal inhabitants. It boasts the most developed tertiary and quaternary sectors and represents the administrative, economic and cultural centre of the municipality. The urban primacy index 107 (Jefferson, 1939), which refers to highly unbalanced values and significant differences of settlements sizes (in terms of population) in which one settlement predominates, points to a dominant role of the Blace municipal centre with the index value of 10,53 in relation to the second most populated settlement in the municipality 108. Moreover, when compared to the total population of the next three biggest settlements (in demographic terms), Blace still expresses strong urban primacy with the index value of 4,29 109. Table 1: Public and social function facilities in the Blace municipal centre 110 Health care facilities Education facilities Local government and other administrative facilities Facilities for Social Welfare Cultural facilities

Public and social facilities in the municipal centre Health Center (1), Pharmacy stores(4) Preschool education (central facility); Main elementary school; High School; College. Local government building; Police station; The post office; Public utility companies; National Employment Service; Tax Administration; Real estate cadastre service; Local court unit; Pension Fund and Health Insurance Fund. Center for Social Work (Department for elderly and adults); Red Cross. Cultural Center (multifunctional cultural facility), the National Library.

Schmook’s method of determining the degree of centrality (Schmook, 1968) refers to the level of development and to the position and importance of the main urban centre in the settlements network and gravitational environment. The degree of regional centrality (C) expresses the relation of active population in the service sector and total active 107

I=

; G1 5253 = = 10,53 G 2 499

I – urban primacy index; G1 – population of the biggest settlement (Blace); G2 – population of the second most populated settlement (Trbunje) 108 109

Jefferson (1939) refers to high urban primacy when index value is higher than 2; I=

110

5253 G1 = = 4,29 G 2 + G3 + G 4 499 + 367 + 358

Data derived from the administrative sector of Blace municipality, valid as of 2017; “Municipalities and regions in Republic of Serbia, 2015''

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE population in the settlement, compared to the same indicators in the municipality. In the case of Blace municipality, this degree varies from 0.26 in Više Selo to 1.21 in the municipal centre (Blace). In accordance with the number of active citizens in tertiary and quaternary sectors, Blace is the settlement with the highest degree of centrality in the whole municipality. After the World War 2, municipal centre recorded a strong surge in economic development with the establishment of numerous economic institutions and enterprises 111. After 1980, metal industry is in stagnation, and the industrial sector is based on the processing of agricultural products 112. Industry was a dominant economic activity until 1990s. According to the data from 2011, secondary sector employs 27% of working population, while only 4% work in the primary sector activities. Economic development was followed by the improvements in infrastructure and public and social functions. Blace as the municipal centre has a relatively considerable level of public functions provision (Table 1). Concentration of activities, functions and population in the municipal centre has predisposed Blace, as a settlement of highest hierarchical level, to become the destination point of daily migrations from all settlements of lower hierarchy. There are different causes of daily migrations, but the most common one is usually related to the functions of work and education, i.e. to basic socio-economic needs.

TRANSPORT NETWORK AND TRAVEL TIME AS DETERMINANTS OF URBAN-RURAL INTEGRATION Main causes of increased mobility of daily migrants from rural settlements towards municipal centre can be found in its high functional capacity, favourable morphological position and good transport connection. Quality of transport connections between rural and urban areas, spatial distance and travel time directly affect the daily mobility and prevent rural depopulation as people remain in rural areas (have a place of residence) and temporary (daily) migrate to the main urban centre instead of permanently relocating. Most authors agree that spatial distance, time and travel expenses play a key role in determining the type of migration: daily migrations or permanent emigration to urban settlements (Wheeler, 1971; Reitsma & Vergoossen, 1987). Reaching certain travel distance, i.e. the critical isochron, travel time and expenses exceed acceptable values which leads to decreased interaction of urban and rural settlements and to a decline in daily migrations as people emigrate from rural areas outside this isochron. Blace municipality has a well-developed road transport, which takes place on the 199.2 km of categorized roads. The 78.5% of roads is under a modern surfacing. The municipal centre, Blace, is a traffic hub where two categories of national roads intersect (IB and IIA) 113. Around 15% of road network is consisted of high quality roads of national importance. 111

Knitwear 'Blačanka' ', 'ready-made products ‘Progres', rubber industry 'Braće Vuksanović', metal industry '5. Decembar’, weaving products 'TIB' , construction company' 'Pobeda', dairy products 'MIB', processing industry 'Fruto', etc. (Stamenković et al., 2001 and 2002) 112 Processing facilities that can be mentioned are 'Mi-mi', then 'Fruto-Vino Župa', ‘Master milk' and ‘Lazar’, as well as several smaller kilns in the individual sector. Retrieved from :http://www.blace.org.rs/privreda/poljoprivreda.html; on 19/04/2017. 113 State road IB 38: Kruševac (Makrešane) - Blace - Beloljin and state road IIA 214: Blace - Kuršumlija - Fruška Gora - Podujevo

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Municipal roads make 85% of road network of which 74.7% has modern surfacing (Municipalities and regions in Republic of Serbia, 2015). Table 2: Coefficient of the road network density 114 State road I category State road II category

Municipal roads

Total

Blace municipality

0,06

0,04

0,55

0,65

Toplica district

0,04

0,11

0,38

0,53

The coefficients (Table 2) show that the road network density in Blace municipality (K=0.65) even without highways is higher than in the total territory of Serbia (K=0.5) and of Toplice county (K=0.53). Both qualitative and quantitative characteristics as well as coefficients of density point to quality transport connection of the municipal centre and its rural hinterland in Blace municipality, which is a precondition for the population mobility and establishing of a daily urban system. Based on the accessibility of the municipal centre, 5 travel zones are determined, with the limiting values based on the following isochrones: 1) 0-5 minutes; 2) 5-10 minutes; 3) 10-15 minutes; 4) 15-20 minutes and the zone without access to categorized roads.

Figure 35: Accessibility of the Blace municipal centre

DAILY URBAN SYSTEM OF THE BLACE MUNICIPAL CENTRE Population of rural areas that participate in daily migration activities makes the functional area of the municipal centre and determine its gravitational area. The share of commuters at the level of the settlement, is determined on the basis 114

K= D/P; K= coefficient of road density; D= length of all roads in km; P= territory surface in km²

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE of the total number of economically active population together with students and pupils, reduced by the agricultural population 115. In the Blace municipality, 49,65% (1.561) of workers, pupils and students commute. However, based on the number of commuters that stay on the territory of their own municipality (where their residence is), the importance and strength of a municipal centre can be determined. In that sense, Blace urban settlement represents a strong gravitational centre within its own municipality towards which commutes the majority of municipal daily migrants (66,37%) as well as commuters from all settlements in the municipality. Due to functional dependencies, 74.95% of commuters (1.170) remains within the limits of the municipality, of which 66.37% gravitates towards the municipal center, while 8.58% commutes to other rural areas of the municipality. A small number of commuters from the Blace municipality, i.e. 15.31%, gravitates toward other centers of the Toplica county (Prokuplje and Kuršumlija), while 8.77% of them commutes to centers that are not part of the county (Niš, Kruševac, Brus). The direction of movement of commuters and quantitative indicators clearly show the importance of Blace as a strong center of gravity for all the rural areas of the municipality. Table 3. Migration flows of commuters from Blace municipality by destination (adapted from the data of Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia)

Total number of commuters

1561

Towards municipal centre

Towards other settlements in the municipality

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

Number

%

1036

66,37

134

8,58

239

15,31

137

8,77

Towards other centres in Toplica county

Towards other centres outside the county

Determining the influence fields of the main urban centre was done on the basis of the intensity of commuting (Tošić, Krunić & Petrić, 2009): 1. Zone of intensive influence - over 70% of employees commute to the centre; 2. Zone of strong influence - 50-70% of employees migrate to the centre daily; 3. Zone of medium influence - 30-50% of employees commute to the centre; 4. Areas of weak influence - less than 30% of the employed migrates to the centre of work (there are three groups of settlements: 20-30% of people commuting, 10-20% of people commuting and 5-10% of the employed commuting to the centre), and 5. Periphery of urban living system - less than 5% of employees commute to the centre of the work. In the zone of intensive influence of the municipal centre Blace, with the intensity of commuters from 70 to 100%, there are 10 settlements. In the zone of strong influence with the intensity of people commuting from 50 to 70%, there are 10 settlements as well, while 11 settlements record a medium intensity (30-50%) of commuters. Areas of lesser influence (5-30% of commuters) were observed in 8 settlements. Areas that are close to the centre or those that have 115

The method of determining the number of commuters ignores the active agricultural population performing occupational activities - individuals who work in the place of residence;

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good accessibility provide most commuters to the main urban settlement, as evidenced by the spatial distribution of settlements in the zone of intensive influence. Zones of influence and spatial distribution of settlements in the gravitational field of Blace are displayed in the Figure 2.

Figure 2: Daily urban system of the Blace municipal centre

However, looking at the functional reach of the municipal centre from a regional perspective, and the intensity of its influence in the area of Toplica county, it can be seen that Blace has no force to develop and integrate a wider area. The field of influence with a stronger intensity is felt within the municipality, but with a much smaller one when it comes to settlements outside the municipal area. The development power and influence of Blace in lesser intensity is manifested in 22 settlements (20.56%) of Prokuplje municipality, from whose territory it attracts 4.27% (190) of commuters. Blace also attracts 10.15% (122) of commuters from 10 settlements (11.11%) of the municipality of Kuršumlija, while from the area of Žitorađa municipality, it attracts 0.22% (7) of commuters from 5 settlements in total (16.67). Majority of settlements in municipalities of Prokuplje, Kuršumlija and Žitorađa actually represent the periphery of urban living system of Blace. Daily migrations are a relevant quantitative - qualitative indicator of the spatial - functional integration and connection of rural areas to the main urban centre which serves as a potential driver and promoter of functional cohesion and transformation of the rural hinterland. Daily mobility of population reflects the demographic and socio-economic development, causing changes in the population structure and transformations in the labour market. The development of daily migrations enables the diversification of the activities of rural population, resulting in changing socioeconomic structure which directly influences the transformation of rural areas and prevents the depopulation of the countryside.

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FUNCTIONAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC TRANSFORMATION OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS AS A CONSEQUENCE OF DAILY MIGRATIONS

Model of activity sectors which was most often applied in Serbian spatial planning 116 is based on the method of HorstFerre’s triangle (Ferre, 1961). The method was adapted to domestic conditions and the available data and includes abstracting settlement types based on the analysis of the population activity structure, i.e. share of activities of certain sectors in the working population. It was applied to determine the spatial and functional relationships that affect the functional transformation of settlements. The threshold for determining the dominant affiliation with a specific sector of activity is 60% (Table 4). Figure 3: Horst-Ferre’s triangle (Ferre, 1961)

Table 4: Model for defining specific types of settlements and their number 117

Functional type of settlements Agrarian Agro-industrial Agro-servicing Industrial Industrial-agrarian Industrial-servicing Servicing Servicing-agrarian Servicing-industrial

Criterion

1981

2002

2011

Change

I >or = 60% I >II >III I >III> II II > or = 60% II >I >III II >III> I III>or = 60% III >I >II III >II >I

39 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

15 13 4 0 2 4 0 0 2

6 8 8 2 0 3 1 4 8

-33 +8 +8 +1 0 +3 +1 +4 +8

In the period from 1981 to 2011, there was a significant functional transformation of settlements in the Blace municipality. Secondary and tertiary-quaternary activities have made the municipal centre a generator of change, from which these activities spread to rural areas. As a consequence, daily migrations caused deagrarization and rise of employment in the secondary and tertiary-quaternary activities. Originally, it was the industry that was responsible for the development of this area, but at the same time, there was an increase in the share of service sector activities, which has become the driver of diversification after 2002. State roads also affected functional transformation of the settlements as, along these junctions, tertiary activities and small businesses have been developed, which classifies these settlements as a mixed type of agrarian settlements with the share of services and industrial activities. In 1981, this was predominantly agrarian area, with 39 of the 40 settlements being distinctly agrarian function type. More than half, i.e. 66.48% of the population performed their activities in the primary sector. The fact that in 36 villages over 90% of the population was employed in the primary sector also tells about the dominance of agriculture in this area. However, these were mostly individuals who worked in the place of residence or on their own farm households. In 116 117

E.g., in cases of: Stamenković, S., 1990; Tošić, D., 1999; Grčić, M., & Grčić, Lj., 2002; I – primary sector, II – secundary sector, and III – tertiary-quaternary sector of activities;

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the first period of transformation, until 2002, suburban settlements found themselves under the influence of the municipal center, and this impact later spread to other rural areas. On the map of functional types of settlements from 2002, it is noticeable that there was a small number of settlements that experienced functional transformation and these were mainly distributed around the municipal center or along state roads. However, in 2002 most of the settlements still belonged to the agrarian type, i.e. 37.5% (15 settlements), but this is a significant decrease compared to 97.5% in 1981. The total of 8 settlements was transformed into one of the types of industrial or service settlements.

Figure 4: Transformation of functional types of settlements in Blace municipality

Figure 5: Structure of activities in Blace municipality (2011)

In the second phase of transformation, from 2002 to 2011, other distant settlements were affected by the municipal centre. Functional transformation was not recorded only in 6 villages that remained of a predominantly agrarian type, while in 34 settlements there was a change of functional type. In addition, another 16 settlements (40%) had a mixed function that was predominantly agrarian: 8 of them were agrarian-industrial, while the other 8 were of agrarianservice type. In 18 settlements, secondary or tertiary-quaternary sector was dominant in determining the functional type. The number of service-dominated settlements and mixed settlements with predominantly service function (service-industrial and service-agrarian) has significantly increased. There were not any settlements of this type back in 1981, while in 2002 there were only two of them, but in 2011 this number has risen to 13. The current structure of activities of population in Blace municipality is shown in Figure 5.

Table 5: A model for identifying level of urbanity and number of settlements (Tošić, 2012)

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Level of urbanization

Participation of agricultural population in the total population (%)

Participation of households without agricultural holding in the total number of households (%)

Participation of employed persons in the active population (%)

1981

2002

Urban

≤10

≥ 70

≥ 70

0

0

More urbanized

≤15

≥ 20

≥ 50

0

2

Less urbanized

≤30

≥ 10

≥ 50

0

8

satisfies two of the three conditions

1

8

doesn't satisfy two or all three conditions

39

22

On the threshold of urbanization Rural

The level of urbanity is established according to a set of indicators (Table 5)(Tošić, 2004). When applying this model to the municipality of Blace, it can be seen that in 1981 only municipal centre underwent a transformation, and that to a lesser extent, which classifies it as the village on the doorstep of urbanity. All other settlements were non-urban, rural settlements, which were 39 in total, or 97.5%. In the period from 1981 to 2002 the largest number of villages experienced a transformation from a rural to less urbanized (8) and to settlements on the border of urbanity (8). Two settlements that belonged to the category of rural moved into the category of more urbanized settlements. Number of villages (rural settlements) decreased by 17. Transfer from agricultural to non-agrarian activities had a crucial role in the socio-economic transformation of these settlements. Drivers of the transformation in the first stage were the processes of industrialization and urbanization. Due to urbanization induced by industrialization, functions and population started to be concentrated in the urban settlement, which required the development of a larger number of functions, while the increased population numbers facilitated the development of a variety of tertiary and quaternary activities, in order to meet their needs (Tošić, 2000). That makes tertiary and quaternary activities drivers of the transformation in the second phase.

The biggest changes took place in the settlements around the municipal center, while the degree of urbanity of individual settlements decreased when moving away from it. Settlements along state roads have also undergone transformation, while other settlements in the hinterland remained to be rural. They mostly boast households with a mixed source of income, while the number of agricultural population is being reduced, which indicates the increase in the level of urbanity of these settlements.

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Figure 6: Types of settlements in Blace municipality (2011)

CONCLUSIONS An analysis of commuting flows and monitoring of functional and socio-economic transformation of settlements in the Blace municipality, we came to the following conclusions: •

Blace is an underdeveloped settlement, which, due to the concentration of commercial and public facilities in the municipal center takes on the characteristics of the development of a city and attracts the majority of commuters from the territory of its municipality (66.37%) as well as a smaller number of them from the municipalities of the region;

•

Daily mobility of rural population resulted in the transformation of the rural environment, both functional and socio-economic, which is reflected in: the diversification of occupations; prevention of depopulation in the countryside; decrease of employment in agriculture and of the percentage of households with farms; increase in households with a mixed source of income; development of services in rural areas; change in lifestyles; increase in the level of urbanity, which contributed to the overall development of the area.

•

The most intensive functional and socio-economic transformation took place in the villages that were located along state roads and around the municipal center. Settlements in the hinterland remained of the agrarian and rural type.

•

Functional transformation is reflected in reducing the number of agrarian settlements by 82.5%, the increase of the settlements of a service type and mixed settlements with predominantly service function (serviceindustrial and service-agricultural) by 32.5% and an increase in settlements of industrial and mixed type with predominantly industrial function by 10% .

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE • Socio-economic transformation is reflected in the reduction of rural areas by 42.5% and in the increase of settlements: at the threshold of urbanity by 17.5%, less urbanized by 20% and more urbanized by 5%. Despite relatively limited economic and functional capacities, the sphere of influence of the Blace municipal center in the territory of its municipality prevails in relation to developed centres in the region (Prokuplje, Niš, Kruševac). Good transport links that reduce the length of travel time have caused an increase in daily migrations that have the municipal centre as a destination. Quantitative indicators presented in this paper show that even smaller urban settlement can adequately integrate their rural environment and be the drivers of spatial development, but also to instigate the transformation of rural hinterland. Commuting is a clear proof of the existence of spatial and functional connectivity and integration of rural and urban settlements. Therefore, it is necessary to focus activities towards these settlements, strive for their functional and transport connection with the rural environment and settlements of a higher rank in a wider area, in order to encourage a polycentric territorial development and greater regional balance.

REFERENCES Grčić, M. (1999). Funkcionalna klasifikacija naselja Mačve, Šabačke posavine i Pocerine. Glasnik Srpskog geografskog društva, 79(1), pp. 3-20. Grčić, M., & Grčić, Lj. (2002). Mačva, Šabavčka Posavina i Pocerina. Beograd: Geografski fakultet. Jefferson, M. (1939). The Law of the Primate City. Geographical Review, 29(2), pp. 226-232. Reitsma, R., & Vergossen, F. (1987). A Causal Typology of Migration. The Role of Commuting. Regional Studies, 22(4), pp. 331340. Schmook, G. (1968). Wiskundig Afgebakene Ommelanden en Hinterlanden van de Belgische Steden op de Basis van Geselektioneerde Diensten uit de Tertiare Sektor, Geogr. Tijdschrift. Stamenković Đ. S. et al. (2001 & 2002). Geografska enciklopedija naselja Srbije, knj. I, II, III i IV. Geografski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, ''Agena'' i ''Stručna knjiga'', Beograd. Tošić, D. (1999). Grad u regiji. Glasnik Geografskog društva Republike Srpske, 4, pp. 47-85. Tošić, D. (2000). Prostorno-funkcijske veze i odnosi u urbanim regijama. Arhitektura i urbanizam, 7, pp. 50-58; Tošić, D. (2012). Principi regionalizacije. Beograd: Univerzitet u Beogradu – Geografski fakultet; Tošić, D., Krunić, N., & Petrić, J. (2009). Dnevni urbani sistemi u funkciji prostorne organizacije Srbije. Arhiterktura i urbanizam, 27, pp. 35-45. Veljković, A., Jovanović, R., & Tošić, B. (1995). Gradovi Srbije centri razvoja u mreži naselja. (Posebno izdanje knjga 44), Beograd: Geografski institut ''Jovan Cvijić'' SANU. Wheeler, J. O. (1971). Commuting and the rural nonfarm population. The Professional Geographer, 23, pp. 118–122. Wheeler, J. O., & Stutz, F. P. (1971). Spatial dimensions of urban social travel. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 61, pp. 371–386.

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USING SPACE SYNTAX MODEL IN TYPO MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES - UNDERSTANDING THE TRANSFORMATION OF URBAN FORM AND URBAN LIFE OF THE EDGE BLOCKS OF NEW BELGRADE Aleksandra Đukić Associate Professor, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Aleksandra Đorđević 118 Teaching Assistant, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Milena Vukmirović Associate Researcher, University of Belgrade Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The relation of the urban form and urban life is perceived as a critical aspect of the image, quality of place and sustainability in the contemporary globalized world. The focus of the paper is on the typo morphological profile of mega blocks in New Belgrade. Drawing from theoretical thoughts of various scholars of typo morphology and the ideas of the modern movement interpreted trough the Serbian planning and design practice, the article raises the questions about the relation of society and space in terms of urban form and urban life. The aim of the paper was developing of a typology that includes the spatial and temporal contextualization, using the space syntax model as an integral part of typo morphological studies in contemporary research practice. The synthesis of typo morphological research and space syntax model can provide the platform for better understanding of the existing built environment and social processes, but at the same time, could create starting point for further improvement and development of the urban periphery. The results of the paper are in providing appropriate strategies and rules for urban transformation and urban design of mega blocks to secure high quality of urban form and urban life. Keywords: Typo morphology, urban form, urban life, space syntax, New Belgrade 118


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INTRODUCTION From the early 1960s, due to the various research and design practices of the independent scholars, urban morphology has become an important discipline. Accordingly, in Italy, the new city design theory was developed on the basis of the typo morphological analysis of Italian cities, conducted by Severio Muratori and his successor Gian Franco Cannigia (Muratori, 1959; Gauthier, 2005). At the same time, the French typo morphologists were strongly influenced by the Henri Lefebvre’s ideas (e.g. Castex, Depaule, & Penerai, 1980), while in Anglo-German context, this problem was embedded in the broader city context and was mostly researched by geographers out of which, Conzen certainly stands out (Whitehand, 2001). All of these authors were thinking on similar lines while observing urban morphology as a prerequisite for understanding the city and future interventions in urban space. Along with this, in mid 1980s the theory and method of space syntax was introduced, where it was recognized as a theory of spatial and social systems and method that allows the research of these phenomena (Hillier & Hanson, 1984). Even after two decades, as Whitehand recognizes, typo morphologist have always tended to operate independently from those employing space syntax theory and method (Whitehand, 2001). Following this argument, this paper examines the possibilities of the integration of these two disciplines in order to create a typology which will provide an understanding of the built environment and social processes and additionally provide guidelines for the further design and planning according to social processes and self-organized principles and not oppose them. It is important to stress out that in the context of Serbia, detailed morphological and typological studies were conducted for city squares (Đokić, 2009; Đokić, 2004), city blocks with the focus on the historical part of Belgrade (Niković, 2013) and morphological analysis of New Belgrade in terms of sustainable land use (Gajić, 2015). On the other hand, space syntax is also becoming field of interest for different scholars (e.g. Đukić & Vukmirović, 2012, Vukmirović & Milaković, 2012). Presence and actuality of these two topics in Serbia research practice make our goal of their integration justified, given that the synthesis of typo morphological research and space syntax method can lead to some new conclusions or can raise some new questions. In this paper, we have selected New Belgrade for our case study since it was planned and built in complex social political context after the World War II. Looking from today’s perspective, New Belgrade is faced with some new political and ideological demands such as the neoliberal ones. Residential blocks are dividing; plans are being developed for single intersections or parts of the blocks, compromising both the idea of modern movement and urban life through the production of disruptive and chaotic built structures. The content of this paper is divided in four sections. After the introduction, section two is explaining which methods and materials will be used to create typology and to integrate different subjects in the study of urban morphology and typology. Section 3 includes a theoretical review of the dilemmas concerning built environment and its spatial temporal aspect. The goal of Section 3 is to create a typology of residential blocks and to provide general understanding and identification of type characteristics and challenges coming with the current changes in urban transformation of New Belgrade edge blocks. In the last

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segment we will sum up what has been achieved with this paper and point to possible further research in the field of urban morphology in the city of Belgrade.

METHODOLOGY In order to achieve the study goal of conducting typo morphological analysis of residential blocks in the New Belgrade, usage of several research methods was necessary. We used the method of critical analysis of theoretical thoughts that can be contributing to the problem of linking the space and time in the built environment such as urban morphology and typology, structuration theory, Lefebvre’s thoughts about social space as well as the theory and method of space syntax. This theoretical framework was applied for the formulation of criteria and for the selection of principles and urban patterns, on the basis of which study of New Belgrade will be conducted and on the basis of which typology will be developed. For this purpose, we used morphological analysis to define general values and parameters for the investigation of the case study. The main research material used for case study analysis was General plan from 1950s (Beograd Generalni urbanistički plan 1950), General plan for 2021 (Službeni list grada Beograda, 2003), general state map cad drawings and the site analysis. We used typology as a method for explanation of processes and phenomena by means of studying architectural and social networks and elements. The main study goals are to achieve a high level of understanding of the built environment of New Belgrade edge blocks in order to maintain, improve and guide further development and to investigate the possibilities of space syntax model integration with typo morphological studies.

RESEARCH Although theoretical approaches of Lefebvre, Giddens and Hillier & Hanson are basically different, the question about the relationship between urban form and urban life is drawing them closer. It may appear that Giddens is more oriented towards the general sociological approach, but we strongly believe that his thinking about structure and action is of great importance for the understanding of urban form and urban life relations. On one side, we have well known Lefebvre’s view that "the city is the imprint of the society in space", by which he perceives space as a product of taught and action, but as well as an instrument of control and expression of power (Lefebvre, 1991). On the other hand, Hillier & Hanson are going one step further, since they use space syntax for the explanation of relations between society and space in specific environment, taking the architecture and the built environment as theirs starting ground (Hillier & Hanson, 1984) or the boundaries as we may call them. They use space syntax as a method that, as Hillier suggests, accepts the city as it seems - as a network of spaces open to the successive acts of construction (Hillier, 2008). Beside how the space is structured, the leading questions in their research are concerning the functioning of the city, the way how we understand it and how city is part of the society, concerning its impacts and effects such as social segregation or economic deprivation (Stonor, 2014). In addition to previous theoretical grounds, structuration theory implies the duality of structure, where a moment of production of the action is considered to be

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE a moment of its reproduction as well (Giddens, 1984). We find this argument very important while attempting to link space syntax to typo morphological research, since Giddens suggests that due to the routinization, paths and society remain the way they are through their own reproduction, while the zoning of space and time is done in relation to them. Space syntax could allow us to understand the processes of routinization and to, as Hillier suggests besides understanding the cities, understand ourselves as well (Westin, 2011).

Selection and description of Criteria Having in mind Lefebvre’s critic of the architecture and urbanism of modern movement that produced homogenization, fragmentation and hierarchization (Lefebvre, 2009), three criteria are defined in a way which includes physical characteristics of complex city network and single block, as well as functional characteristics in connection to the urban life: criteria of diversity in urban form, criteria of block integration and criteria of quality of public realm. Diversity of urban form is perceived as an important part of the city life. Repetitive character of housing forms could have impact on the character and ambience of the city space, and, as Adams notices, lack of genius loci and lack of identification with buildings (Adams, 2009). Diversity will be observed trough principles of alternation of horizontal and vertical masses, various numbers of floors and various number of different housing form types. Criterion of Integration includes spatial arrangement and configuration of streets, blocks and buildings. As Jenks and Jones emphasize, the configuration of network in terms of block size, location and connectivity can affect the way how city is functioning (Jenks & Jones, 2010). In addition, connectivity and permeability, as Cowan claims, determine the nature and the extent of routes which could further influence on how lively and well used the space is (Cowan, 1997). Integration will be investigated trough the principles of fragmentation and division of space, both on the macro and micro level. We will attempt to investigate it using space syntax step depth for analysis of block integration in network of New Belgrade and connectivity and visibility for the integration on the city block level. In relation to the issue of integration, Hillier explains that the analysis of the minimum number of turnovers receives 60 to 80% overlap between the spatial values and the observed trends, and these maps are the basis for a large number of studies (Hillier, 2008). Third criterion refers to the quality of public realm. Adams explains that high quality of public realm attracts people, activities, enhances economic performances, fosters pride of community and increases the potential of social inclusion and cultural activities (Adams, 2009). Indirectly, pride of community could have impact on the reduction of vandalism and environment protection. Selected principles include presence of local public facilities and services (school, health centres, kindergartens, universities, cultural centres, etc.), gathering spaces, recreational and green areas. Based on the analysis of the most essential characteristics of the city blocks in New Belgrade, it is concluded that typology could be created based on the three above mentioned criteria, where each of them has two possibilities: Criterion of Diversity of urban form (heterogeneous or homogenous urban form), Criterion of Integration (high or low level of integration in New Belgrade matrix and low inner integration) and Criterion of quality of public realm (high or low level of public realm).

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Forming of Types and Typo morphological analysis Based on the three proposed criteria, there is possibility to create eight types of the residential blocks in New Belgrade. Proposed typology possess specific limitations in terms of the fulfilment of all the principles within criteria, but further increase in number of criteria would lead to a greater number of types, which is not feasible if we have in mind that there are forty-two housing blocks in total. Despite the stated limitations, chosen criteria could show us the most important characteristics of residential blocks, and help us understand their differences and complexity which require different approach in design practice which currently implies densification which treats blocks equally. Typology of New Belgrade residential blocks was developed on the basis of analysis of the principles and patterns of all the blocks, except the ones with specialized functions. For each block, we have analysed block shape and dimensions, block area, area under built structures, occupation index, number of floors, the presence of dominant structures and gathering places, a number of different urban form types, public facilities and year that block was built. Besides these physical and functional characteristics, we analysed step depth (the shortest path with the least number of turnovers), connectivity and visibility in each of the blocks. The overall analysis was necessary for creating parameters for the qualitative principles such as connectivity, visibility and step depth that could be grasped and evaluated only trough comparative analysis between all of the residential blocks in New Belgrade. After the morphological analysis was conducted, we determined the values of the criteria and did the survey based on previously defined types. In the context of the diversity criterion, we have determined that a heterogeneous urban form implies minimum three different numbers of floors and minimum three different housing types. As we previously stated, criterion of integration was researched through the space syntax. We determined variations through the number of cases in which it was possible to reach observed block from other ones with less than six turns. Accordingly, low integration in city level was perceived for the results ranging from 0 to 25 in total of 42 cases, while high integration was counted as such for all the values over 26 (presented in figure 1 as yellow, orange and red lines). Additionally, while analysing integration through connectivity on the block level, we considered cases as high connectivity ones when there were minimum three streets around the blocks that had feature of the medium, higher or very high level of connectivity - more than twelve connections (presented in figure 1 as yellow, orange and red lines).

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Figure 36 Segment of the Typo morphological analysis – Example block 62

Table 12 Types distribution Type

Type 1: Heterogeneity / high quality public realm/high integration Type 2: Heterogeneity / high quality public realm/low integration Type 3: Heterogeneity / low quality public realm/high integration Type 4:Heterogeneity / low quality public realm/low integration Type 5:Homogeneity / high quality public realm/high integration Type 6:Homogeneity / high quality public realm/low integration Type 7:Homogeneity / low quality public realm/high integration Type 8:Homogeneity / low quality public realm/low integration

Name of the block

38; 37; 21; 11c; 33; 28; 29 45; 70 19; 11a; 2; 8a; 9a; 19a; 31; 30: 11b / 67; 7; 7a; 8; 34; 23; 22, 1 61; 62; 63; 64 39; 12; 24; 25; 4; 3; 26; 70a; 32 71, 72, 44

Total No. 7 2 8 0 9 4 9 3

For the criterion of public realm, we considered cases as high level ones when there was at least one public facility and two gathering places in the block perimeter. As a result of parameters determination and according to all criteria, we can conclude that only seven types can be recognized (Table 1). The types 1, 3, 5 and 7 are the most common ones, while others are appearing to a much lesser extent (Type 2, 6, 8) or not present at all (Type 4). When we analyse the spatial distribution of types, we can conclude that types are unevenly distributed and that only type 2, type 6 and type 8 blocks are spatially linked (Figure 2). In the following part of this paper, we will observe transformations of edge blocks in space and specific characteristics in relation to the previously defined types.

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Figure 2 Spatial distribution of types

Analysis of the transformation of the edge block

Figure 3 From the left: Block 62 before densification, Block after densification and Connectivity diagram

After the overall typo morphological analysis we focused on the edge blocks (71, 72, 61, 62, 63, 64, 37, 34, 4). Following the example of block 62 we can notice that due to the spatial arrangement of the urban form in these blocks, transformation is happening both on the narrower block sides situated on the better connected streets, and on the central area where the value index of the connectivity and visibility is the highest (Figure 3). On the other hand, as a result of low level of integration at the macro level and block size (400x700m), the blocks are functioning and developing as a separate entities in contrast to New Belgrade, creating a linear centre among each other in the core of the blocks. On a positive note, high rise buildings and high quality of urban realm do not allow densification between the buildings. Through the analysis, we recognized that all of the blocks classified under the type 8 were built after 1985, when the ideas of Modern movement as well as the power of the socialist government system were losing its influence over urban development in Belgrade. These blocks can be perceived as blocks on the “edge”, both in the spatial disposition within the structure of New Belgrade and in its architectural design with no public facilities or public spaces, thus producing place with low quality of urban form and urban life.

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CONCLUSIONS Typology allows us to look at the certain rules and ways in which the transformation and densification is going on and to adopt appropriate strategies in the field of planning in order to enable high quality urban form and urban life. Our main conclusions about the possibilities of integration of space syntax model in typo morphological and understanding the transformation of urban form and urban life of the edge blocks of New Belgrade research are presented in three main statements. 1. Space syntax allows the analysis of integration between urban form and urban life and not just the physical closeness of the elements within the structure. When we analyse the spatial distribution of types, we can conclude that, the quality of urban form and urban life is related to the quality of integration in the network and connectivity on the block level, while position determines the possibility and exposure to the transformation. 2. Space syntax, visibility and connectivity analysis allow understanding of the existing built environment, transformation and indirect exposure to the transformation. These analyses enable the understanding of the phenomenon of densification of edge blocks. In relation to this, we have identified that the most number of edge blocks are exposed to densification both on the sides and in the central part of the block due to lack of public content (type 6), while the rest of the edge blocks are barely at all exposed to transformation (types 5 and 8). 3. Space syntax is a relatively simple tool for visualization and monitoring of the effects of each spatial transformation, understandable to different groups of stakeholders involved in the process of urban transformation. The space syntax analysis allows understanding and visualization of the changes that densification may produce to a street network or block visibility and permeability. This is a very significant fact, both for the analysis of the already undergone transformation and for the decisions that can be taken in the future. In terms of future strategies and rules for urban transformation, we have to take into account all criteria: diversity, integration and quality of public realm. From the analysis, we can conclude that there is interdependence between the quality of the public realm and integration. The integration brings high quality of pedestrian network, which must not be interrupted in the process of planning of new spaces because of its importance, both on the block level and on the level of New Belgrade. On the other side, high quality of urban realm does not allow densification between the buildings. Accordingly, urban transformation and design of new residential blocks on the edge have to provide high quality of public realm trough local public facilities, services and activities in order to stop unplanned and uncontrolled densification. Additionally, heterogeneity in urban design has impact on the character and ambience of the city space and thus has impact on the quality of urban form and urban life and has to be considered as the integral part of urban design. The paper concludes that above mentioned possibilities of the space syntax application in typo morphological researches are of great importance for urban design. In this process, further research and continued detailed elaboration of these issues through the series of analysis on site, are necessary for establishing planning control over new construction and increasing the quality of urban form and urban life.

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REFERENCES Adams, Rob. "From industrial Revolution to Eco – Urbanity." Radović, Darko. Eco Urbanity. NY: Routledge, 2009. 33-47. Beograd Generalni urbanistički plan 1950. Beograd: Izvršni odbor N.O. Beograd, 1951. Castex, Jean, Jean-Charles Depaule and Philippe Penerai. Urbane forme. Trans. Mirjana Mihajlović-Ristivojević and Gradimir Bosnić. Belgrade: Građevinska knjiga, 1980. Cowan, R. The Connected City: a new approach to making cities work. London: Urban Initiatives, 1997. Đokić, Vladan. Urban typology: city square in Serbia. Belgrade: University of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, 2009. —. Urbana morfologija: grad i gradski trg. Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, 2004. Đukić, Aleksandra and Milena Vukmirović. "Redesigninh the network of pedestrian spaces in the function of reduction of CO2 emission. Case study: Pančevo and Vršac." Spatium 27 (2012): 31-39. Gajić, Ranka. Guidelines for sustainable land use from the perspective of urban morphology at the example of New Belgrade Doctoral disertation. Belgrade: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Arhitektonski fakultet, 2015. Gauthier, Pierre. "Conceptualizing the social construction of urban and architectural forms through the typological process." Urban Morphology 9.2 (2005): 83-93. Giddens, Anthony. The constitution of society - Outline of the theory of Structuration. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984. Hillier, Bill and Julliene Hanson. The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Hillier, Bill. "The new science of space and the art of space: Towards a space-led paradigm for researching and Designing the city." Haas, Tigran. New Urbanism and Beyond: Designing Cities for the Future. Rizzoli/ Random House: New York, US, 2008. 30-39. Jenks, M and C Jones. Dimensions of the Sustainable City. London, NY: Springer, 2010. Lefebvre, Henri. State, Space, World: Selected Essays. Minneapolis: University of Minesota Press, 2009. —. The Production of Sapce. Oxford: Blackwell publishing, 1991. Muratori, Severio. Studi per una operante storia urbana di Venezia. Rome: Instituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1959. Niković, A. Morfologija Gradskog bloka - analiza mogucnosti primene u planiranju i projektovanju, doktorska disertacija. Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet, 2013. Samuels, Ivor. "Conzen's Last Bolt: Reflections of Thinking about urban form." Urban Morphology 9.2 (2005): 136-144. Službeni list grada Beograda. Generalni plan Beograda 2021. Beograd: Službeni list grada Beograda, br. 27/03, 25/05, 34/07 i 63/09, 2003.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE Stonor, Tim. Space syntax: a SMART appproach to urban planning, design and governance. 2014. . Vukmirović, Milena, and Mira Milaković. "How to Transform Car-Dependent City into Pedestrian City?. First International Conference on Traffic and Transport Engineering. 2012. Westin, Sara. "The Life and Form of the City: An Interview with Bill Hillier." Space and Culture 14.2 (2011): 227–237. Whitehand, J.W.R. "British Urban morphology: The Conzenian tradition." Urban Morphology 5.2 (2001): 103-109.

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THE FUNCTION OF GREENERY IN A SKYSCRAPER: THE PLACEMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE Alicja Stefańska 119 MSc, Eng., Arch., Gdansk University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland, [email protected] Daniel Załuski PhD, DSc., Eng., Arch., Gdansk University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland, [email protected]

ABSTRACT The contrast between the high rise buildings; with their mostly geometric shapes, and the organic form of the greenery was visible even in the idea of a skyscraper. Yet the realizations and recent projects show emerging interest and the link between them as a movement back to the sources. To better understand the developing function of the greenery in the context of a skyscraper, both literature and case studies are conducted. The aim is to relate the location and type of the green structures to the function that it performs. The study examines the multiple functions of green structures and their influence on a building’s interior and its surroundings. The investigation shows that the role of green spaces is now more appreciated, and as a result, greenery is being utilized to an increasing extent. Inquiries into futuristic, albeit often unrealized projects highlight that not every location nor every merit of green structures is used. The available evidence shows that the function of greenery in the context of the skyscraper has changed together with its meaning to the people. It can serve multiple functions in various locations, making the megastructure an improved place for its users. Although, only some of them are recognisably efficient in regards to the scale of the building itself. Keywords: Skyscraper, High rise building, Green building, Greenery

INTRODUCTION The original idea of a skyscraper was born at the end of the twentieth century in America (Koolhaas, 1994), proving that after thousands of years of architecture there were still new possibilities to shape a city. The Human relationship to nature was once very close; however, with the spread of urbanization and new technologies people could create an environment to live and work without any greenery. Not only is managing green spaces both 119


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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE time and money consuming they occupy highly valuable usable space. Despite this associated cost greenery is being included in the design of mega structures. Even in the case where it doesn’t provide a sense of nourishment and shelter for humans.

THE FUNCTION OF GREENERY IN THE TIMES OF CREATING THE FIRST SKYSCRAPERS Although humanity was always naturally close to greenery the advancement of technology allowed them to start using it without fear. He had power over it, he could control and reshape it anywhere. He didn’t take into consideration the ecosystems and biodiversity that existed without human influence (Woulter, Franklin, 2003). As the world birthed its first skyscrapers the seeds of the Garden City movement were also planted. These idyllic places were located far from the city centers, as oasis of peace and tranquility. They were models of coveted utopias that had also easy transport links with the cities. At the same time the natural environment was exploited by people to maximize the efficiency of land management in overcrowded cities (Hardy, 1991). Some of the rich moved out to villages to avoid urban density with extremely low sanitary conditions. However, the majority stayed in the cities or migrated to them (Sas-Bojarska, Walewska, 2013).

ORIGINAL FUNCTION OF A SKYSCRAPER The idea of the skyscraper was born by the need to get the maximum possible usable area on small but expensive plots of land. With it no longer being economical to sprawl across the landscape; buildings went in the only other location they could, skyward. It was a mysterious machine, which functioned to answer humanities modern needs. The construction was driven by simplistic and repeatable concepts allowing the shape and styles of the interior to create many separate identities in one skyscraper. Humanity no longer needed to be afraid of the power of nature (Turner, 2005) as he was tucked away in the safety of steel and glass.

CHANGE IN THE APPROACH Due to the worsening life conditions in the cities, including epidemic outbreaks, plans to improve the quality of life were made. One of these cities was Paris, for which Le Corbusier proposed Plan Voisin (1922). It comprised of a utopia built with skyscrapers in the form of glass towers. On the ruins of previous urban fabric, a huge investment was planned. It contained both residential and office buildings, but also a developed transport system with an airport in the middle of the area. The main aspect of this project was localizing these objects in a huge and dense park (Boesiger, 2000). Thus, a project showcasing a high floor area ratio within a small built-up area would have been seen by the world. However, the project was never realized. Another project aimed at improving the quality of life of Parisians was proposed by Magdalena Abakanowicz (1991). It implied creating self-sufficient skyscrapers-trees on extension of the La Défense axis. These vertical gardens’ cores

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were filled with usable area. They also provided parking lots in the “roots” and the recreational part in the “crowns”. It was an answer not only to ecological demands, but also the social needs (Abakanowicz, 1994) of big cities. The project, although having won an international competition, was never realized. Despite this, it was an inspiration for many future objects that were built starting from the turn of the 20th and 21st century.

BACK TO THE SOURCES Nowadays, the use of greenery as a form accompanying the building is more commonly seen. Not only is it fashionable (Rzeszotarska-Pałka, 2015), but people also feel alive surrounded by greenery. As a repercussion of ecophilosophy and the awareness of the role of greenery, it is itself an element building the structure of the high rise buildings. It appears usually only as a variety in elevation or roof design; both elements visible from the outside, that are permanent, durable and not dependent on buildings’ users. It can be also found in other locations, including the interior, in the form of winter gardens, atriums and decorative elements.

THE PLACEMENT OF GREENERY IN THE CONTEXT OF A SKYSCRAPER Based on publicly shared projects, including those unrealized, the potential placement of greenery in the context of a skyscraper was classified. On the basis of information about realized buildings, it was verified, if all the ideas for placing greenery in the context of high rise building were used there. In the case study executed to determine existing buildings that include greenery, the complexity of the building was considered, even if only some part of it is perceived as a skyscraper. Based on research, it is stated that greenery is in multiple, diverse places in the context of a skyscraper. It is also noticed, that often more than one placement of greenery is used at once, to get an intense effect of greening. Not every desired arrangement for greenery has been realized yet. It is caused not only by the cost and difficulty in maintaining green spaces, but also the necessary requirements, such as: the degree and time of sunlight, the temperature and its fluctuations, air humidity, available space to grow and air blasts and quality. Thus, in unfavorable conditions some potential locations seem to be inadequate for greenery. Additionally, it was noticed that greenery is often placed in the interiors. Due to the scale of the building, it is usually an addition to the most populated spaces: the main hall or the highest level which often functions as a viewpoint.

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Table 13: External greenery and its placement in the context of a skyscraper

Example: the name of the building On the roof

Marina Bay Sands

Example: Construction completed 2010

On the walls

One Central Park

2013

On the balconies

Bosco Verticale

2014

On the terraces or the roof of the lower part of the building In the opening Under the building As a connector As a secondary cover of the building Within the cage of a bare structure

Tokyo Skytree

2012

Foster and Partners, Ateliers Jean Nouvel and PTW Architects Boeri Studio: Stefano Boeri, Gianandrea Barreca, Giovanni La Varra Nikken Sekkei

The Elephant Building Oasia Hotel Downton

1997 2016

Ong-at Sattraphan WOHA

-

-

-

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Example: Architect

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Figure 37: Scheme of Tokio Skytree’s functions

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE In an example of Tokio Skytree (Nikken Sekkei, 2012), one of the highest buildings in the world, it was examined how the greenery is arranged in the context of the building. The complex is located in the Sumida district, on a plot with an approximate size of 400x100 meters. The whole project is complicated; not only in its form but its required compatibility with the subway station. Construction had to be completed not only above the ground but also underneath it. A few different sources of greenery are found in this skyscraper. One of them is extensive greenery located on the top of the roofs that are inaccessible for users. Dense greenery is found at the ground floor, surrounding the elevation from west, south and east. It is also located on the roofs of lower parts of the complex that are accessible for the users, especially by the restaurant at the entrance to the tower which provides view of the region. Additionally, it is situated on the terraces between the planetarium and the offices. Besides the exterior greenery, the greenery is also found in interior public areas, such as the communication area in the mall or in the form of smaller single compositions in other areas.

THE FUNCTION OF GREENERY SPECIFIC FOR A SKYSCRAPER The scale and the manner of shaping interiors in the high rise buildings, provides a peculiar example of the human’s environment. Besides relatively new and uneconomical (Al-Chalabi, 2015) ideas, such as localizing hydroponic farms in the skyscraper, it usually contains residential and commercial sections. Due to the limited access to the sunlight, plants in the interior are not estimated to grow drastically. The insertion of larger works of greenery to the interior of the building may be a problem, especially when its destination is located on the last level of the building, like it is in 20 Fenchurch Street in London (Rafael Viñoly, 2014). Acclimatization of the plants in the interior may take up to a year. The most difficult moment for them is when the building is not fully finished. The pollution from drying paints, dust and cleaning agents often blacken the leaves, causing the plant to slowly die. Therefore, it’s best to design a building with the thought of insertion the greenery carefully planned, like it was with Oasia Hotel Downtown (WOHA, 2016). It supports the maintenance of the specific microclimate which favors both humans and the growth of plants. It is also better to set green areas far from direct streams of air, including building’s entrances or heating and air conditioning installations, like it was in AC Bella Sky Hotel Copenhagen (3XN, 2011). Although, the greenery in the interiors acts similar in every building no matter its height, the situation changes with the exterior. The greenery placed externally in the context of a skyscraper is an element that influences not only the building itself, but also the closest neighborhood. Greenery helps cool the air, partly compensating for the high amount of energy lost on air conditioning in average high rise building. Due to the air cleansing and shade provided, it positively influences the adjacent microclimate; which is in most cases very shady due to the cost of land in prestigious districts and the close proximities it creates. It also adjusts the retention – not only absorbing, but also delaying the flow of water to rain drainage, exceptionally advantageous in the case of sudden outbursts of rain.

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Besides the almost measurable esthetic and fragrant benefits, the greenery contributes also to the suppression of noise as it is shaped organically. It also provides a shelter and source of nourishment for insects and birds living in the city. It enriches ecofauna and diversifies the environment with the sounds of nature at the same time. Green spaces also deliver information about the surrounding, for example: it lets people experience the varying seasons. It is also acknowledged that it has a positive influence on maintaining spiritual and mental health (Baumann, 1991), which is often needed in such a massive and artificial environment. A combination of these factors leads to greenery being placed on the exterior parts of a skyscraper as it provides not only marketing and esthetic reasons, but also environmental ones.

SHARED VISIONS OF THE FUTURE Looking through the trade press and publications with ideas for new skyscrapers in the context of greenery, it is possible to get the impression that a lot of these ideas are still waiting to be done. Proposals cover various ranges: self-sufficient skyscrapers with full ecosystems; actions that add a few “green levels” to existing buildings or cover the building with a “green cocoon”; high rise buildings enriched with allotment gardens; skyscraper-parks; skyscraper-forests; skyscraper-meadows; skyscraper-pasturages for animal breeding; or skyscrapers that are partly built, party grow themselves (Aiello, 2012). Looking back, some of the more unconventional ideas are realized, when the technology finally allows the idea to become economical or possible, like in the case of hydroponic farms.

CONCLUSIONS Not every designer’s idea regarding the placement of greenery in the context of a skyscraper is realized yet. The cost of new forms of greenery implementation is relatively low compared to the total cost of building a skyscraper; thus, it is likely that more green areas in skyscrapers will be seen with the rapid advancement of technology and civil engineering. In previously built high rise buildings, greenery is often installed in more than one location at a time to gain the better effect of greening. Since it’s providing multiple functions in improving the human life environment simultaneously, it is more commonly being located on the exterior parts of high rise buildings. This exterior greenery influences not only the building itself - its esthetics and economically justified characteristics, but also the nearest surroundings. Additionally, the function of greenery in the context of a skyscraper has changed during its “life” together with the relation of the society to the greenery. High rise buildings are often adjusted with its greening to current needs, trends and awareness of its users. Due to the need of creating the contemporary utopias, new ideas for supreme skyscrapers are being presented. These supreme skyscrapers are often not only self-sufficient, but additionally, they amend the environmental conditions of their surroundings.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE Although it is possible to integrate intensive greenery to a high rise building, it is unlikely to replace ground parks as they provide a completely different quality of greenery (a richer variety of flora and fauna) and method of access. Maintenance of a green area that is used by many generates lower unit costs. On the other hand, interaction with the greenery itself is then much more limited, so it acquires lower benefits to its users.

REFERENCES Abakanowicz, Magdalena. 1994. Architektura arborealna: idea, koncepcja, projekt. Warszawa: Narodowa Galeria Sztuki Współczesnej Zachęta. Aiello, Carlo. 2012. eVolo Skyscrapers. Los Angeles: Evolo LLC. Al-Chalabi, Malek. 2015. “Vertical farming: Skyscraper sustainability?” Sustainable Cities and Society, no. 18: 74–7. Baumann, Rudi. 1991. Domy w zieleni. Warsaw: Arkady. Boesiger, Willy, and Girsberger Hans. 2000. Le Corbusier 1910-65. Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gili. Hardy, Dennis. 1991. From Garden Cities to New Towns: Campaigning for town and country planning, 18991946. London: Routledge. Koolhaas, Rem. 1994. Delirious New York: a retroactive manifesto for Manhattan. New York: The Monacelli Press. Rzeszotarska-Pałka, Magdalena. 2015. “Gra w zielone – zieleń w architekturze” przestrzeń i FORMa, no. 23: 177–90. Sas-Bojarska, Aleksandra, and Anna Walewska. 2013. “Od Gardencity do Ecocity” In Wybrane teorie współczesnej urbanistyki, edited by Piotr Lorens and Izabela Mironowicz, 118–51. Gdańsk: Akapit DTP. Turner, Tom. 2005. Garden History: Philosophy and Design 2000 BC – 2000 AD. New York: Routledge. Woulter, Karel, and Anne Franklin. 2003. “Biodiversity and Extinctions, Present and Past” In Biodiversity in Belgium, edited by Marc Peeters, Anne Franklin, Jackie L. Van Goethem, 9–18. Brussels: Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF THE APPLICATION OF CO-DESIGN WITHIN THE REDESIGN OF THE CULTURAL CENTERS IN B&H Lejla Kreševljaković Faculty of Architecture, University of Sarajevo, Patriotske lige 30, Sarajevo, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Most part of the former cultural centre in B&H has been restored by the local administration, the war damages have been repaired, buildings are placed in a state of usability. However, the role and importance that they once had has not been renewed. Moving to a market economy and democratic principles in decision-making, led to institutional reforms, which are clearly reflected in the governance of the cultural centres. They were once registered as a public institution, which meant a single administration, networking and secure financing, while today most part is under the local governments, without a clear strategy of cultural development. In the modern management model, the emphasis is on the social initiative and participation through the civil society sector, which is clearly underdeveloped in order to start activities within the area of cultural centres. This paper aims to draw attention to the role that architects, as responsible community members may have towards activating the local community by the methods of participatory design. In contrast to the usual way of design, where the architect primarily offers ideas and solutions, methods of the participatory design are based on the active involvement of all stakeholders in the design. The field of the most interest of the application of these principles is in the process of designing/redesigning public social space. Participatory design would fit in the process of redesigning existing culture centres in B&H, because the very application of this methodology means activating the local community, which is the main goal. Application of participatory or co-design is a necessity in the process of restoring the role and importance of cultural centres in B&H. Keywords: participatory design, co-design, cultural centres, local community

INTRODUCTION Community-cultural centres in Bosnia and Herzegovina, for the most part, represent legacies from the Yugoslav period 1945-1992. They emerged as part of the cultural policy in the former Yugoslavia, which was based on the idea of democratization of culture and the transmission of cultural programs from the centre to the periphery and the activation of the local population in cultural life. These facilities were exceptionally visited by the local community. In the community-cultural centres, cultural-artistic societies, workers, universities were active and various and numerous cultural events were organized.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE In the first years after the war, community-cultural centres were the areas of social need for literacy, for the development of cultural amateurism. Later, they became more entertaining, especially after 1968, after student protests, when cultural policy focused on young people and tried to arrange their leisure time. The latest phase of the socialist period, which is the period of the late 80’s and the beginning of the 90’s, socially owned became state owned, the process of privatization began, which was reflected on the community-cultural centres where the commercialization of program contents began. 120 During the war, community-cultural centres became targets of bombing and places of war crimes. 121 After the war 1992-1995 the buildings of community-cultural centres were physically renewed, war damages were repaired, which brought the community-cultural centres into a state of usability. However, the facilities did not renew their role and importance as they once had. The work of community-cultural centres are linked to traditional cultural activities, such as folklore or other amateur sections, while the potential of these cultural spaces to connect with contemporary cultural and artistic trends in Europe is almost unrecognizable. It is not uncommon for content in community-cultural centres to be considered old-fashioned and uninteresting for younger generations. The program of community-cultural centres is very often formed without the active involvement of citizens who gravitate to these centres. The work and activity of the community-cultural centres are known to older residents of local communities, young people are poorly aware of this phenomenon. Community-cultural centres in B&H almost do not have a presentation on the internet or on social media such as Facebook or Twitter, the medium more accessible to the younger generation. With the transition to market economy and the democratic principles of decision-making, institutional reforms took part and that was clearly reflected in the community-cultural centres. The previous management structure was completely changed. A unique organization with a dominant cultural function was scattered in a multitude of different functions and contents. In relation to the previous concept commercial contents were introduced. Community-cultural centres were once registered as public institutions, which meant a unified administration, networking and secure funding, while today they are mostly under local government, without a clear cultural development strategy. In the modern management model, the emphasis is on social initiative and practicing through the civil society sector, which is insufficiently developed to initiate activities within the area of the community-cultural centres.

Boško Prostran, Danilo Prnjat, Isidora Ilić, Miloš Miletić, Mirjana Dragosavljević, Mirjana Radovanović. 2011. ”Ima li za nas mesta u Domu kulture?” Dematerijalizacija umetnosti. Accessed april 16, 2017. http://dematerijalizacijaumetnosti.com/ima-li-zanas-mesta-u-domu-kulture/. 121 Jakovljević, Branislav. “Zvornik 1992. diletantske inscenacije i teatar zločina.” Links: Ciklus o zaboravu i zaboravljenima. Accessed April 16, 2017. http://www.komunalinks.com/home/2016/9/5/zvornik-1992-diletantske-inscenacije-i-teatar-zloina. 120

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The problem is also in the unobtrusive, unrecognizable appearance of the buildings themselves. During post-war reconstruction no account was taken of building design itself. The buildings were not modernized through spatial conception. The setting, as originally was set when community-cultural centres emerged in the middle of the last century, has been completely retained. One of the steps to activating the youth and the space itself is certainly transformation of the buildings, their redesign in the direction of modernization, without disturbing their historical value. The research question is whether and how the architectural approach to the renewal of the community-cultural centres can contribute to the restoration of the role and significance that community-cultural centres once had?

RENEWAL OF COMMUNITY-CULTURAL CENTRES BY APPLICATION OF CO-DESIGN "The community-culutre centers functioned through the idea of socialism, based on morality and social aspect. Today, immorality and dirty capital dominate. To make the community-culutre centers alive again, the idea must be almost revolutionary."- Mufid Garibija, Bosnian architect. For the rehabilitation of the role and significance of community-cultural centres, as Mufid Garibija says, almost revolutionary idea is needed, that is the idea that steps out from current frameworks and practices. In many Western countries, which are traditionally wealthy, people find new ways to improve their quality of life by reducing the consumer demands and by redefining their attitudes about prosperity and work. There is a multitude of problems in everyday life that cannot be solved by known methods and procedures that governments and administration can offer, or in some of the well-known commercial ways. In dealing with such problems, solutions that break traditional models and offer new ones appear. The new solutions overcome the traditional dichotomy of private - public, local - global, consumer - producer, needs - wishes, etc., because most of these solutions are at the same time both local and global, in most cases producers are manufacturers as well, personal needs and desires coincide. There is a break with the usual flows, or the ways of thinking that are considered "normal". 122 If we look into architectural practice from this perspective, then we can say that the engagement on the previous restoration of the community-cultural centres after 1995 was in the domain of solving problems in formal-physical way. It was a narrowly specialized professional way of providing the necessary documentation for the construction site, but without critical review of the spatial concept that was outdated, without questioning the real needs and preferences of people in the local community. For the architectural practice, in order to become part of the active renewal of the community-cultural centres, it is necessary to step out of this traditional scope of work. 122

Manzini, Enzio. 2015. Design, When Everybody Designs. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press.: 11-14

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE How can architectural and engineering practice step out from current frameworks and contribute to social change? There are several conditions that must be fulfilled, namely that (1) the designers must be involved in the broader picture of social change beyond the boundaries of economic feasibility, (2) that design is perceived as a joint effort in which the design process is spread between different participants and different professional areas, and (3) that the proposed ideas are "prototyped" and explored by end-users in the initial design phase. 123 In fact, all these features are characteristic of co-design. The first feature of co-design strives to make a difference in relation to the consumerist spirit of the great part of designers, those we have a chance to see in everyday life. We live in a dominantly consumerist society. The design we know is ego-centred, guided by the desire to express power, domination, success, and glory. For its realization, huge resources of society are being used, such as the creative power of young people, working for design firms to gain profits and build the image of a company. Behind those companies usually one man stands, one name, an architectural star. In the society led by ego, money and profit, architectural stars are quite expected. However, such a design does not contribute to social change, but it determines the existing situation in society. That is why we have to distinguish this type of design from co-design guided by quite opposite ideas, ideas of equality and involvement, beyond the limits of economic feasibility. The ultimate intention or effort is to make a design intervention such as to become part of social change. This goal can be achieved through the design process itself and through the aspiration of human-oriented, socially-viable and culturally sustainable design aims. Thus, from the middle of the last century in human-oriented way act architects like Christopher Alexander, Herman Hertzberger etc. to contemporaries such as Alejandro Aravena, Jeanne Gang and others. In the process of decision-making, various practitioners as well as the local population as end-users of space should be included. Co-design is, in the broader sense, related to the creativity of designers and people who are not trained designers, to work together in the design development process. They may be people who belong to special categories, may be future users, may be experts from different fields, performers, etc. Thus, co-design is a special kind of cocreation. The starting point in the design process, which defines the task, is the most important moment to engage as many people as possible in the discussion, because at this point the co-design process is the most important and can yield better results. 124 Will the end-users be involved and to what extent in the rest of the design process ranging from situation to situation, from designers to designers, opportunities, finances etc.. Most of co-designers use community resources in / for which they work, for detailed questioning of the community needs. However, the form, the way of making, the materialization and other details is decided by the designer in consultation with experts from other fields. In that sense, 123 Bjogvinsson, Erling, Ehn, Pelle i Hillgren, Per-Anders. 2012. “Designing Things and Design Thinking: Contemporary Participatory Design Challenges.” Design Issues 28, no.3 : 101-116. 124 Sanders, Elizabeth B.-N.; Stappers, Pieter Jan;. 2008. “Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design.” CoDesign 4, no.1 : 5-18.

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inclusive design includes end-users and people of different expertise in the process of co-design. There are other types of co-design that include end-users in all parts of the design process. That kind of design does not deny anyone the right to create. Such a design process starts from the rights of every man, every individual, to express the creativity. The designer in such a process becomes an animator, or mediator of the design process, with his own creative ideas and knowledge, knowledge which is valuable and important, without whom high-quality solution cannot be obtained.

Figure 38 Design Mode Map ( Source: Manzini, Enzio. 2015. Design, When Everybody Designs. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press.: 40.)

In Manzini's Design Mode Map (Figure 1) architectural practice is represented in quadrant 4, because it implies expert design oriented to problem solving. Given that we are dealing with the link between architecture and the importance of place, it suggests the orientation of architectural practice from "solving problems" to "making sense". On the other hand, involving end-users in the design process, suggest the orientation of architectural practice from "professional design" to the "diffuse design". In fact, we are talking about overcoming or "blurring" the traditional frameworks of architectural-engineering practice by shifting from a static form that solves the problems to the action initiative that also initiates tasks, not only solutions. Architects can be part of the process as those who support or facilitate communication. But, they can also be triggers, initiators, those who start new social discussions. That means that

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE architects can be members of a co-design team, but they can also act as activists, who independently and proactively launch socially responsible design initiatives. 125 These two roles that architects have throughout the co-design process show how the process of co-design has progressed or evolved. Co-design evolved from the design of objects / things of material nature, to the design of the process / movement / change of social-material nature. The very notion of "thing" has changed the meaning over time. The term "thing" has mainly meant the matter of material nature, separated from the surrounding, those who produces or uses it. Realizing how much the "thing" has an impact on a living and inanimate nature, that is, how it is inseparable from the reality / context, “thing” takes the meaning that does not separate it from the environment, the soul, the influence, etc., that is, the term "thing" gains social-material meaning. 126 In the first phase, co-design has been based on designing things together with the community, and lately the focus is on designing events that are linked to a particular object of design process.

Figure 39 Participant Involvement Map ( Source: Manzini, Enzio. 2015. Design, When Everybody Designs. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press.:107.)

125

Manzini, Enzio. 2014. “Making Things Happen: Social Innovation and Design.” Design Issues 30, no.1 : 57-66.

126

Bruno Latour is the most frequently cited author of this kind of perception of things. More information on his site http://www.bruno-latour.fr/

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In the case of active renewal of community-cultural centres in B&H, architects would have to move proactively throughout the process. Their role in encouraging communication between the various participants in the process of reconstruction is important, from professionals, public, local associations of citizens, associations dealing with spatial initiatives, cultural activists, media, local authorities and local political organizations. Architects should be engaged in a wider picture of social change beyond the boundaries of economic viability. Should perceive architectural-design activity as a joint effort in which the architectural-design process is widened between different participants and different professional fields. And when they come up with the opportunity to propose ideas, then they need to present those ideas in a way that they are "readable" to the wider community, so that end-users can explore it, give comments and suggestions. The design process must be humane-oriented. Taking into account the complexity of acting in modern society, the traditional connection between designers, suppliers and users is blurring. People take an active part in the process, which is of vital importance to them, which is in full contrast with the usual system of treating people as passive consumers of something that someone else made. Otherwise, common practices are questioned. So each individual puts himself in multiple roles and positions. Each individual participates as a professional in some work field, as a parent, child, brother, sister, and as a citizen. 127 Neighborhood in most definitions includes two general aspects, both physical and social. Community-cultural centers were cohesive factors of local communities because they united these two aspects. There were places of meeting, places by which local communities were recognizable in the wider community and the city, on which communities founded and developed their identity. Members of the local community, conscious of their own cultural needs to be realized, were traditionally in the domain "to be served" (Figure 2), should move to the position of “co-management” and “co-production” in the process of renewal of the community-cultural centers. Involvement of the local community in the process of renewal itself would mean social integration, would strengthen their linkage with the area of community-cultural centers, develop a sense of belonging, all that promises a greater chance that the facility will be realized and accepted by the local community and that it would not be just a useless space, but the true community's social-cultural center. Building a social center in the village of Xihe in China, with the involvement of local people, speaks of how close cooperation between the local community and architects can improve the final solution in a positive way. 128 Architect Xiang Ren explains cooperation with the local community as follows:

127

Manzini, Enzio. 2015. Design, When Everybody Designs. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press.: 11-14

128

Ren, X. 2016. “Socially engaged architecture in a Chinese rural village: Xihe Village Community Centre.” arq: Architectural Research Quarterly 20, no.2 : 119-130.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE “Xihe Village Community Centre did make visible the invisible -- the voices, experiences and opinions from those who are less visible. Furthermore, it did reproduce power relations and practices by creating new links between people and by providing intangible resources for the village, which paves a way to explore a more socially-resilient mode of architectural design in current Chinese rural-urban dynamics.“ Such a renewal process, in which all participants would take active participation, strengthens ties between people, develops a sense of belonging to the community and space. Creating such an environment is a major step towards full fulfillment of the task, which is not only in the domain of the material, physical world, but in the social sphere of the local community. The architectural concept of the community-cultural centers, which is the result of a co-design process, can significantly contribute to the restoration of the role and importance of the community-cultural centers. CONCLUSION Renewal of the role and the significance of the community-cultural centres is complex process which includes large number of participants. Many are expected to change the current passive position into proactive. This applies to architects, but also to the local population. Their joint engagement is necessity in the process which would restore the significance of the community-cultural centres. Architects need to recognize their role in the broader picture of society to step out from the usual practices that are unable to offer adequate solutions. They have to recognize their creative potential, not only in the domain of a specialist field of architectural design, but also as creators of social events. The local community, on the other hand, must recognize the problems of the situation in which the community-cultural centres are and to engage all their resources in the process of renewal. After the Second World War, activating the local community in the process of building community-cultural centres was an imperative created by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. Now, such an imperative does not exist, but it needs to be created by raising awareness of each local community's individual about the importance of participating and initiating the process of renewal of community-cultural centres, whether they are local community members, local administration, architects, cultural workers, etc. This is much more serious and the more complex task then the reconstruction of the ruined roof of the community-cultural centre. Application of co-design is necessity in the process of restoring the role and the importance of cultural centres in B&H.

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REFERENCES Bjogvinsson, Erling, Ehn, Pelle i Hillgren, Per-Anders. 2012. “Designing Things and Design Thinking: Contemporary Participatory Design Challenges.” Design Issues 28, no.3 : 101-116. Jakovljević, Branislav. “Zvornik 1992. diletantske inscenacije i teatar zločina.” Links: Ciklus o zaboravu i zaboravljenima. Accessed april 16, 2017. http://www.komunalinks.com/home/2016/9/5/zvornik-1992-diletantske-inscenacije-i-teatar-zloina. Manzini, Enzio. 2014. “Making Things Happen: Social Innovation and Design.” Design Issues 30, no.1 : 57-66. Manzini, Enzio. 2015. Design, When Everybody Designs. Cambridge, Massachusetts : The MIT Press. Ren, X. 2016. “Socially engaged architecture in a Chinese rural village: Xihe Village Community Centre.” arq: Architectural Research Quarterly 20, no.2 : 119-130. Sanders, Elizabeth B.-N.; Stappers, Pieter Jan;. 2008. “Co-creation and the New Landscapes of Design.” CoDesign 4, no.1 : 518. Boško Prostran, Danilo Prnjat, Isidora Ilić, Miloš Miletić, Mirjana Dragosavljević, Mirjana Radovanović. 2011. ”Ima li za nas mesta u Domu kulture?” Dematerijalizacija umetnosti. Accessed april 16, 2017. http://dematerijalizacijaumetnosti.com/ima-li-za-nasmesta-u-domu-kulture/.

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LEARNING FROM THE TRADITIONAL MEDITERRANEAN ARCHITECTURE: MICROCLIMATIC AND LIVEABILITY CONDITIONS IN INTERMEDIATE OUTDOOR SPACES Lucia Martincigh 129, Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, [email protected] Gabriele Bellingeri, Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, [email protected] Lucia Fontana, Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, [email protected] Marina Di Guida, Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, [email protected] Giovanni Perrucci, Department of Architecture, Roma Tre University, [email protected] ABSTRACT The "vernacular" architecture, with its techniques, makes the built environment work in synergy with climatic conditions and local natural resources. Reducing consumptions and at the same time safeguarding local potential can represent an example of sustainability, from which it’s possible to deduce lessons for improving the delicate relationship between building and living in urban and rural environments, by now compromised by the low construction quality and widespread environmental decay. A good example of vernacular architecture is represented by the architectural tradition of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Its basic characteristics are: the use of masonry with high thermal inertia, the adoption of suitable strategies of natural ventilation and solar radiation protection, the aggregation of buildings aimed at forming compact settlements, characterized by a sequence of intermediate spaces that, besides acting like comfort regulators, are also places of social relationship: they represent, in what Rudofsky defined "architecture without architects", the repositioning on the outside of the atrium idea of the Roman domus, around which the family and social life orbited.The paper presents a research that starts from a study for a PhD Thesis in Sustainable Urban Design carried out at Roma Tre University. Through direct instrumental measurements and graphic simulations, the thesis analysed the micro-climatic behaviour and the level of environmental sustainability of some spaces in the historical centre of a town in southern Italy: Altamura, in Puglia. The research investigates the possibility to enable processes for urban and rural regeneration through both the environmental requalification of these spaces, and their subsequent reuse by the community, and the economic upgrading, obtainable triggering tourism in general and, in particular, the wine and food one. The research goal is to define which are the limits and possibilities of application, in similar or different climate and constructive contexts, such as e.g. the case of the Balkan architecture, to be drawn from the environmental sustainability lessons thus learned. Keywords: vernacular architecture, urban and rural regeneration, sustainability lessons, bioclimatic architecture, intermediate spaces 129


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INTRODUCTION The complex knowledge system related to materials and construction techniques represents an important heritage of material culture that local communities are passing on generation by generation; that is deep rooted but fragile at the same time, because the transmission and sharing processes are highly affected by social, economic and environmental changes. This knowledge is considered a key element for a sustainable development of the built environment, seen as an expression of cultural diversity and a source of practical and technological know-how, strongly connected to environmental, economic and social aspects of places (Di Pasquale and Mecca, 2016). Vernacular architectures show a strong ability of adapting to the environmental conditions of the contexts in which they arise and thus they are an inherently sustainable model of building and, therefore, of living and maintaining a certain life quality level. The vernacular architecture is, in fact, the result of a stratification of empirical knowledge, signs and languages, that have been taking shape through a long process of trials and errors, in close relation with the morphology of the places, local resources, climatic and environmental characteristics, socio-economic and cultural needs of a particular community130 (Oliver, 2006). The term vernacular was reported for the first time in 1964, during the "Architecture without architects" exhibition, set up by Bernard Rudofsky at the MOMA in New York, but even before this event European culture was deeply permeated by the idea of vernacular architecture131 (Braghieri, 2012). On the one hand, today the innovative reinterpretation of the twentieth century architectures leads to highlight how they, considered for years very distant from tradition, on the contrary have been influenced by the principles of vernacular architecture (Sabatino, 2013); on the other hand, over the last twenty years, design has taken again an interest in tradition and has experienced some neo-vernacular currents, which implement the so-called "critical regionalism" that is able to recover the ancient knowledge (Curtis, 1999). On the research side, this renewed interest has led to recover tradition, especially in terms of use of bioclimatic and passive low-cost solutions (Asquith and Vellinga, 2006; Frey and Bouchain, 2010), today more easily verifiable through control systems and dynamic simulation of the energy performance. In this context, the majority of studies have focused on the Relationship between the morphology of various building types and the way it interacts with thermo-hygrometric comfort, on the technological systems and on the choice, use and reuse of specific construction materials. These studies didn’t give enough emphasis to social, cultural and economic factors that caused these traditional architectures and technical solutions to take form. It seems instead necessary to adopt a transversal, systemic and multidisciplinary approach,

130 In the "Vernacular Heritage Building Charter", approved during the 12th General Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) in Mexico in 1999, the term vernacular is defined as the "natural and traditional way through which communities have produced their own habitat. It is part of a process that includes the necessary changes and continuous adaptation as a response to social and environmental needs”. 131 It has to be considered the exaltation of Italian rural architecture aesthetics and functionality in the book "Rural Architecture", by Giuseppe Pagano and Guarniero Daniel in 1936, which at that time had not a wide acknowledgement due to the historical period; the word "tradition" had already assumed the negative tones of the formal reaction and lost the profound original meaning that had tied it to material culture and preservation of craftsmanship. It has to be remembered the cultural background opened by Heinrich Tessenow too, with his idea of the "architect-artisan" and "architecture without architecture", as Martin Wagner will define it.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE considering the three dimensions of sustainability: environmental, social and economic, if the aim is to come to a codification of lessons that can be learnt from vernacular architecture.

SOME FEATURES OF TRADITIONAL MEDITERRANEAN ARCHITECTURE Mediterranean architecture is considered highly representative of vernacular architecture; in fact, in the different, yet similar, architectures of the countries bordering the Mare Nostrum, from the Iberian and central-southern Italian coasts to those of Greece, North Africa and Middle East, the references to vernacular architecture are not only those related to volumetry, constructive materials, surface finishing or to the relationship with the surrounding environment; it’s possible indeed to find elements that enable us to retrace effectively even the social fabric that has usually characterized the life of the rural hamlets, hilly towns and the coastal villages (Monaco, 1997). Buildings in the Mediterranean area show that vernacular architecture is above all a collective art that faces, thanks to different technical solutions, the problems of reality and social development (Gamba, 2010). For example, the patio or the courtyard, placed sometimes behind arcaded loggias, are a testament of the Mediterranean tradition, from the Greek world to the Roman domus, to the Arab culture, of a space solution that takes on endless forms, up to being led, with the Modern Movement, into the contemporary dwelling. In the characteristic filter spaces between exterior and interior, definable with the very effective oxymoron "urban interiors" (Accasto, 2005). The domestic dimension of the living is extended also outside, in a sequence of intermediate spaces, from private to semi-private, to semi-public up to public ones. The inhabitants live in the street in their daily life, thus increasing the available space and socialization. Spaces are thus organized in: main, secondary and independent ones or serving, served and independent ones, in which static or movement activities, characterized by specific conditions and different requirements, are performed. Intermediate spaces, located between internal and external spaces, have an important function of bioclimatic transition spaces (Brunetti, 1998). They, besides acting like comfort regulators, are also places of social relationship: they represent the repositioning on the outside of the atrium idea of the Roman domus, around which the family and social life orbited. The microclimatic parameters of an open space largely determine its use. In Mediterranean climates, given the large number of activities taking place outdoors, it is important to satisfy the comfort requirement providing some basic performances, linked essentially to the control of solar radiation, temperature and wind (in summer minimizing solar gains and maximizing ventilation, in winter, on the contrary, maximizing solar gains and minimizing ventilation). Understanding the richness of microclimatic features existing in urban outdoor spaces, and their implications in terms of comfort for the people using them, opens up new possibilities for the development and also for the recovery of devitalized urban spaces (Cirasa, 2011).

THE RESEARCH TOPIC AND ITS AIM As stated in Abstract, the paper starts from a research developed within the Ph.D. in Sustainable Urban Design at Roma Tre University. The aim of the research was to define a decision-making technical support tool in the field of urban regeneration processes, that are implemented through the re-use of unused, or used below potential, indoor and outdoor spaces located in historical areas, often suffering, more than others, from abandon and decay, both from

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architectural and social viewpoint. This objective has been pursued by verifying the possibility of reusing these spaces, in a way that is correct and congruent with their potential. The aim was to turn them into small poles for the revitalization of existing activities, through quality and function upgrading and "restitution" to the status of attractiveness, and to verify the eventual limitations of this operation and the possibilities of implementation. The research slant is based on a dual certainty: that the widespread recovery of the system of abandoned indoor and adjacent outdoor spaces can have a decisive impact as a factor of economic, social and cultural revitalization of the historical centre; that promoting citizenship’s awareness of the importance of historic heritage, and of its commercial and tourist potential, can probably help to trigger a virtuous circle, crucial for the desired urban regeneration. In particular, we are referring to craft workshops, which can make the historic centre be crowded again as it used to be up to twenty years ago, as well as micro-cultural activities that are linked to the territory and to the promotion of its products and not only. The research area of interest was delimited to Puglia medieval urban fabrics, which have in common the morphological features of the compact construction pattern, characterized by the sequence of "dead end" paths and small enclosed spaces. The historical centre of Altamura was chosen as a case study for the application of the methodology. Starting from the reading of its structure, through a detailed study at various scales, it has been possible to identify a typo-morphological unit, widespread in the settlement system: the “claustro”, a singular urban typology of Altamura, which is present, in smaller quantities and in more homogeneous forms, also in other Apulian medieval town centres, especially in Salento. It is an enclosed space where the connections between public and private domain take place with various degrees of interaction. The main concern is the immediate surrounding of the dwellings, resulting from the system of aggregation, which is articulated in a multiplicity of connective systems among the various spheres (private, semi-private, semi-public and public). This richness of spaces’ organization at “human scale” generates suggestion and environmental well-being in the user (Elia, 1995). Probably suggested by a system of Peuceta 132 origin, influenced by Arabic and Greek native forms of housing, the “claustro” (from the Latin inclaustrum, enclosure – plural: claustri) found its justification in the need both to be closed for outward defense and to have a courtyard space, suitable for an agricultural economy. The enclosed space was the place where to carry out small craft activities, keep animals and tools and live a social life in a small community with tight economic and family ties. Another hypothesis of genesis of these particular spaces is consequent to the fragmentation of courtyard buildings in various properties, followed, in some cases, by the opening of the courtyard outward through the demolition of a portion of the building. The courtyard, which sometimes housed private vegetable gardens, represents for Altamura the realisation of a model imported from the surrounding rural settlements. The “claustri”, about eighty, existing in the historical fabric can be divided, from a morphological point of view, into two macro-categories: the “dead-end” ones, which some scholars derive from the tradition of the narrow alley typical of Arabic architecture (Guidoni, 1979), and the “piazza” ones, which would instead originate from the typical GreekSalentine courtyards (Fig.1). The dimensional variation, the play of volumes, the alternation of shadow and light zones, the plasticity of forms shaped by time and use, cause a very vast range of space situations rich of emotional and fruitive tensions that vary from place to place, from street to street, from neighbourhood to neighbourhood. Each 132

The term derives from Peuceti, inhabitants of the “Terra di Bari” before the advent of the Romans.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE “claustro” interacts with the other through defined and identifiable relationships; the direct perception of the distribution system of dwellings’ accesses, in the semi-public domain, is compared with the immediate perception of public space through diaphragms or filter walls. The study was therefore aimed at identifying and recovering these distinctive features of the urban spatial complexity.

Figure 1: Arrangement and morphologies of the “claustri” in Altamura (BA, I)

In urban contexts, one of the main goals of environmental design, is the achievement of a comfortable microclimate that, together with the increase of the space quality, takes to define appropriate action guidelines. The knowledge of the built environment moves through a first step of localization and survey of the “claustro” spaces; then, through a step of analysis of the performance offered by these spaces, it defines their compliance with the comfort and liveability requirements. It is possible to outline some considerations on the concept of performance applied to the urban context, which can be interpreted as an object of use that must meet specific requirements due to human needs. It is possible to think of the built environment as the habitat apt to guarantee and satisfy the inhabitants’ requirements of liveability. This extended interpretation finds its theoretical structure in Kevin Lynch’s studies of the 80’s (Cerroni,

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2005). Lynch's performance approach starts from the critique to the machinist model, which configured the city as a growth set only for addiction, and to the organic model, as in the city there are no clearly differentiated functional parts that can be assimilated to organs.

SOME RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS The performance features of the outdoor spaces of the historic centre have then been analysed, in particular in relation to solar radiation, natural ventilation, materials and surface finish (color, absorptivity, emissivity surface smoothness, surface orientation) of building envelope and paving. All these aspects influence the microclimatic parameters (such as air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity) that affect thermal comfort. As an example, here are reported the analyses carried out for a sample case: the “claustro” Loporcaro, located in a nearly barycentric position in the historical nucleus. The “claustro” has some peculiar characteristics such as the large dimensions (180 square meters) and the ground floor placed at a lower level (- 80 cm) than its surroundings. These analyses, first reported one by one, have then been interrelated to better illustrate the overall behaviour of the three-dimensional space of the “claustro” (Fig.2).

Figure 2: The sample case study: “claustro” Loporcaro in Altamura (BA, I)

The solar radiation was analysed by integrating two evaluations carried out in different seasons of the year and in different times. By using the solar chart, it was possible to define the theoretical hours of irradiation of facades and

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE pavings, according to their exposure; thanks to a simulation model, the shadows cast upon the “claustro” by the surrounding buildings and orographic situation on which they insist, were evaluated too. Due to the lowered position, orientation and compactness of the building fabric, it can be seen that, in summer, only a portion of the horizontal surface that is located at the north end of the “claustro” is sunny for most of the day, while the vertical surfaces of the “claustro” receive direct solar radiation only for a few hours through the whole year. The analysis of the data, collected by a weather station located in the town centre, enabled us to draw anemometric charts for the winter (Dec-Mar) and summer months (Jun-Sep). Considering also the orography and the layout of the historical fabric, they were used to determine, although in a preliminary way, the winds’ trend throughout the year. The buildings have a massive structure in tuff stones with high thermal inertia; the exterior walls are finished with light colored plaster (white in most cases, albedo 0,7-0,8). The paving of the connective texture remained in part the original one, in “chianche”, truncated pyramidal stone elements of considerable size, between cream white (0,5-0,6) and grey (0,3-0,4). The paving of the analysed “claustro”, as it happened in several other cases, was rebuilt in discontinuity with the original one and is currently in pale grey concrete (0,4 – 0,5). The analysis that was carried out shows that the “claustro” has a peculiar and complex microclimatic environment, that is apt though to offer a fair comfort level. The windy course of the paths generally tends to contrast the action of the wind. In winter, while the wind, which in some cases and for some directions, wedging in the narrow streets, can be though very annoying, in some “claustri”, if the section increases, the wind speed tends to decrease. However, the winds do not seem to convey in any season in the analysed “claustro”. As it happens in many outdoor spaces of European medieval villages, the narrow streets receive little sun radiations both in summer and in winter: this situation affects some “claustri” and one part of the case study one. In the largest “claustri” and in the other part of the Loporcaro one, the analysis highlights that the widening space ensures a quantity of sun radiation fostering good comfort conditions in spring and autumn. In these cases, the H/W ratio is often not so high, and this aspect, combined with the use of surface materials with high long-wave and low short-wave absorptivity, determines, during the night, the net outgoing long-wave radiation increase because of the high emissivity and high sky view factor (SVF); it is also possible to notice a decrease of the surface overheating, due to the combined effect of high emissivity and low solar energy absorption, and the decrease of the mean radiant temperature, of the air temperature and of their related exchanged heat flux, as well (Herrington, 1977). But, on the other hand, a similar configuration doesn’t make it possible to avoid, expecially in summer, the penetration of incident solar radiation into public space and hasn’t a good radiative capture and shading effect. As in all the Mediterranean towns, the light color of stone and plaster plays a crucial role in avoiding summer overheating in outdoor (as well as indoor) spaces. In addition, the ability of surfaces to reflect light makes alleys, and even more “claustri”, always pleasantly bright at all times of the year. In thruth, the effects of materials with high reflection coefficient depend on these materials’ distribution. For example, if they are used only on horizontal surfaces (streets, squares, etc.), the reduction of the overheating effect is diminished or canceled by the high reflected radiation that, being absorbed by the walls of the buildings, causes the mean radiant temperature to rise; this effect increases when the part of the reflected radiation hitting the walls increases as well. At the same time, in summer, the application of high reflective materials both on vertical and horizontal boundaries of “claustri” can make pedestrians feel uncomfortable, because it increases solar energy flux at ground level and the energy absorbed by people as a consequence.

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As for indoor spaces, also in this type of outdoor spaces, where the proximity with masonry is always very close, the mass is able to play an important role in achieving comfort. Infact, usually walls and floors are made with high thermal capacity materials, such as large stone masonry, and so thermal mass can act as thermal flywheel: in fact, the mass acts like a thermal damper, softening the surface temperature oscillations and improving the microclimate characteristics of “claustri”. The mass of irradiated masonry absorbs part of the heat of the sun; later the wall, no longer irradiated, is able to return part of the absorbed heat energy thus reducing the thermal excursions. This absorption and emission effect would be perceptible only a little in a large open space, but becomes a little more effective in a small space bordered by massive masonry. During the night, the exposure to the sky and the ventilation will further contribute to the thermal discharge of the mass. The temperature increase, due to the emission of wall surfaces and to the higher convection heat transfer, appears with a delay, tipically in the evening; it can be pleasant in spring and autumn, less so during the summer. Because of these conflicting causes and opposite effects, the best solution can be achieved considering each specific case, with a systematic application of optimization processes. During summer days, if necessary, shields can be used to control solar radiation, in order to prevent the irradiation of horizontal and vertical surfaces and avoid the mass of walls and floor being thermally charged by direct radiation. Shields can be artificial, but chilled (e.g. with flowing water) or natural, but permeable (e.g. deciduous vegetation or wattles) ensuring an effective passage of air, especially if there are natural air movements generated by induced convection and temperature difference between buildings’ surfaces and air. It seems possible therefore that these small outdoor spaces, characteristic of the interstitial texture of villages, can become pleasant places of sojourn and social aggregation, if we can better understand and govern the physical and technical phenomena which make these micro-spaces act as effective “natural thermal machines”, able to generate and maintain comfort for most of the year.

CONCLUSIONS It is usually taken for granted that is not possible to control external environmental parameters as strictly as it is indoor, because of the lack of the well defined building envelope, acting as filter between outdoor and indoor environment. No doubt optimal comfort is more difficult to be obtained outdoor than indoor, however, traditional architecture’s arrangements show us that it is possible, at least in some periods of the year and in some times, to obtain quite a good comfort level, if the intermediate spaces, such as the “claustri”, are designed as “rooms” equipped with appropriate “filters”. A proper planning and an accurate selection of materials, can indeed improve thermal living conditions and increase outdoor activities. Lessons provided by vernacular heritage can give an innovative answer to some of the 21st century environmental and social challenges. Sustainable contemporary architecture should be able to take into account proven methods and traditional building techniques and to innovate them with the use of contemporary knowledge, tools and technologies.

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REFERENCES Accasto, Gianni. 2005. “Intra Moenia”. ArchitetturaCittà. Rivista di architettura e cultura urbana, no. 12-13: 4-7. Asquith, Lindsay, Velinga, Marcel. 2005. Vernacular Architecture in the Twenty-First century. London: Taylor & Francis Braghieri, Nicola. 2012. “Mito e sortilegio dell’architettura senza architetti.” in Le radici anonime dell'abitare contemporaneo, edited by Bruzzone Monica, Serpagli Lucio. Milano: Franco Angeli Brunetti, Gianluca. 1998. Ruolo degli spazi di transizione microclimatica nei sistemi insediativi urbani. Aspetti semantici e funzionali. Doctorate Thesis, Politecnico di Milano

Cerroni, Federica. 2005. Strumenti per la tutela e gestione ecoefficiente dei nuclei insediativi ad elevata qualità ambientale, storica e paesistica. Doctorate Thesis, Università degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” Cirasa, Monica. 2011. Il recupero degli spazi aperti di relazione nei centri storici minori: aspetti bioclimatici e innovazione tecnologica. Roma: Gangemi Curtis, William, J.R. 1999. L’architettura moderna del Novecento. Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore Dipasquale, Letizia, Mecca, Ippolita. 2016. “L’architettura vernacolare come modello codificato per il progetto contemporaneo sostenibile”. TECHNE, no. 12: 190-198. Elia, Anna Paola. 1995. “La riqualificazione ambientale nei centri minori della Valle d’Itria”. In Donato, F., Marano, A. (eds.) Concetti di prodotto per gli interventi di qualificazione ambientale. Pescara: Poman Poligrafica Mancini Frey, Pierre, Bouchain, Patrick. 2010. Learning from vernacular: towards a new vernacular architecture. Tours: ActesSud. Gamba, Roberto. 2010. “Architettura del mediterraneo”. Costruire in Laterizio, no. 133 (Jan./Feb.):2-3. Guidoni, Enrico. 1979. “La componente urbanistica islamica nella formazione delle città italiane”. In Gabrielli, F., Scerrato, U. Gli arabi in Italia. Milano: Garzanti Scheiwiller

Herrington, Lee P., Vittum J.S. 1977. “Human thermal comfort in urban outdoor spaces”. Proceedings of the conference on metropolitan physical environment: 130. Monaco, Antonello. 1997. “La Casa Mediterranea - modelli e deformazioni” Quaderni ISAM- Istituto per l’Architettura Mediterranea, Napoli: Edizioni Magma Oliver, Paul. 2006. Built to meet needs: cultural issues in vernacular architecture. Oxford: Elsevier

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Sabatino, Michelangelo. 2013. Orgoglio della modestia. Architettura moderna italiana e tradizione vernacolare. Milano: Franco Angeli Editore

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SUSTAINABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN TRADITIONAL BOSNIAN AND HERZEGOVINIAN ARCHITECTURE - LEARNING FROM TRADITION FOR BETTER FUTURE Maja Roso Popovac 133 Assoc.prof.dr., University Džemal Bijedić, UKSC Midhat Hujdur Hujka, Mostar, [email protected] Merima Šahinagić - Isović Assoc.prof.dr., University Džemal Bijedić, UKSC Midhat Hujdur Hujka, Mostar, [email protected] Amra Šarančić - Logo Associate for heritage .Mr., Commission to preserve national monuments, Marsala tita 9a, Sarajevo, [email protected] Marko Čečez Assist.Mr., University Džemal Bijedić, UKSC Midhat Hujdur Hujka, Mostar, [email protected] ABSTRACT In times of new technologies and materials, excessive use of artificial substances and global transportation - pretty much we forgot about the sustainability and resilience of our environment. A quick way of life and the changes happening every day in all aspects of our lives, brought this planet to the edge of endurance. Once we built our homes relying on bioclimatic characteristics of the site, used local resources and skills, strengthened the local economy, making less waste and generally had much less disease of modern times. We built buildings that lasts for centuries but who are on the other side in harmony with nature - at the expiration of their time, they were either partially used for the construction of a new ones, or its decomposition left little or no harmful trace in the environment. Stone, wood and clay in all its forms served people in the best possible way - adaptive to the site, climate, needs, opportunities, developed through crafts and architectural techniques. By learning from traditional architecture, carefully designing, thinking about the life cycle of materials and the buildings, cultivating traditional skills, encouraging circular economy - we can greatly improve the quality of life, boost the local economy and tourism and catch the trends with developed countries and their agendas for sustainable and resilient future. Showing examples of traditional Bosnian and Herzegovinian architecture with accent to materials used, this paper will demonstrate the possibilities for new challenges in the field of energy-efficient, healthy, cost-effective and sustainable buildings made of natural and local materials Keywords: vernacular, traditional, stone, wood, clay, circular economy, sustainability, resilience

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INTRODUCTION Today we are facing the risk of traditional urban and rural house disappearance but also the disappearance of the traditional village and urban area. The trend of “internationalized style” houses is resulting in a reduction of the traditional solutions of the vernacular architecture, which have served our culture perfectly for many centuries. Houses today are more and more alike, regardless weather they are built in rural or urban space, or if they are at the sea level or at 1000 meters above sea level. Even more important issue is the life cycle of materials used – while traditional architecture uses materials either with unlimited durability, or materials that easily decompose, new buildings are made of non-degradable materials with no possibility for reuse. Unfortunately, general view is that “new is better”, and every modern material is publically better accepted than the old one, despite the fact that we are surrounded by monuments and buildings made in the “old fashion way” providing better conditions and longevity. Vernacular architecture of the houses, as well as in general, has evolved over many centuries to address the problems inherent in housing. Through a process of trial and error our predecessors have found ways to cope with the extremes of climate, to build sustainable houses with the use of local materials and for the real needs of the family. This was visible both in rural and urban architecture. Urban architecture was, of course, more developed and richer in its articulation, but both were developing on same principles: use of local materials, building in accordance with microclimate and terrain. In spatial context, disposition of the houses was based on principles of respect for the neighbour (right on sunlight, view, intimacy) and respect for climate conditions. In the traditional architecture the mechanism of indoor thermal regulation was incorporated in the building, through the topography, the construction, the morphology, use od materials, the layout and the disposition and use of internal spaces. All this has resulted in mainly two-story whitewashed houses with inner courtyards in Mostar and singlestoreyed with cellar houses with high hipped roofs in Lukomir.

OVERVIEW O THE OLD TRADITIONAL HOUSES IN MOSTAR AND LUKOMIR Traditional house buildings in Mostar are generally oriented to the south and, by their layout, they respond to solar direction, summer breeze and winter winds. Houses are opened on at least two sides, providing ventilation of the inner spaces. Courtyards with high walls act as climate moderator for the whole building, and their key functions include creating a microclimate (providing shade, cooling during summer through the use of greenery and water, allowing sunshine during winter through planting deciduous vegetation, protecting from strong winter winds) and

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE providing intimacy for the family. These courtyards were first “public spaces” in the cities. Layout of the house was evolving over centuries but basic principles have remained (Figure 1: Biscevica kuca Mostar). Traditional buildings have thick walls which are made of stone 134 (ground level) and wood and sun-dried mud-brick 135 (upper level), all rendered with lime plaster 136. These materials allow the thick wall to smooth out the large diurnal temperature variations in summer, and to act as thermal mass to warm up the internal space at night during winter. The walls are painted white to reflect the harsh solar radiation of the Mediterranean climate. Wooden windows are located to provide best view of nature surrounding and streets, but also to foster cross ventilation during the summer. Ground level, build with stone with smaller openings was used during the winter. Light upper level, build out of wood and clay, designed with numerous windows was used during summer. Additional heating of the internal space during summer was avoided by construction and use of summer kitchen (mutvak) in the courtyard. Stone was used for roof cover, which was perfect answer for the strong winter winds, but also for reflection of the summer sun because of its light colour. Use of vegetation allowed winter sunlight to penetrate deep into the space (deciduous vegetation). Courtyard was made of high thermal mass materials, such as stone paving, stone walls, stone staircase (first few stairs are usually made out of stone, while the rest of the staircases are out of wood), to create a more pleasant microclimate. Element of water (presented in the courtyard water pipe, fountain or similar), provided evaporative cooling. High courtyard walls and disposition of the house on the plot in relation to the courtyard, acted as protection of the family intimacy but also as buffer to cold winds.

134

Natural stone is one of the oldest materials used by human population. For building construction stone was main material until 19th century, when it was repressed by brick and later concrete. In the Bosnia and Herzegovina are most widespread stone types of magmatic origin are granite and gabbro, of metamorphic origin is marble and sedimentary origin are limestones, dolomites, tuff and sandstone. For construction crushed and processed stones are used, and for walls it has to be processed in some of the traditional ways. Stone has excellent thermal properties, compressive strength, hardness and durability, which are the main reasons of its’ long-term use as construction material. Availability of stone in this part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, puts’ it on the first place of building materials used for wall construction of traditional buildings, and limestone is leading stone type for this purpose. Limestone has also another important role in traditional buildings. It is raw material for obtaining lime by calcination at about 1000°C. In this process the quicklime (non-hydraulic lime) is produced according to the reaction: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2.

135 For traditional buildings another important material is clay. Clay is produced by mechanical and chemical decomposition of rocks. Main component is kaolin with relation Al2O3∙2SiO2∙2H2O. The composition of clay in nature is different, depending on rock of origin. Clay is mixed with water to produce paste which is easily to shape due to its’ plasticity. Plasticity is the most important properties of clay and it depends of kaolin percentage in the clay. Most widespread type of clay in this region is loam. For slab construction and roofing in traditional buildings wood was used. Most used types of hardwood are oak and beech, and of softwood are pine and fir. Wood is logical choice of material for slabs due to low density and high flexural strength. Most important flaw of wood is its durability. When is used in dry area and submerged in water, wood is showing good characteristics. But when is subjected to continuous wetting and drying it rapidly decays. Oak and pine are showing best durability characteristics. 136 Non-hydraulic lime is used in pieces or grounded. When water is added to non-hydraulic lime, hydrated lime is produced according to the reaction: CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2. Hydrated lime has extensive use in construction, and one of its’ primary use is for mortar. As it was stated, limestone is common stone in this region, so naturally it was used for producing mortar in traditional buildings.

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OBJEKAT:

PROJEKTANT: UNIVERZITET "DŽEMAL BIJEDIC" GRAÐEVINSKI FAKULTET ZAVOD ZA PROJEKTOVANJE I ISPITIVANJE MATERIJALA I KONSTRUKCIJA

INVESTITOR: AGENCIJA "STARI GRAD" MOSTAR D:\Do cu me nts an d Se ttin gs\xp\My Documen ts\Dja ni\P rojekti\logo-gf.jpg

USRC ''Mithat Hujdur-Hujka''; 88104 Mostar; Bosna i Hercegovina; tel.: + 387 36 514 854; tel/fax.: + 387 36 514 856; e-mail: [email protected] Raiffeisen banka dd Mostar; Žiro racun: 16102000030300184

Mostar; M. Tita 170, 88000 Mosatr, Bosna i Hercegovina

PREDMET:

NACRT:

NOVOPROJEKTOVANOSTANJE PETA FASADA

MJERILO:

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Voditelj projekta: Doc.dr. Vahida Žujo, dipl.ing.grad. Ovlašteni projektant: Doc.dr. Maja Popovac, dipl.ing.arh.

C:\Documents and Settings \XP\Desk top\maja potpis.bmp

Saradnik projektanta: Muamer Ðulovic, kand. ing. Tehnicka kontrola: Doc.dr. Armin Hadrovic, dipl.ing.gra d.

BR. PROTOKOLA:

BR. NACRTA:

U Mostaru

Velicina papira

M.P.

15 Decembar 2009. god.

Figure 40: Biscevica kuca Mostar

Figure 41: Lukomir houses

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE Rural house was, in its layout and spatial organisation of the plot, very different from urban one, but has respected the same principles. In terms of building materials, all the cottages in Lukomir ( Figure 42: Lukomir houses are of the mixed type, with the walls built of stone and the roof clad with timber. There are only a few cottages of the semi-two-storey type, i.e. single-storeyed with cellar, in which the wall of the room above the cellar storeroom is timber-framed with a timber infill. The roofs are clad with the type of shingles known as “šimla”, a type of roof cladding characterized by the way the shingles are cut and laid. The wooden roof cladding was rendered more durable by the smoke from the heating, which acted as a preservative, and impregnating the roof cladding with smoke and soot particles. Cottages are rectangular in plan, mainly build on the slope, so the part of the cellar was “buried” in the slope. Cottages have several small windows on all facades. The cottages have high hipped roofs with the roof panes at the hip ends more or less shorter than those of the long sides. Size of the openings and the slope of the roof was perfect answer to the long and extremely snowy winters. Roofs of kind that was used in Lukomir (and the area of the villages of the Bjelašnica foothills - wedge-profile, tongue-and-groove shingles “šimla”) provide outstanding protection against the bitter winter climate of Bjelašnica 137.

CHANGES IN THE PAST 50 YEARS In recent years, humanity is facing the sustainability challenge. This challenge includes a change of comprehension in many disciplines, with special attention to the built environment related issues138. For the next half century, most of humanity will live in cities139, but also the traditional villages will face transformation and growth. Lukomir, is changing without control, gradually transforming itself from an agriculture dedicated village to a touristic summer destination.

137

Bugarski, Astrida, Kuća sa „čardakom“ u podbjelašničkim selima, Prilog poznavanju oblikovnih specifičnosti bosanskohercegocačke planinske kuće, Jnl.of the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina – Ethnology, n.s. vol. XXVII / XXVIII, Sarajevo 1972-1973, p. 223-244. 138 Seto, K.C.; Guneralp, B.; Hutyra, L. Global forecast of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impact on biodiversity impact pools. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 16083–16088; United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. Available online: http://esa.un.org/ unpd/wup/index.htm (accessed on 19 May 2014).

139 Grimm, N.B.; Faeth, S.H.; Golubiewski, N.E.; Redman, C.L.; Jianguo, W.; Bai, X.; Briggs, J.M. Global Change and the Ecology of Cities. Science 2008, 319, 756–760. Palme Massimo, Guerra José, Alfaro Sergio. Thermal Performance of Traditional and New Concept Houses in the Ancient Village of San Pedro De Atacama and Surroundings. Sustainability 2014, 6, 3321-3337;

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Alteration of the village cottages have started in the 1980s. Alterations were most obvious in the interior, where the room with the open heart, the house, was partitioned to create a new layout, mainly a corridor and staircase linking the house, the soba and the loft. Another feature was the addition of extra rooms – an annex, usually next to the house, by the entrance door, making the house the central room. This room was usually used to prepare food. The house retains its original function. In the late 1980s the deterioration of the roof cladding led the people of Lukomir to attempt to protect the shingles from the elements by covering them with sheets of galvanized iron.140 The greatest and most significant changes to the cottages in the village of Lukomir are taking place now, almost before our very eyes, and are the result of the mass departure of the residents of the village since the 1992-1995 war. Young people have left the village since 1995 and settled permanently in the villages and towns in the Sarajevo area. The changes in the age structure of the village residents have resulted in changes to the way the land is used. Fewer and fewer people are keeping animals, the number of cattle is falling steeply; most people now grow crops and gather medicinal herbs, which does not provide them with a living wage. Changes to the way of life in the village and the depopulation of its residents have also led to changes to the cottages themselves. Some buildings have been completely abandoned, and left to the ravages of time. Left empty and uncared for, they soon fall into ruin. Changes to the buildings arise from the needs of the residents to restore their homes, many of which were damaged in the 1992-1995 war, but above all in order to improve their living conditions. New solutions are being introduced in every aspect of the building, in complete disregard of the factors that dictated and shaped the origins of the cottages in Lukomir – cottages of which the form and materials have proven to provide optimal protection from the harsh climatic conditions. This is most obvious in the shape of the roofs: the high, steeply-pitched roofs, providing maximum protection from high winds and heavy snow, with their shingle cladding, are being replaced by less steeply-pitched gabled roofs clad with tiles. As well as the construction of new houses on entirely new sites or the sites of those that have been demolished, there are ever-increasing changes to the surviving cottages. Not just the form of the cottages that are being introduced changed; new materials used are mainly concrete blocks, brought in since 1995 as donations from foreign organizations to repair damaged buildings. Despite their good intentions and wish to help people who genuinely needed it, no care was taken to preserve the value of this unique and until then exceptionally well-preserved and conserved village. Later, the villagers themselves introduced new materials for reparation or building of their cottages. The reason for this is quite simple: they did not have the money to buy stone and shingles, no knowledge how to work with them, no time for good reconstruction - so modern 140 On some of the cottages it is evident that the sheet metal from drums (oil drums, presumably: trans.) has been used as cladding.

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE materials took the primacy. The changes to the cottages are thus occurring rapidly and are all too visible, with the most obvious, and perhaps the most tragic, the construction of a new house on the foundations of an old one, over which a concrete foundation slab is laid and a house built of concrete blocks with PVC windows and a safety door. The situation in urban houses in Mostar is similar. Mostar suffered from massive destruction in recent war. At the same time, there was a great need for shelter for many people who either had demolished houses, or people who were displaced from their homes. The need for quick repair a more space, lack of finances and skilled craftsmen made enormous trace on todays condition of these houses. Only few, and all used as touristic attraction, were repaired with more care. Many beautiful hidden houses of Ottoman style, many Austro-Hungarian villas were repaired in completely inadequate and irreversible way.

CONCLUSIONS The enormous economic, social, and technological changes brought use of new materials, enlargement of house plan which has slowly led to lost of inner courtyard, inadequate house layout and worst microclimate. Rural houses are becoming more like urban ones, regardless the climate conditions and way of life. Traditional values and principles are being more and more neglected. While the traditional houses provided shelter from extreme climatic conditions with various methods, without consuming a lot of energy, the mechanization and the internationalisation caused the rejection of the tried methods, the lack of understanding for building physics, stripped the building structure from its basic operations and left the building to the mercy of climate conditions. The modern buildings have become climatically inept and addicted to additional heating and cooling systems. In the past decade, numerous scientific researches were done in order to prove that traditional architecture responds best on climate conditions and topographic requirements, as well as to point out the positive outcomes when combining traditional architecture and cutting-edge technology (bioclimatic architecture). Yet, despite clearly visible change of attitudes towards nature, the alarming datum is that more detailed analysis of projects often lead to the conclusion that although the idea of so-called sustainable design is manifested all over the world, in fact, the arising edifices are rarely based on extensive studies of bioclimatic conditions as the wider aspect of the problem is sometimes simplified (or even ignored) within the design process oriented towards the energy certification achievement (Widera, 2014.). In the past ten or twenty years, the use of traditional building materials and house design have gained renewed attention in the green building movement, thanks to the use of locally accessible resources that address local conditions in a cost effective way, as well as the fact that several traditional building materials are becoming more financially feasible. More and more we are becoming aware of the need for bioclimatic, environmentally sustainable, passive solar, green and similar architecture, if we are willing and determined to stop enormously large consumption of the energy for everyday house maintenance. Viewed in the nowadays perspective, traditional houses, on all levels,

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demonstrates a range of environmentally sustainable design strategies and techniques to bring environmental comfort to their occupants. But still, the main challenge for large-scale implementation is to overcome the negative perception of use of traditional building materials and of wisdom in design. It is evident that the task of modern architect is considerably more complicated than that of indigenous builders. The demands of modern life introduced new factors and considerations into the design of buildings. It is also evident that traditional methods use less energy, but however, their development is needed to achieve better thermal comfort of modern homes. Therefore, without doubt, traditional methods have to be developed to suit modern times but with taking the energy consumption in consideration. Incorporation of traditional and bioclimatic techniques, passive solar design, use of recyclable materials and other environmentally sustainable elements will certainly reduce our dependency on fossil fuel and minimize the environmental problems due to excessive consumption of energy and other natural resources. All this would lead to further evolvement of the house, based on traditional forms and knowledge, that will be more climate responsive, more sustainable and more environmental friendly then ones we are building today around the globe.

REFERENCES Book: Bugarski, Astrida, Kuća sa „čardakom“ u podbjelašničkim selima, Prilog poznavanju oblikovnih specifičnosti bosanskohercegocačke planinske kuće, Jnl.of the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina – Ethnology, n.s. vol. XXVII / XXVIII, Sarajevo 1972-1973, p. 223-244; Gupta, Vinod; Singh, Ranjit . 2014. „ENERGY CONSERVATION IN TRADITIONAL BUILDINGS IN THE MOUNTAINS.“ Study of Civil Engineering and Architecture (SCEA) Volume 3, 2014; I.J. Gil Crespo, M.M. Barbero Barrera & L. Maldonado Ramos. 2015. „Climatic analysis methodology of vernacular architecture.“ Vernacular Architecture: Towards a Sustainable Future – © 2015 Taylor & Francis Group, London; Kamal, Mohammad Arif; Shehab, Thamer Al. 2014. „Sustainability through Natural Cooling: Bioclimatic Design and Traditional Architecture.“ © 2014 Science and Engineering Publishing Company. Seto, K.C.; Guneralp, B.; Hutyra, L. Global forecast of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impact on biodiversity impact pools. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 16083–16088; United Nations. World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision. Available online: http://esa.un.org/ unpd/wup/index.htm (accessed on 19 May 2014).

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TOPIC VIII & IX: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND SENSITIVITY; SUSTAINABILITY LESSONS FROM VARNICULAR ARCHITECTURE Journal article: Bodach, S., Lang, W., Hamhaber, J., 2014. „Climate responsive building design strategies of vernacular architecture in Nepal.“ Energy and Buildings 81, 227–242; Nikolić S.; Šarančić Logo, A. 2011. „Lukomir: tradition and change in a Bosnian village.“ Vernacular Architecture, Vol. 42 (2011) 53–66; Palme, Massimo; Guerra, José; Alfaro, Sergio. 2014. „Thermal Performance of Traditional and New Concept Houses in the Ancient Village of San Pedro De Atacama and Surroundings.“ Sustainability 2014, 6, 3321-3337; Roso Popovac M., Hasanagic S., Klarić S.: Reconstruction of Cejvan-Cehajin Hamam in Mostar, International conference BASA, ISBN 978-954-8931-50-2, Academy of Art and Science Sofia, Bulgaria, 2016; Roso Popovac M.: ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN CULTURAL HERITAGE, ISBN 978-9926-8134-0-6, SFERA 2016, Mostar, BiH, 2016; Roso Popovac M., Šarančić Logo A., Klarić S.: Konzervatorske intervencije na objektima vernakularne arhitekture – primjer Bišćevića kuće u Mostaru (CONSERVATORY INTERVENTIONS ON VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE – CASE-STUDY BIŠČEVIĆA HOUSE, MOSTAR), 6th International Scientific Conference, GNP 2016, Žabljak, Montenegro, 2016. ISBN 978-86-82707-21-9; Serghides, Despina K. 2010. „The Wisdom of Mediterranean Traditional Architecture Versus Contemporary Architecture – The Energy Challenge.“ The Open Construction and Building Technology Journal, 2010, 4, 29-38; Trapara B., Roso Popovac M., Klarić S.: Lukomir – sinonim bosanskohercegovačke vernakularne arhitekture (SYNONYMOUS FOR B&H VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE), 6th International Scientific Conference, GNP 2012, Žabljak, Montenegro, 2016. ISBN 97886-82707-21-9; Widera, Barbara. 2014. „Bioclimatic architecture as an opportunity for developing countries“ 30th International PLEA conference 16-18 December 2014, CEPT University, Ahmedabad.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES

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FLUIDITY: NETWORKED CONTEXT AND CONTEMPORARY METHODOLOGIES OF ARCHITECTURE IN TOURISM Bojana Jerković-Babović 141 Teaching assistant, PhD candidate, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, [email protected] Nebojša Fotirić Assosiate Profesor, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, [email protected] Igor Rajković Assosiate Profesor, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Architecture, [email protected] ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to research the relation between the networked socio-spatial context and contemporary design methodologies of architecture in tourism. Fluidity is positioned as the main conceptual phenomenon, simultaneously causing and manifesting in contemporary transformations of social and spatial conditions into a constant process of interacting flows.Authors’ main idea is to research potential of contemporary architectural design in tourism which reflects fluidity and processes of interacting flows of money, population, information and cultural identities through aesthetical experiences of displacement, hedonism and pleasure. The dinamic concept of flows is positioned into the spatial perspective as a design method and architectural criteria in response to place identity queries and dematerialization of architectural aesthetical object by commercial overproduction effects. Development of tourism afirmates the future synergies of urban and rural identities of places and creates new architectural design potentials in tourism according to aesthetical transformations of today’s socio-spatial context. Tourism ranks high in world’s industry in the contemporary era of globalization, neoliberal capitalism and the society of spectacle, leisure and consumption, where needs for an increased flow of people, money and information transform architectural aesthetic values into relational, intersubjective and communicational experiences. Touristic experience, aesthetical itself, perceptual and receptive, opens new possibilities in architectural approach according to requirements and aesthetics of contemporary culture, which transform meaning of architecture into infrastructure of perceptual displacement effects through creative thematisations of fluidity in architectural design methodologies and aesthetic criteria. Keywords: fluidity, flows, tourism, architecture

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INTRODUCTION The main idea of this paper is to research fluidity as a contemporary socio-spatial conceptual phenomenon, with the aim of defining and translation its aspects into design potentials of architecture in tourism. Authors’ main idea is to research the concept of a flow, as a constitutive element of fluidity which could be translated into functional, formal and aesthetic criteria of an architectural design and experience. Fluidity is defined as a state of being in a constant flow, being unsettled and unstable. Furthermore, fluidity is defined as a smooth elegance and grace. Contemporary transformations of a social and spatial context are simultaneously caused and manifested by a constant processеs of interactions and exchanges. In addition, these dynamic processes are based on a different type of flows: of money, people, ideas, experiences, information, etc. The dynamic concept of flows is positioned as a simultaneous cause and manifestation of contemporary material basis transformations. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to position fluidity and notion of flow into the spatial perspective as a design method in architecture in tourism, in response to socio-spatial contextual transmutation.

NETWORKED CONTEXT: PROCESSES OF FLOWS The contemporary networked context is characterised by increasing effects of globalization such as transnational, transcultural exchanges and constant flows of money, goods, people, tourists, migrants, information, ideas etc. Furthermore, these global flows transform contemporary socio-spatial context into the continuous network of constant processes based on the informational revolution and the new communication systems. The interactions of the new information technologies and processes of current social and cultural changes simultaneously result in the increase of mobility of people and speed of information exchanges. As a result, it dematerializes the value and elements of its own structure into new qualities of fluid, liquid and flowing characteristics. (Bauman, 2005) In Manuel Castells’ theory of urban planning in the Informational Age, dynamics of the contemporary networked context are positioned into the new socio-spatial perspective and the concept of “space of flows”. (Castells, 2009, 1996) Technological and cultural changes are simultaneously affected by issues of an increased transportation of population. Mobility increase occurs under the influence of everyday activities escalation and “compression of time” as a consequence of new spatial networks that influence the flow intensification and physical transfers of people. (Castells, 2009) Scholars Manuel Castells, Stephen Graham and Simon Marvin argue transfer and transport networks become the communicative devices of modern life. (Castells, 2009; Graham and Marvin, 2009) Furthermore, cities are consisted of places and flows relations that shape the contemporary everyday experience, increasingly articulated globally and manifested in simultaneous assimilation and transgression of local identities. Relations in the networked context are constructed with both technical and social connections, especially manifested in touristic and transcultural flows. More specifically, increasing aspects of the fluidity in the networked context, based on mobility and speed

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES cause looseness of spatial and territorial boundaries and flexibility of time. Therefore, the position of places and urban or rural identities in the global economy depends on their connectivity in transport and information networks. Since the 19th century industrial revolution epistemological apparatus of travel evoked the new modes of experience and aesthetics through the aspects such as dynamism and motion. Movement, mobility and speed were crucial aspects to the development of the modern travel, transport or tourism. John Urry`s theory represents not only the passenger as emblematic of modernity but also car driver, plane traveller and any other kind of the individual that could experience their environment in motion. (Urry, 2002) Postmodern socio-spatial context transformed notions of mobility into the new fluidity aspects, manifested in dynamic, flowing, variable and constantly changing experiences of everydayness. More specifically, mobility as a former constitutive of modernity became manifested in more transient, fleeting and even more dynamic character under the influences of capitalism, consumerism and the society of spectacle. Jean Baudrillard`s theory of the capitalistic consumer society considers ideas of consumption as a mode of meaning exchange and the act of identity expression. (Baudrillard, 1996) Therefore, postmodernism invoked the new attention to the tourism and cultural exchange as a mode of perceiving the aesthetical experiences in the state of being in constant flow. Transculturalism, interculturalism and multiculturalism are contemporary phenomena by which cultural identifications of the cosmopolitan, constantly traveling individual are unfolded. In addition, these cultural phenomena occur globally as a result of increased speed of interactions and exchanges manifested in mass migrations, travel on daily basis and mass touristic movements across the world. The idea of this paper is to present the relation of fluidity manifestations in contemporary context and the potentials of design process in architecture related to travel mobility, motion and flows. Contemporary phenomena manifesting fluidity both in cultural and spatial context are transmutation, effects overproduction, dematerialisation and fragmentation. These phenomena occur as the consequence of global networking, where urban and rural places become points interconnected in tourism networks and cultural interactions. Contemporary development of the cultural tourism affirms touristic experience throughout displacement and “life seeing” allowing even non touristic rural and urban destinations to connect into the global network of travel flows. Architecture is an expression of lifestyle and spirit of the time and culture in which it arises. More specifically, architectural role in such concept manifests in spatial boundaries dispersion and perceptual transmutation, sensual displacement and programs of pleasure. Therefore, fluid, networked context requires thinking in terms of the new architectural potentials and methods in tourism aiming cultural and aesthetic experiences synergy in travel flows connecting diverse places, such in the urban-rural relation.

TOURISM: FLUIDITY IN SYNERGIES OF PLACES AND AESTHETICAL EXPERIENCES Tourism ranks high in world’s industry in the contemporary context, as discussed so far, characterized by globalization and the culture of spectacle, leisure and consumption, where needs for constantly increasing flows of people, money and information reshape the experience of contemporary everydayness and aesthetics. The

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development of tourism appears as a logical consequence of modern world subject for rest, leisure and recreation by which the consumer culture shapes the modern system of values. (Urry, 2002) Cultural theories of tourism first appear in the mid20th century, when tourism become supported by consumerism needs and values of postmodern, post-industrial society, ideas of particularism and individuality. Postmodern society as fluid, volatile, with no universal ideas and ideologies, shapes its built up environment in a way that information and mass communication means dominate over the cultural objects that they describe. The thesis of John Urry states that the postmodern society tourism equalizes with other cultural practices where the value of the system is shaped by a show, satisfaction and diversity, it comes down to the idea of a new and different, sudden experience that makes the difference to everyday life. (Urry, 2002) Dean Mac Cannel interprets cultural and aesthetic experience of tourism as a production of a movie or a play with a desire to displace normal and everydayness. (Mac Cannel, 1999) In a theatrical authenticity of postmodern culture architecture in tourism becomes a catalyst of cultural constructions of a different world than work and everydayness, in which aesthetic experience are projected through amusement, leisure and hedonism. (Michaud, 2004) Traveling is a dynamic action in the means of providing perspective, critical and cultural learning, cross-cultural thinking and understanding on the ontological and epistemological levels of experiences. In postmodernity, travel has been positioned into a condition paramount to liberal ideas that encouraged processes of social mobility, change and exchange. (Traganou and Mitrasinovic, 2009) Tourism fulfills aesthetical interest, hedonistic above all, and according to Michaud the tourist is in fact a contemporary individual with an accelerated and variable life, who is in a need to encounter new identities, artistic and cultural elements of exchange and communication. (Michaud, 2004) Yves Michaud’s theory refers to the fluidity as a pleasant experience which Mihalyl Csiksentmihalyi, psychologist, calls “experience of a flow” in which a subject is immersed freely and that fully occupies their attention without consuming any effort. (Csiksentmihalyi, 1990) Accordingly, aesthetical and cultural experience of tourism in architecture relates to the production of events and effects in terms of creating fluid, variable, flowing aesthetical experience and at the same time authentic, autonomous and pleasant to understand. A contemporary tourist is looking for sensuality beyond utilitarian interests and experiences for the sake of enjoyment and relaxation as opposed to vibrant and accelerated pace of everyday life. (Michaud, 2004) Therefore, urban-rural synergy emphasizes the experience of displacement and diversity in contemporary tourism. Fluidity as a concept reflects the notions of being in the state of constant flow and transmutation. The spatial manifestations of such condition in tourism propose overlap of formal, functional and ambient aspects in architectural design with perceptual and sensual experience of the place through movement. Architecture in tourism has both the power of attraction itself and contextual experience emphasize. Accordingly, the potentials of architectural design in tourism unfold in the creation of experience diversity, with methods of perceptual and contextual assimilation, stratification and assemblage in the process of shaping the unique spatial connections between urban vividness and rural decelerated dynamics. Such design process proposes creation of the architecture which affirms the state of continuous movement and constant flows in terms of form, function and ambience.

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POTENTIALS OF FLUIDITY IN DESIGN METHODOLOGIES OF ARCHITECTURE IN TOURISM A position of architecture in tourism is often marginalized by negative commercial connotations. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to affirm specific complexity of architectural design in tourism that require on programmatic, technological and functional needs. Brian McLaren, Medina Lasansky, Keller Easterling, John Ockman, Salomon Frausto and Miodrag Mitrasinovic are some scholars who have addressed the relation of tourism, spatial production and architecture taking into account the conditions of fluid and networked context discussed so far. More specifically, the global flows of information, investment, consumption, consumers, tourists are researched as the process of place experiencing and controlling cultural forces through spatial production of various trans local networks and synergies. (Traganou and Mitrasinovic, 2009) Martin Pewley`s Terminal architecture approaches the contemporary architecture as a system or network that sustain modern life and its fluidity. (Pewley, 1997) Therefore, architecture should become infrastructure of flows and dynamic programs providing interconnectivity, exchange and functional fluidity.

Figure 1: structural elements of travel flow in architecture (illustration by the author)

Relation between the architectural form and perception of space through movement is the main potential of the concept of fluidity in architecture of tourism. The traveller transport is the crucial means of access to the region of touristic perception and movement. Therefore, tourism infrastructure spatial appearance has the potential of being attraction itself or to emphasise perception of the place in process of transmutation and flows. Touristic, aesthetic experience created kinaesthetically in the process of movement is fluid, variable and fleeting. Kinaesthetic experience, as sensations associated with movement of the human body in space, is the design method of shaping the dynamic interaction between moving body and architecture in continuity of movement. Flows and linkages in interconnectivity of the contemporary context require layered architectural spaces which could offer variety of program, engagement

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of the users, identities and experiences. David Goldblatt describes how the transformations of contemporary context and technologies has led to the onset of a new sensual rationality in architecture. Accordingly, fluidity and lightness are two new aesthetical qualities and conditions of elegance, based on the aspects of motion, smoothness, continuity and dynamism. (Goldblatt, 2007)

Figure 2: Examples of the travel flow elements (figure 1) in contemporary architectural practice

Presented examples in contemporary architectural practice (figure 2) are based on relation between the architectural form and dynamic flows of movement in three different functional types that structure contemporary travel flows – terminals, transport infrastructure and cultural objects in tourism (figure 1). Selected elements of design process present different methods and technics of fluidity visualization and shaping. The contemporary perception of a place or of a tourism architecture is based on singular notions of identities, multiplicity, pluralism and hybridism of place conditions that are induced by the global mobility. Accordingly, by affirming space values of architecture, landscapes or touristic site in which it belongs user’s attention and perception is directed to the gestures, perceptual sensations and events to which a modern man has given a priority. The potentials of touristic aesthetical experiences emerge

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES from perceptual and cognitive relations, as well as sensual and conceptual notions of experience. Architecture in that way becomes direct, immediate and observed by user`s synthetic experimentalism. (De Sola-Morales, 1997)

Figure 3: relations between contextual and architectural aspects of contemporary architecture in tourism (illustration by the author)

The aim of this research is to present the notion of tourism and travel fluidity in architectural aspects which could be used in architectural design process and methodologies. As travelling functions as a framework of representation upon which conceptual, literal and visual images are being projected, design methodologies in architecture in tourism should consider potentials of the connections between contemporary spatial, cultural and aesthetic criteria and their manifestation in the architectural form, program and ambience. Therefore, potentials of contemporary design methodologies of architecture in tourism are researched in terms of creating the unique touristic, aesthetic experience of architecture and place in the travel flow process. More specifically, recognition of the fluidity aspects in cultural, aesthetical and spatial domains is brought to relations with architectural form, function and ambience (figure 3).

CONCLUSIONS The aim of this paper was to recognize the aspects of fluidity in contemporary socio-spatial context, based on processes of constant flows with the notion of tourism and travel fluidity in architectural design process. In addition, such contextual aspects are researched in terms of cultural and aesthetical values changes which reshaped the contemporary touristic experience, cultural, aesthetical and receptive itself. As a result, architectural objects and cultural places, touristic destinations and attractions tend to satisfy the experience that is fluid and volatile and at the same time authentic, autonomous and pleasant. The potentials of contemporary design methodologies of architecture in tourism are researched in the multidisciplinary understanding of the relations between contemporary socio-cultural requirements in tourism, aspects of aesthetical touristic experiences and architectural form, function and ambience. The main potential of architectural design methodology presented in this paper is the relation between architecture and perception of space through the process of continuous flows and movement. Sensations associated with movement of the human body in space are the design method of shaping the dynamic interaction between traveller and architecture in tourism in the fluid continuity.

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In response to place identity queries caused by negative aspects of globalization and capitalism networked context of architecture in tourism opens up the potentials in architectural creation of the local-global and urban-rural connections and exchanges. Contemporary development of the cultural tourism affirms touristic experience through effects and methods of displacement through dynamic concepts of “life seeing” and crosslinks rural and urban destinations into the global network of travel flows. The structural elements of travel flow in architecture are presented in three types – admission points, transit process of movement and processes of events in tourism (figure 1). Furthermore, these types are connected with architectural typologies – terminals, transit infrastructure and cultural objects in contemporary architectural practice. With the aim of visualizing the potentials of fluidity in contemporary architectural design, couple of the most famous and globally located contemporary architecture examples are presented for each of the three types in travel flow structure in built environment (figure 2).Transmutation, overproduction, fragmentation and dematerialization are recognized contextual phenomena which have spatial manifestations in stratification, hybridity and assimilation connected with spatial continuity, layering, programmatic variability and perceptual displacement. Furthermore, presented aspects relations are positioned as the architectural potentials in terms of form, function and ambience. Therefore, presented potentials of fluidity in architecture in tourism could provide synergies of diverse place identities, both urban and rural, with the aim of the unique cultural and experience exchanges.

REFERENCES Archdaily. “Sheikh Zayed Bridge / Zaha Hadid Architects”. Last modified February 15, 2012. Accessed May 21, 2017. http://www.archdaily.com/207331/sheikh-zayed-bridge-zaha-hadid-architects.

Archdaily. “Visitor Center / HHD_FUN Architects”. Last modified November 16, 2012. Accessed May 21, 2017. http://www.archdaily.com/293050/visitor-center-hhd_fun-architects. Baudrillard, Jean. 1996. The System of Objects, translated by James Benedict. London: Verso. Castells, Manuel. 2009. The Rise of The Networked Society, With a New Preface: Volume I: The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. London: John Willey and Sons De Solà-Morales Rubió, Ignasi and Sarah Whiting. 1997. Differences. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Ferré, Albert, Tomoko Sakamoto, Michael Kubo. 2002. The Yokohama Project. 1st ed. Barcelona: Actar. Goldblatt, David. "Lightness and Fluidity: Remarks Concerning The Aesthetics Of Elegance". Architectural Design no. 77.1: 10-17. Graham, Stephen, and Simon Marvin. 2009. Splintering Urbanism. 1st ed. London: Routledge.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES MacCannel, Dean. 1999. The Tourist: A New Theory of Leisure Class. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Michaud, Yves. 2004. Umjetnost u plinovitu stanju, translated by Jagoda Milinković.Zagreb: Ljevak. Mihaly Csiksentmihailyi. 1990. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. Pawley, Martin. 1998. Terminal Architecture. London: Reaktion Books. UN Studio. “ARNHEM CENTRAL.” Projects. Accessed May 21, 2017. central-transfer-hall.

http://www.unstudio.com/projects/arnhem-

UN Studio. “MERCEDES-BENZ MUSEUM.” Projects. Accessed May 21, 2017. http://www.unstudio.com/projects/mercedes-benz-museum. UN Studio. “WALDSCHLÖSSCHEN BRIDGE.” Projects. Accessed May 21, 2017. http://www.unstudio.com/projects/waldschlchenbrcke.

Urry, John. 2002. Tourist gaze. London SAGE. Zygmunt, Bauman. 2009. Fluidni život, translated by Siniša Božović and Nataša Mrdak. Novi Sad: Mediteran publishing.

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ICT POTENTIAL FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN RURAL AREAS Dr Miroslava Raspopović Milić 142 Associate Professor, Belgrade Metropolitan University – Faculty of Information Technology, 63 Tadeusa Košćuskog, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Dr Milena Vukmirović Research Associate, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, 73/II Blvd. Kralja Aleksandra, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected]

ABSTRACT Tourism in rural areas is considered small-scale tourism, which represents a strong potential for growth of areas traditionally characterized as agricultural areas. Small-scale also implies that economical gains are hard to achieve due to high operating costs caused by remoteness of rural areas. With ICT, tourism in rural areas can be improved through improvement of visibility, communication, marketing, customer perceived benefits through convenience, and in return growth, profitability, efficiency, effectivity and the quality of life of local population can be enhanced. Rural tourism tends to be heterogeneous with many different and scattered stakeholders, making the efficiency and effectivity hard to achieve. The aim of this research is to propose a model for the inclusion of ICT, and specifically information system, to increase efficiency of the rural small-scale tourism. Keywords: ICT, information systems, rural areas

INTRODUCTION Information and communications technology (ICT) tools and applications have allowed increase of the performance and effectiveness in tourism. ICT has influenced ways tourism services are accessed and consumed. Tourists typically use their ICT devices to search for information to help them form decisions in regard with their trip (Buhalis, 2015). This is one of the reasons why technology and its applications have had instrumental role in tourism marketing and many businesses had to redefine their marketing model. Usage of new technologies provided benefits not only as the increase in the supply of information, but it also provided a channel for the information sharing to larger audience, while reducing the cost of production.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES While there are various benefits to using different technologies and application, there are also drawbacks of their usage. The abundance of information on the Web poses a challenge when trying to filter useful information on various destinations. This is especially true for tourism industry where information is distributed over various websites and stored using heterogeneous formats (Haller, 2000). Destination image formation no longer relies on brick-and-mortar travel agencies and glossy travel brochures, but rather on the user created content, usually based on various shared advices, comments and photographs (Hunter, 2015). Currently, on TripAdvisor there are 465 million reviews and opinions and 390 million monthly average unique visitors (TripAdvisor, 2017). Furthermore, usage of mobile devices has changed tourist services and offerings. Mobile technologies offer information to tourists not only while planning a trip, but also at the destination. GoodWorkLabs reports that 85% use smartphones to plan their travel when on leisure tours, 72% people will post photos about their travel on social platforms like Facebook, 30% use mobile apps to find the best hotel deals, 29% use mobile apps to find the best flight deals, 55.8% tourists use mobile apps to check weather, 49.1% tourists use mobile apps to use mapping features, 62.1% tourists use mobile apps to search for nearby restaurants, 48.1% tourists use mobile GPS to get travel directions, 46% tourists use apps to find hotels (GoodWorkLabs, 2015). While the industrial tourism is popular and ICT usage in its promotion is visible, rural tourism is largely individual oriented and may or may not have a mass appeal (Shanker, 2008). Many of the assets in rural tourism are not very well known. Using ICT tools and applications, these assets can be brought into mainstream tourism. In order for this to happen, it is essential to create a model for a user-friendly platform to promote local regions. Tourist services in rural areas are typically not well established. Moreover, they need to be continuously innovated and diversified so that tourist can maintain their interest in the region and to increase in the influx of tourist visits to rural areas. Rural areas typically hold their income based on the agricultural activities. Hence, developing and diversifying rural tourism can counteract the income from the agricultural sources, as tourists bring income and purchasing power to rural areas. Rural area tourism provides perspective and new economic possibilities to the younger generations. Keeping younger generations in rural areas can preserve villages and strengthen the communities by not only strengthening them economically but by preserving local culture and heritage. Tourism areas may offer a dynamic environment for young generations given good social and job opportunities and a generally smooth entry into the labor market (Möller, 2015). The main objective of introducing a novel information system (IS) within rural areas is to establish the practice that will generate positive impact on tourism and contribute to competitiveness in promotion of regional assets. The idea behind information rich information system is to promote not only very well know regional assets, but also a less known “hidden jewels” of the region and some less known activities and accommodations that are hard to find on the web. Information rich IS utilizes different technologies, while gathering different format of digital media that represent the region through digitalization of its assets. Digitalization of assets allows one to present valuable information about the region, which is not easily accessible on a daily basis.

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RURAL AREAS, RURAL TOURISM AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES Three theoretical approaches are used to define term rurality: negative, sociological and economic. For the first approach, everything that is not urban is rural, i.e. low density, with little artificial character, dispersion of activities and communities. In terms of socio-cultural criteria, rurality is related to specific social relationships, the value system, and lifestyle and consumption patterns. While the economic approach observes rural as areas where economic activities are little diversified and where agricultural activity is dominant in terms of its share of jobs and income. At the international level, the most frequently used approach is that proposed by the OECD. They have established a regional typology according to which region has been classified as predominantly urban, predominantly rural and intermediate. Degree of urbanization for local administrative units level 2 (LAU2)

EDORA Structural typology map

Figure 1: a) EU Degree of urbanization for LAU2 (Eurostat - GISCO, 2013) and b) EU Structural typology map (ESPON and UHI Millennium Institute, 2011)

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Accordingly to the mentioned approaches, rural areas are dominant for the EU territory (Figure 1), and therefore, development of rural areas represents a significant challenge as it has a great relevance for the economic and social context of EU 143 (ESPON and UHI Millennium Institute, 2011). EU rural areas are facing multiple problems in the domains of demography (aging, gender disparities); remoteness, infrastructure, and access to basic services (housing, access to transport, commuting, ICT, access to health care and social services); education and human capital; problems of labor market and vicious circles (European Commision , 2008). In regards to this, any potential for rural development is seen as "a vector of geographic cohesion, driving the competitiveness of rural areas and supporting the sustainability of human activities and rational management" (CIHEAM, 2008). Observing the weakness of rural areas, tourism has attracted growing interest of academics, tourism professionals, investors and politicians alike, due to its apparent potential as a development tool. This was also confirmed by an indication of the various types of secondary gainful activities (EUROSTAT, 2016, p. 13) that were practiced by agricultural holdings in 2010 with 12.5 % of agricultural holdings that also offered tourism services in the EU-27 (Figure 2). There are different views of what is rural toursim. The OECD (1994) define rural tourism as all types of tourism taking place in rural areas, while some authors under the rural tourism considered a quite specific tourism product, with some requiring the presence of agriculture as a core element (Cavaco, 1999). Following the negative approaches in defining term “rural”, rural tourism could be as well defined as something opposed to mass and resort/urban forms of tourism. In such way, rural tourism is characterized by "features such as small scale, personalized contacts, the traditional character of service elements and environments, the presence of nature and agriculture and the existence of traditional social structures, reflected in a specific way of life, that tourists wish to discover and participate in" (Eusébio, Kastenholz, & Breda, 2014, p. 15). This characterization is very important since there are different kinds of rural areas with diverse opportunities for development, which dictate the character of the tourism product.

PR and IR regions account for 91 % of EU territory and 56% of the population of EU27. These regions generate 43% of Gross Value Added (GVA) in the EU and provide 55 % of employment (European Commision , 2008, p. 49)

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Figure 1: Other gainful activities for agricultural holdings, 2010 (EUROSTAT, 2016)

The main goal of the Europe 2020 strategy to create the conditions for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, poses a complex and difficult challenge for rural areas. This challenge in particular relates to the general characteristics of the rural areas reflected in "low accessibility, negative migratory balance, and low education levels" (Naldi, Nilsson, Westlund, & Wixe, 2015). Having in mind that smart growth of rural areas comprises of exploitation of local amenities and development of creative economies, rural tourism is emerging as a very important activity. However, reaching of embeddedness, relatedness, and connectivity as key areas in order to reach smart growth, as well as expected tourist demand can be considered difficult for the achievement.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES In accordance with the presented situation problems can be overcome by using digital technologies, i.e. ICT. Implementation of ICT tools and applications can achieve positive outcomes in three areas: connectivity, entrepreneurship and human capital. In the first domain, telecommunications technologies and the Internet diminish, if they do not entirely erase, the tyranny of space and distance. From the second flexible manufacturing and smaller optimal sizes of products provide greater possibilities for rural firms against giant competitors. The third is related to continuing population growth in rural areas, both from new migrants attracted by rural amenities and by return migrants, promises an upgrade of skills demanded for the new economy (Malecki, 2003). Furthermore, ICT could also contribute to more sophisticated ways of finding, as well for offering of diverse tourist products and services. This is very important characteristic because of the "shift from standardised mass tourism to more individualistic patterns, in which greater flexibility and a more meaningful experience have gained prominence" (Briedenhann & Wickens, 2004, p. 73). Because of the different motivations that might include ecological uniqueness, special adventure opportunities, cultural attractions, or the peace and quiet of the countryside there was a unique opportunity for rural operators to manage in terms of ‘economies of scope’ and a need for creation of the special digital tool for the integration of different information about rural tourism offers. This is particularly important because of "a complex, multi-faceted activity, marked by continuously increasing diversity" (Eusébio, Kastenholz, & Breda, 2014, p. 16)

INFORMATION SYSTEM MODEL FOR RURAL AREAS DESTINATIONS Information System Services The primary aim of rural area information system is to integrate existing technological infrastructure of many local tourism enterprises and local citizens who offer accurate and up-to-date information about rural areas’ cultural, historical, geographical, ethno site and relevant facilities they offer such as accommodation, restaurants and different agricultural products. Information system aims to attract tourists to buy certain tourism products and it provides a platform that simplifies access to rural areas’ tourism and cultural information. Also, it enables access to large amount of other relevant tourism information already distributed all over the web such as information about weather and traffic conditions, schedules of trains, buses, low cost airlines or shuttle transportation. In order to support those objectives, information system services can be roughly categorized in three different ways: -

Services that are accessible to the public, whereby the most important ones are: (a) services for retrieval of all types of tourism information in order to find relevant tourist products, (b) booking services for accommodation that are based previous and current user search, (c) services for recording digital content generated directly by users that are relevant for the information system.

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-

Services that allow authorized stakeholders (travel agencies/organizations, local tourist enterprises or local community) to create and update information about their local assets of interest.

-

Configuration services which are accessible only to stakeholders with administrator privileges and which allow system configuration in various ways over the Internet.

Information system for tourism in rural areas defines an integrated system with both internal and external systems. The goal of this information system is to reduce extensive research that potential tourists usually go through in order to identify their next destination. With the information system with rich database, the objective is to provide easy approach to identify most valuable assets for each location in the region. Internal system has several important functions: IS relies on the very rich database, which is updated by the shared activity of various public and private entities Database allows data collection through web platform and portable devices such as mobile phones and tablets. Data collection through mobile phones and tablets allow for tourist to upload their photos, information, opinions and experiences for a given asset. Mobile application provides easier access to the Database, allowing Mobile tag system to sort and store digital assets by users. Mobile tag system can also provide variety of information through the tag reading software including displaying text, images, video, audio, hyperlinks, contact information, etc. Using the data in the Database IS has the functionality to automatically generate the guidebook from the selected spots of interest. As such, IS can serve as a virtual and portable visitor information center. Unlike most tourist ICT platforms which allow search by destination only, rural tourism IS provides opportunity to also select assets by type and interests. Type of destination is used as a primary search category: cultural site, historical site, geographical/nature site, ethno site, events, accommodation, restaurants, etc. IS allows to input different form of digital assets such as virtual tours, augmented reality tours, videos, text/description of destination, contact information, maps, photographs imported by owners of hotels, restaurants, tourist organizations, etc, photographs imported by tourists who visited the place, interesting happenings and information (i.e. festivals). Flexible booking system for accommodation, which is compatible with external booking systems. Integration with external systems, such as Google maps, weather forecast, car rentals, social networks and public transportation, provides a complete solution for all key stakeholders (Figure 3). There are three critical key stakeholders: travel agencies, local community promoting their local assets (restaurants, accommodation, etc.) and potential tourists. System is not excluding other stakeholders, but they are not the scope of this paper and are left to be considered for future research.

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Figure 3: Collection and distribution of data

Software Architecture Direct access to all services is offered through common Web portal dedicated to all stakeholders. In order to enhance its accessibility, Web portal should be implemented by employing the Web technologies recommend by latest W3C standards and novel technologies in modern smart phones. Software architecture that supports functionalities promoting rural areas is presented in Figure 4.

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Figure 4: Software architecture for the IS for rural tourism

Web portal should support a homogeneous view on heterogeneous sources that can generally be classified as structured, fully unstructured and semi-structure information. All information on tourism products can be treated as structured information. This data is stored within a central relational database management system (RDBMS) which is constructed on the basis of conceptual data model that incorporates all conceptual entities gathered during the requirements definition with numerous tourism information providers. Fully unstructured information such as images, sounds, video, highlights and raw text are planned to be stored in content management systems (CMS) that provides preservation, organization and dissemination services for digital collections. But most of the data like e-mail messages sent to and by tourist offices, experiences and opinions within blogs, forums, or newspaper web sites, which structure is not quite regular, falls somewhere between these two extremes and are called semi-structured data. Dealing with semi-structured documents requires a RDBMS to be enhanced with new data types for representing XML documents inside databases and new capabilities for querying and managing the XML documents (Oracle 8i and IBM DB2 support such characteristics). Because it is not always easy to integrate all these information presented in a wide range of formats not compatible with another, the elements such as mediator toll (proxy and adapter) are used to facilitate communication between these three systems.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Besides allowing integration of different types of tourism-related information stored in information system, Web portal should also collect and merge multiple structured and semi-structured tourism information already existing on the Web. These are considered as external sources and typically contain information in their own databases and/or on their web sites. Integration with the external systems can be done by means of service oriented architecture using SOAP and RESTFul based web services.

CONCLUSIONS Inclusion of public and private entities in developing rich and up to date database of assets of rural regions can pose to be challenging. In order to involve local community and other stakeholders, local enterprises and local actors should be informed about the aims and expected benefits of using such system for the promotion of their local region. Furthermore, all stakeholders should be aware of benefits of using ICT services, which represent an important tool and marketing-channel for the entire local community and their service offerings to tourists. Furthermore, as ICT provides strategic importance for the marketing of the rural region tourist organizations and associations should be prepared to invest time and resources into development of new ICT tools and applications. Allowing system access to different types of stakeholders will require cleansing of information in order to avoid repetitions and errors. Information cleansing will take time and funds. In general, it also contributes to achievement of a successful rural tourism that could play a significant role in rural development. From one side it has an economic impact and potentially large multiplier effects, and from the other positive social and cultural impact seen as interaction between inhabitants and tourist, as well as new residents. Tourist offer and maintain of its quality due to its authenticity could contribute to the overall preservation of rural ambience and its culture. In this way, by the responsible use of all its potentials and resources, rural areas could achieve smart, sustainable and inclusive growth which is the main goal of the Europe 2020 strategy.

REFERENCES Buhalis, D., & Amaranggana, A. (2015). Smart tourism destinations enhancing tourism experience through personalisation of services. In Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2015 (pp. 377-389). Springer International Publishing. Briedenhann, J., & Wickens, E. (2004). Tourism routes as a tool for the economic development of rural areas—vibrant hope or impossible dream? Tourism management , 25 (1), 71-79. Cavaco, C. (1999). O turismo rural nas políticas de desenvolvimento do turismo em Portugal. In C. Cavaco (Ed.), Desenvolvimento Rural: Desafio e Utopia (pp. 281-292). Lisboa: CEG. CIHEAM. (2008). Chapter 10: Development strategies for rural areas. In Mediterra. The Future of Agriculture in Mediterranean Countries (pp. 275-301). Montpelier: SciencesPo. Les Presse.

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ESPON and UHI Millennium Institute. (2011). EDORA: European Development Opportunities for Rural Areas. Luxembourg: ESPON & UHI Millennium Institute. European Commision . (2008). Poverty and Social Exclusion in Rural Areas. Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, Unit E2. Rome: European Commision . Eurostat - GISCO. (2013). Eurostat. Statistical Atlas Eurostat regional yearbook 2013. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistical-atlas EUROSTAT. (2016). Rural development statistics by urban-rural typology. EUROSTAT. Eusébio, C., Kastenholz, E., & Breda, Z. (2014). Tourism and susteinable development of rural destinations: a stakeholders` view. Revista Portuguesa de Estudos Regionais , 2. Quatrimestre (36), 12-21. GoodWorkLabs, 2015. , (last accessed April 18, 2017). Haller, M., Pröll, B., Retschitzegger, W., Tjoa, A. M., & Wagner, R. R. (2000). Integrating heterogeneous tourism information in TIScover: the MIRO-Web approach. ENTER 2000: 7th. International Congress on Tourism and Communications Technologies in Tourism. Hunter, W. C., Chung, N., Gretzel, U., & Koo, C. (2015). Constructivist research in smart tourism. Asia Pacific Journal of Information Systems, 25(1), 105-120. Malecki, E. J. (2003). Digital development in rural areas: potentials and pitfalls. Journal of rural studies , 19 (2), 201-2014. Möller, P. (2015). Young adults’ perceptions of and affective bonds to a rural tourism community. Fennia-International Journal of Geography, 194(1), 32-45. Naldi, L., Nilsson, P., Westlund, H., & Wixe, S. (2015). What is smart rural development? Journal of rural studies , 90-101. OECD. (1994). Tourism Strategies and Rural Development. Paris: OECD. Shanker, D. (2008, May). ICT and Tourism: challenges and opportunities. In Conference on Tourism in India–Challenges Ahead (Vol. 15, p. 17). TripAdvisor, 2017. , (last accessed April 18, 2017).

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FOOD TOURISM CONCEPT - CREATING SYNERGY BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL PLACES - CASE STUDY OF MAGLIČ, SERBIA Biserka Mitrović 144 Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra 73, [email protected] Jelena Marić Teaching assistant, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, [email protected] Tamara Radić Master student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, [email protected] ABSTRACT Food tourism is being seen as one of the fastest growing industries over the second half of the twentieth century (e.g. Saeter, 1998; Smith, 1988) and a key support for the rural development. In declining rural areas, food tourism is often seen as an additional economic activity and a method of retaining rural regions (Font and Ahjem, 1999). Urban-rural connections are important for poverty assuagement, sustainable rural land use and balanced territorial development in general. Additionally, strong bonds can improve the overall living conditions and employment chances for both rural and urban areas (Tacoli, 1998,2003; Rosenthal, 2000). The primary purpose of this study is to foster relationships between urban and rural areas by developing a concept proposal for food tourism, through the educational process at the Master course at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade. The proposal was created during the two theoretical and project-based courses, focused on the sustainable planning and design in the natural environment. The location chosen for the project is a medieval fortress Maglič with its surroundings, located in the gorge of Ibar, 20 km south of the city of Kraljevo. Having lost its primary function, the site is nowadays poorly visited. This problem is seen as a challenge to reinvent the urban/rural landscape and create an attractive ambient which relates to the revitalised historical site. As a result, the specific concept of food tourism called “slow food” is developed, both based on tradition and modern values, further elaborated through the planning proposal and urban design project. Following the specific planning and urban design methodology, the extensive research is drawn upon mostly primary and secondary sources, including analysis of urban plans in different scales, comprehensive literature review, as well as cooperation with local authorities and institutions. The full purpose and value of the proposal are confirmed by the city government of Kraljevo and several city agencies and institutes, as the proposal initialized the discussion and revival of the ideas for the important but forgotten historic place and its rural background. Keywords: Urban and rural places, Food, Tourism, Education, Maglič

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INTRODUCTION In declining rural areas, food tourism is often seen as an additional economic activity and a method of retaining rural regions (Font and Ahjem, 1999). To achieve a better position in a system determined by a network of global cities, they must be capable to strongly attract the tourists, with specific brands and offers (Đukić, Vukmirović, 2012). Urban-rural connections are important for poverty assuagement, sustainable rural land use and balanced territorial development in general. Additionally, strong bonds can improve the overall living conditions and employment chances for both rural and urban areas (Tacoli, 1998,2003; Rosenthal, 2000). Some of the biggest problems in Serbia are the rapidly decreasing rural population and the decline of rural areas. At the same time, Serbia is facing an excessive accumulation of population in the cities, especially in Belgrade. The problem of poverty and lack of opportunities in rural areas are also presented and identified as push factors for moving to the urban areas, while urban job opportunities could be the pull factor. Strong linkages can improve the living conditions and employment opportunities of the rural population (Tacoli, 1998; Tacoli, 2003).

The primary purpose of this study is to enhance connections between urban and rural areas by developing a concept proposal for overall development by introducing food tourism, as a new concept in Serbia.The paper is primarily focused on the area of the medieval fortress of Maglič near Kraljevo, where the main problems are related to the rural stagnation and depopulation. The main goals of the concept proposal for Maglič area are raising the chances for employment, thus lessening poverty assuagement, providing economical benefit and therefore stopping the process of depopulation. Further objectives aim to reactivate fortress and to motivate people to stay in rural areas, as well as to attract new residents and visitors. In terms of theoretical background, the paper is concentrated on exploring food tourism concept as a type of agro-tourism, which promotes local products and creates added value through direct marketing, simultaneously relying upon the long and successful tradition of Serbian food production and processes, special traditional dishes and restaurant culture that are unique and supported by local people. During the educational process with students of the Master course at the Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade, it was the intention to create the development model for new urbanised areas that would exploit and emphasize these potentials. BACKGROUND RESEARCH

Educational process and learning by doing methodology

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The educational framework for the case study of Maglič was 2 master courses related to the creating and shaping the urban concept in the natural and cultural/historical environment, both within the Master course of Architecture at the Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, during 2016/17. The main aims of the study course were: • • • • •

Developing the research skills within the given research and educational methods; Developing skills on specific knowledge, approaches and principles on sustainable development and urban planning and design, with the aim of understanding relations between natural and artificial surroundings; Developing the problem-based project related to deprived rural and uninhabited areas with specific natural and cultural values and characteristics; The implementation of the principles and of the integrative and sustainable urban planning and urban design; Developing critical thinking and creative approach to the existing and realistic planning task, stakeholders and planning practice and its treatment of the case study area.

The importance of the learning-by-doing methods has been emphasised broadly and over a long period (Demirbas and Demirkan, 2003; Kvan and Jia, 2005; Casakin and van Timmeren 2014). Though it has been criticised, it was adopted and implemented worldwide in the schools of architecture and others. Undoubtfully, there is a correlation between the development of students’ expertise and the educational model used in a studio (Casakin, 2011). Studios, as the most appropriate form for applying learning-bydoing approach, enhance students’ levels of expertise through practical learning (Schön, 1983; Gibbs, 1988). Demirbas and Demirkan (2003) also emphasise the importance of the studio for the architectural higher education, considering it the core of its curriculum. The education in the architectural studio should have three basic components: (i) knowledge (the theoretical part of any education programme that is taught using education technologies); (ii) skills (taught by practice and demonstration); and (iii) design/creating (Chakradeo, 2010). Furthermore, there are 5 principles for successfully educating students to be creative: (i) targeted practice in the solving of problems; (ii) highly organized and systematic training based on realistic examples; (iii) creativity training for extended periods of structured practice; (iv) training on broad knowledge and skills; and (v) targeted practice aimed at acquiring specific knowledge and skills (Cropley and Cropley, 2010). Some authors go even further, claiming that any architectural education program should link theories to applied design work in a studio setting (Nabih, 2010). Based on the aforesaid background, the urban design/urban planning studio was mostly based on the methodology of the learning-by-doing process and was problem-based, while the theoretical course was focused on the crucial issues of the sustainable development in local communities. Positioned at the last Page | 595


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year of Master course, the courses ought to synthesise and integrate the whole of the urban planning and urban design education both on bachelor and master level. This fact imposed the necessary complexity and the comprehensiveness of the educational methods, the research and case study area, including several levels of spatial and regulatory planning and urban design. Students were both concentrated on the end product as well as on the process of planning and urban design, gaining transdisciplinary knowledge and skills which could be applied at the different scales of the concept proposals. Importantly, the team needed to achieve a high level of collaboration awareness, similar to one in the urban planning process, while at the same time personalization of the design process for each individual student was promoted. The case study was tightly anchored into the planning practice, given the fact that the regulatory plan for the chosen Maglič area was adopted parallel to the educational process, while the debate about the (professional) project proposal still lasts. This way the better understanding of concept was provided, adding realism and value to the design process. The learning process is developed through the cooperation of students’ groups and mentors, as well as through the collaboration with the different stakeholders from the city of Kraljevo from the very beginning – the choice and preparation of the case study area, during the research and project definition and creation phase, to the finalisation of the concept and project/plan proposals. The project was not done in the classroom only – it also included 2 days’ field work, organised for the studying of Maglič area in situ and for discussing the problems, potentials and constraints with the great number of stakeholders in Kraljevo: city and regional government representatives, the representatives of the regional office of the Serbian Chambers of engineers, professionals from the Kraljevo planning institutions and regional Institute for the historic conservation and protection, and many others. The end of the aforementioned master courses did not mean the end of the students’ involvement in project solutions for Maglič: the final assessment of their work will be the public exhibition in Kraljevo city institutions, when the local professionals will be able to give their opinion about students’ results, while the concepts’ proposals are aimed to provoke further dialogue between academia and planning practice and hopefully create a new synergy between academic work and the realistic solutions. The following paragraph presents further elaboration that emphasises the part of the mentors’-students’ group work, based on the concepts of agro/food tourism, as a backbone of their concept proposal, and the theoretical part of this research. Page | 596


Agro-tourism concept The tourism sector has a close relationship with other sectors of the economy; along with they mutually support each other’s activities (Nica, 2011). One of the main implicit factors that tourists consider in choosing the destination is food. As Lacy and Douglass mentioned, "every tourist is a voyeuring gourmand" (Lacy, Douglas,2002). As aforementioned, in this research, the concept of food tourism is explored as a type of agro-tourism which as a term emerged in the late twentieth century. It includes agricultural farms as well as all activities through which people learn about the agricultural production or the farm environment (Lacy, Douglass, 2002). It began to take on a different character from the year 2000 onwards when it was incorporated into the WTO Rural Tourism Plan, which seeks to create culinary routes to boost the development of different regions of the countries (WTO, 2012). Agro-tourism is very important for rural communities as well as urban areas, as it can provide several advantages: income, employment, use accommodation, activities, natural resource conservation, recreation and education. Agro-tourism intends to obtain higher standards of living for rural communities especially through increased income for people who work in agriculture (Hall, 2003). Agro-tourism growth is 3 times greater than the increase in tourism in general. WTO estimates an annual increase of 6%, against the growth of 2% tourism in general. Today market has increased tourist interest in activities related to nature and culture. More and more tourists in the world are seeking to learn new experiences, such as gastronomy. The notion of agro-tourism is applicable to those who plan the trip in order to taste the local products or to take part in activities that are directly related to gastronomy (Hjalager, Richards, 2002). Academic studies related to the topic of agro and food tourism have examined a range of issues including caterers’ use of local foodstuffs (Telfer and Wall, 1996); competition for land and labour between the tourism and food production sectors (Belisle, 1983); the role of food in destination image (Hughes, 1995); agriculture’s role in creating touristic landscapes (Buchgraber, 1996); and tourists’ food choices (Reynolds, 1993).

Food tourism concept Developing countries recognise the good potential in tourism, as a branch of the economy that still has a future (Đukić, Vukmirović, 2012). A small number of studies have been undertaken on food as an independent factor for attracting tourists. In declining agricultural/rural areas, tourism is often promoted as an alternative economic activity and a mean of stemming the decline of peripheral regions (e.g. Saeter, 1998; Smith, 1988). One of the most used definitions of food tourism is one proposed by Lee, 2015: food tourism is “a journey, in regions rich in gastronomic resources, that generate recreational experiences or have entertainment purposes, which include: visits to primary or secondary producers of gastronomic products, gastronomic festivals, fairs, events, cooking demonstrations, food tastings or

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any activity related to food.” In addition to the benefits from accommodation, catering and other activities or direct selling, food tourism also brings other benefits such as recognition and assessment of architectural and cultural heritage. Food touristic services are not for mass tourism, however, it is mostly practiced in relatively isolated areas with a diversified agricultural vocation, which requires the assurance of necessities for living through individual efforts, or creating monopoly positions with regard to the production of certain appreciated and demanded food products (Darau et al., 2010). Food tourism uses (as the structure of touristic reception) farm households with all its facilities. Food tourism is more than just a tourist product as it includes many services that accompany the product. It is a way of understanding the travel as a new sensation or positive behaviour in relation to the environment, the community and their culture. Consumption is an integral part of the tourist experience, which is represented by visiting places, attendance to different traditions and customs, eating local cuisine, etc. (Diaconescu&Nistoreanu, 2013). In order to create asonorous and attractive headline for the Maglič project, term Food tourism was adopted and equated to the term agro-tourism. Even though the concept of food tourism can be implemented also in urban areas, focus in this paper is on food tourism in rural areas, through the concept called “slow food”, to escape the tediousness of "fastfood". The main idea of slow food concept was to brand the space with the proposed project so that it becomes distinctive in Serbian and wider context. The concept of food tourism has been intertwined throughout various activities at the location, e.g.: production, processing, distribution and tasting of food, events, fairs, workshops, etc. Emphasis was on the planning of catering facilities and accommodation capacities that are adapted to different social groups through the creation of themed guilds. Other objectives of the project were to provide new employment opportunities for the local population, to attract large numbers of new tourists, as well as to preserve traditional craftsmanship in Serbia. With a focus on the promotion and use of local foods, it is hoped that these units will act as a catalyser, and ensure a framework for sustainable development of the area of Maglič. This approach is based on a concept of food that is defined by three interconnected principles: good (quality, flavorsome and healthy food), clean (production that does not harm the environment) and fair food (accessible prices for consumers and fair conditions and pay for producers) (Petrini et al., 2012).

Project area-the case study of Maglič The location chosen for the project is a 13thcentury castle located about 20 km south of the city of Kraljevo, Serbia. The castle is situated at the top of a hill about 100 m above the Ibar River. Maglič locality was included on the list of Cultural Monuments of Exceptional Importance in 1979. However, having lost its primary function, and due to a lack of maintenance, the site is nowadays poorly visited. This problem is seen as a challenge to reinvent the urban/rural landscape and create an attractive ambient which relates to the revitalised historical site. Through a detailed analysis, it was established that the settlement Maglič is situated at a favourable position when it comes to the main road connections between Maglič and other settlements. Maglič is covered by mountainous terrain and valleys. According to the General Regulatory Plan for the Maglič area (draft version, 2012), and Spatial plan for the city of Kraljevo (2011) ,this area includes large agricultural areas that take up to 53% of the total area, forest cover

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES 42%, while remaining 5% include: habitation (3%), river of Ibar (1%), quarry (0.6%) and unfertile land (0.4%). The settlement of Maglič records continual demographic decline (only 34 inhabitants, according to the 2011 Census, compared to 405 inhabitants in 1948). Although Maglič is one of the best-preserved medieval fortresses in Serbia, today it represents the underutilised potential for tourism. The General Regulatory Plan for Maglič outlined the main objectives related to the environmental values, the effective and appropriate usage of natural resources, creating a more attractive place for tourism development incentives and respect of traditional forms of construction. Potentials of the area include cultural and historical heritage creating a cultural landscape, attractive hilly - mountains landscapes and natural values, a healthy climate, mineral water springs, and potential for tourism, culture and eco-agriculture development in a healthy living environment. The detailed research of the site and the planning documents suggested the introducing new central functions, commercial, public, culture, sport and tourism facilities and preservation and promotion of protected cultural goods. The overview of the advantages and the constraints of the study area are given briefly in the SWOT table below:

Table 1: SWOT analysis of the

S / Strengths: Cultural and historical significance Attractive location Numerous natural resources Fertile land Large underdeveloped area

W / Weaknesses: Unregulated and unused space Poor socio-economic status Lack of content Lack of visitors Fortress inaccessibility Large areas with construction prohibitions High percentage of elderly population

O / Opportunities Connection with city of Kraljevo Rich national tradition Presence of mineral and thermal waters surrounding Plans for the construction of Corridor 11 Promoting the preservation of customs and local traditions New opportunities for employment in rural areas

T/ Threats

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Process of depopulation Poor legislation Insufficient interest of the local government Small number of local and foreign investments for economic development Infrastructure deficits Construction of hydroelectric power plants Morphology of the terrain Lack of planning and concrete goals


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Figure 43: Maglič area, http://spomenicikulture.mi.sanu.ac.rs/spomenik.php?id=549

METHODOLOGY, RESEARCH AND DESIGN STEPS

Following the specific planning and urban design methodology, the extensive research was drawn upon mostly primary and secondary sources, including analysis of urban plans in different scales, comprehensive literature review, as well as cooperation with local authorities and institutions and the field research. Further research steps included defining the set of values, goals and objectives and developing different scenarios while paying special attention to the principles of ecological, social and economic local development. More detailed establishing of the food tourism concept led to the conceptualising of the detailed regulatory plan proposal, with the detailed land use and traffic solutions, thus enabling better accessibility of the planning area. The last phase defined the master plan and modelling of the physical structure, as well as the detailed plan of future activities. The whole process was realised over the period of 5 months (one semester). The full purpose and value of the proposal are confirmed by the city government of Kraljevo and several city agencies and institutes, as the proposal initialized the discussion and revival of the ideas for the important but forgotten historic place and its rural background.

RESULTS As aforementioned, in this paragraph the specific concept of “slow food” will be presented. The first step in the process of concept development was creating an integrated vision and concept for development of the area of Maglič. Next phase in project development was defining objectives and creating several development options. The main idea of the adopted slow food concept was to brand the space with the Page | 600


proposed project so that it is distinctive on the map Serbia and the broader surroundings. Other objectives of the project were to provide new employment opportunities for the local population, to attract large numbers of new tourists, as well as to preserve traditional craftsmanship in Serbia, without neglecting cultural and historical values of the environment. Concept of food tourism was carefully selected taking into account fact that this area has very law number of inhabitans. Main idea was to collect the surrounding population, by giving them new job opportunities within agriculture and agrotourism, occupations that would not need further severe retraining. The second major step in the process of planning was created a regulatory plan for the whole area of 870 hectares. It consisted of defining specific zones and creating new transportation matrix, all accompanied by required program and calculations.The whole area was firstly divided into seven multifunctional zones: 1) zone of presentation of cultural landscapes; 2) zone of amelioration of degraded forest landscapes; 3) zone of special pressure; 4) zone of the royal dining table; 5) zone of rehabilitation of degraded landscapes; 6) zone of craft centres (guilds) and 7) zone of forest (Figure 2).

Figure 44: Spatial distribution of defined zones (authors: Tamara Bošković, Ana Miletić, Tamara Radić)

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For each zone list of possible activities, uses, and users was created, taking special attention to avoid conflicts between zones, and in order to preserve cultural landscape. Each subzone was defined through multiple aspects, some of them being: boundaries, exact surface area, existing roads, planned roads, predominant, accompanying and complementary land purpose, proposed activities, protection regime, prohibitions and allowed level of intervention. Detailed elaboration was dedicated to zone number 6, within which the pruduction and processing of food take place. Zone includes a large surface area, partly on the flat ground, partly on the slope, giving possibility to different kind of plants to succeed. Further development of the project included defining following criteria for each zone: construction area, capacities, binding construction rules, recommended construction rules, modes of transport and space provided for parking. Within the project, the development of the following functions was planned: habitation, production, central functions, communications and infrastructure. The only function that project prohibits is the development of heavy industry on the site. While zoning, the following aspects were taken into consideration: dominant natural resources, cultural resources, permissible degree of modification, interconnections between parts of the area and current condition of the site. The final step was to propose a solution in the form of urban design for one selected subzone, up to scale 1:500. Selected area proposed for the development of food tourism concept is on the opposite side of the river Ibar in regard to Maglič fortress, in order not to endanger the area that is under the protection and in the same time to attract new visitors. The selected zone was ‘’Zone of the royal dining table’’ (Figure 3,4), which was divided into four subzones: Subzone 1 - Zone of restaurants includes a large selection of restaurants that promote traditional ways of preparing food, where all the products are produced in the area of Maglič. Between these centres there is a big number of micro environments in which various manifestations take place. Food that is promoted within this area is local meet and dried meet, different kinds of milk products (cheese, cottage cheese), local jams, and local beverages (rakia, wine, beer...). Subzone 2 – Zone of craft centres represent an area where preparation and production of various products are performed. Permanent housing and temporary housing in the form of outbuildings, apartments and rooms are planned within this zone. Subzone 3 - This zone includes open and closed market as well as the areas at which exchange of seasonal products can take place. Within this zone, there is a large public parking for customers of the market. Subzone 4 - This zone represents a zone of viewpoints and space for relaxation and recreation with a variety of activities that can be undertaken at this plateau. It is connected with hospitality zone through hiking trail.

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3: Royal dining table (authors: Tamara Bošković, Ana Miletić, Tamara Radić)

Figure

Figure 4: Royal dining table (authors: Tamara Bošković, Ana Miletić, Tamara Radić)

The concept of food tourism has been implemented throughout various activities at the location, some of them being: production, processing, distribution and tasting of food, restaurant type farms, farm and hotel restaurant, open farms, events, fairs, workshop, etc. Emphasis was on the planning of catering facilities and accommodation capacities that

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are adapted to different social groups through the creation of themed guilds. In the non-spatial terms of planning, special attention was dedicated to the organisation and conceptualizing of gastronomic events, gastronomic routes, cooking courses and workshops, visits to local markets and producers, as well as defining thematic ‘’gastronomic routes’’. Gastronomy routes are a system that represents a complete and a thematic tourist offer. Routes also serve for linking the whole area, since it is very important to encourage visitors to stop, spend and stay longer, by visiting different parts of Maglič through mountaineering, hunting, fishing or riding.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we have presented both methodology and final product of the educational process that resulted in creating the model for achieving strong urban-rural relationship through introducing a selected concept for overall development of the area of Maglič in Serbia. Main goals that were established at the beginning of the research and hopefully were accomplished throughout the project designated a sustainable rural land use for balanced territorial development of Maglič and surrounding urban areas by proposing a project based on the agro-tourism concept. Food tourism can generate significant contributions to the process of development of Maglič area. It is seen as an opportunity for local communities to invest, to increase revenues and responsibilities, to protect the environment, and promote the whole area, diversify tourism, promote the local economic development, involving different professional sectors (manufacturers / suppliers, chefs, markets, etc.), and bringing new use to primary sectors. Other contributions of implementing a project for Food tourism in the area of Maglič, may be in the form of revenue growth, exchanges between rural and urban areas, strengthening the local structure, stimulating the development of infrastructure, the diversification of economic activities and an increase of the property value in the area. Last but not least, food tourism concept can have a positive impact on improving the health of tourists through creating relaxation and adventure. A key point raised throughout the whole research process was the need for destinations to focus on factors that will enhance uniqueness and differentiation while also recognising that such measures enhance regional and local identities. With a focus on the promotion and use of local foods, it is hoped that concept of food tourism will act as a catalyser, and ensure a framework for sustainable development of the area of Maglič.

REFERENCES Book: Okuda, Michael, and Denise Okuda. 1993. Star trek chronology: The history of the future. New York: Pocket Books. Ellin, N. (2006) Integral urbanism, Routledge, NY Gibbs G (1988) A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development Oxford, UK: Oxford Brookes University, (online edition (2013))

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Hall, C.M. and E. Sharples (2003), “The consumption of experiences or the experience of consumption?An introduction to the tourism of taste”, in C.M. Hall, E. Sharples, R. Mitchell, B. 4.Cambourne, and N. Macionis (eds.), Food Tourism around the World: Development, Management and Markets, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 1-24. Harvey S., Fieldhouse K., HopkinsJ. : The Cultured Landscape: Designing the environment in the 21st century, Routledge, London, New York, 2005. Saeter, J. A. (1998), The significance of tourism and economic development in rural areas a Norwegian case study, In Tourism and Recreation in Rural Areas (Butler R., Hall, C. M. and Jenkins, J., eds), Wiley. Schön, D. (1983). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. London, U. K.: Temple Smith Tacoli, C., (1998),Bridging the Divide: Rural-urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies, International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Book chapter: Hall, C.M. and R. Mitchell (2001), “Wine and food tourism”, in N. Douglas, N. Douglas and R. Derrett (eds.), Special Interest Tourism, John Wiley and Sons, Brisbane, 307-329. Hughes, G. (1995), Authenticity in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(4), 781–803. Lacy, J. and W. Douglass, 2002. Beyond Authenticity: The Meaning and Uses of Cultural Tourism. Tourist Studies, 2: 9-21. Reynolds, P., (1993), Food and Tourism: Towards an Understanding of Sustainable Culture. J. Sustainable Tourism, 1: 48-54 Telfer, D. J. and Wall, G. (1996), Linkages between tourism and food production. Annals of Tourism Research, 23(3), 635–653 Journal article: Belisle, F. J. (1983), Tourism and food production in the Caribbean. Annals of Tourism Research, 10(4), 497–513 Casakin, H. (2011) Metaphorical Reasoning and Design Expertise: A Perspective for Design Education. Journal of Learning Design, Vol. 4, 2, 29-38. Chakradeo, U. (2010). Design pedagogy: A tested path. International Journal of Architectural Research, 4(2-3), p. 107-115. Cropley, D. and Cropley, A. (2010). Recognising and fostering creativity in technological design education. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 20(3), p. 345-358 Darău A. Et al. (2010), The concept of rural tourism and agrotourism, “VasileGoldiş” Western University of Arad, Vol.5 Iss.1 pp.39-42 Demirbas, O. O., and Demirkan, H. (2003). Focus on architectural design process through learning styles. Design Studies, 24, p. 437-456. Djukic, A., Vukmirovic, M. (2012): Creative Cultural Tourism as a function of City Competitiveness, in „TTEM – Technics Technologies Education Management”, Volume 7, Number 1, pp. 404-411

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1840-1503.3 Djukic, A., Vukmirovic, M. (2012): Creative Cultural Tourism as a Tool inRegional Development, in „TTEM – Technics Technologies Education Management”, Volume 7, Number 4, pp. 1768-1779 Diaconescu, D.M. &Nistoreanu, P., (2013) Gastronomic Tourism – Option for the Development of local communities. Cactus Tourism Journal, 8(2), pp. 42-43. Font, X. and Ahjem, T. E. (1999), Searching for a balance in tourism development strategies. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 11(2/3), 73–77. Kvan, T. and Jia, Y. (2005). Student's learning styles and their correlation with performance in architectural design studio. Design Studies, 26, p. 29-38. Lee, K.-H., Packer, J. & Scott, N., (2015), Travel lifestyle preferences and destination activity choices of Slow Food members and non-members. Tourism Management, 46, pp. 1-10. Murat education, 105-117

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Nabih, H. E. (2010). Process-based learning: Towards theoretical and lecture-based coursework in studio style. International Journal of Architectural Research, 4(2-3), p. 90-106. Nica, A.-, (2011), Overview of the Romanian and Spanish Approaches on the tourism Economic Impact Measurement Methods. Cactus Tourism Journal, 2(1), pp. 16-25. Saghafi M.R. at al (2012) Perceptions of physical versus virtual design studio education, Archnet-IJAR, Volume 6 - Issue 1 - (0622) Soetanto R. at al (2015) Key success factors and guidance for international collaborative design projects, Archnet-IJAR, Volume 9 - Issue 3 - (6-25) – Special Issue Smith, S. S. (1988), Tourism Analysis. Longman Scientific and Technical Tacoli, C., (2003), The links between urban and rural development,Environment&Urbanization,Vol 15 No 1 April 2003 Proceedings: Casakin H., van Timmeren A (2014) Analogies as Creative Inspiration Sources in the Design Studio: The Teamwork, Atiner Conference Paper Series No: ARC2014-1188, Athens, Greece Mitrovic, B. (2011) Management of rapid growth in the rift between the principles of sustainability, market requirements and strategic planning - the possible approaches to local planning of National park Kopaonik area, CORP proceedings, Essen, Germany, www.corp.at Documentation: European Commission (2014), Preferences of Europeans towards tourism. The European Union, 2014.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Petrini, C., Bogliotti, C., Rava, R., Scaffidi C. (2012-2016), The centrality of the Food, Congress document UNESCO (1997), Intangible Heritage, UNESCO, www.unesco.org/culture/heritage/intangible. WTO (2012), Global report on Food Tourism. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.

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STRATEGIES FOR RURAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN NIŠAVA DISTRICT IN SOUTHEASTERN SERBIA AS MAIN HUB FOR URBAN AND RURAL SYNERGY Milica Igić 145 PhD Student, Assistant, University of Niš, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture (FoCE&A), Chair of town and spatial planning, 14 Aleksandra Medvedeva street, 18000 Niš, [email protected] Mihailo Mitković, PhD student, Assistant, University of Niš, [email protected] Petar Mitković, PhD, Full Professor, University of Niš, FoCE&A, [email protected] Milena Dinić Branković, PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Niš, FoCE&A, [email protected] Ivana Bogdanović Protić, PhD, Assistant, University of Niš, FoCE&A, [email protected] Jelena Đekić, Assistant, University of Niš, FoCE&A, [email protected] Milica Ljubenović, Assistant, University of Niš, FoCE&A, [email protected] ABSTRACT In Serbia, approximately 2/3 of territory is defined as rural area in which main activities are agriculture manufacturing and husbandry. In these areas live about 43% of total population which represent significant human resource and these areas have rich ecosystems with great biodiversity and heritage. In order to achieve even urban development and to make better connections with urban areas, it is necessary to activate these areas. Because of numerous cultural, historical and political events in the past, rural areas have very rich and diverse building fund. With rural tourism development it is possible to revitalize these legacy and landscape and also to initiate economic growth. Aim of this paper is to highlight potentials for rural development and urban – rural connections through rural tourism development and to define strategies for its improvement. Thanks to the great natural and built heritage it is possible to promote rural areas and by bringing people into rural areas, settlements that were isolated and marginalized can be developed and more active settlement network can be established. Rural tourism would not only improve rural economy, but it would also create unique cultural itinerary that would connect not only objects, but landscapes and cultures from different epoch. Most of the rural areas in Nišava district are covered only with General Urban Plan and for future Regulation plans it is mandatory to have defined strategies for rural development and one of the tools for development is certainly rural tourism.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Keywords: Rural-Urban synergy, rural tourism, rural development, heritage protection and promotion, rural areas in Nišava district

INTRODUCTION Rural tourism in Serbia started to develop in the second half of the XX century, but because of the political events in the last decade of the XX century its further development stagnated. In the first decade of XXI century, rural tourism became popular again and different national strategies for rural tourism were adopted: in 2006. National Strategy for tourism development in Republic of Serbia (Ministry of trade, tourism and telecommunications, 2006); in 2011. Master plan for sustainable development of rural tourism in Serbia (Ministry of Finance and Economy, 2011.); in 2015. Draft of National Strategy for tourism development in Republic of Serbia for period 2016-2025 (Ministry of trade, tourism and telecommunications, 2015). Unfortunately, today rural tourism is still not adequately developed as in other European countries though there is huge potential because about 85% country territory is defined as rural area (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management, 2009). Rural settlements in the southern and eastern part of Republic Serbia, especially in Nišava district, emerged spontaneously and their territory spreading is often uncontrolled. Lack of infrastructure, negative demographic growth and insufficient connections with urban areas made these areas less attractive for both tourists and investors. In the mountainous areas and specific purpose areas, there is a problem with legislation and because of very strict regulations for construction many areas with great touristic potential remain abandoned. Another problem represents legislation concerning heritage protection which is very specific and even when there are no funds for protection, heritage sites cannot be activated different than the legislation foresees. Rural tourism is seen as huge opportunity for economic development of rural settlements and areas in general. Activating these areas would create new job opportunities which would activate economic development. Most of the rural areas are facing financial problems and economy is often devastated. On the other hand, rural tourism cannot be observed only as a potential for economic growth, urban, ecological and social development should be also considered. Rural areas represent territory with huge architectural fund, rich nature, historical and cultural heritage, favorable and unique geographic location. Even with few national strategies and development frameworks, these areas are devastated and abandoned in most of the cases. This paper analyzes existing strategies for the tourism development and potentials of rural areas in Nišava district and their dependence on urban areas. Aim of this paper is to define and analyze strategies for rural tourism development in Serbia and to point out its impact on urban-rural synergy. Rural tourism can be defined as a tool for even regional development and a main hub for rural development in general and different models for its improvement will be presented. The research uses an analytical multidisciplinary approach in analyzing the rural tourism development, which relies on methods of case study, SWOT and comparative analysis, in order to identify possible setbacks and discuss possible guidelines of rural tourism development. In this

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paper approach to the problems and possibilities is from different points of view - not only economic. In order to achieve successful rural tourism development and rural development in general, it is necessary to have good connections with urban area because urban areas have good strategic locations and better connections with other regions. Also, it is hard to have complete and quality heritage presentation without connecting sites in both urban and rural areas. Rural tourism represents hub – essential link in urban – rural synergy which is base for quality and even regional development.

RURAL TOURISM Rural areas are not strictly defined because of the specific characteristics of these areas. These areas differ from urban areas in terms of population density and built settlement area. As main land use activities in these settlements are agriculture, husbandry and forestry. Traditional structure, heritage and customs are also important marks of these settlements. Most of the countries accepted OECD definition according which rural areas have population density lower than 150 inh/km2. (OECD, 1994) Rural tourism is a way of promoting traditional rural values of one region or entire country. Tourism in rural areas can be defined as diversification process from traditional dominant agricultural activity to non – agricultural activities. Starting tourism in these areas is a way of creating sustainable environment based on local resources. Rural tourism, as well as tourism in general, represent one of the main initiators for economic development of certain areas. It can be also defined as one of the most working intensive industries which is base for new job positions and economic development in rural areas and it is also recognized as one of the elements in rural strategies. (Mitchell, Hall, 2005) Rural tourism should be organized on local level in order to adjust all the national strategies to the real situation and to include local community. Implementation of strategies for tourism development must have multidisciplinary approach in order to observe and control not only economic, but also urban, social and ecological impact. (George, et al 2009) As one of the greatest impacts of rural tourism on economy is poverty reduction – these areas are facing huge financial problems but they have outstanding natural resources which is one of their major strengths. (Jing, 2006) In most of the European countries rural tourism is recognized as main activity for economic growth on the one side but also as a mechanism that can prevent depopulation process and bring young people in these ambiences. National plans for rural development of the European countries, especially those for Scandinavian area, consist of set of measures, guidelines and suggestions for protection, development and improvement of rural areas. Plans have national character and despite governments in their implementation a large number of individuals - residents and organizations are involved. (European Commission, 2007) Most of the strategies and national plans recognize rural tourism as a possibility for entrepreneurship and creating local businesses that could provide constant incomes for the residents. Also, this kind of tourism is customer oriented tourism which relies on natural and local heritage and resources. (Nylander, 2005)

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Rural tourism in Serbia As above mentioned, in last twenty years agricultural employment stagnated and also entire industry related to it which left many rural residents without any income. New job opportunities and agricultural industry development started in last decade but only in areas that are in vicinity of urban areas. At the same time, rural areas on the periphery are endangered because of negative demographic growth, lack of infrastructure and traffic network. (Blešić et al, 2014) There are several classifications for urban areas and settlements but the most common is that rural areas are areas where main activity is agriculture. Territory of one country can be also divided as the predominantly rural area, significantly rural area and predominantly urban area. (Bogdanov, 2007) Most of the rural settlements don’t have developed planning system which is also great threat to future strategies for tourism development. Upon defining rural areas, it is necessary to identify various types of rural areas because in Serbia they are not homogeneous. There are differences among them and these may be due to various factors such as geographical characteristics, accessibility, population changes and migration, infrastructure, different environmental conditions, favourable or disadvantaged agricultural structures, diversified local economies. (Efstratoglou et al, 2007) Some ambient sets in Serbia possess such developmental values that with adequate valorisation may take part in international developmental processes. Their ecological connections and influences are very strong. Isolation of these areas from main routes of traffic and development is precisely what gives them their autochthonous quality with a rich natural and historical heritage. (Todorović et al, 2009) Real rural tourism development in Serbia started with economic and political change in the very beginning of the XXI century. Rural tourism started also in the village settlements and tourism became one of the main factors for integrated rural development and balanced regional development. Large rural areas and their very specific and rich diversity are one of the main potentials for rural tourism development and also these areas lately became very interesting to the domestic and foreign tourists. Rural tourism is also seen as alternative type of development which can be key element in use of comparative advantages of rural areas in Serbia. (Todorović et al, 2007) Because of the cultural and historical significance, rural areas are always subjects of many researches. The main problem is that nobody considers different rural areas separately because of their specific positions and characteristics. All the plans are unitary for all and specific problems were not solved on local level - everything was always planned on general level. Before planning and making master and development plans for rural areas, it is very important to classify them and to study well their characteristics. Because of the fact that almost 1/3 of total number of residents live in rural areas, those settlements must be classified by the size – number of residents, by the way they were created, by their morphological structure and by the functions that are present in that area. (Lazarević - Bajec et al, 1990)

Legislation framework In 2006. National Strategy for tourism development in Republic of Serbia (Ministry of trade, tourism and telecommunications, 2006.) was adopted and until today it remains the only strategy in this sector. This strategy

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recognizes rural tourism as great potential for tourism development in general with greatest potential in mountain areas - national parks or protected areas which can be used for winter sports or as resorts. Another way of developing rural tourism is by investing in spa settlements that could promote health tourism and where tourist can also come for rehabilitaion and treatment. The main idea is to promote rural areas as an affordable way of tourism using some modern international strategies that have already been implemented. There are no strategies for animating entire rural areas which have a great heritage fund and long history and which are not so close to bigger cities. There are no suggestions to overcome infrastructure problems and to improve protection of traditional ambients that these settlements have. Promoting only the protected areas on the other side has caused expansion of illegal construction which endangers the natural landscape. In 2015. a draft of National Strategy for tourism development in Republic of Serbia for period 2016-2025 was presented (Ministry of trade, tourism and telecommunications, 2015). This new strategy recognizes rural toursim as one of the main activities for developing the touristic offer of our country. Rural tourism is not presented only as an affordable way of tourism but also as a developing potential for every region in Serbia. As one of the weaknesses for tourism development this Strategy recognizes the lack of infrastructure in rural areas, and not so good connections between rural and cultural tourism. One of the instruments for reducing depopulation, according to this draft version, is rural tourism which could bring people and visitors to these areas. Start-up investments in non-agriculture activities and small businesses have been suggested as measures that could help the improvement of rural tourism. In 2011. Master plan for sustainable development of rural tourism in Serbia was published. This program is based on research of the current state in rural areas in order to define strategies for rural tourism improvement and heritage promotion. The main issue are funds, so better public-private partnership must be achieved. Beside the funds, the local community must be actively engaged in the entire process of development and promotion. Also, by making everything sustainable, landscape remains preserved as well and there are no negative impacts of rural tourism. (Ministry of Finance and Economy, 2011.) Municipalities that are located within the region of Niš in 2011, developed the Rural Development Plan for Nišava District for the period 2012-2021. This plan addresses the problems of rural development in this region and consists of two parts: in the first part detailed analysis of the current situation is presented through indicators that are analyzed in all municipalities and main potentials and problems are defined, and in the second part of the plan the strategic vision for the development of this district is presented. The main objectives of the strategy are: development and encouragement of competitive agriculture, improvement of the life quality in rural areas, promotion of Nišava region as an attractive tourist destination, sustainable management of natural resources. (Department of Agriculture and Rural Development of the city of Niš, 2012) Rural areas are also analyzed within Spatial Plan of the administrative area of the city of Niš 2021, which was adopted in 2011 and refers to the urban and rural areas of the city. Plan analyzes all rural settlements around Niš and creates their classification: community center of the village, a village with limited functions of centrality and primary villages.

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES Regional Plan determines following activities: expansion of construction areas of rural settlements; spaces for locating production facilities in rural areas; premises for public services in rural areas; ways to connect rural areas with each other and with the centers of gravity; protection, promotion and usage of natural resources and cultural assets in rural areas. Plan suggests protection of forest reserves in order to preserve the natural heritage and promoting cultural heritage with developing rural tourism in villages around Niš. (Institute for urban planning of city of Niš, 2011)

RURAL TOURISM IN NIŠAVA DISTRICT Niš together with municipalities Ražanj, Aleksinac, Svrljig, Merošina, Doljevac and Gadžin Han forms Nišava district, one of 29 districts existing in Serbia (Fig. 1). Nišava district covers an area of 2,727 km2 and according to the Bureau of Statistics from the 2011 census, 376,319 inhabitants live in this area and share in total population of Serbia is 5.23%. The largest city is Niš with 69% of the total population of Nišava district and municipality of Gadžin Han is with lowest number of inhabitants - total 9,000 together with the surrounding settlements. Compared to the 2002 census, in Nišava district has reduced the population for about 5,500 and 20,000 residents comparing the census results from 1991. According to the Bureau of Statistics data, the average population density in Nišava district is 138 inhabitants / km2 so after OECD classification, this district is characterized as rural area. (Bureau of Statistics data. 2014.) According to the definition of rural areas within the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, Nišava District belongs to Type 2 - the central rural areas that are directly related to the urban areas and in them not only dominates agriculture, there already exists and "industry development" and other services. (Republic Agency for spatial planning, 2010.)

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Figure 1: Map of Nišava District

/http://www.royalfamily.org/invest/?page_id=63/

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Figure 2: Nišava District map of touristic potentials

/http://www.royalfamily.org/invest/?page_id=63 edited by authors/

According to the Plan of Strategy for Rural Development for period 2009-2013., Nišava district is defined as Region III and it is characterized by mostly mountainous areas where agriculture and mining are developed, and the focus is on the exploitation of natural resources. The main problems this region is facing because of its heterogeneous structure are depopulation, unemployment and underdeveloped economy. Each municipality has the network of settlements concentrated around seven cities / towns. Functional links between them are different and depend on the spatial disposition and economic development, but because of uneven development it can be said that they are limited and underdeveloped. Uneven distribution of population in these settlements, uneven density and uneven economic development have led to the creation of areas in which there is not even clearly differentiated settlement network. (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management, 2009.) Nišava district has very long history and there are many archaeological sites in this region. Beside historical, natural resources are characterized with great diversity and there are even huge protected areas. It is possible to create different itineraries for tourist (Fig. 2) depending on the epoch they want to visit. Ideas for different routes are numerous, for example, there can be organized tours for wine tourism. Ottoman, Roman and Communism tours can be also organized and sites that are originating from that period can be presented. On the other hand, beacuse of rich natural environment it is also possible to organize different tours in nature. On this territory there are also numerous religious objects that are from different periods and in different styles. . Traditional architectural fund in almost all the

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TOPIC X: TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGIES settlements is very rich and objects are from different periods and in different styles (Fig 3-6). Thanks to the very vibrant history there are remains of many nations that ruled on this territory.

Figures 3-6: Houses from different period in villages od Nišava district /photos taken by authors/ Today in Serbia it is very often that there are offers for rural vacations in many villages in developed areas. This can be also used in Niš and many residents can rent their old houses or floors of their houses for tourists. Thanks to the income from rural tourism funds for sites development and preservation can be provided and in that way settlements would be completely independent from city funding. Entire district represents one of the main hubs of strategic roads that connect Europe with middle east, central Europe with south Europe and it is located in center of the Balkan peninsula. This area was interested for different rulers during centuries and there are many sites located both in urban

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and rural areas. Many of the heritage sites are from the same period but some are located within the city territory and some in rural areas and there are no connection between them. Because of activation of airport in city of Niš, there is large influx of tourists but tourist offer for sightsseeing is limited only on the sites in city territory. Rural areas are not promoted and activated at all and there are not even any accomodation facilities for tourists. Beside great architectural, heritage and natural resources, tourism is not developed at all. Rural ambience as greatest potential is not presented for tourists and it is often devastated by residents which are renovated their properties without consulting experts. Awareness of residents is on a very low level and many people from city don’t even know about sites that are distanced from them in just few kilometers. On the other side, people from rural settlements know about these sites but they are somehow used to them and they are not aware of their value and economical potentials. Settlements are not connected well not only in terms of road network, but also in terms of mutual cooperation and economic development. City budget is limited regarding rural areas because there are lot of investments within the urban territory. Low population density and constant population migrations have great affection on social structure because most of the settlements are known as elderly settlements. Strategies that were defined by government are not implemented in adequate manner and there was no monitoring or evaluation period. There are many foreign funds that could bring investments in rural areas but no local initiatives because residents are living in very difficult conditions, low rate of employment and very low incomes are main factors for young people and working population migrations.

RURAL TOURISM FOR URBAN-RURAL SYNERGY, OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES On the Figure 3 SWOT analyses for potential and threats for rural tourism development in Nišava district are shown. SWOT analyzes were contucted by authors for purposes of this research paper in order to analyze main characteristics of rural settlements in Nišava district and to highlight their main potentials and at the same time setbacks that could endanger future development. Even there are numerous factors that improve strengths and opportunities, still these areas have numerous of weaknesses. In order to adequately develop rural tourism it is necessary to create strategic plans based on opportunities that these areas are offering and to take into account all the possible obstacles that are caused by weaknesses of these places. Development of this kind of toursim cannot rely only on potentials of these sites, it must also have good connections with urban areas because synergy of these two areas can create healthy environment for tourism development. Rural areas depend on urban areas in terms of infrastructure and economy but in this connection they are important part of tourist offer and regional development. (Van Leeuwen, 2015)

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Figure 7: SWOT analyses for rural toursim development / created by authors / First of all it is important to identify potentials and limits for the rural areas so that plans can be spatially rationally organized and that way costs will be reduced. Development can be stimulated by adding new and promoting existing functions – we can add modern functions, but at the same time inherited traditional functions must be promoted. By adding new functions, population migration will get controlled and reduced and also living and working functions will be more synchronized. According to the analysis, few models can be defined for rural tourism development in this area (Fig 8.). This models relies on existing potentials of these areas, and idea is to use local resources, existing

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demographic structure in order to achieve economic development and stability. Local context and resources have great impact on possible entrepreneurial activities development because quality of entrepreneurship depends on a diversity of local offers. On the other side, quality of the entrepreneurship affects economic and social-demographic development which directly affects regional rural development. All these factors are very connected and they are interdependent and successful impact can be achieved only with their strong mutual connections and also with the connections with the urban area which is main support for rural tourism. Successful and developed rural tourism is also one of the key elements for even regional development. Main factors for success in creating strategies for rural tourism development are multidisciplinary approach and analysis that are not based only on economic prosperity all relevant aspects must be considered; Interactive two-way communication with the widest circle of stakeholders and residents-local community must be involved in all the planning stages; Long-term planning documents for adaptation to the changes that may appear in the environment; Defining monitoring period in order to ensure successful implementation. It is obligatory to have more people educated for these type of works so that experts can lead entire process.

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Figure 8: Diagram of differnet models for rural tourism development /created by authors/

CONCLUDING REMARKS Analyzing rural areas and their potentials, it is obvious that Nišava district, and entire territory of Serbia have great potential for this kind of tourism. As main problems there are inadequate infrastructure lines and waste management which are endangering quality of life and quality of built environment in general, deficiency of accommodation capacities for guests who can maybe decide to spend few days in these areas, there is no official offer for touristic tours for these areas... Rural heritage protection is developed in many countries in European Union and it exists for many years. In Serbia there are sections for promotion of rural heritage and development of rural sustainable tourism within strategic development plans. Unfortunately all those plans are just in strategic frameworks and in practice there are no actual attempts to develop tourism.

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It is obvious that first strategy for tourism development in 2006. defined rural tourism as a way of cheap and affordable tourism which was not addressed to right visitors. Qualities of these areas were put a side and only economic advantage of this way of travel was presented. On the other side, rural areas were not competitive on the market because of their state but still promoting them as affordable tourist potentials is not great help for their development. Spa settlements and mountainous regions were highlighted as main hubs for rural tourism and other values as architectural ambiences and cultural, religious and historical heritage were not considered. Master plan for rural tourism considered public-private partnerships in order to improve rural tourism development because local communities are not financial prepared for all challenges. There are numerous private investors that could help development of rural tourism but with some benefits from local community. Latest strategy marked rural tourism as important factor for regional development and tool for preventing depopulation of rural areas. Within this strategy rural tourism has important place in balanced regional development in terms of economic and socio-demographic growth. In the case of rural tourism development, there is unavoidable question: Is rural tourism promoting rural heritage or is rural heritage promoting rural tourism? This connection is very specific and they cannot be observed separately. Rural tourism can be also defined as strategic tool for activating and promoting of rural landscape and heritage and a tool for sustainable economic development. On the other hand, rural heritage and natural landscape are main factors that are helping develop these kind of tourism. By bringing people into rural areas we are promoting heritage and we are helping it survive in isolating conditions. Even they are near town and climate and topography are moderate, lack of financial resources makes limitation in their development. Earlier, when rural economy was on a higher level, villages had their own sources of income and they were independent from cities. In the end, when we take into account everything that was analyzed, we can conclude that rural areas have great opportunities for development of rural tourism thanks to rich natural, architectural, cultural and historic heritage but also thanks to the vicinity of urban areas. Connection between urban and rural areas is unbreakable not only in economic terms, but also in terms of spatial distribution of functions and also in ambience connections. Heritage sites in the urban areas are connected with the sites in the rural areas and if we want to create complete touristic offer it is necessary to include sites in both areas. Also, urban – rural synergy has benefit for both sides because vicinity of the urban areas to the rural helps faster and more efficient rural development in economic and educational terms. On the other hand, vicinity of the rural areas to the urban areas increases gross domestic production growth and approaches nature to the city with its attractive offer which becomes more available for all the residents. Rural tourism is one of very important elements for this synergy development because it represents hub for improvement of this connection.

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REFERENCES Blešić, Ivana, Tatjana Pivac, Snežana Besermenji, Andjelija Ivkov-Džigurski and Kristina Košić. 2014. “Residents’ Attitudes and Perception towards Tourism Development: A Case Study of Rural Tourism in Dragačevo”, Serbia. Eastern European Countryside, 20(1), pp. 151-165. doi:10.2478/eec-2014-0007 Bogdanov Natalija. 2007. Mala ruralna domaćinstva u Srbiji i ruralna nepoljoprivredna ekonomija. Beograd: United Nation Development Program Bureau of Statistics data. 2014. Popis stanovništva,domaćinstava i stanova 2011.; Stanovništvo: Uporedni pregled broja stanovnika 1948.,1953.,1961.,1971.,1981.,1991.,2002. i 2011. book No 20. Accessed March 25, 2017. http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga20.pdf Efstratoglou, Sofia, Natalija Bogdanov and David Meredith. 2007.”Defining Rural Areas in Serbia and Their Typology”, 100th Seminar Development of Agriculture and rural areas in Central and Eastern Europe, June 21-23, Novi Sad, pp. 553-562 Department of Agriculture and Rural Development of the city of Niš. 2012. Plan ruralnog razvoja Nišavskog okruga za period 20122021. Accessed March 24, 2017. http://www.niskoselo.com/?p=2792 European Commission. 2007. Baltic Sea Region Programme 2007-2013. Accessed April 3, 2017. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/atlas/programmes/2007-2013/crossborder/baltic-sea-region-programme-2007-2013 George, Wanda, Heather Mair and Donald Reid. 2009. Rural tourism Development Localism and Cultural Change, Toronto: Channel View Publications, Canada Institute for Urban planning of city of Niš. 2011. Prostorni plan administrativnog područja grada Niša 2021. Official Gazette of the city of Niš 45/2011 Jing Xu. 2006. “Rural Tourism and Sustainable Community Development”. International forum on rural tourism, final report, Guiyang, Guizhou Province, China, 4-6 September, 2006. pp 73-80 Lazarević-Bajec, Nada and Milica Bajić-Brković. 1990. Prostorni aspekti razvoja nerazvijenih područja. Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet u Beogradu Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management. 2009. Plan strategije ruralnog razvoja, 2009-2013. Accessed March 19, 2017. http://www.agrif.bg.ac.rs/files/events/38/Plan %20strategije%20ruralnog%20razvoja%202009-20013.pdf Ministry of Finance and Economy. 2011 Master plan održivog razvoja ruralnog turizma u Srbiji. Accessed March 24, 2017. https://futurehospitalityleaders.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/master-plan-odrzivog-razvoja-ruralnog-turizma-u-srbiji.pdf Ministry of trade, tourism and telecommunications. 2006. Strategija razvoja turizma Republike Srbije. Official Gazette of Republic Serbia Nr 91/2006. Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommunications. 2015. Strategija razvoja turizma Republike Srbije za period 2016-2025. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://mtt.gov.rs/download/3/strategija.pdf

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Mitchell, Morag and Derek Hall. 2005. “Rural Tourism as Sustainable Business: Key Themes and Issues”, in Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business, edited by Derek Hall, Irene Kirkpatrick and Morag Mitchell, pp.3-14, Toronto: Channel View Publications, Clevedon, Buffalo Nylander, Mirja and Derek Hall. 2005. “Rural Tourism Policy: European Perspectives”, in Rural Tourism and Sustainable Business, edited by Derek Hall, Irene Kirkpatrick and Morag Mitchell, pp.17-40, Toronto: Channel View Publications, Clevedon, Buffalo Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 1994. Tourism Strategies and Rural Development, OCDE/GD(94)49. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co- Operation and Development Republic Agency for spatial planning. 2010. Zakon o prostornom planu Republike Srbije za period 2010.-2020. Godine. Official gazette of Republic Serbia Nr 88/2010 Republic Agency for Spatial plannig. 2012. Regionalni prostorni plan za područje Nišavskog, Topličkog i Pirotskog upravnog okruga. Official Gazzete of Republic Serbia Nr 1/2013 Todorović Marina and Željko Bjeljac. 2007. „Osnove razvoja ruralnog turizma u Srbiji“. Bulletin of the Serbian geographical society, Tome LXXXVII No 1, 2007, pp 135-148 Todorović Marina and Željko Bjeljac. 2009. „Rural tourism in Serbia as a concept of development in undeveloped regions“. Bulletin of the Serbian geographical society, Acta geographica Slovenica-geografski zbornik, Vol. 49 No. 2, pp. 453-465, DOI: 10.3986/AGS49208 Van Leeuwen, Eveline. 2015. “Urban-Rural Synergies: An Explorative Study at the NUTS3 Level“. In Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy, Vol 8, Issue 3, pp 273–289, doi:10.1007/s12061-015-9167-x

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APPLICATION OF ICT FOR URBAN REGENERATION, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SOCIAL EQUALITY IN SCOTLAND Branka Dimitrijević Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde, 75 Montrose Street, Glasgow G1 1XJ, Scotland, United Kingdom, [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper examines how the concept of ‘smart cities’ is applied in Scotland by using sensors and ICT technologies to collect data and inform decision-making for regeneration or rural and urban settlements, environmental protection and social equality to date and what challenges lay ahead. The case studies include the ‘Future City’ project in Glasgow and several projects of community groups in the settlements across Scotland. The examples of application of the ‘smart city’ concept in regeneration of settlements by improving regional, national and international digital connectivity are highlighted, including the ICT and Internet of Things (IoT) related economy and employment; and projects for improving efficiency of services and quality of life to boost regeneration and resilience of neglected settlements. The paper also examines the level of development of smart monitoring strategies for environmental protection in Scotland. Finally, it presents the actions for improving social equality by supporting digital access skills; informing on local food production and waste reduction; using new methods to provide health services; enabling easier access to education and information about employment opportunities; increasing safety of urban areas; and sharing of resources and skills through ‘collaborative commons’. While it is relatively easy to manufacture sensors and transfer data to the decision-makers, the development of data representation, analysis, decision-making tools, decision communication to the stakeholders, monitoring of the effectiveness of decisions and their impacts, and providing feedback to the decision-makers are the areas which currently need new research and development. Keywords: smart cities, urban regeneration, environmental protection, social equality

INTRODUCTION

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This paper examines how the relatively new concept of ‘smart cities’ is being developed and applied in practice in Scotland, and what challenges have to be addressed and overcome through future research. It begins by describing the context, i.e. the key philosophy for global sustainable development, and then provides examples of how the ‘smart city’ concept is used in urban regeneration, environmental protection and the development of a more equal society. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, outlined the principles of future global sustainable development (UN, 1992). The main conference output was the Agenda 21, which identified priority actions and provided guidelines for their achievement. The Agenda 21, a guiding philosophy for global sustainable development, provided the basis for subsequent international agreements related to global environmental, social and economic problems. The key principle of sustainable development is that it can only be achieved if socio-economic development is based on the responsible use, preservation and renewal of the Earth’s limited natural resources, and the use of renewable resources. Several current socio-economic and environmental conditions remain the focus for everyone concerned with a more sustainable development. One of the major social problems, related to the rapid growth of some cities, is urban poverty due to slow provision of housing for the people in search of employment in cities. It is estimated that around 881 million people live in slums (UN-Habitat, 2015). Rapid growth of cities causes various environmental problems. If it is not accompanied by the development of low carbon transport and the planting of trees to absorb carbon, poor air quality can endanger the health of citizens even when they have adequate housing. The depletion of fossil fuels has triggered conflicts over the remaining reserves, but also reflection on the future of energy generation from renewable and clean energy sources. Rifkin (2011) proposed a long-term economic sustainability plan to address the global economic crisis, energy security, and climate change. Rifkin’s vision is that the energy produced from renewable sources should be stored and then distributed through ICT energy distribution systems directly to the energy users in buildings and transport, and to the local or national grid. Rifkin (2014) also explored the concepts of the Internet of Things and ‘collaborative commons’, envisaging that the availability and transfer of ‘big data’ in real time, via sensors to IoT platforms, will enable more efficient and effective decision-making and stimulate greater social interaction, which will result in wider public engagement in collaborative economic activities. The IoT enabled the development of the ‘smart city’ concept, which can be applied to a settlement of any size. It is based on the digital communication of data, collected via sensors and other information, required to improve the performance of services. Data collected via sensors could be digitally transferred to an IoT platform and then to a decision-maker. The decision-makers cannot understand the meaning of a large quantity of data if it is not presented and analysed in a meaningful way. They also need adequate tools to make optimal decisions based on a clear understanding of the data and commonly-agreed improvement goals. When decisions are made, they have to be communicated to all stakeholders. Following the application of decisions, stakeholders should be able to provide

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES feedback to the decision-makers about the decisions’ effectiveness and impact, in order to inform future decisionmaking.

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, COMMUNICATION AND FEEDBACK An example of data presentation and analysis are the charts representing climatic conditions in cities. They usually provide information on average monthly daylight, temperature, rainfall, wind speed, etc., collected over many years. Without such simple visual representation of data, it is much more difficult to come to a quick and optimal decision about a preferred month for visiting a city. As digital technologies enable the collection of large amounts of different data, their analysis and visualisation is a challenge which has to be overcome to enable easy use of data in decisionmaking. Another challenge is to develop suitable decision-making tools. Some decision-making tools are available online, e.g. a tool in Google maps to identify the shortest walking route through a city between two locations. The criterion used by Google maps to recommend a walking route is to identify the shortest route through the city streets. However, a user’s criteria might be that a walking route does not have to be the shortest one, but should pass through the city’s parks and quieter streets. This example illustrates the importance of integrating the criteria which meet the needs of a user or multiple users into decision-making tools. Regarding the management of cities, decision-making tools have to include criteria which will help achieve commonly-agreed goals to improve urban services while considering the interests of multiple stakeholders. Various digital applications, or ‘apps’, have been developed as decision-making tools. Some of them enable feedback through the provision of additional information by the app users. The users of the Glasgow Cycling app can anonymously provide information on the cycling routes they use, to assist in refining the app (Future City Glasgow, n.d.). Another example of stakeholders’ feedback to decision-makers is the website ‘Fix My Street’, through which citizens can report problems in their streets (Fix My Street, n.d.).

SMART CITY CONCEPT FOR URBAN REGENERATION IN SCOTLAND The city of Glasgow is a good example of continuous urban regeneration. At the beginning of the 20th century, Glasgow was an industrial city with around 1 million inhabitants. As motor vehicles and airplanes gradually replaced ships and trains as the main means of transport after WW1, Glasgow’s shipping industry and the city declined. After being one of the richest cities in the UK, second only to London, it became one of the poorest, and its population halved, now standing at around 600,000 citizens (Scotland, n.d.). Since the 1970s, urban regeneration and investment in new economic activities had helped the city’s revival. Shipyards on the river Clyde have been replaced by new buildings, and the image of the city has been transformed.

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Plans and actions for urban regeneration start with the collection of baseline information for decision-making, such as economic activity - employment, income per head; quality and capacity of built assets and services; social conditions and needs; environmental quality and natural resources; and regional, national and international connectivity. The last is important in the context of the application of the ‘smart city’ concept. The methods for acquiring baseline data and information regarding urban regeneration have been expanding. Traditional methods include surveys and reports on economic, social and environmental conditions, as well as on built assets and infrastructure systems. The ‘smart city’ concept entails the collection of some data via sensors, e.g. on environmental conditions – quality of air, water, soil, biodiversity; and on infrastructure use and conditions – traffic, water supply, energy consumption, infrastructure (capacity, condition, failures, etc.). The opportunities arising from the application of the ‘smart city’ concept in urban regeneration include improving regional, national and international digital connectivity; developing an ICT/IoT-related economy and employment; opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to develop innovative business services based on ICT/IoT; and improving the efficiency of services and quality of life to boost regeneration of neglected urban areas. The importance of providing digital access in all settlements was the basis for the development of the Scottish Government’s Digital Strategy in 2011, with the ambition to make broadband available across Scotland by 2020 (Scottish Government, 2011). The strategy objectives are to simplify public services, grow a digital economy, enable digital participation, and provide digital connectivity fit for the future. One of the public services which has been simplified by using digital technology is the Scottish Government’s online service for completing and submitting building warrant applications, completions certificates, supporting drawings and documents, and for obtaining a location plan and paying the application fee electronically (eBuilding Standards, n.d.). The Scottish Government has also published the Place Standard Tool (Scottish Government, n.d-a) which can be used to initiate discussions about priorities in the development of communities. The issues considered are work and local economy, housing, facilities and amenities, public transport, parking and traffic, streets and spaces, natural space, play and recreation, social interaction, identity and belonging, safety, maintenance, influence and sense of control, and moving around. The Future City Glasgow project, funded by Innovate UK in 2013, explored innovative ways of using technology and data to make life in the city safer, smarter and more sustainable (Future City Glasgow, n.d.). The project portal provides access to over 370 datasets which can be used to develop various decision-making tools. The initial focus is on visualising data (e.g. renewable energy sources), providing information and apps for active travel and social transport, and increasing safety via smart city lighting. The importance of the availability and potential use of digital technology in the regeneration of settlements of all sizes has been highlighted through the engagement of researchers with citizens of Linlithgow, a town of around 15,000 inhabitants, located between Glasgow and Edinburgh (Dimitrijevic, 2015). Local citizens have formed a group named Transition Linlithgow (Transition Linlithgow, n.d.), inspired by the ‘Transition Town’ concept outlined by Hopkins

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES (2008), who suggested various ways in which communities can become more resilient through local generation of energy from renewables; local food production; different organisation of healthcare; use of local building materials; reduction and reuse of waste; and other activities that communities might initiate according to their social, economic and environmental context. In Scotland, there are 15 Transition Town ‘official groups’ in cities and smaller towns (Transition Scotland, n.d.).

In collaboration with researchers, the Transition Linlithgow group proposed the development of an information, decision-making and community engagement portal. The citizens suggested that the objectives of such a portal should be to provide access to data, share and visualise data, create value, maximise opportunities and highlight challenges. They indicated that key functions of the proposed portal should be: (a) sharing and visualisation of data required for decision-making on sustainable living and development; (b) related decision-making tools; and (c) opportunities for citizens’ interaction. SMART ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Strategies and plans for environmental protection rely on baseline data on environmental conditions. The Scottish Government has initiated a range of actions aimed at reducing local and global environmental impact by tackling climate change, moving towards a zero-waste Scotland and increasing the use of renewable energy (Scottish Government, n.d-b). Information on environmental monitoring and data is published on the Scotland’s Environment website (Scotland’s Environment, n.d.). An example of the data available on the Scotland’s Environment website relates to the monitoring of pollutants. It provides a map with the location of pollutant facilities, the sector in which they operate, and the number of such facilities in each year. More detailed data is also available, including quantity of releases, type of pollutants, release medium, etc. Environmental protection in cities is focused on the quality of air and water, and on the protection of biodiversity. Greenspace Scotland has been established to promote the use and maintenance of informal green spaces in cities and towns (Greenspace Scotland, n.d.). They support community projects, and provide services and advice for creating and maintaining green community spaces. Air pollution levels across Scotland are updated hourly and the data is provided on a dedicated website (Air Quality in Scotland, n.d.). As the main source of air pollution is from the transport of goods and people by petrol-powered vehicles, the solution lies in the transition to low carbon transport such as electric vehicles, trams, trains, etc. Edinburgh has recently introduced electric trams. Glasgow provides 400 bicycles for rent, and electric charging for vehicles is gradually being introduced. Digital access enables smarter use of vehicles, with ‘car pooling’ websites through which drivers can invite potential passengers to join a journey for a small fee (Bla Bla Car, n.d.). The carsharing programme Developing Car Clubs in Scotland was launched in October 2010, funded by Transport

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Scotland, the national transport agency for Scotland (Car Plus Bike Plus, n.d.). It provides information on and links to car-sharing clubs. The quality of drinking water across Scotland is monitored by Scottish Water, which alerts the population if drinking water in an area has been polluted (Scottish Water, n.d). Information and advice on flood protection and management are provided through the website of the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA, n.d.).

SMART CITY FOR SOCIAL EQUALITY The ‘smart city’ concept is also used to improve social equality in Scotland. Social equality comprises a range of social issues, but the focus here is on equal access to goods and services through digital connectivity. Digital connectivity provides various opportunities and advantages, such as increasing social inclusion via digital access skills; informing on local food production and waste reduction; new methods of providing health services; easier access to education; easy access to information about employment opportunities; increased safety of urban areas; and sharing of resources and skills through ‘collaborative commons’. The Digital Glasgow Roadmap, a strategy for providing digital access across the city, was published in 2014 (GCC, 2014). The aim of the digital access strategy is to provide digital infrastructure and training to enable citizens to use and produce online goods and services. As digital access is not always affordable to people on low income, local hubs are set up in social housing areas to provide training for the use of digital technology. The Glasgow Housing Association has set up 36 local digital hubs (GHA, 2016). Digital connectivity enables the flow of information regarding opportunities for local food production and urban agriculture. Scotland has a strong tradition of urban agriculture on allotments - the land within cities provided for this purpose. The Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015 includes a statement that ‘any person may make a request to the local authority in whose area the person resides (a) to lease an allotment from the authority, or (b) to sublease an allotment from a tenant of the authority’ (Scottish Government, 2015). The website of the Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society provides gardening advice, support, and relevant information to urban gardeners (SAGS, n.d.). Information and advice related to the reduction of food waste and the collection of unused or left-over food is provided through a dedicated website (Love Food Hate Waste, n.d.). The development of digital technologies which can be used in health care is rapidly expanding. The Digital Health Care Institute brings together ‘people and organisations in the health and social care, charity, technology, design and academic sectors to develop new ideas for digital technology that will improve the delivery of health and care services for the people of Scotland’ (DHCI, n.d.). Digital technology enables a delivery of health service at a patient’s home, which is both convenient for the patient and cost-effective.

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Regarding the use of digital technologies to improve education, the Scottish Government published its strategy for Enhancing Learning and Teaching Through the Use of Digital Technology in September 2016 (Scottish Government, 2016). The strategy aims are: to develop the skills and confidence of teachers; to improve access to digital technology for all learners; to ensure that digital technology is a central consideration in all areas of curriculum and assessment delivery; and to empower leaders of change to drive innovation and investment in digital technology for learning and teaching. The University of Strathclyde in Glasgow launched the Flexible Learning Centre in November 2016 to support the development of online undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing development courses (FLC, n.d.). This new capability will enable access to higher education for future students both nationally and internationally, and reduce the cost of education. Digital connectivity enables people to find information about jobs available in Scotland through the website s1jobs.com. Information is provided according to region and job categories. Information about locally-available resources and skills in Glasgow can now be easily found on a local website (Gumtree, n.d.). This is an example of the traditional social, collaborative, sharing economy, being boosted by digital technology. CONCLUSIONS The opportunities arising from the application of the ‘smart city’ concept in urban regeneration include: improving regional, national and international digital connectivity of urban areas in need of regeneration; developing an ICT/IoTrelated economy and employment; opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to develop innovative business services based on ICT/IoT; and improving the efficiency of services and quality of life to boost the regeneration of neglected urban areas. Smart environmental protection begins with the development of smart monitoring strategies. Smart monitoring and online availability of data are the next step, followed by data analysis and development of related decision-making tools. Following the application of decisions, further improvements can be made to decision-making tools, once feedback has been obtained on their effectiveness and impacts. Digital connectivity provides various opportunities for improving social equality. This paper provided some examples of the use of digital technologies to increase social inclusion; inform on local food production and waste reduction; develop new methods of providing health services; provide easier access to education and information about employment opportunities; increase the safety of urban areas; and share resources and skills in Scotland.

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While it is relatively easy to manufacture sensors and transfer data to decision-makers, the development of data representation, analysis, decision-making tools, decision communication to the stakeholders, monitoring of the effectiveness of decisions and their impacts, and providing feedback to the decision-makers are areas which currently require new research and development.

REFERENCES Air Quality in Scotland. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.scottishairquality.co.uk/. Bla Bla Car. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.blablacar.co.uk/. eBuilding Standards. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.ebuildingstandards.scot/ eBuildingStandardsClient/default.aspx. Car Plus Bike Plus. nd. Car Clubs in Scotland. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.carplus.org.uk/ projects/car-clubs-inscotland/. Digital Health Care Institute. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://dhi-scotland.com/. Dimitrijevic, Branka. 2015. From transition towns to smart cities: opportunities and challenges, Computers and Law. 26, 2, p. 26-28. Fix My Street. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.fixmystreet.com/. Flexible Learning Centre. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.strath.ac.uk/engineering/ flexiblelearningcentre/. Future City Glasgow. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://futurecity.glasgow.gov.uk/. Future City Glasgow. nd. The Cycling App. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://futurecity.glasgow.gov.uk/ active-travel/. Glasgow City Council. 2014. Digital Glasgow Roadmap 2014. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=18230&p=0. Glasgow Housing Association. 2016. 35th free digital centre opens in Toryglen. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://www.gha.org.uk/about-us/media/latest-news/35th-free-digital-centre-opens-in-toryglen. Greenspace Scotland. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://greenspacescotland.org.uk/. Hopkins, Rob. 2008. The Transition Handbook: from oil dependency to local resilience. Cambridge: Green Books.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Love Food Hate Waste. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://scotland.lovefoodhatewaste.com/. Rifkin, Jeremy. 2011. The Third Industrial Revolution: How Lateral Power is Transforming Energy, the Economy, and the World. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Rifkin, Jeremy. 2014. The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, The Collaborative Commons, and The Eclipse of Capitalism. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Scotland. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/facts-about-scotland/ population-of-scotland. Scotland’s Environment. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.environment.scotland.gov.uk/. Scottish Allotments and Gardens Society. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.sags.org.uk/. Scottish Environment Protection Agency. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.sepa.org.uk/. Scottish Government. 2011. Scotland’s Digital Future: A Strategy for Scotland. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.gov.scot/ Resource /Doc/343733/0114331.pdf. Scottish Government. 2015. Community Empowerment (Scotland) Act 2015. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/asp/2015/6/contents/enacted. Scottish Government. 2016. Enhancing Learning and Teaching Through the Use of Digital Technology. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2016/09/9494. Scottish Government. nd-a. Place Standard Tool. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.placestandard. scot/#/home. Scottish Government. nd-b. Environment. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.gov.scot/Topics/ Environment. Scottish Water. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://www.scottishwater.co.uk/. Transition Linlithgow. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://transitionlinlithgow.org.uk/. Transition Scotland. nd. Accessed April 5, 2017. http://transitionscotland.weebly.com/about.html. UN-Habitat. 2015. Global Housing Strategy: Repositioning Housing at the Centre of the New Urban Agenda, UN-Habitat, Nairobi. United Nations. 1992. Agenda 21. United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992. Accessed April 5, 2017. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ content/documents/Agenda21.pdf.

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METHODS AND TECHNIQUES TO SUPPORT COGNITIVE PROCESSES OF TERRITORIAL RESILIENCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES – CASE STUDY OF SERBIA Ksenija Lalović 146 Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, Belgrade, Serbia, [email protected] Jelena Živković Associate professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, [email protected] Jovana Bugarski PhD student, Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade, [email protected] ABSTRACT Current global sustainable development dilemmas imply efficient and effective dealing with complex phenomena in process of local territorial development governance. Climatically responsive planning actually focuses on the complex and dynamic, integral, meta phenomena being driven by the interaction of the environment, economy and society. Wide range of issues should be taken into consideration in process of local strategic thinking - from climate change adaptation strategies and actions to the socioeconomic regional positioning. In developing and transitional countries, such as Serbia, this is a big challenge for local authorities and governing institutions. Even if there is national political and strategic determination and local understanding of importance of territorial cohesion, there is usually lack of human knowledge and institutional capacity to perform and act within aggravating circumstances of overlapping problems and insufficient assets. Since the potential risk situations are more and more pronounced, local communities face a challenge of changing toward different collective action, short-term efficient as well as long-term effective. That means transformation, evolution of local human systems structures and building the capacities of all local urban-rural subsystems to strengthen resiliency to the global dynamics. The success of local planning and management process, is directly dependent on the quality of the collective knowledge on which it relies. Experience has shown that the traditional quantitative approaches to inform planning do not provide sufficient quality of reality cognition necessary to formulate effective collective actions. Therefore, there is a need for an compass, an efficient instrument to integrate and structure complex cognitive dynamics both in quantitative and qualitative way. Starting from the assumption that Integral theory AQAL model to comprehend the complexity of reality could support and improve local collective cognitive process we performed several case studies with aim to identify how this new methodological approach could change and deepen planning collective perspective in Serbian local communities enabling immediate and more prominent effective actions. Keywords: resilience, collective cognitive process, Integral theory AQAL model 146


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INTRODUCTION

In this article we underline our stand point that the complexity of achieving resilience requires developing and implementing a sufficiently complex response at all government scales and down to the household and individual levels. Focusing on the efforts to adapt to the impacts of inevitable climatic changes, while at the same time raising preparedness for possible shocks and dealing with long term stresses, will require social transformations at a rate and scale that is unprecedented in human history. This transformations require societies to adapt to not only new biophysical conditions, but also to new understandings of human-environment relationships. This wider interpretation calls for a more integral approach, including both objective and subjective dimensions of adaptation and mitigation, and can inform both planning theory and practice. We argue here that, planners and policy makers first need to change knowledge base and perspective to be enabled to fully understand the nature of the problem that are dealing with. Our stand is that Integral Theory (Wilber K.) offers an innovative framework that can contribute this processes, since its rigor, inclusivity, breadth, and depth offer a promising way forward to addressing complex issues.

INTEGRAL THEORY AQAL MODEL TO COMPREHEND THE COMPLEXITY OF RESILIENCE REALITY Integral theory as response to global “calls” for an end to the age of fragmentation in human sustainable development and seeks for a synthesis of the best of pre-modern, modern, and postmodern thinking (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009). The essence of integral approach is based on a assumption that with a perspective large enough, everyone is partially right: all definitions address an important dimension of reality, each approach focuses on a necessary area, and all justifications are valid within their context. According to post-postmodern position of integral theory, and AQAL critical realism methodological approach there are at least four irreducible domains of reality, called quadrants: subjective_individual, intersubjective_cultural, objective_behavioural, and interobjective_social systemic. They must be consulted simultaneously in an integrated way when attempting to fully understand any issue or aspect of reality, in contrast to approaches that explicitly or inadvertently reduce one quadrant to another (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009). Resilience is a complex concept rooted in a complex phenomenon of climate change that is enacted by multiple methodologies from various disciplines (ARUP, 2014). Climate change and resilience as its direct paradigm response is not simply an environmental problem, it is about human capacity of individuals and communities to respond to threats, closely related to how humans perceive themselves in the world, how humans both create and respond to change, how we sustain our development in balance with nature (O’Brien & Hochachka, 2010), it requires societies to adapt to not only new biophysical conditions, but also to new understandings of human-environment relationships (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2005)]. No single method by itself can “see” or reveal resilience issues in its entirety (EsbjörnHargens S. , 2010). This raises the issue of the ontological status of climate change and all related concepts: to what

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degree are the data from methodological traditions pointing to a singular or multiple object. Integral perspective on climate change is not assuming single reality that most everyone presumes, but it sees it as a multiple_integral object: an ontologically distinct phenomenon that is a combination of first, second, and third person dimensions whose enactment is rooted in Integral Epistemological Pluralism (Zimmerman, 2010) (Figure. 1.).

ontological positions

methodological pluralism

enactment process

Figure 45: Integral theory positions on climate change phenomenon (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2010)

The emphasis here is that epistemology is connected to ontology (the what) via methodologies (the how). While modernity emphasizes ontology (the what), and postmodernity often emphasizes epistemology and interpretation (the who), Integral Theory emphasizes the role played by methodology (the how) in linking and integrating ontology and epistemology through the enactment, constitution, or performance of the phenomenon being investigated. But each of named positions has characteristic view of ontology, and in each case, the ontology associated with each worldview is the result of where it places its focus. Integral approach emphasis on methodology, lends itself to a pluralistic view that emphasizes the multiplicity of objects: many objects are neither simply a positivist one or a relativistic many, but a hybrid of both (Figure. 1.) (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2010). According the integral perspective, while climate change it is a multiple object, it does not imply that reality is fragmented or that the integral inquiry is undertaken from a relativistic stance. By treating climate change as single object “out there,” we blind ourselves to the many strategic leverage points that become more obvious and accessible when its multiplicity is recognized (Zimmerman, 2010). Starting from the integral theory position that climate change have to be explored as a multiple object with a high degree of ontological complexity, given the degree of epistemological distance, local to global, it is impossible to be “seen” directly and therefore there are many competing perspectives on it, so methodological variety is needed, numerous social and natural science disciplines are needed to describe it (Figure 2.).There is an emphasise that usually a process of confusion and reduction occurs, resulting in the fact that too many environmental explanations have confused discursively constructed global problems with universal biophysical facts, and paid insufficient attention to discursively constructed local problems (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2010). Therefore, depending on whether people, for example in case of specific urban resilience, enact the problem of climate change as a condition or as a process, they are going to propose different solutions. Acknowledgement of ontological pluralism arouses key issue

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES of ontological ethics in local politics and strategies: due to the fact that we can enact different realities, which ones do we want to either keep in focus or erode? (Zimmerman, 2010).

Integral Enactment Theory _ Integral pluralism

Integral Pluralism and climate change

Figure 2: Integral theory methodological pluralism and AQAL model (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2010)

According to integral theory and integral ecology, inclusiveness is needed to ensure that an adequate set of perspectives is called upon to allow a given state of affairs to manifest itself in all its complexity. Scientists can provide important information about what a particular problem is, but third-person scientific methods-perspectives cannot replace insights drawn from first- and second-person perspectives, including basic value considerations. (Lalović, Živković, & Milovanović Rodić, 2012). Therefore, a transdisciplinary approach is now called for, whereby disciplines do not compete with or dismiss one another, and instead act in concert and create synergy.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES TO SUPPORT INTEGRAL COGNITION OF RESILIENCE There are at least two ways to use the AQAL model (Figure 3.): 1) as dimensions - quadratic approach, comprehending various realities that one individua can perceive as a result of his own embodied awareness, or as 2) perspectives – quadrivia approach, refers to four ways of seeing particular reality. “The quadrants represent the native ways in which we experience reality in each moment and quadrivia represent the most common ways we can and often do look at reality to understand it” (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009). Therefore, according the integral approach each of the perspectives associated with the four quadrants of reality cognition can be studied through two major methodological families: - inside, a first-person perspective, or - the outside, a third-person perspective.

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AQAL quadrants to comprehend reality

quadratic approach

quadrivia approach

Figure 3: AQAL model of reality integral cognition (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009)

This results in eight distinct zones of human inquiry and research. These eight zones comprise what integral theory calls “integral methodological pluralism (IMP), which includes such approaches as phenomenology as an exploration of first-person subjective realities, ethnomethodology as an exploration of second-person intersubjective realities, and empiricism as an exploration of third-person empirical realities (Figure 4.).

Figure 4: Integral methodological pluralism (IMP) - Eight methodological zones, (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009)

Because integral theory acknowledges and includes all the major insights from valid forms of research, it emphasizes the importance of including all zones in its efforts to understand anything in a comprehensive way and there are “schools of thought” that specialize in using the methods, practices, and techniques associated with each zone. “An integral approach must include all eight zones or it risks leaving out important aspects of reality that have a bearing on effective solutions to the problems facing our communities and our planet. In other words, the more of reality we

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES acknowledge and include, the more sustainable our solutions will become, precisely because a project will respond more effectively to the complexity of that reality. We cannot exclude major dimensions of reality and expect comprehensive, sustainable results” (Esbjörn-Hargens S. , 2009).

CASE STUDY OF SERBIA – ROAD TOWARD BELGRADE’S RESILIENCE The Global Alliance for Urban Crisis, was initiated during the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016 as a global, multidisciplinary and collaborative community of practice, ‘network of networks’ working to support the implementation of the broader Agenda for humanity which encompasses a number of international processes (Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, outcomes of Habitat III in Quito) all considered as critical to achieve genuine change in the way humanitarian assistance is delivered, and risk and vulnerability reduced. It resulted with globe’s largest association of local government partnerships: a network of over 3,300 cities, towns and local governments, with numerous strategic partners including the Medellin Collaboration on Urban Resilience launched (2014), Cities Alliance (2016), UNISDR, ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability, C40 Climate Leadership Group, 100 Resilient Cities, The World Bank Group, Inter-American Development Bank, Rockefeller Foundation, and the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Reconstruction. The ambition is to increase the membership to 5,000 local governments by 2020, and to have at least 500 local resilient strategies developed (CRPP 2016). Following the Balkan 2014 floods experience, with major post shock disasters worst manifested in Serbia within Belgrade region, significant efforts toward resilience have been undertaken on a different governance levels almost simultaneously: interregional basin of Sava project initiated, several Serbian national documents adopted, City of Belgrade several regulatory and normative changes have been undertaken. But the overall public critical discourse opened around whole national and local social systems unpreparedness was fertile ground for Belgrade’s resilience initiative to be to seeded. City of Belgrade officially applied 100 Resilient Cities (100RC) in 2014 and was selected as the first city in Eastern Europe from among 300 city applicants to participate in the second 100RC challenge. Following 100 RC Strategy Guidance Manual Belgrade started overall collaborative process of Resilience strategy enactment. So far the first phase – Preliminary Resilience Assessment is finished and wrapped up in a working document sent out for institutional approval. As we ware the part of the process, we felt the urge to look at the process through integral AQAL lenses in order to assume critical realistic position of whole process and may be contribute to the cognitive deepening and comprehension in the next phase. First thing that should be underlined in this case study is that all 100RC cities in partnership share common framework, methodology, tools and techniques (ARUP, 2014) provided by the program which is very important because essentially establishes common integral enactment approach enabling the all cities processes to be compared and analysed. The resilience strategy methodology is offered as a “dynamic roadmap to build resilience in the city: It articulates the city’s priorities for building resilience through specific initiatives for immediate implementation as well as the city’s longer-term future, and it triggers action, investment and support within city government and from outside groups. The process of building a city’s resilience is not linear but iterative as the city’s resilience priorities and opportunities evolve - a city’s efforts will be reinformed

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as new shocks or stresses are experienced, initiatives are implemented, new data becomes available and opportunities for collaboration are revealed” (100RC, 2015). In its essence, this methodology is road map to integral methodological pluralism described before (Figure 5.).

Figure 5: Resilience Strategy Development Process (100RC, 2015)

Preliminary Resilience Assessment (BGPRA, 2017) is a critical first marker on the road to a collaborative and effective strategy to improve Belgrade’s resilience. This document describes the significant work completed to date to build a baseline of facts and deepen our understanding of Belgrade’s key resilience challenges, approaches and opportunities now and into the future. Than, PRA outlines recommended Discovery Areas – specific themes around which deeper analysis and broader stakeholder engagement will be undertaken. At the end, PRA describes the next steps that will be undertaken to develop a final Belgrade Resilience Strategy. Following table summarizes the 100 RC methodology and used tools and key findings following each stage of the PRA process of integral collaborative comprehension of Belgrade resilience:

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Table 14: City of Belgrade Preliminary resilience assessment methodology

steps unique city profile

Tools (100RC, 2015) No specific tool

analysis of actions and plans

Action Inventory tool

stakeholders perceptions of Belgrade’s strengths and weaknesses preliminary asset scan

Perceptions assessment tool Assets & Risks Tool

review and analysis of shocks and stresses integrated analysis of goatherd deliverables

City Resilience Framework

key findings Contextual information to determine the City’s powers to take action on building resilience Efforts by the City government structures, academia, civil society groups and other partners : What we are doing? How stakeholders perceive state of main resilience drivers: What we think we are doing? Identification of the significant assets that exist in Belgrade, which contribute to the City’s physical, economic and social resilience Identification of the most significant shocks and stresses that affect Belgrade today, or which are anticipated to affect it in the future Identification of discovery areas and defining next steps for collaborative process of strategy enactment

In order to evaluate quality of enactment process in comprehending the complexity of Belgrade’s resilience issues we developed overview of used methods and techniques using AQAL methodological zones (Figure 6.).

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INTERIOR

zone 2: experiential structures

INDIVIDUAL

Participant Observation Focus groups Workshops Survey

zone 1: subjective experience Autoreflection Narrative Semi-structured interview Appreciative Inquiry

zone 3: communal experience

Dialog Focus groups Group analysis and evaluation Targeted survey COLLECTIVE

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zone 4: communal structures

Participant Observation Focus groups Discourse Analysis Analysis of content and Chronology description

EXTERIOR

zone 6: empirical structures

Nonparticipant Observation Focus groups Workshops Survey zone 5: empirical processes Autoreflection Narrative Semi-structured interview Appreciative Inquiry

zone 7: systemic process

Pilot, Case study Nonparticipant Observation Comparative analysis & evaluation

zone 8: systems theory

Field exploration Analysis of the situation Pilot, Case study Content analysis, interpretation, chronology Critical theoretical investigations Comparative analysis

techniques Meeting Minutes/ transcripts Group mailing information

Recording Brainstorming Simulation Concept mapping Group reports Conceptuall editing

Figure 6: Resilience Strategy Development Process

Trough AQAL analysis of the 100RC methodology – methods and techniques applied in Belgrade’s PRA enactment process it can be concluded that integral methodological pluralism comprehended. The focus of the PRA process was actually AQAL quadratic approach comprehending various realities that different stakeholders perceived as a result of their own embodied awareness. Over 1,000 citizens – of which over 800 students that will become future leaders of urban development in the city – have been engaged with the process throughout this first phase of work. As discussed previously the quality of the collective reality cognition depends on the number and chosen participants. That was very difficult and mostly responsible task for Resilient Belgrade Office and help of strategic partners who have experience from allover the world was invaluable. However, from the critical realism point of view it is impossible to have certainty on this matter. How successful was performed stakeholder analysis and engagement plan would be tested in a next second phase of Belgrade’s resilience strategy enactment. PRA document actually resulted with five discovery areas identified as important for deeper understanding and exploration. In Phase II, in the context of the working groups that will be formed from the further development of the Discovery Areas collaborations will multiply in an effort to create a common approach and strategy for the city with the active participation of the different stakeholders. In this phase AQAL quadrivia approach will be implemented for each discovery area and its details.

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CONCLUSIONS

Each discipline dealing with the complex phenomena or problems in a collaborative way should have clear picture of methodology applied in order to ensure the quality results of the process. As shown from this case study research Integral AQAL model could be used as a collaborative “checkboard” toward integral collective cognition. It could also be developed as a planning process evaluation tool that helps to tailor monitor and asses quality of collaborative process performed.

REFERENCES 100RC. (2015). Strategy Guidance Manual, Developing High-impact Resilience Strategies. New York: 100 Resilient Cities, The Rockefeller Foundation. ARUP. (2014). City Resilience Index, Understanding and measuring city resilience. Arup & Partners International Limited, The Rockefeller Foundation. BGPRA. (2017). Preliminary Resilience Assessment. Belgrade: Resilient Belgrade Office, City of Belgrade. Esbjörn-Hargens, S. (2005). Integral Ecology: The What, Who, and How of Environmental Phenomena. World Futures: The Journal of Global Education, 61(1-2), 5-49. Esbjörn-Hargens, S. (2009). An overview of Integral Theory - An All-Inclusive Framework for the 21st Century. Integral Institute, Resource Paper No. 1, 1-24. Esbjörn-Hargens, S. (2010). An Ontology of Climate Change, Integral Pluralism and the Enactment of Multiple Objects. Journal of Integral Theory and Practice, 143-174. Esbjörn-Hargens, S. (2010). Integral Theory in Action: Applied, Theoretical, and Constructive Perspectives on the AQAL Model. New York: SUNY Press. Esbjörn-Hargens, S., & Zimmerman, M. (2009). Integral ecology: Frequently asked questions. Boston & London: Integral Books. Lalović, K., Živković, J., & Milovanović Rodić, D. (2012). Integral Theory Perspective on Climate Change Responsive Urban Sustainibility, New Ideology or a Way to Step Forward. Architecture and Ideology. Belgrade: Faculty of Architecture, University of Belgrade. O’Brien, K., & Hochachka, G. (2010). Integral Adaptation to Climate Change. Journal of Integral Theory and Practice, 5(1), 89-102. Zimmerman, M. E. (2010). Changing the Conversation: Rethinking the Climate Change Debate from an Integral Perspective. Boulder: University of Colorado at Boulder.

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CONTINUOUS PERFORMATIVE LANSCAPES FOR RESILIENT CITY OF SKOPJE Divna Penchikj 147 Assoc. Prof. PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “Sts. Cyril and Methodius”, Blvd. Partizanski odredi 24, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, [email protected] Jasmina Siljanoska Prof. PhD, Faculty of Architecture, University “SS. Cyril and Methodius”, [email protected] Dana Jovanovska Assoc. Assist. MSc, Faculty of Architecture, [email protected] ABSTRACT The present time city of Skopje is dialectical result of contradictions of its society and planning systems, a diffuse result of unfinished layers of diachronically superimposed different planning concepts, none of which has lasted long enough to establish a homogenous city structure. The combination of its structural parts is no longer defined as homogenous, but rather as a multiple layering and heterogeneity, a fragmented solids and voids with borders, barriers and edges that are subject to a constant process of modification and reconfiguration of the dynamic image. In this regard, it is interesting to look at constitution of space that occurs outside of the urban network, as well, in order to clarify vague spatial morphology and landscape between urban and rural/ suburban areas. The boundary between the end of the city and the beginning of the nature or urban/rural fringe defines discontinuous route which gradually perforated casing urban structure of the city. This disintegrated and unfinished urban structure needs to become adaptive, fluid and responsive system able to accept disturbances, without changing to another system. Only this way, we can establish a city capable of extending its own continuity: a resilient city. When exploring the fragmented reality of Skopje and the potentials for establishment of a new urban reality the paper relies on the principle of the newly emerged landscape urbanism approach in the planning discourse. It is based on the idea of continuous landscape, where physical urban fragments and residual urban voids need to be connected, integrated and structured in an open flexible system, and on the necessitate potential of the voids as ecological intensity. The idea is to bring all urban fragments together in one open system and to create an integrated overall system of green areas and corridors that connect the inner city with the exurban green lands, agricultural land, as well as exurban greenery of the mountains. The “power” of the landscape medium is in the possibility to organise the urban fabric of fragmented voids into the continuous landscape within the city of Skopje. It is not conceived only a simple medium for defragmented city development, but more importantly it is a medium that activates urban space through invoking processes and events that move within the city, which means a performative landscape. Through performability introduced the ecological performance of the continuous urban landscape is becoming productive environmentally, economically and socially (producing food, pollution absorption, air, water and soil purification, etc).

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Keywords: Fragmented city, Resilient city, Performative landscapes, Continuous landscapes

INTRODUCTION With the existence of the border, the world has always been divided into two different groups of people, those who live rural or urban life. Uneven density of human population and intensity of development between rural and urban result in "line" that distinguishes different models and typologies of construction, changing landscapes from urban to rural, and their gradual integration into the natural environment. The concept of boundary changes and is materialized in new urban morphologies within the context of the contemporary diffuse metropolis. The boundary between the end of the city and the beginning of nature is subtle and cannot always be discerned. On the other hand, it is interesting from typological and morphological point of view to clarify the vague spatial morphology and landscape between urban, suburban and rural areas. Skopje is a city with changing planning paradigms and conceptual misalignment of different periods of development. Former lines that define the border of the city are assimilated into its urban tissue and suburbs started to become closer to the inner city. When we talk about Skopje, the rapid urbanization during the XX century and constant increase of the territory has brought ever-changing borderline of the legal perimeter. The combination of its structural parts is no longer defined as a homogeneous and mutually harmonious system, but rather as a system subjected to the constant process of modification and reconfiguration of the dynamic image. "Edges" as present confront not only as porous borders which are generally subjected to change or substitution but as well as a barrier that composes the urban envelope. For planning to be considerate, the border has to allow interactivity, porosity, flexibility and confluence of the urban and ex-urban territories and realities. Urban design provides examples of how porosity and resistance can combine. This paper examines the transition zones that occur around the edges of Skopje e.g. demarcation edges that are defined by law and master planning. Within the “holes” of the interactive border zone of the green corridors residues, left from the previous periods of city development, is applicable the concept of continual landscape, interactivity and urban-rural synergy. It is explored how, for example, have edge conditions affected access to the greenery as corridors of possible connections between the urban-suburban and urban-rural, as well as their patterns and physical evolution over the years. The view gives importance to conceiving a green-border-land-city “edge effect” that should be considered in the planning processes of our city and suburbs.

FROM FRAGMENTATION TO RESILIENCE Skopje is a diffuse result of successive unfinished cycles that have always been oriented towards radical transforming the present. The way of embedding the legacy of each strongly ideological cycle within the city was mainly juxtaposition (Пенчиќ, 2011), which eventually created a city of divergent urban realities – small cities within the city. All shifts between ideologies and concepts for the city, not only resulted in creation of fragments of different physical urban form, but it also left a lot of ruptures in the urban tissue. Such urbanization of Skopje brought and stimulated generation of new kind of urban sites: post-industrial sites, post-infrastructure sites, peripheral sites and

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fringes, undefined enclaves, etc. These residual sites are subjected to misuse, dissolution, abandoning, loss of program, informal development etc., in contrast to other parts of the city that became increasingly themed venues for establishing still on-going national agendas. Even though these new sites are voids that do not hold any particular ideology embedded, they are residues of shifting concepts which instigated their ‘evolution’. Therefore, they are considered as post-urban fragments and are given same importance as the physical urban forms of the unfinished concepts - the urban fragments (Daskalakis, 2001). All of these fragments are legacy of distinctive historical cycles, diverse political, economic, social and natural systems. They have a distinguishing spatial arrangements and each of them entails the basic resistant level towards the context as well as the transformation that replaced them. The situation with border and edge structures, no matter if solid or void concerned, is even more heterogeneous and subject to a constant reconfiguration. The evident fragmentation of Skopje plays an important role towards the dissolution of the idea for the city as a comprehensive whole. Skopje is a heterogeneous amalgam of different layers, elements, systems and functions. Its fragmentation cannot be reversed! That’s why, when thinking about the future development of Skopje, fragmentation and discontinuity shouldn’t be taken as a negative phenomenon by itself, but as an opportunity to engender improved city profile (Ungers, 1997). Can the discontinuity produce new possibilities for continuity? Is there a ‘meta-form’ capable of ‘defragmenting’ the city of Skopje? Since the context of Skopje is a dispersed cityscape, comprised of fragments and voids, with different level of historical, economic, social and natural resistance, we aim towards finding the potential in this given reality as it is, and provide the urban quality of the city out of its weakness, instead of constant importing and imposing concepts. As a system that vanished through dissolutions and reconstructions, Skopje had become a system subjected to constant disturbances that lead to its discontinuous development. In order to enable future ‘continuity’, we should start thinking how to make the city more adjustable for changing demands and unpredictable circumstances (Wall, 1999). The disintegrated and unfinished urban system of Skopje has to become a system able to take disturbances, without changing to a different system. Only the flexibility and responsiveness to the unpredictable future can produce ‘defragmentation’ of such disintegrated system. The fragmented city has to become a resilient city! Establishing resilience requires whole system approach inclusive of multiple and unpredictable perspectives. The city of Skopje is not just a collection of objects, a collection of fragments. Instead, it is a system that relies on their mutual relational forces – connectivity, repulsiveness, and flows within. We should think about Skopje as a large open system rather than as bounded entity. The planning actions and interventions should be adaptive ‘experiments’ that acknowledge and celebrate the failings of the past, while ‘making a room’ for eventual future failings that will not disrupt the on-going transformation of the city. This disintegrated and unfinished urban structure needs to become adaptive, fluid and responsive system able to accept disturbances, without changing to another system. Only this way, we can establish a city capable of extending its own continuity: a resilient city.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Skopje’s post-urban fragments are ‘voids’ with potential for providing a resilient structure for the city of Skopje. The basic assumption is that the landscape can serve as an operative tool to re-engage the discontinuous and fragmented reality of Skopje. The landscape is implied as a medium for repurposing, transforming and recalibrating urban contexts, which are experiencing the phenomenon of fragmentation (Lister, 2010). The contemporary landscape is considered to be a spatial medium for city building that includes the complexity of places (their different physical, natural, artificial, biological, cultural, environmental and aesthetical values), and as such invokes a functioning programmatic matrix of the urban tissue (Wall, 1999). In a city where architecture was imposed as timeless totality and urban planning operated to set control, determinism and hierarchy, we need to move forward and accept what landscape urbanism offers - temporality, complexity and soft control enabling shift in the strategies towards changing, open and experimental development (Hight, 2003; Ungers, 1997). Identifying the urban and post-urban fragments as pre-landscapes within the city starts as planning act of discovery and not invention (Ungers, 1997). Based on the porosity and local interconnectivity, the distinctive fragments can constitute a loosely bounded aggregate with highly fluid shape, also known as field conditions of Skopje. This sort of network of relations between urban entities should be capable of assimilating the existing differences in the city, and yet strong enough to incorporate change without destroying its internal coherence. The logistics of field conditions reasserts the potential of the city of Skopje as the whole: The whole which is not defined and complete, hierarchically ordered and closed, but capable of permutation, open to time and space, and only provisionally stable (Allen, 2001). First field operation is the grid. It lends framework to the field while allowing autonomy and individuality or each part that remains open to alternative changes in future (Corner, 2006). The grid of Skopje’s urban field is conceived as a re-organizing engine for the ground and all other site displacements of the city. Initially, it is an artificial structure with determinacy that relies on the existing measure of the city and the organization of the existing physical urban fragments. This way it basically defines the “game space” where the new strategy for Skopje is going to happen. Defined as such, the grids simultaneously act as a motif for the existing urban fragments and the urban residues of past ideologies and orders. This kind of grid construct for the city provides a provisional organizational system for the urban ‘pre-landscapes’.

CONTINUOUS LANDSCAPES The idea of continuous landscapes for Skopje is an idea about the synergy of the urban and rural, the city and non-city, the urban and ex-urban, the built and void, the central and the peripheral – all with equal quality and beyond any dualisms and separations. The notion of ‘continuous landscapes’ for Skopje is not a new idea. Even though it referred only to greenery, it can be traced back in the concept of the General Urban Plan for Skopje of 1965 for creating a holistic system of green areas and corridors that connect the inner city’s greenery with the exurban greenery of the surrounding mountains in one vegetation system (Figure 1).

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The concept of spatial organization inaugurated with the master-planning in 1965, established green corridors as important structures that connect the green areas intra and extra urban perimeter. The corridors are conceived as a green continual landscape penetrating from around the city to the inner city thus connecting the exurban-suburban zones to urban public greenery. Later plans accept these concepts, but in practice, the green corridors were hard to achieve. Most of the key green corridors that were envisaged to connect Vodno Mountain, on the south, with Skopska Crna Gora, on the north, have not been completed and the land designated for these corridors was decomposed, retrofitted or had its land use changed. The blue-infrastructure of the river banks of Vardar, Lepenec and Serava is not used as axes for green inter-connectivity, while the exurban and suburban green areas are not strictly defined by the lines of the green belt buffer zone. For these reasons, park forests, recreational sports centres, forests, agricultural land and buffer zones that surround the city are sporadically connected, while some even converted into different land use building plots.

Figure 46: 1965 and 2012 fragments and the planned greenery system of GUP 1965

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Unfortunately, the idea of corridors has never been accomplished, although all subsequent General Urban Plans from 1965/1985/2001/2012 aimed towards creation of a holistic, integrated, vegetation system within the city and its region. The real transformations of the city have had a huge impact on degradation of public spaces and especially green areas in the city, bringing speculative actions that transformed the green areas into construction land, and diminished the inner city greenery system to a mere set of isolated, disconnected, sometimes even randomly placed green areas, without any clear concept visible. Poor implementation of the greenery in the planning period from 1965-2012 is a result of not providing substantial changes in planning and management of green areas, due to the changing political and social circumstances and post-liberal urbanism of retrofitting greenery to other land uses. After evident degradation of the open spaces and greenery throughout past decades, the General Urban Plan of 2012 proposes reshaping the existing and introduces new green areas in the city in order to stop the tendency of decline, by aiming to reach the standard of 25m2 per inhabitant, set with the master planning in 1965. (The present situation is 9.34 m2 per inhabitant, or if added the green areas registered as exurban greenery that de facto are within the urban perimeter, it is 12.17 m2, which is far below the European cities level with usually over 15m2 per inhabitant.) The new concept of continuous urban landscapes will imply a strategy that aims to protect and promote the public realm, and bring different urban and post-urban fragments together in one open system while respecting their autonomy. Continuous landscapes for Skopje will be city-traversing open spaces running through the built urban environment, connecting all kinds of existing inner-city open spaces and extending finally to the surrounding rural area (Viljoen, 2005). This kind of continuity will allow flow and distribution of different resources at different levels and intensity: vegetation, air, information, energy, people etc., in the city and out of it. The continuous landscapes will be connecting different fragments and therefore sliding conceptually through different ideologies of the urban archipelago. Continuous urban landscapes are successions of programmatic diversities and functionalities, which in order to work as a system, have to be phenomenologically derived. They can be communication routes, movement axes, journey paths, or places for reflection, cultural gathering and social play, hubs for storing and sharing information, locations for energy production, saving and distribution, sites for urban agriculture, production, environmental intensification etc. The diversity of their nature depends on the complexity of context that they run through (Viljoen, 2005). Establishment of continuous urban landscapes in Skopje will not be about destroying parts of the urban tissue. They will be built through engaging and interweaving existing spatial properties within the city. They will appropriate and reclaim the ground, and protect and promote the open space by including existing green areas, as well as residual post-urban voids. Developing the continuous urban landscapes may start on a small scale, as punctual interventions in the city, and then gradually develop into extensive urban landscapes. However, achieving total continuity of a city building medium, through a city such as Skopje, will often come across boundaries, connecting this way suburban, exurban and rural areas. Besides physical, continuity can be achieved on an infra-free level. All the segments of the continuous landscape will be connected in a ‘smart way’ through communication technologies, sharing information (about micro-environmental aspects, functions of the spaces available at the moment, didactic city fragments information, mobility etc.) and overlapping and complementing the intensities of their own performance in the context.

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Whichever continuity is, utmost important is providing extensiveness of dynamic processes that happen through the city and extending the ‘benefit’ of their impact on a larger scale. Setting the continuous landscapes relies on the previously elaborated grid. This is where the determinacy of the grid based on real measure and rhythm of the urban tissue becomes physical and real. Even though these newly produced stripes, demonstrate a quality of being fixed within the rhythm of the existing and adopted grids, they refer more to the provisional extensive organization of the appropriation of successive spaces that are supposed to establish certain continuity of landscapes traversing the city. This complex new system of horizontal continuous matrices will become the new ‘infrastructure’ for the city that organizes fields and sets new conditions for future development. The origin and end of each stripe of the continuous landscape lay on two opposite sides outside the city. They represent a new way of re-creating a city which is open and boundless, with synergy of in and out, natural and artificial, rural and urban.

PERFORMATIVE LANDSCAPE Landscape for Skopje should not become only a model for urbanism of the fragmented city, but more importantly, a model for processes within the city (Allen, 2001). The ‘form’ of the landscapes should be an outcome of its performance – a result of actions and behaviours of the object and the subjects (users) (Grobman, 2012). Through that mechanism of mutually dependent performative exchange, space is being generated – the process becomes a space happening over time (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Continuous performative landscapes through Skopje

The landscapes engaged, are not plane surfaces. Their section is defined through their constitutive form, material characteristics, configuration etc. which determine the performative effects of the landscape. Depending on the preconditions of the context, terrain configuration, hardness or softness, permeability or depth, quality of air, water and soil, availability of natural resources, social stability etc. the performative effects can be: ability to accommodate life and stimulate biodiversity, absorb pollution, mitigate microclimate, hold or purify water, produce and store energy, enable mobility, provide information, communication, public services and care, support events etc. (Allen, 2001). Those performances exactly, become a new way of activating space and producing urban effects, beyond the traditional space making with definite physical forms.

CONCLUSION

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For the fragmented city of Skopje, we proposed a strategy of continuous urban landscapes, which is basically a transcript of the given reality of the city, with assimilated entities and functionalities that already exist in the city. Quite the opposite of the previous concepts that imposed visions, utopias and incompatible concepts on the city, this concept offers abundant flexibility to the city, while supporting the idea of autonomy of every fragment, which ultimately reinforces the coherence of the whole. The need to develop a new holistic approach to planning and strategy for further urban development is more than evident in times of intense urban transformations. Protection of the open spaces should be a strategic commitment to sensible development. With the idea described we wanted to reaffirm an almost abandoned idea of green corridors as continual landscapes that are conceived as media for achieving interactivity and connectivity of the different urbansuburban-rural morphologies and activities. The new concept of continuous urban landscapes will imply a strategy that aims to protect and promote the public realm and brings different urban and post-urban fragments together in one open system. In order to accept and stimulate transformations the idea is reinforced with the inclusion of programmatic diversities (e.g. communication routes and pathways, places for reflection and sharing information, or for cultural gathering and social play, for energy production or for urban agriculture, environmental intensification etc.) which is going to be achieved through the idea of performative landscape.

REFERENCES Allen, Stan. 1997. “From object to field.” AD: Architecture After Geometry, no. 127: 31-24. Allen, Stan. 2001. “Mat urbanism: The thick 2-D.” In CASE: Le Corbusier’s Venice hospital and the Mat Building Revival, edited by Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard and Timothy Hyde, 126-118. New York: Prestel. Corner, James. 2006. “Terra fluxus” In The Landscape Urbanism Reader, edited by Charles Waldheim, 33-21. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Daskalakis, Georgia, and Perez, Omar. 2001. “Things to Do in Detroit.” In Stalking Detroit, edited by Georgia Daskalakis, Charles Waldheim and Jason Young, Barcelona: Actar. Grobman, Yasha, and Neuman, Eran. 2012. Performalism: Form and Performance in Digital Architecture. London: Routledge. Hight, Christopher. 2003. “Portraying the urban landscape: Landscape in architectural criticism and theory, 1960 – present.” In Landscape Urbanism: A Manual for the Machinic Landscape, edited by Mohsen Mostafavi and Ciro Najle, 32-22. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Lister,Nina-Marie. 2010. “Insurgent Ecologies: (Re) Claiming Ground in Landscape and Urbanism.” In Ecological Urbanism, edited by Mohsen Mostafavi and Gareth Doherty, 535-524. Cambridge: Lars Müller Publishers.

Пенчиќ, Дивна. 2011. Влиј аниетона Урбанис тичк ите Планови врз Дис к онтину ираната Прос торна Транз ициј ана ГрадотСк опј е во Дваес еттиотвек (PhD), Универз ит етСв. Кирил и Ме

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Ungers, Mathias, Oswald, and Vieths, Stefan. 1997. Oswald Mathias Ungers: The Dialectic City. Milano: Skira. Viljoen, Andre, Howe, Joe, and Bohn, Katrin. 2005. Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities. Oxford: Architectural Press. Wall, Alex. 1999. “Programming the urban surface” In Recovering Landscape: Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture, edited by James Corner. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

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AGILE METHODS IN FORMATION OF METROPOLIS NEIGHBOURHOOD Joanna Małuj 148 MSc, Eng., Arch., Gdansk University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland, [email protected] Daniel Załuski PhD, DSc., Eng., Arch., Gdansk University of Technology, ul. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland, [email protected]

ABSTRACT A study of the zone adjoining the metropolis area of Tricity (Poland) was conducted on the basis of analyses of changes in spatial development, outline planning decisions and local plans of spatial development. Localities placed at several dozen kilometres from strongly urbanized areas do not constitute metropolis outskirts. The vicinity of large urban centres is an obstacle to the development of localities as self-sufficient units attractive to live in. The future of these localities is multifold, smooth and generally hard to define. In these localities local plans of spatial development fail, being the key planning document regulating spatial development in Poland. Having been drawn up, these plans work for many years, hampering innovative investments, and their amendments require undertaking long-lasting procedures. The pace and character of changes occurring in the zones around the metropolis area generate a need to continuously amend local plans of spatial development. Repeatedly regulations prove incompliant with the needs of the local community, in particular with regard to investment and development areas. Urban planning processes call for ongoing analysis, and subsequently implementation of enhanced regulations. The designing methods applied in the field of IT, called Agile methodologies, meet the said problematic issues. In localities of an unclear direction of development introduction of flexible urban planning processes based on the Agile methods may constitute a positive alternative to classical town planning regulations frequently implementing planning premises not suited to rapidly changing needs and deepening errors resulting from decisions taken in unspecified economic conditions. Keywords: spatial development, countryside programming, iteration

INTRODUCTION - THE PROBLEM IS BEING NEAR AGGLOMERATION In the last decade of the twentieth century, urbanized areas, located 80-100 km from large cities, served usually as settlement units, in some way independent from their neighborhood. They built their local, largely self-sufficient reality. 148


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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES The development of technology, particularly connected with transport and the common access to technological achievements that raise the standard of living, have resulted in the physical and mental proximity of rural centers and small towns to urban agglomerations. At the same time, the lifestyle in Poland has changed due to a free market economy. Today, the necessity of commuting to work every day forces travelling up to several dozen kilometers. Thus, it is possible to travel up to 40 - 50 km in everyday life. This applies particularly to areas located near agglomerations, due to their attractive job offers. Despite numerous connections between surrounding and an agglomeration itself, many towns do not attain suburban status and do not undergo intensive development processes typical of the suburbs. Agglomerations, like volcanic lava, absorb the nearest localities. However, places beyond the boundaries of intensive development, separated by agricultural land, forest, and water, slowly lose their identity and sense of development as autonomous entities. The distance separating the towns in question from an agglomeration is too small for a town to develop as an autonomous settlement unit. Most services are provided by an agglomeration. In addition, due to higher competitiveness, quality prices of these services are likely to be at a much higher level. For a significant amount of services, under current market conditions, the number of service recipients in areas outside the agglomeration may be, and usually is insufficient for the service to survive (Raport, 2016). In rural areas where agriculture is a marginal activity, people do not have the opportunity to organize conditions for a decent life. Villages with the communal administration office provide a basic set of commercial services and public services directed by the local government. These include basic education, health care, and local government administration. Units providing these services are the only employers in rural areas. There are some special cases, in which the offer of rural areas can be increased. These include places located in attractive surroundings or having natural and cultural conditioning for the tourism. The spatial transformations are necessary in both cases. They are needed in rural areas which require the revitalization and socio-economic changes resulting from the loss of agricultural character as well as in rural areas with favorable demographic conditioning, which due to the high number of inhabitants are slowly becoming small towns. The direction of these transformations, however, is in the current conditions often impossible to determine in the planning documents.

FLUIDITY, PACE OF CHANGE AND RISK OF THE MODERN WORLD The civilization of our times is characterized by the fact that our identities, values as well as capital are not anchored in any way. The fluidity and variability that influence practically every aspect of modern man are typical for the contemporary times. Technological advances, which contributed to the breakdown of fairly stable life rules, introduced variability and pluralism, as well as relativity and unpredictability. Unpredictability of modern economy, including economic aspects, directions of development and new technologies were considered by Nassim Nicholas Taleb (Taleb, 2013) as a domain of our time and qualified to a high risk group. This domain of reality has been described as the extremistan, that is, the state in which extreme events may occur. They can be both huge successes and fortunes as well as failures and disasters. The free-market economy, global capital connections in the 21st century, media and technology generate highly unpredictable factors with significant global effects, and therefore noticeable even by small rural communities. As a result, changes in agglomerations and their surroundings may be caused by events that are completely unrelated to local activities. This inability to predict

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future events and the dizzying pace of changes in the modern world demand the revision of current approach to spatial planning, derived from modernism which assume permanence, immutability and limits.

FREEDOM AND OWNERSHIP IN SPACE In the Polish legal system, the constitution ensures freedom and the right to unlimited, except for statutory exceptions, development of citizens’ own real estate. After the era of real socialism, in the early phase of Polish democracy, the planning system broadly honored the privileges of citizens regarding ownership. In the new epoch, a circle of actors of social space creating has been expanded. Private individuals, corporations and developers (Jałowiecki, 2006) started playing an important role in the spatial development process. In the first decades, spatial planning oscillated between economic development and the protection of urbanized areas from overexploitation. Everyone learned economy and business, investing and real estate managing, starting from investors, through local territorial governments, ending up with designers and planners. Many mistakes have been made, including allowing for the development of too large amount of lands, exceeding even today’s demands. The situation in the postcommunist countries looked different than in Western European countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands. In countries with a continuous tradition of spatial planning, the frameworks for development are sustainable and well established, and in some way, unchanged. Society knows limits and works in conditions of adapting private good to the public good. Polish society has begun to function in a young democracy with great responsibility for its own destiny and prosperity. Public good was left as an important element of space, yet it depended on the success of members of the local community. Nowadays, when society has substantially improved its financial status and reached a higher level of stabilization than in the first years of the 21st century, the issue of freedom in the development on real estate has become very problematic. Today, action, including legislation, is being taken, to verify the previous development and to limit already allocated development rights, unless they are justified by demographic reasons. Changing regulations, introducing balance sheets of built-up areas and cancelling previously granted rights is causing widespread sense of social injustice. In addition, the proposed restrictions on development, based solely on demographic projections, are not reflected by the politics of European countries.

DEVELOPING PROBLEMS OF THE AREAS IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF THE TRICITY AGGLOMERATION The development of rural areas on the outskirts of the Tricity Agglomeration (Gdańsk-Sopot-Gdynia) often has the form of expansion of urbanized areas. This process is usually limited to the formal preparation of areas for potential buildings, and their adjustment to the needs of property owners. Landowners frequently see the value of agricultural land solely in the right to build, not necessarily anything related to agriculture. Currently, the most desired are

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES residential, service, recreation and tourist functions. Industry and crafts are less popular. The need to transform agricultural land does not concern only real estate developed by the villagers for their own needs. Only part of the land properties is being transformed in order to fulfill a new way of living in the countryside. The vast majority becomes a selling offer and serves to build capital. The procedure of converting agricultural land into building plots for sale is particularly common in areas which are naturally and visually attractive. Thus, on areas with great potential. In these areas, the size of land intended for investment often allows for the residence of several thousand new people. This number often exceeds the current number of inhabitants of a given area.

Figure 47: Pomeranian Province, Poland – 1. Community Choczewo, 2. Agglomeration area, 3. The core of the Tricity metropolitan area

Reports and analyzes of the state of development of Poland also indicate that there is an excess of areas indicated for development in relation to real demand (Mordasewicz, 2013). Planning that consists of agricultural land transformation produces a series of, often insolvable, problems, resulting in the degradation of space. Very common problems are: scattered housing, lack of utilities on developing areas, lack of development in areas equipped with technical and road infrastructure or land speculation. In case of oversupplying, the areas indicated for development saturate slowly, the structure is being filled with buildings for years. Sometimes the areas indicated for building, in response to a lack of demand, are filled with

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buildings randomly and cause dispersion of housing on large areas. The moment when the structure is filled up with buildings is often very distant or unreachable. Areas indicated for investment in excessive quantities are a great challenge for local territorial government, particularly in terms of equipping these areas with road infrastructure and utilities. The investment preparation of these areas burdens the municipal budgets for decades. If the planned investment is not implemented, the expenditure on equipping the site with technical and road infrastructure becomes unnecessary burden on the budget of the local territorial government as well as of the state.

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Figure 2: Staging the development of the village Choczewo, 1. Future - oriented rural development limited by forest, lake and other restrictions, 2. Village area, 3. Optimal development area based on demography, local investment and previous planning decisions, 4. II development phase – areas requested for development, 5. III development phase - areas requested for development

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INFLEXIBILITY OF RULES IN THE TIME OF FLUID MODERNI TY When the expectations of local communities make it necessary to designate boundaries of a locality, significantly greater than the existing one, there is a problem of creating a development vision and building a concept that may not be realized within the next few decades. It is also very likely that the vision of a village's development will undergo considerable transformations in a few years and will modify to fit the changed conditions and needs. When the investment pressure is caused by an inadequate and extravagant forecast, establishing the local law which regulates the right to build is highly unreasonable. The solution would be perhaps to introduce spatial development in the form of stages. However, the current laws do not take into consideration such solutions. Formerly the concept of land reserve was introduced. These reserves were allowed to be consumed 10 years after the local law was introduced. In other cases, development was permitted in selected areas provided that others were fully utilized. Ignoring the compatibility of such solutions with today's regulations, their effectiveness was different. In today's legal conditions this solution does not guarantee success and can only be based on the good will of users of space. In Poland, the determination of the function of the land and the definition of the way of using the property is stated in the local spatial development plan or in the location decision. Drawing up plans is a task of local territorial government. In the absence of a valid plan, investments may be located on the basis of individual location decisions, provided that the nature of the investment, its parameters and the conditions at the location comply with the effective law. These individual decisions, according to the professional community of urbanists and architects, are considered to be the cause of the scattered housing and spatial chaos in Poland. The legal and financial consequences of granting the right to build up by establishing a local spatial development plan are permanent. Once granted right may be withdrawn or limited only with compensation or expropriation. Therefore, it seems to be fully justified to apply a flexible approach to spatial planning in order to solve the planning problems caused by fluid reality. The necessity of adapting to the changing needs of today's users and changing conditions requires efficient and short-term procedures. Unfortunately, the existing regulations on spatial planning are still based on models dating back several dozen years and do not allow for proper functioning. The present formula of the creating inflexible framework for spatial development is only apparent. The mismatch can be seen in the notorious, and continuous changes in local law. Changes are necessary, changes are a constant factor of today's reality, and assuming that this can not affect the spatial planning system is merely an ineffective incantation of reality.

MODERN TECHNOLOGIES VERSUS THE LEGACY OF THE PAST - THE AGILE METHODOLOGIES The design methods applied in the IT industry, including Agile, are the answer to the contemporary needs in terms of adjusting IT products to the pace of changing of the consumerist world. Those methodologies are the essence of our time. In order to adjust to consumer needs without any delay and devoting years to create the perfect solution, the product introduced to the market is imperfect and it requires checking its utility by the users. The model introduced

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES to the market is subjected to tests in a longer period of time (Cobb, 2012). As a result, adjustments and improvements are implemented and each successive iteration has a chance to respond better to the current demand or to even adapt the product according to changing taste. The general premise of the agile design techniques of Agile seems to be the answer to the weak points of spatial planning in the conditions of fluid reality. Traditional spatial planning that forms the framework for constant spatial functional structures in today's economic environment is not effective. However, it is invaluable to verify the foregoing approach to spatial planning formula and to visualize a system based on current modeling of the changing existing state. It happens that spatial modeling is implemented in agglomerations, nevertheless, it is desirable to apply modeling in the areas surrounding agglomerations, including the rural ones. The current monitoring appears to be even more important than the prognosis. Reliable analysis, especially a dynamic one, which takes into consideration the evaluation of development, is now much more difficult than the sole decisionmaking process. Such a dynamic analysis should take into account data and information concerning the implemented investments as well as investment, social and economic successes. The analysis should also consider information on mistakes or unfavorable findings made in the adopted development assumptions for urbanized areas. Dynamic analysis should include information from all the institutions that make decisions on spatial planning and investment, also at the post-implementation level. For these needs, it is essential to create an architecture of data from authorities, investors and developers operating in presently effective local legal conditions. Feedback allows iterations and corrections in the made assumptions. Referring to the words of Luis Sert, it must be stated that the planning of urbanized areas, including the countryside, has become an obsolete term and should be replaced by term urban biology (Mironowicz, 2016). The planning process should be an open process. Based on a reliable set of information, transformed in dynamic analysis, including time and the following changes, individual decisions can be made without compromising the vision of holistic spatial development. The favorable aspect of individual planning decisions is the ability to predestine changes in space solely for the purposes of implementation and not only for the planned investment. Such a system allows you to guard against bad planning decisions concerning excessive development or development different to needs. As a consequence, it saves the local community from wasting capital and spending on unnecessary infrastructure or compensating for altered spatial policy. Contrary to popular opinion of urban planners on the detriment of individual planning decisions, it must be stated that it is precisely these areas in development that are desirable that allow a rational economy. It is only necessary to provide appropriate legal tools for solutions tailored to the needs of communities living too close to the agglomerations to be able to grow on their own and too far to benefit from its splendor and investment appeal.

CONCLUSIONS Spatial planning in areas that in the long term will become the outer boundary of an agglomeration should be based on current research and monitoring of these areas in terms of extensive development. For the ergonomic and effective functioning of the village it is not advisable to accept too intensive development today, before the wave of

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agglomeration reaches its borders. The future of these areas is unpredictable today. The possibilities of selfdevelopment of rural areas surrounding the growing agglomeration are decreasing. For this reason, it is necessary to develop individual methods for flexible management of the spatial development of rural communities in the period preceding the absorption of rural areas into agglomeration structures. Spatial planning based on ongoing empirical research: community capital, economic determinants, investment processes, and the impact of planned planning decisions on quality of life allow for proper individual spatial decisions in areas of amorphous future. Perhaps in the face of global crises and sudden and significant changes in the economic and spatial structure immediately following them, it is worth considering a flexible, based on agile techniques, a method of designing a human living environment. Agility and efficiency in recession and crisis is important both for residents who are often without prospects for work and dignified lives and for rural residents on the eve of inclusion in the agglomeration.

REFERENCES Cobb, Charles G. 2012. Zrozumieć Agile Project Management. Równowaga kontroli i elastyczności. Warszawa: APN Promise SA Jałowiecki, Bogdan and Marek S. Szczepański. 2006. Miasto i przestrzeń w perspektywie socjologicznej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar Mironowicz, Izabela. 2016. Modele transformacji miast. Wrocław: Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej Mordasewicz, Jeremi and Jerzy Osiatyński, Jerzy Regulski, Jerzy Stępień, Przemysław Śleszyński, Adam Kowalewski. 2013. Raport o ekonomicznych stratach i społecznych kosztach niekontrolowanej urbanizacji w Polsce. Warszawa Sykała, Łukasz and Magdalena Dej, Wojciech Jarczewski, Karol Janas, Agnieszka Świgost, Agnieszka Mucha, Oskar Wolski. 2016. Raport z polskiej części badań w ramach projektu pn. Analiza europejskiej idei partnerstw miejsko-wiejskich i ich implementacji w Europie na przykładzie regionów metropolitalnych Hamburga i Krakowa (województwa małopolskiego). Kraków Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. 2013. Antykruchość. Kraków: Kurhaus Publishing

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REVITALIZATION OF VAST CITY SPACES THROUGH THE MEANS OF SOUND Anja Kostanjšak 149 PhD student, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, 10000 Zagreb, [email protected] Morana Pap PhD candidate, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, [email protected] Tena Lazarević M.Arch, sound artist, [email protected] ABSTRACT City could be described as a living, breathing machine, tremendous machine. During a period of time, cities are changing with its inhabitants. These changes aren’t obvious at first sight, but they can be acknowledged during a period of time. In this time gap, some places lose their primary purpose and get inhabited with the new ones, some just stay forgotten, omitted. These places are the ones that draw our attention, that we are interested in. These vast places, which are forgotten in the memory of its inhabitants, or which were just omitted due to other differences, are the places of heritage. These spaces are also places of possibilities and places of encounter, places where private and common realm get intertwined. Through existing case studies and workshops, Zagreb and Belgrade vast spaces (and other cities in the region, which could be researched in further phases) and their acknowledgment through sound-producing structures and installations (Zadar), we produce / offer places which become once again introduced into a memory of its inhabitants, and again become socially aware. Through this approaches we make people involved with their forgotten spaces in the city, places of heritage, and make them again attractive to new users, or at least they became again part of everyday talk, and maybe get their second chance in being place of life. Cohousing as a way of coexistence can be placed in this spaces after they become once again introduced as a “part” of the city, not just as a place of lost memory. All this places are usually inside clusters, so as such, they are ideal for cohousing. Spaces that became places of interplay and interaction of community around them. Today, more flexible and dynamic places and structures are required, in which conventions of the past have been replaced with some new conventions of digital age in which we are living today. The evolution of social behaviour requires a change in the concept of design. Heterogeneity and multifunctionality features are now already current. Communication is a structural component of society. Now, more than ever before, almost nothing can be generated without communication. Erasing the boundaries or more accurately fading / bleaching of the boundaries is becoming more common. Through the power of temporary use, and with sound acting as urban catalyst we make this places acknowledged, brought to the memory of its inhabitants, and making them once again part of the community. Keywords: vast places, urban catalyst, sound-producing structures, temporary use 149


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INTRODUCTION While walking through the city space, we stumble upon different experiences. We encounter places of placidity, places of action, places of utter silences, and utter loudness / noisiness. So as we pass by these spaces we also acknowledge different structures / buildings, different places of genius loci. Some of these buildings are lively, some are quiet, and others are newly decorated or dilapidated, even abandoned. While walking next to these dilapidated and abandoned places, imprint of their former glory creeps upon us and stays with us. In Zagreb, Belgrade, and other cities, throughout the region, through which we are going to take a walk, are areas that can be found which were left behind during the time transition that led to their transformation. They are abandoned because they lost their main purpose / main function, and weren’t quick enough in act of embracing new ones. Their position is mainly placed inside of block of buildings which is inhabited by different functions from residential use to office spaces, and this multifunctionality offers them multiple choices of making places around them better for people occupying them. Inside them, in dependence of functions occupying surrounding buildings, different experiences can take place, from concept stores, to migrant museums, coffee shops, concert spaces, paintball playgrounds; here is a place of indefinite possibilities. These places are vast city places, usually located inside of a cluster of buildings which continued to live their everyday life disregarding the buildings left behind, and stuck in some other era. This is the space of infinite possibilities. Here in quietness and stillness of now we can make tomorrow.

MAKING PLACE ONCE AGAIN DESIRABLE “We are always at the edge of visual space looking into it with the eye. But we are always in the center of auditory space listening out with the ear” (Schafer, 1985, p. 94) Buildings detached from their primary function are desperately in need of the new ones. This new functions don’t have to be permanent, and stick to this place, they have to be catalysts / accelerators of urbanity, and should have for a goal to make this places part of everyday life, part of today life. Temporary uses are neither novel nor marginal manifestations, and they do offer urban development. There are different ways to make forgotten place again active in the memory of city, and in the memory of its inhabitants. Stand-in, free flow, impulse, consolidation, co-existence, parasite, pioneer, subversion and displacement are ways of interfering in urban tissue. It is mainly important to take to notion that temporary use is unplanned, even when people try to plan it. We could say that patterns of temporary use are patterns of unplanned. Importing sound as urban catalyst can make this places, which are unpleasant to the eye, interesting to the soul. Architecture as a concept is more from the visual side of emotional realm, whereas experience of space comes from

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES rather different combinations / synthesis of awareness. To experience space we combine several senses. For example, sounds are important in creating sense of space on unconscious level. Depending on the way sound echoes through space we perceive this place as pleasant or cold, we even perceive depth of place depending on the echo, and we are not aware of it. An aural urbanity requires new approaches, which include new appliances / tools, and also a new architectural language, which has for aim making unconscious more conscious.

CASE STUDIES “Seeing and sounding are different. Seeing is analytical and reflective. Sounding is active and generative” (Schafer, 1985, p. 96) Mapping the usage of abandoned spaces, which lost their initial purpose for various reasons, and became places emptied of their content, for public or other purposes is the next phase of the research. Reconstruction / rehabilitation projects should certainly be sensitive to the specifics of individual situations and simultaneously align various needs. Our interest in this process is to introduce the issue of sound in the whole story of reconstruction / rehabilitation that is reviving these places at an even higher level. CASE STUDY ZAGREB EVERYWHERE is international collaboration between writer Gordana Crnkovic (Croatia), video artist Victor Ingrassia (USA) and composer David Hahn (USA) which resulted with a video portrayal of the city of Zagreb in 2001. In Zagreb Everywhere sounds from Zagreb were collected and together with music from David Hahn the soundscape for the piece was created. Zagreb Everywhere provides a unique view of Zagreb and its inimitable features. At the same time it is showing the experiences of the city and its people. The work exists in two formats: a stand-alone video work and a multimedia performance piece with projected visual images, sound and narration. CASE STUDY ENERGY OF NATURE SINGING THROUGH THE SEA ORGAN, created by architect Nikola Basic 150 in 2005 is located on the shore of Zadar in Croatia. This awarded urban architectural installation was created as part of the project to redesign the new city coast. It was designed to let people enjoy the point where the medieval town of Zadar embraces the Adriatic Sea. By virtue of his project, the inhabitants of Zadar have been restored once more to their relation with the sea. The whole site is a wide (70 meters long with simple white steps and 35 musically tuned tubes underneath) natural musical instrument, played by the wind and the sea. In other words, installation is using the sea wave random kinetic energy to produce sounds / music. Sounds produced by the sea water and wind movements, are heard by passers. A listener is standing or sitting on a chosen point on the scalinade, and is hearing natural music. Thus a communication with nature is achieved and also a unity of architecture and environment. After the Sea Organ was build, this site became a place for relaxation, contemplation and conversation while listening to an endless concert of the "Orchestra of Nature". CASE STUDY SOUND AS A MEAN OF LIBERATION, is the project called sound, waves and space, organized by the Nebograd NGO from Belgrade, Serbia. It examines new definition of singing in public space. The temporary quire 150

Nikola Basic won European Prize for Urban Public Space for Sea Organ project.

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made by professionals and non-professionals was to guarantee a freedom of singing as a form of personal expression in an urban context without any pressures, notes or text. The un-used, vast spaces of Sava Mala district, have been selected according to their acoustical values. Special instrument was used to measure frequency that resonates the most, which determined the singing tones. Those tones have been picked and sang, with more or less freedom, resulting with an intense effect of the “liberated voices”. The workshop, followed by the public performance / protest march tried to demystify the idea of sound in public space and to invite everyone to join and free themselves from the everyday political, psychological and societal pressures. CASE STUDY THE SENSE OF LIMINAL IN SOUNDSCAPES OF SPANJOLA FORTRESS shows us the fact that we perceive the depth of space through the sense of hearing as both well-known and scientifically proven, but very often neglected when it comes to spatial interventions. An interesting project addressing this issue was organized in the Fortress Spanjola, in the medieval, maritime city of Herceg Novi, in the form of a workshop that resulted with a sound installation 151. “The abandoned 16th century fortress has been entirely embraced by the nature for years: the walls are overgrown by the grapes; houses in the centre are covered in ivy and many other plants; roofs are made from tree branches...” 152 in order to promote the hidden cultural and historical values of this extraordinary and unusual environment, the sound group decided to use the site specific natural sound sources - the crickets. Their sound has been captured and gently re-designed: “Modifying the pitch, frequency, tempo, rhythm, strength and other characteristics of the cricket sound, a fifteen minute "composition" was created containing a variety of modulation of songs. The very composition of recorded sounds, little by little, becomes modified, and eventually completely loses the recognition of the original recording.” 153 The composition has been played in carefully chosen dark but acoustical places in the fortress, with the aim of creating the sense of liminality 154 and fostering the imagination of the audience. Its effect resulted in a merely different perception of the existing space. The sound created another picture, constructed new walls, arches, corridors along the dark unknown spaces, in the spectators mind. CASE STUDY SENSORY GARDEN RADIVOJ DAVIDOVIC is located in between the block of school buildings for kids with various sensorial disabilities in Zemun district, in the capital of Belgrade, Serbia. It is an ongoing project organized as a collaborative practice between the activists of NGO Belgrade Festival of flowers, architect Pavle Stamenovic, architect Tena Lazarevic and the director and staff from the school Radivoj Davidovic. Being on open, but still 151 The workshop was organized from 4 to 9 July 2012th in cooperation with the Dis-patch collective and Herceg Novi Synaesthesia Festival supported by the Goethe-guerrilla group from Belgrade, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Pristina, Skopje and from Herceg Novi. 152 Quote, Goethe Guerilla website. [online] Available at http://www.goethe.de/ins/cs/sr/bel/kul/sup/012/gui/9983653.html [Accessed 5 July 2014]. 153 Quote, Goethe Guerilla website. [online] Available at http://www.goethe.de/ins/cs/sr/bel/kul/sup/012/gui/9983653.html [Accessed 5 July 2014]. 154 In anthropology, liminality (from the Latin word l īmen,of uality meaning ambiguity "a threshold") or disorientation is the that q occurs in the middle stage of rituals, when participants no longer hold their pre-ritual status but have not yet begun the transition to the status they will hold when the ritual is complete. During a ritual's liminal stage, participants "stand at the threshold" between their previous way of structuring their identity, time, or community, and a new way, which the ritual establishes.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES neglected space, public and yet clustered, the vast green area between the school building has been neglected and out of active use for years. The idea was to design an inclusive, public garden for kids with different ages and abilities to experience nature using all five senses. Having impairment of one or more senses, the kids can navigate through the garden, following various different stimuli, such as wind chimes on the trees, sound toys, different flower smells and colours etc. In addition to using the plants and other design elements in enhancing the senses through the playful use of space and re-connection with the nature, the garden also has a therapeutic function. Music and sounds, for autistic kids, can be a stepping stone for communicating in other areas. With this regard, the special multi-sensorial toys are designed to foster communication, stimulate interactivity, while creating a calming and safe atmosphere.

CONCLUSIONS This research has the intent of the authors to identify a variety of different scenarios of use and activation of abandoned / vast spaces and to show the potentials of that "spaces of sleep". Some of the main aims of this research paper are to explore furthermost places of human perception through inhabiting dilapidated and abandoned spaces with means that can revive them, and make them once again part of community, with functions and life. Human perception of sound 155 in particular is important in order to increase even further the knowledge that intertwines around this topic, and also to once again bring scientists and artists together as equals in this interdisciplinary approach. Through this we try to make space audible for people to see with their conscious selves, not to relinquish them only to the unconscious. Pure sounds are totally connected to the architectural environment, to the space surrounding us so we should take special care to make this aural architecture more present.

According to Julian Treasure there are four major ways sound is affecting us all the time: physiological, psychological, cognitively and behaviourally. (in TED Talk Julian Treasure: The Four Ways Sound Affects Us) 155

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REFERENCES Hahn, D., 2002. “Creating the soundscape for Zagreb Everywhere” in Organised Sound, 7, pp 57-63. Minuchin, L., 2014. “Noise, language and public protest: the cazerolazos in Buenos Aires”, in Matthew Gandy, BJ Nilsen, The Acoustic City. Berlin: Jovis Verlag GmbH. Oswald, P., Overmeyer K. and Misselwitz, P., 2013. Urban Catalyst. Berlin: DOM publishers. Various Authors, 2012. Music, Space and Architecture. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Academy of Architecture, Architectura & Natura. Schafer, M.R., 1985. “Acoustic Space”. In D. Seamon & R. Mugerauer (Eds.), Dwelling, Place and Environment. Malabar: Kreiger Publishing Company.

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“URBAN RENEWAL UNDER THE SCOPE OF SECURITY ISSUES” - CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE – GLOOMY PARTS OF THE CITY Eva Vaništa Lazarević, Full Professor, Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade, [email protected] Zoran Keković Full Professor, Faculty of Security Studies University of Belgrade, [email protected] Ana Paraušić PhD student, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Security Studies, Gospodara Vučića 50, Belgrade, [email protected]

ABSTRACT City center of Belgrade, Serbia, is broadly known for its generally high level of safety, which gives him a special advantage in between the European cities; having in mind its past, postwar trauma oriented inhabitants and migration processes passing through. Never the less, to upgrade the level of safety of certain quarters by urban renewal would lead Belgrade to more resilient city, more enjoyable and open to touristic but primarily with more comfort for its inhabitants. There are, indeed, some less secure spots what the city statistics clearly show; which could be improved through the process of urban renewal: through reconstruction, urban regeneration and conservation – especially places left demolished after 1999. NATO bombing. Along with identifying the factors of urban renewal, professionals should be open to explore concepts which bring new light to how resilience could be enforced. While concept of fragility or “zero tolerance” is defined as a strong sensitivity to a stressor, antifragility is associated to generating positive responses to stress instead of harm. Antifragility describes cautious actions, being strongly related to risk management, and, as we may propose, represents a component to be included within the urban renewal and community resilience factors. As new risks can emerge overnight, constant assessment should be made to detect whether the urban renewal is facing benefits or impairments in coping with unexpected events or in the phases of expecting it. The question, as always, is one of proportion (How much of each concept/strategy?) and relevance (What kinds of dangers deserve the different concepts?), and ultimately, given uncertainty, of bias (When in doubt, which concept should receive priority?). This paper is analyzing those gloomy spots in the city in order to establish the guidelines based on real indicators and parameters targeting public resilience in response to particular known or unknown security risks. For risks with high ambiguity, it can be suggested to adopt a approach which is designed to reach stakeholder consensus on the acceptability and tolerability of a risk based on multi-level governance processes termed ‘distributed responsibility’.

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Both urban renewal and distributed responsibility are increasingly being used by governments and public sector organisations to effectively influence the public resilience. Finally, the guidelines should be incorporated in legislative in order to become an obligation, which should be practically used afterwards. Keywords: Urban Renewal, Gloomy Spots, Security, Distributed Responsibility, Public Resilience.

INTRODUCTION City center of Belgrade, Serbia, is broadly known for its generally high level of safety, which gives him a special advantage in between the European cities. This may seem surprising having in mind it’s past, postwar trauma oriented inhabitants and migration processes passing through. The end of the past century was a period of turmoil for Serbia. A decade of civil war in the whole region, severe political transitions and relocation, which occurred during and, after wartime resulted in huge sociological change (Vaništa Lazarević et al. 2016: 5). This all had a great impact on overall level of security in capital town. Never the less, to upgrade the level of safety of certain quarters by urban renewal would lead Belgrade to more resilient city, more enjoyable and open to touristic but primarily with more comfort for its inhabitants. There are, indeed, some less secure spots what the city statistics clearly show. The research conducted in 2007-2008 by the team of Urban Planning Institute of Belgrade which involved the analysis of users’ perception of space and its safety based on the survey of the citizens, showed that 51% of population avoids some parts of the city because of fear; 69% of the respondents considered that they personally had had or had the knowledge that somebody close to them had had some sort of an unpleasant experience, from verbal attacks, insults and comments to physical attacks, thefts and other criminal acts (Danilović-Hristić, 2012: 124). Unsafe urban locations could be improved through the process of urban renewal: through reconstruction, urban regeneration and conservation – especially places left demolished after 1999 NATO bombing. On one of them, we will focus in order to point out the significance of our investigation: the so called “Mostar’s Loop”, under the high way through Belgrade, the cross with famous boulevard named after “Knez Miloš”, in Belgrade.

Picture 1. Underway Picture

2. The cross way – so called: Mostar Loop

3. sexual delicts

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Any city of the world, Belgrade as well, “...as a government unit, is growing increasingly larger, more complex and more important. It has always had the capability to adapt and to improve, due to external and internal stressors, due to the variety and plurality of needs and desires of their inhabitants, users, social and economic subjects, using available technologies and information» (Blečić & Cecchini, 2017: 5). But processes of globalization, urbanization and modernization with all its consequences have made cities places of constant insecurities for its residents. These insecurities are shaped by vulnerability which is closely linked to under-development and resulting from combination of factors that determine the degree to which some places (or someone’s life and livelihood) is put at risk. The number of people at risk is increasing significantly, with rapid urbanization inducing uncontrolled and densely populated informal settlements in hazard-prone areas. The lack of capacity of cities and local governments to regulate building standards and land use plans exacerbates the risk of those living in vulnerable conditions (Kekovic, Ninkovic, Džigurski, 2016). With the rapid increase of the urban population worldwide, cities face a variety of risks, concerns, and problems; such as pollution of air, water and soil, unemployment, violence, poverty etc. (Nam & Pardo, 2011: 282). Processes of globalization and urbanization have provoked such problems as creation of slums, pressure in infrastructure, and threats related to public transportation and health (Lemieux, 2016: 1). Except higher crime rates, 21st century cities face challenges of disease epidemics, as well natural emergencies, which have significant impact on urban population safety and security. New mega-cities are unfortunately cities of poverty, almost often (in big percentage) real slums, settled on south part of the globe: Asia, Africa and Latin America. Furiously upgrading rates of inhabitants, which reach between 15 and 20 millions of inhabitants, ring the bell and appeal for immediate global attention and reaction in order to prevent disasters.

Picture 3.

Poverty diminishes the feeling of wellbeing through a lack of security, and opens widely door to all sorts of criminal behavior. It is well known that the safety is an essential component of healthy neighborhood. As Chan and Lee argue citizens “would like to know what is going on in the public areas around their dwellings and hence urban design that

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fails to keep the space under public surveillance reduces a sense of security of the citizens” (Chan & Lee, 2008: 247). Well planned renewal project should stress upon security and resilience dimension, should provide accessible and useful open spaces, spaces where residents not only feel safe, but are really safe; spaces that contribute to social cohesion and wellbeing and reduce human stress. It is easier to mention that thesis in scientific theory but pretty difficult to implement in real life. Bearing this in mind, the aim of this paper is to try to define an average example of a gloomy spot in the city of Belgrade in order to establish some preliminary elements of the guidelines based on indicators and parameters targeting community resilience in response to particular known or unknown security risks. Along with identifying elements of resilience, professional should be open to explore new concepts with special emphasis on security and community resilience dimension. Since resilience refers to the ability of human settlements to withstand and to recover quickly from any plausible hazards (Kekovic, Ninkovic, Džigurski, 2016), we will try to present some of the up going starting strategies in that particular case, in order incorporate direct urban renewal project to reduce the vulnerability and strengthen the resilience of the city and its residents. For risks with high ambiguity, it can be suggested to adopt an approach, which is, designed to reach stakeholder consensus on the acceptability and tolerability of a risk based on multi-level governance processes termed ‘distributed responsibility’. The Report of the Secretary-General’s High-level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change (United Nations, 2004: 10) pointed to new tasks for the UN system in the 21st century: “Without mutual recognition of threats there can be no collective security. ...What is needed is nothing less than a new consensus. …The essence of that consensus is simple: we all share responsibility for each other’s security.” Both urban renewal and distributed responsibility (for example - between private and public partnerships) are increasingly being used by global governments to effectively influence the community resilience. We need all kinds of synergy fighting against referred fatal issue in new cities: insecurity. The safe economy will surely ensure a better position for fighting against, but we are stressing the fact that the lack of security in even “old cities” on the north of the globe is entirely the effect of generally bad times we live, especially in European geographical frame (except Germany and Nordic countries) meaning upon low salaries, unemployment, lack of possibilities, economical consequences of big crisis from 2008 and gaining of new better position for BRIC countries versus Europe. In a sense of strength EU position after UK left last summer is also deeply disturbed. Huge migrations from 2015 do not simplify the overall situation.

URBAN RENEWAL – CONCEPT AND SIGNIFICANCE Concept of European urban renewal has its roots in the second half of 20th century, mostly lately 70ies and beginning in 80ies formally starting with an integrative regeneration of London’s docklands. Jane Jacobs, on the contrary wrote about American cities from 60ies concerning Urban redevelopment, and United States are considering itself as a pioneer actor and initiator of Urban renewal, American way. Often it is happening under the negative context, especially towards gentrification, which ends with ghettoisation.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Old city centers, however, were faced with threat of extinction back in the 80`s, while population fled to residential suburbia, “promised green zones” (Vaništa Lazarević & Djukic, 2006: 73). In city centers remained usually old inhabitants that lack resources for maintaining buildings in which they live in. Those buildings were often architectural and cultural heritage. Infrastructure was mainly run-down and unmaintained, criminal rates were high, while drugs and prostitution are widespread. Bearing this in mind, old city centers were facing significant security risks, with its residents fearing for personal safety. This motivated local authorities in European metropolis to invest in urban renewal of old city centers. Numerous developers saw potential in restoration of smaller venues and desolated industrial zones with high potential. Soon, this became trend in all European big cities in which more than 80% percent of the population lives. Cities are, it is well known - places where most significant decisions about future of a region or a country are made. Their economic, social and cultural prosperity is of the at most importance for the wellbeing of future generations. 156 At the same time, city represents social, political and cultural environment in which individuals directly exercise their civil and other rights, i.e. the place where those rights are most obviously threatened. Therefore, enhancing living framework of the city, raising comfort and life quality of its residents are main goals of urban renewal (Vaništa Lazarević, 2003: 5859). Nevertheless, the new century is coming with some transformations regarding coping with the cities development: there is no more priority in preserving architectural heritage and caring about pure aesthetic of new interpolated objects, but focus on primordial needs like maintaining a social environment. This important change of paradigms is essential to understand time frame of today. Now we are approaching two of today’s new “plagues”: poverty and insecurity, mixed together, depending on each other and provoking each other, multilayered exposed to the global audience. Both phenomena’s are our biggest concern of cities of today, and maybe a reason why a pretty new term as “resilience” in urbanism is stepping up front. Infrastructure and environment have strong influence on what is happening on the streets surrounding them. Architects and urban planners have long suggested that that the types of buildings and architectural design have impact on people’s perception of security, but as well as real events. Paths that have bushes in many locations might enable offenders to hide, or cutting back the distance to be walked and removing hiding places affects the opportunity to commit crime (Dymén & Ceccato, 2011: 315). 157 Visual images of buildings and its design and interconnectivity of streets have strong impact on how city residents perceive its significance and whether they feel satisfied and safe. Feeling of comfort is maybe the prime parameter on which we should stress to achieve.

This idea is best framed within the concept of smart cities. This concept is not new, but in recent years has gained new quality by incorporating the use of Information and Communication Technologies. The idea of smart cities has evolved to “a model to mitigate and remedy current urban problems and make cities better as places to live“ (Nam & Pardo, 2011: 283).

156

Another example of security threat considering urban environment might be outdoor sexual violence. Rape, for instance, tends to occur in area characterized by construction sites, urban renewal, parks and temporary lodgings. These, and many other concerns, have guided urban planners to develop principles of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design. 157

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Having this in mind, there is full justification to incorporate urban renewal and enhancing community resilience into single concepts. This would certainly lead to better prevention and reaction to security risks city residents face every day, but it will also increase their subjective feeling of safety, which can overall improve their wellbeing. Due to the fact that different groups often share the same physical area (i.e. Savamala in Belgrade has historical value with ruins in reconstruction sites which are also famous for its rich nightlife. Next to this site with the community is emerging so-called Belgrade Waterfront as a new complex of buildings which is supposed to be the most modern part of the city populated with well situated inhabitant). It is important to consider the social contexts in which risks occur and that people therefore do not necessarily share the same perceptions of risk and their underlying causes. Resulting from the roles of values, beliefs and norms, the mediating role of perceptions between perceived vulnerability and policy responses is of tremendous importance for the distributed responsibility among members of community.

ENHANCING COMMUNITY RESILIENCE THROUGH URBAN RENEWAL Vulnerability and Resilience in the context and as a part of Urban renewal Security issues and threats in urban context can emerge from different sources and are various. Modern cities are mixture of elite quarters and deteriorated locations, regenerated modern places and run-down industrial building not active today, as well abandoned construction sites (Treu, 2016: 2). That is why is important to outline the basic meanings of resilience and vulnerability, as two concepts that could have great importance for the urban renewal project in the diverse surroundings of the 21st century city, like Belgrade is. As the ability of cities, communities and households to manage risks, by maintaining or strengthening their capacity to prevent and adapt to them, concept of resilience describes how to adapt to changing conditions through learning, planning, or reorganization (World Resources Institute, 2008). As Brauch argues we need to shift the basis of planning “from a ‘threat based’ model that has dominated thinking in the past to a ‘capabilities-based’ model in the future [that] … focuses more on how an adversary might fight rather than specifically who the adversary might be or where a war might occur” (Brauch, 2003: 391). As opposed to resilience, vulnerability concept addresses weaknesses of entity on how an adversary might fight. Nathan (2009: 1125) pointed to a dual vulnerability: on the one side “a tendency to undergo damages, i.e. a state of fragility, or a set of conditions, that raise the susceptibility of a community to the impact of a damaging phenomenon. On the other side, vulnerability is incapacity to anticipate, cope with, resist to, adapt to and recover from hazards. Vulnerable units are either not resistant, i.e. not capable to withstand the shock (without adapting); and/or not resilient, i.e. not capable to absorb the shock and adapt to come back to an acceptable state”. We can say that vulnerability is considered as a state of fragility which is characterized by: ‘transversal’ features (overall vulnerabilities are cross-related); constantly changing over time; cumulative effects (causing crisis that in turn aggravate it); both hazard and subject/asset related; highly differentiated (different subjects, even at the same

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES ‘level’, have different vulnerabilities); context-dependent; aggregated effects (human vulnerability is induced by physical and social vulnerability). As Cardona (2004: 49) summarises vulnerability originates in: • Physical fragility or exposure: the susceptibility of a human settlement to be affected by a dangerous phenomenon due to its location in the area of influence of the phenomenon and a lack of physical resistance; • Socio-economic fragility; the predisposition to suffer harm from the levels of marginality and social segregation of human settlements, and the disadvantageous conditions and relative weakness related to social and economic factors; and • Lack of resilience: an expression of the limitations of access and mobilization of the resources of human settlement, and its incapacity to respond when it comes to absorbing the impact. Having in mind these dimensions of vulnerability and resilience, we argue that urban renewal decision making process needs to be based on vulnerability and capacity assessment providing the complex set of characteristics and indicators which primarily includes: unsafe physical conditions - fragile physical environment: dangerous location, unprotected buildings, infrastructures; and fragile local economy: livelihoods at risk, low income levels; vulnerable society: special groups at risk, lack of local institutions; lack of disaster preparedness, prevalence of endemic disease. Another concept that is important to mention when we think about community resilience and urban renewal is risk perception. It is argued that in situations where ‘normal’ daily life was itself difficult to distinguish from crisis, it is expected high level of acceptable risk since fragility is intrinsic characteristic of affected area and people at risk. Acceptable risk includes technical, technological, environmental, social and other aspects, and represents a compromise between acceptable the level of security and economic opportunity for its achievement (Kekovic et al., 2011: 46). What people think the risk is (risk perception) presents integral part of vulnerability framework which determines appropriate set of indicators. In the context of community resilience, the issue of risk perception depends substantially of the real, the expected benefits (Kekovic, et al, 2011: 46). The perception of risk may be also determined by the difference between willing and unwilling accepted risk. Involuntary accepted risks are risks imposed outside and beyond individual control. As a rule, tolerance to such risk is lower (Kekovic, et al, 2011:47). Along with identifying the significance of vulnerability, resilience and risk perception as factors of urban renewal, professionals should be open to explore concepts which bring new light to how resilience could be enforced. In that sense we can propose new strategies that can be easily incorporated in the urban renewal projects in order to enhance security and resilience of community and citizens facing different threats in their everyday life in the city. We focus on the concept of fragility, specifically antifragility that is associated with positive response to stress instead of harm. Something that is fragile is likely to get damaged or break over time. Fragile systems fail because they are easily broken regardless of the nature of stress they are exposed to (Johnson & Gheorghe, 2013). But there are systems, objects and communities that developed ability not only to withstand stress but they actually get better as they are exposed to stress or they produce serendipitous outputs. They have became antifragile. The most essence of the concept of antifragility we can find in Taleb who stated that antifragility is ”beyond resilience or robustness. The

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resilient resists shocks and stays the same; the antifragile gets better“ (Taleb, 2012: 21). As cities consist of buildings and people, urban renewal projects should focus on enhancing antifragility of them both. Antifragility describes cautious actions, being strongly related to risk management, and, as we may propose, represents a component to be included within the urban renewal and community resilience factors. As new risks can emerge overnight, constant assessment should be made to detect whether the urban renewal is facing benefits or impairments in coping with unexpected events or in the phases of expecting it. The question, as always, is one of proportion (How much of each concept/strategy?) and relevance (What kinds of dangers deserve the different concepts?), and ultimately, given uncertainty, of bias (When in doubt, which concept should receive priority?). For risks with high ambiguity, it can be suggested to adopt an approach which is designed to reach stakeholder consensus on the acceptability and tolerability of a risk based on multi-level governance processes termed ‘distributed responsibility’. Urban renewal projects planned with the idea of shared responsibility, have potential to give certain public spaces a new role of promotion sociability and social cohesion. Governments and public sector organizations to effectively influence the public resilience are increasingly using both urban renewal and distributed responsibility. The highest political leaders to assure good financial and time frame launch the urban renewal. The whole team of different professionals is needed to provide the urban renewal complexity (Vaništa Lazarević & Đukić, 2006: 72). Synergy in the processes of urban regeneration implies different professions working together, alongside joint stakeholders who, in most cases include: representatives of local government, investors, businesses and members of the public (Vaništa Lazarevic et al, 2016:10). Building secure urban environment requires a long-term dedication, bringing together diverse parties, stakeholders, scholar, NGO and citizens to rebuild a safer urban community with the whole city, center and suburbia. Most successful examples of urban renewal are a result of strong national and local support along with residents` participation in direct or indirect decision making (Vaništa Lazarević & Đukić, 2006: 76). Communication and collaboration between experts, local community and government representatives is important in terms of socially responsible management and planning, and also for clarifying responsibilities and institutional arrangements. Based on distributed responsibility, any true multi-stakeholder project should strive to include permanent and temporary members of community, to ensure community support to the urban renewal efforts in early stage. In that way, consensus and willingness to engage in prevention efforts and recognizing warning signs and signals for risk factors on potential human-induced risks is being provided. Example: Mostar’s loop in Belgrade

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Picture 5. 6. and 7: New development: business and residential complex “Skyline” near Mostar Loop

There are many devastated parts of Belgrade, known for its insecurity. For a while, no deep analyze has been established except some individual statistics (above mentioned), so we are defining facts based upon average experience: dark and gloomy parts under the streets, passages, and zones near greenery not enlightened enough. Anyway, the citizens instinctively know and feel which quarters are not being secure enough in order to avoid them: for example Banjica, Kaluđerica, Karaburma, Krnjača, Zemun, New Belgrade (in particular block 45 and surroundings), Voždovac in some aside zones, Rakovica etc. Those parts share one another poor characteristic: poverty. Statistically, low social structure of inhabitants often encourages insecurity and enhances a possibility for crime. Therefore, we will try to describe one typical gloomy spot in the center of Belgrade and how an urban renewal project – a new development named “Skyline” has potential to impact on the overall security, objective and perceived. The first Author of this paper (Eva Vaništa Lazarevic) has worked as a Councillor for urbanism on assignment of urban regeneration of the area near our example - Mostar’s Loop. Urbanistically, it consisted of an abandoned place (previous MUP’s building devastated after NATO’s bombing in 1999 staying in ruins for 17 years). An Israeli famous architect, structured a base with of three high rise buildings, planned as a huge mega structure. Designed on purpose to become a symbol, which can be spotted from all areas of the city, an object obtained all local permissions and is very welcomed by City Government as a big foreign investment in Belgrade. Placed on a place - a cross of a main boulevard and a highway, till now unpleasant for pedestrians, Skyline building as the interpolation in the old city core consisted of traditional urban blocks - is expecting to be a factor of upgrading and gentrifying the whole area. Its urbanistic approach is very important: the new public place around the building will connect the main boulevard through the slope with till now a gloomy spot of underground traffic junction by a new, redesigned contemporary path, with a lot of green areas and places for relaxing and rest (picture 6 & 7). Surely, a new level of the safety will be obtained naturally along with the gentrification of the whole area so the pedestrians could spend more time in a renewable & enjoyable urban passage. More than a decade ago, under the patronage of the Italian Embassy, an architectural competition upon four points of the cross around Mostar loop was launched. Smartly as a procedure, it was envisaged that this problem has to be evaluated and considered as a whole. The building of the Ministry of Interior at the northeast corner, for example, also damaged by bombing in 1999 still stands in anticipation of investors, and repurposing or demolition. Building brewery, beer industry “BIP” across the street, at the southeast corner of Mostar Loop is the vernacular industry facility from

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first part of the 20th century, without intending to become an urban rapper - the highway did not exist in that Era. Today, after several unsuccessful privatizations it has been abandoned and is waiting for new investors. The fourth corner, the southwest one, an area of previous old mill, after a series of unsuccessful tenders received quality epilogue: a luxury hotel was erased. Till now, formally underground, pedestrians` paths under the high way near Mostar’s Loup were unsecure, badly enlightened and unsurveilled. As the stop of a public traffic is near, the pedestrians had to pass through the unsecured and unsafe land to reach a Street of Knez Miloš. A lot of rapes and burglaries’ are still happening at this particular spot, although in the strict city center, near the main Boulevard of Knez Miloš. That particular spot represents a real gloomy place, even not in a bad area of some earlier mentioned suburbia quarters. It is believed that it is of crucial importance that this time the State and the City retain investors and provide an opportunity to begin final revitalizing of the Mostar Loop’s quarter focusing on all of four corners of Mostar place through the methods or Urban renewal. “Skyline” (picture 5, 6 and 7) on north-west corner is just starting the process of building. “Skyline” object will spread out its focus of design to the surrounding - public land, now a gloomy and unsafe spot - which will be fully redesigned, reconstructed and revitalized free of charge, given as a gift to the city and its inhabitants. That is how a method of urban renewal, as a reconstruction or interpolation can change not only a spot but also an environment and a significance of a quarter.

CONCLUSION Cities of the 21st century are complex phenomena that incorporate urban center and growing suburban sprawl. Development plans must be created together with prevention programs against insecurities, “which require aimspecific policies of urban regeneration and renewal” (Treu, 2016: 1). If want to be successful, urban renewal aimed at enhancing resilience of the city and its residence must be freed from analysis and actions shaped according to political interests. Urban renewal should be oriented in accordance to meet various social, economic, political and cultural objectives These project oriented to promote security should focus on regeneration centered on the quality of public spaces, as well as renewed network of material and immaterial services and cultural mediation between different generations and cultures (Treu, 2016: 8). Destruction of existing social networks, expulsion of vulnerable groups and adverse impacts on living environments should be avoided. In that sense, this paper is useful source of information on basic concepts that can contribute to enhancing security, resilience and public preparedness through smart programs of urban renewal. Urban renewal based on common work of different interested parties who design, build and use public urban spaces can strengthen the understanding of urban planners, local authorities and citizens on the connection of physical and social characteristic of the environment. That is why we suggest considering concepts of vulnerability, resilience, risk perception and fragility together with urban development.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES The quality of whole community can be raised when all the significant factor, social, political, cultural and security, are considered before creation and implementation of urban renewal projects. With this sustainable living environment could be established, and both physical and psychological needs of the citizens are satisfied. Ideas developed in this paper could be further developed for the other Serbian cities, as well in countries with similar social and cultural background. This also leaves space for other urban and security scholars to raise new questions in regard to public urban spaces resilience and public preparedness of its citizens. Further research in this field could provide a broader list of precise indicators for evaluating successfulness of urban renewal projects that should be implemented in the future.

REFERENCES A more secure world: Our shared responsibility. 2004. New York: United Nations. Blečić, Ivan, and Cecchini, Arnaldo. 2017. “On the antifragility of cities and of their buildings”. City, Territory and Architecture 4, no. 1: 1-11. Brauch, Hans Günter. 2003. “National Missile Defence Programmes and Debates in the United States on the Mediterranean: An Assessment”. In Security and Environment in the Mediterranean. Conceptualising Security and Environmental Conflicts, edited by Brauch, Hans Günter, et al., 369-410. Berlin: Springer. Cardona, Omar. 2004. “The Need for Rethinking the Concepts of Vulnerability and Risk from a Holistic Perspective: A Necessary Review and Criticism for Effective Risk Management”. In Mapping Vulnerability. Disasters, Development & People, edited by Bankoff, Greg, Frerks, Georg, Hilhorst, Dorothea, 37-51. London: Sterling. Chan, Edvin, and Lee, Grace. 2008. “Critical factors for improving social sustainability of urban renewal projects”. Social Indicators Research 85, no. 2: 243-56. Danilović-Hristić, Nataša. 2012. “Aspects of urban safety in the public spaces in Belgrade, Serbia: Recommendations of urbanarchitectural preventive elements”. Facta universitatis-series: Architecture and Civil Engineering 10, no. 2: 117-129. Dymén, Christian and Ceccato, Vania. 2011. „An International Perspective of the Gender Dimension in Planning for Urban Safety“. In The urban fabric of Crime and Fear, edited by Vania Ceccato, 311-339. Dordrecht: Springer. Johnson, John and Gheorghe, Adrian. 2013. “Antifragility Analysis and Measurement Framework for Systems of Systems”. Int. J. Disaster Risk Sci. 4, no. 4: 159–68. Keković, Zoran, et al. 2011. Risk assessment for the protection of people, property and business, Beograd: Center for Risk Analysis and Crisis Management. Keković, Zoran, Ninković, Vladimir and Džigurski, Ognjen. 2016. „Disaster Management in Urban Settlements”. In Proceedings of the 47th Internationational Congress and Exhibition on Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning. Belgrade, 30th November – 2nd December. 687-699.

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Lemieux, Frederic. 2016. "Urban security: challenges for twenty-first century global cities." Police Practice and Research 17, no. 4: IX-XI. Nam, Taewoo, and Pardo, Theresa. 2011. “Conceptualizing smart city with dimensions of technology, people, and institutions”. In Proceedings of the 12th annual international digital government research conference: digital government innovation in challenging times. 282-291. New York: ACM. Nathan, Fabien. 2009. “Natural Disasters, Vulnerability and Human Security”. In Facing Global Environmental Change: Environmental, Human, Energy, Food, Health and Water Security Concepts, edited by Brauch, Hans Günter et al., 1121-1129. Berlin: Springer. Taleb, Nassim Nicholas. 2012. Antifragile: things that gain from disorder. New York: Random House. Treu, Maria Cristina. 2016. “Urban conditions impacting on the perception of security. A few Italian case studies”. City, Territory and Architecture , no. 1: 2-13. Vaništa Lazarević, Eva i Đukić, Aleksandra. 2006. “Urbana regeneracija kao instrument održivog razvoja”. Arhitektura i urbanizam 18-19: 72-79. Vaništa Lazarević, Eva, Koružnjak, Boris, and Devetaković, Mirjana. 2016. “Culture design-led regeneration as a tool used to regenerate deprived areas. Belgrade—The Savamala quarter; reflections on an unplanned cultural zone”. Energy and Buildings 115: 3-10. Vaništa Lazarević, Eva. 1999. Urbana rekonstrukcija. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević. Vaništa Lazarević, Eva. 2003. Obnova gradova u novom milenijumu. Beograd: Classic map studio. Vaništa Lazarević, Eva: “Urbana obnova, regeneracija i brownfield”, str. 51 – 69, Kreativne strategije za održivi razvoj gradova u Srbiji, ured. Milica Bajić Brković, Arhitektonski fakultet, Beograd, 2010

SOURCES – Photo material: Picture 1: https://www.google.rs/search?q=mostarska+petlja&source=lnms&tbm Picture 2: http://www.b92.net/mobilni/automobili/617820 Picture 3: https://www.google.rs/search?q=mostarska+petlja&source Picture 4: https://www.google.rs/search?q=latin+american+slums Picture 5, 6, 7.: private archive from Afi Group - investor

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DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN URBAN SETTLEMENTS – COMBINED MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND SYSTEM DYNAMICS APPROACH Zoran Keković Full professor, Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade, Gospodara Vučića 50, 11000 Belgrade, [email protected] Vladimir Ninković PhD Student, Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade, [email protected] Ozren Džigurski Full professor, Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade, [email protected] ABSTRACT Disaster Management (DM) in urban settlements is a multi-dimensional, complex problem requiring knowledge and experience from a wide range of disciplines. It also requires a methodology which can collate and organize this knowledge in an effective and transparent manner. Towards this end, experts from the social, natural and engineering sciences collaborate in order to develop a prototype multi-hazard and all-off-society approach disaster reduction model. This paper explores the notion of risk and resilience assessment and its application to the research, planning, design and management of urban settlements at various scales. Resilience assessment is an all-hazard approach related to the capacity of systems to adapt to disruptions without them changing to entirely different states, which in the case of human settlements often results in catastrophic consequences for the inhabitants. The paper will present several approaches for enhancing existing settlements, as well as creating new ones, to be better prepared to confront natural and man-made hazards. For that purpose, first a System Dynamics (SD) model for disaster management is generated. Then, we proceed with the Morphological Analysis (MA) model, which enables identifying and comparing scenarios, i.e. risk reduction strategies, preparedness and mitigation measures, for different types of hazards. SD offers a detailed insight into system behavior, but it meets an impasse when it tries to push its simulation run more than a few years into the future. MA scenarios can be developed using the standard GMA model framework. Further optimization of the number of scenarios may be performed optionally. The simulation could be run in segments, with inputs to SD model modified as the inferences from the MA scenario being used as a continuously changing inputs fed into the SD simulation, against time. The inclusiveness of MA and the distinctiveness of SD seem to complement each other, potentially overcoming each other’s disadvantages. Such merging of the two methods may be significantly more powerful than either serving alone on long-term anticipations in disaster management in urban settlements. Keywords: Urban Settlements, Morphological Analysis, System Dynamics, Resilience, Disaster Management.

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INTRODUCTION The world is undergoing the largest wave of urban growth in history. More than half of the world’s population now lives in towns and cities, and by 2030 this number will swell to about 5 billion. (UNFPA, 2017) Key aspects of social, economic, technological and natural systems function differently in urban areas than in rural or camp settings. Urban systems have specific features due to the density, diversity and dynamism of cities. (WVI, 2017)Rapid urbanization is also inducing uncontrolled and densely populated informal settlements in hazard-prone areas. The lack of capacity of cities and local governments to regulate building standards and land use plans exacerbates the risk of those living in vulnerable conditions. Not only cities and local governments, but in the first place their citizens, need to increase their capacity to reduce both the damage and the recovery period from any potential disaster. Disasters capacity building starts with individuals taking responsibility for their actions and moves to entire communities working in conjunction with local, state, and federal officials, all of whom need to assume specific responsibilities for building the national quilt of people safety. (Keković et al, 2016) Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in urban settlements is a multi-dimensional, complex problem requiring knowledge and experience from a wide range of disciplines. It also requires a methodology which can collate and organize this knowledge in an effective and transparent manner, in order to develop a prototype multi-hazard disaster reduction model. This paper present models for enhancing existing urban settlements urban resilience , in order to be better prepared to confront natural and man-made hazards. For that purpose, the joint use of Morphological Analysis (MA) and System Dynamics (SD) models is proposed, which may enable identifying and comparing scenarios, i.e. risk reduction strategies, preparedness and mitigation measures, for different types of hazards. SD model offers a detailed insight into system behaviour, but it meets an impasse when it tries to push its simulation run into the future. MA scenarios can be developed using the standard General Morphological Analysis (GMA) model framework. The simulation could be run in segments, with inputs to SD model modified as the inferences from the MA scenario being used as a changing inputs fed into the SD simulation against time. Such merging of the two methods may be significantly more powerful than either of them serving alone for disaster management assessment and planning in urban settlements.

DISASTER AS A WICKED PROBLEM The challenges contemporary society faces are characterized by great uncertainty and complexity. The hyperconnectedness that characterizes our globalized world makes it hard, if not impossible to clearly isolate causes and effects of any given threat. (Duijnhoven and Neef, 2016) With consideration of emerging and systemic risks and

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES inherent uncertainty associated with surprising events, planning for and managing risk, crisis and disasters requires understanding of the space of possibilities in order to avoid unrealistic expectations that can influence the management of disasters and catastrophes. (Masys, 2012) Disasters can be triggered by natural or human causes. What we learn from terrorist attacks is that scenarios must look beyond threat, vulnerability and impact and include a more ‘systemic view of the terrorist space’ with the intent of ‘designing’ intervention strategies that are holistically applied. (Masys, 2016) Natural disasters such as floods and fires show similar complexity traits. The inherent interactive dynamic complexity associated with wicked problems illuminates the shortcomings of a linear, reductionist approach. A more inclusive and holistic understanding of the problem necessitates multiple perspectives from partners and stakeholders. This requires a type of thinking capable of grasping the big picture, including the interrelationships between the full range of causal factors and strategic objectives. In terms of intervention strategies, every action or intervention causes changes to the overall system that must be recognized and managed. The concept of wicked problems stems from the work of Rittel and Weber (1973) and their paper “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning”. The wicked problems we face in society are so challenging because they are both unsolved and unstructured. Rittel outlined the ten characteristics of wicked problems, which sets out the basis for collective participation and argumentation: 1.

Wicked problems have no definitive formulation, but every formulation of a wicked problem corresponds to the formulation of a solution. 2. Wicked problems have no stopping rules. 3. Solutions to wicked problems cannot be true or false, only good or bad. 4. In solving wicked problems there is no exhaustive list of admissible operations. 5. For every wicked problem there is always more than one possible explanation, with explanations depending on the Weltanschauung of the designer. 6. Every wicked problem is a symptom of another, “higher level”, problem. 7. No formulation and solution of a wicked problem has a definitive test. 8. Solving a wicked problem is a “one shot” operation, with no room for trial and error. 9. Every wicked problem is unique. 10. The wicked problem solver has no right to be wrong—they are fully responsible for their actions. (Rittel, 1972) Framing the problem space in terms of ‘wicked problems’ acknowledges the inherent interconnectedness and complexity, and thereby calls upon novel approaches that challenge traditional linear thinking mindsets. What emerges from the recognition of wicked problems is the necessity to actively engage with it by building up an understanding

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and knowledge of interdependent dynamic systems, feedback loops, emergent features and surprises assessing the impacts and employing reflective practices.

APPLICATION OF GENERAL MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS IN DISASTER RISK REDUCTION Analyzing and modeling complex social, organizational and political (i.e. policy driven) systems presents us with a number of difficult methodological problems. Firstly, many of the factors involved are not meaningfully quantifiable, since they contain strong social, political and cognitive dimensions. Secondly, the uncertainties inherent in such problem complexes are in principle non-reducible, and often cannot be fully described or delineated. This includes both so-called agonistic uncertainty (conscious, self-reflective actions among competing actors) and non-specified uncertainty (for instance, uncertainties concerning what types of scientific and technological discoveries will be made in the future). (Ritchey, 2011:7) “Morphological analysis” refers to the analysis of structural relationships within the particular scientific discipline where this term is used. In the 1940s and 50s, Fritz Zwicky, the Caltech astrophysicist, generalized the “morphological approach” as a method for structuring and analyzing any type of multi-dimensional, essentially non-quantified problem complex. (Alvarez & Richey, 2015) According to Zwicky: “Attention has been called to the fact that the term morphology has long been used in many fields of science to designate research on structural interrelations – for instance in anatomy, geology, botany and biology. ... I have proposed to generalize and systematize the concept of morphological research and include not only the study of the shapes of geometrical, geological, biological, and generally material structures, but also to study the more abstract structural interrelations among phenomena, concepts, and ideas, whatever their character might be.” (Zwicky, 1969, p. 34) Therefore, General Morphological Analysis (GMA) is a method for identifying and investigating the total set of possible relationships contained in a given problem complex. This is accomplished by going through a number of iterative phases which represent cycles of analysis and synthesis – the basic method for developing scientific models. The method begins by identifying and defining the most important parameters of the problem complex to be investigated, and assigning each parameter a range of relevant values or conditions. This is done mainly in natural language, which can be utilized to specify the set of elements defining the discrete value range of a parameter. A morphological field is constructed by setting the parameters against each other in order to create an n-dimensional configuration space. A particular configuration within this space contains one ”value” from each of the parameters, and thus marks out a particular state of, or possible formal solution - scenario to, the problem complex. (Ritchey, 1998) The point is to examine all configurations in the field, in order to establish which are possible, viable, practical, interesting, etc. and which are not. In doing this, we mark out in the field a relevant solution space. Obviously, in fields containing more than a handful of variables, it would be time-consuming – if not practically impossible – to examine all of the configurations involved. For instance, a 7-parameter field with 6 conditions under each parameter contains

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES almost 280,000 possible configurations. The solution space of a morphological field consists of the sub-set of all the possible configurations which satisfy some criteria. The primary criterion is that of internal consistency. Thus the next step in the analysis-synthesis process is to examine the internal relationships between the field parameters and "reduce" the field by weeding out configurations which contain mutually contradictory conditions. In this way, we create a preliminary outcome or solution space within the morphological field without having first to consider all of the configurations as such. (Alvarez & Ritchey, 2015) This “reduction” is achieved by a process of cross-consistency assessment (CCA). All of the parameter values in the morphological field are compared with one another in the manner of a cross-impact matrix. As each pair of conditions is examined, a judgment is made as to whether – or to what extent – the pair can coexist, i.e. represent a consistent relationship. Note that there is no reference to direction or causality, but only to mutual consistency. Using this technique, a typical morphological field can be reduced by to 90% or even 99%, depending on the problem structure. Further reduction of the number of scenarios can be achieved through the application of advanced algorithms (Field Anomaly Relaxation – FAR, fuzzy logic, Bayesian tree model etc.), which may be observed as extensions of the classic GMA method. For the purpose of application of the GMA method in disaster management, first the relevant disaster management domains and their components are identified (Table 1) 158. On the basis of the Table 1, the general GMA matrix is created (Table 2). The matrix contains 6 domains and 15 parameters, each of which may have values from 1 to 7. Depending on the type of accident and other systemic parameters, it is possible to identify possible scenarios for disaster management using GMA and cross-impact matrix. That way, the initial number of all combinations, which may amount to several or several hundred million, can be reduced to less than one hundred realistic scenarios. This can be done by using professional software such as Carma 159 developed by Swedish Morphological Society or other specifically designed software, but even with widely available applications such as Excel etc. Furthermore, with the goal of analyzing disaster management process, the simulation could be run iteratively, in time segments, with inputs to system dynamics (SD) model modified as the inferences from the MA scenario being used as a continuously changing inputs fed into the SD simulation.

SYSTEM DYNAMICS SIMULATION IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT System Dynamics is an academic discipline and a tool useful in the analysis of social, economic, ecological and other systems. It starts from the basic presumption that a system’s structure defines its behavior. SD links the behavior of a system to its underlying structure. The SD simulation approach relies on understanding complex 158 159

The tables are given in Appendix 1. http://www.swemorph.com/macarma.html

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interrelationships existing between different elements within a system, by developing a model that can simulate and quantify the behavior of the system. SD facilitates feedback analysis via a simulation model of the effects of alternative system structures and control policies on system behavior. SD simulation may help us understand how structural changes in one part of a system might affect the behavior of the system as a whole. In addition it shows combined predictive (determining the behavior of a system under particular input conditions) and learning (discovery of unexpected system behavior under particular input conditions functionality), and enables active involvement of stakeholders in the modeling process. (Simonović 2011:116-117) The basic elements of the SD model are stocks, flows and variables. Stocks are accumulations that characterize the state of the system and generate the information upon which decisions and actions are based. Stocks are altered by inflows and outflows. The other important elements are feedbacks and delays. Whilst feedback relationships need not be particularly explained, delays are a critical source of dynamics in nearly all systems. According to Simonović (2011), they are omnipresent in management of disasters, as it takes time to measure and report extreme precipitation or flood flow. Simonović distinguishes material recovery delays – capturing the physical flow of material, and information delays – gradual adjustment of perceptions or beliefs. Stocks create delays by accumulating the difference between the inflow to a process and its outflow. (Simonović, 2011) On the basis of the Table 1 (Disaster management domains), a conceptual SD model was created whose diagram is represented on the Figure 1. This is a causal loop system dynamic diagram based on stocks and flows. The model was built using Vensim modelling software tool. 160 The following flows are represented at the diagram POPULATION/OBJECTS, EXPOSED, UNSECURED, DAMAGED and RECOVERED. These flows represent certain states of the population or facilities in different phases of the disaster actuation and its management. Moreover, on the SD diagram the following main control variables can be noticed: exposed control, threat, decision making and accident intensity. These variables have the decisive managing role on the states within the system during the accident. Finally, on the SD diagram are also present the following input variables : ACCIDENT(1), SECURITY ASSESSMENT(2), PREPAREDNESS(3), SUPPORT(4), ORGANIZATION(5) and ACCIDENT MANAGEMENT(6). These variables are identified on the basis of scenarios generated through GMA matrix (Table 2.) and define the initial states and controls within the system. Depending on the chosen scenario and characteristics of the accident/disaster, on the basis of such designed SD diagram and obtained states, the simulation can assist in decision making about the choice of an optimal strategy.

160

http://vensim.com

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Figure 1. SD disaster management model

Stocks (POPULATION/OBJECTS, EXPOSED, UNSECURED, DAMAGED and RECOVERED) represent a temporal integral from the corresponding rate. For instance: 𝑡𝑡1

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟_𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡0

(1)

All variables (vi ) are expressed in the following equation form: 𝑛𝑛

𝑣𝑣ᵢ = � 𝑓𝑓ₐ(𝑡𝑡) ∗ 𝑐𝑐ₐ 𝑎𝑎=1

(2)

in which fa(t) are non-linear functions or coefficients, which can be time dependant, and ca represent weighting factors.

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COMBINED GMA AND SD DISASTER RISK REDUCTION MODEL Conceptual approach of combined GMA and SD methods in disaster management is represented in Figure 2. On the basis of the type of an accident an initial GMA matrix is defined according to the Table 2. The data obtained from the initial scenario are then introduced in the SD model (Figure 1) as variables 1 to 6. Then the simulation in the SD model is initiated. In the SD model response the flows EXPOSED, UNSECURED, DAMAGED, RECOVERED and the key variable threat are observed as significant indicators. Their estimated values, obtained from the stable state of the model or after a certain time segment of simulation, are then incorporated into the expanded GMA matrix (Table 3).

ACCIDENT

GMA

SD

Figure 2. Concept of combined GMA and SD methodology in disaster management

On the basis of Table 3 new values for variables 2 to 6 are defined that are incorporated in the SD model, and then the new cicle of simulation is initiated. Such iterative procedure enables the observation of system in a longer time period, as well as definition of optimal disaster management strategies. Depending on the type and components of the assessed system, for the implementation of this methodology the qualitative values of the variables 1 to 6 need to be translated into quantitative, numerical values. (Simonović and Sajjad, 2005) This can be done in the manner represented in the Equation (2), in which the choice of a function fa(t), as well as weighting factors ca is performed on the basis of the knowledge of the system operation and calibration through experimental testing of the model. For the sake of the efficient sensitivity testing, ideally fa(t) and ca would be normalized within the 0 to 1 range. The relationship in Equation (2) describes the relative importance (weight) of each variable used in SD model. For instance, the input variable ACCIDENT_MANAGEMENT(6), on the basis of Table 2 may be defined in the following manner:

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES ACCIDENT_MANAGEMENT(6) = (EXPOSED_monitoring) * c1 + (ACCIDENT_monitoring) * c2 + + (RESPONSE_delay) * c3 + (INFORMATION_delay) * c4 + (RECOVERING_period) * c5 + + (DECISION_making) * c6 Likewise, the other input variables from 1 to 5 may be defined by equations and have more components (see Table 2). A control variable decision_making, based on the Figure 1, may be defined as: decision_making = (EXPOSED) * c10 + (UNSECURED) * c11 + (DAMAGED) * c12 + + (RECOVERED) * c13 + [SECURITY_ASSESSMENT(2)] * c14 + [ACCIDENT_MANAGEMENT(6)] * c15 + + (accident_intensity) * c16 + + (monitoring) * c17 + (threat) * c18 Similarly, the function rate in the SD model may be defined in the following manner: exposed_rate = (POPULATION_OBJECTS) * c20 + (exposed_control) * c21 + (threat) * c22 In the same way all other components in the SD model in Figure 1 may be defined.

Quantification of weights is done through the model calibration procedure. Data may be collected from the Emergency Management Organizations provided details on the management process (length, timing, number of people/objects etc) and compared with the outcome of the model simulations. The weights are adjusted during testing of the model using the standard calibration procedure. Namely, the closest ones to the observed historic data are selected and used in the model for further simulations.

CONCLUSION In XXI century most people live in urban settlements that are becoming more complex, interconnected and with interdependent infrastructure. When a disaster strikes in such environment, due to large number of elements (stakeholders, population, facilities, objects, environment, businesses, symbolism etc.), interconnections and interdependencies, its management represents undoubtedly a wicked problem. As wicked problems are intrinsically connected with the notion of uncertainty, there is a need for development a series of future possibilities, i.e. scenarios. In addition, those scenarios should be viewed as dynamic events and analyzed as such. For that sake we believe that

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the combination of General Morphological Analysis (as a scenario generating method) and System Dynamics (a holistic assessment of scenario dynamics) may be beneficial. The main purpose of the model is to allow for the different policy options available to emergency managers to be evaluated before an emergency situation occurs. The limitation of this paper is that the proposed methodology is presented only at the conceptual level. The next step is creation of concrete, real-life, scenarios and SD simulations by teams of experts, depending on analyzed system and the type of a disaster. The different policy choices related to the emergency warning dissemination in particular can be investigated using the model. The utility of the model may be confirmed through a set of experiments designed for testing the efficiency of management procedures. Methodology used for testing is sufficiently general to be applied to different types of disasters, as well as conceptually oriented towards the type of an accident. The simulation could be run iteratively, in time segments, with inputs to SD model modified as the inferences from the MA scenario being used as a continuously changing inputs fed into the SD simulation. The results obtained from the SD model simulation may then be used as input in a new GMA matrix for defining of new disaster management scenarios. Thus, the behaviour of the analyzed system in a longer time frame may be observed, which can finally result with the identification of the optimal disaster management strategy.

REFERENCES Alvarez, Asunción and Tom Ritchey. 2015. “Applications of General Morphological Analysis: From Engineering Design to Policy Analysis”. Acta Morphologica Generalis, 4, no 1: 1-40. Duijnhoven, Hanneke and Martijn Neef. 2016. “Disentangling Wicked Problems: A Reflexive Approach Towards Resilience Governance”. In Applications of Systems Thinking and Soft Operations Research in Managing Complexity from Problem Framing to Problem Solving, edited by Anthony J. Masys, 91-107. Cham: Springer. Keković Zoran, Vladimir Ninković and Ozren Džigurski. 2016. “Disaster Management in Urban Settlements – Resilience Approach“. Proceedings of the 47th International Congress and Exhibition on Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Belgrade, 30th November – 2nd December 2016. Masys, Anthony. 2012. “Black Swans to Grey Swans: revealing the uncertainty”. Disaster Prevention and Management, 21, no 3: 320-335. Ritchey, Tom. 2011. “Modeling Alternative Futures with General Morphological Analysis”. World Future Review. Spring 2011.

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TOPIC XI: RESILIENCE OF PLACES Ritchey, Tom. 1998. "Fritz Zwicky, ‘Morphologie’ and Policy Analysis”. Proceedings of the 16th EURO Conference on Operational Analysis. Brussels. Rittel, Horst . 1972. “On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the ‘First and Second Generations’”. Bedriftsoekonomen, no 8:390-396. Rittel, Horst and Melvin Webber. 1973. “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning”. Policy Sciences, no.4: 155-169. Ronan, Kevin. 2014. “Solving ‘wicked problems’ linked to disasters, risk and uncertainty – children are truly our future”. Australian Journal of Disaster Management, 29, no1. Accessed March 27, 2017. https://ajem.infoservices.com.au/items/AJEM-29-01-04 Simonović, Slobodan. 2011. Systems Approach to Management of Disasters. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Simonović, Slobodan and Sajjad Ahmad. 2005. “Computer-based Model for Flood Evacuation Emergency Planning”. Natural Hazards 34: 25–51. United Nations Population Fund. “Urbanization”. Accessed April 3, 2017. http://www.unfpa.org/urbanization World Vision International. “Urban Disaster Management”. Accessed April 3, 2017. http://www.wvi.org/disastermanagement/urban-disaster-management Zwicky, Fritz. 1969. Discovery, Invention, Research - Through the Morphological Approach. Toronto: The Macmillian Company. Carma software: http://www.swemorph.com/macarma.html Vensim software: http://vensim.com

APPENDIX 1 – TABLES

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TABLE 1. Disaster management domains


TABLE 2. Disaster management – GMA matrix

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TABLE 3. Extended GMA matrix

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TOPICS XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES

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REDESIGNING COMFORT Diana Stupar 161 Senior teaching assistant, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Banjaluka, Stepe Stepanovića, 78000 Banja Luka, [email protected] [email protected] Ognjen Šukalo Senior teaching assistant, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Banjaluka, Stepe Stepanovića, 78000 Banja Luka, [email protected] Maja Milić-Aleksić Senior teaching assistant, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, University of Banjaluka, Stepe Stepanovića, 78000 Banja Luka, [email protected] ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to point to new discourses in the comfort theory, and also to redefine the notion of comfort and position it in relation to the discipline of architecture, as seen through the prism of its historical and social multilayeredness. Originally understood as spiritual support, the meaning of the notion of comfort changed through history and grew in complexity, only to acquire its current status as a highly complex phenomenon, one that implies a satisfactory relation between the human body and the environment, which is incorporated in the models of the popular consumer culture on the one hand, and technological standardisation models on the other. The conventional comfort theory, in its reliance on standards and technological innovation, defines comfort as a universal product originating in space itself. In this paper, the socio-cultural, psychological and spatial aspects of comfort are pointed out, and possibilities are opened up to redefine this understanding, possibly also the comfort theory, and expand them to incorporate the qualitative dimensions of architectural space. In order for comfort to return to architecture, it needs to transcend the narrow boundaries of its being seen as the physiological condition of an individual and the physical environment, and its meaning broadened to encompass the complex issues of the relationship between humans and their surroundings. Architecture, that dwells between the quantitative and qualitative, can be the key discipline capable of operating between the material and the experienced on behalf of comfort, and create real physical spaces with a strong existential dimension of humanity. Keywords: architecture, comfort, place, experience

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INTRODUCTION A redefinition and redesign of the term comfort in architecture as a discipline recommends itself as much needed for at least three reasons. First and foremost, this concerns the need to take account of the multifariousness and complexity of the very notion of comfort as a psycho-social-local construct. The second reason has to do with the fact that too much emphasis is placed on quantitative aspects in studies of comfort from the standpoint of the conventional theory. Finally, the third reason concerns the vague determination of the qualitative aspects of comfort in architecture, which have to do with the quality of connections as established between humans and places. Quite often, research into comfort in architecture lies at the outer boundaries of the discipline. Thus, dealing with the complex issues of comfort should begin with architecture. The notion of comfort developed and grew in complexity as influenced by spiritual, social, technological, economic and cultural circumstances. Down history lane, with each new use, nuances were added to the signification of the term, sublimating in and through it both its old qualities, and also the newly added ones. In his comprehensive explorations of comfort, Witold Rybczynski explains that comfort is primarily a personal thing, which “involves a combination of sensations – many of them subconscious – and not only physical, but also emotional as well as intellectual, which makes comfort difficult to explain and impossible to measure.” 162 Alexander Chistopher claims that comfort represents a “quality without a name”, saying that “the word ‘comfortable’ is more profound than people usually realise. The mystery of genuine comfort goes far beyond the simple idea that the word first seems to mean. Places which are comfortable are comfortable because they have no inner contradictions, because there is no little restlessness disturbing them.” 163

What these two architects have in common is an understanding of comfort as something that is constructed between the social and personal, simultaneously sublimating both external, physical worlds, and those inner, spiritual ones. Here, we deal with a profoundly complex notion, which serves to refract historical categories conditioned by society, albeit

observed from the perspective of individual human aspirations residing between needs and desires. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the notion of comfort from at least two perspectives. The first one is linear or temporal, observed in relation to the actual circumstances of its use, if the term is to be understood in all its complexity. The second one is building construction, where special attention should be paid to how this understanding is spatially and materially conditioned, and to the irrational beliefs and illogical practices encountered in it. Thereby a more penetrating insight 162 163

Witold Rybczynski, Home: A Short History of an Idea (New York: Viking Print, 1986), 231-232. Christopher Alexander, The Timeless Way of Building (New York: Oxford Univerity Press, 1979), 32

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TOPIC XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES into the multifaceted notion of comfort, which, as it refers to the quality of space, puts into perspective the psychological, social and cultural aspirations of the person evaluating it. Such a redefined understanding of comfort may as well be the key element with the potential to help architecture resolve the dichotomy between quantity and quality and create spaces that will concurrently be sensitive to both the material and the experienced.

COMFORT IN HISTORY The word “comfort” is of Latin origin, made by joining the preposition com (together, in combination with) with the adjective fortis (strong, persevering, brave; later also stronghold), which finally blended into confortare in Late Latin (meaning “to greatly increase strength”). In the Middle Ages, the term comfort was mainly used as a verb to denote moral, emotional, spiritual and political support in hardship. It was only in the fifteenth century that comfort began to be connected with the environment and to imply cleanliness and tidiness. At the turn of the sixteenth century, the understanding of comfort transformed in parallel with changes taking place in the domain of family housing and housing habits. According to Rybczynski, changes happened in the Netherlands first, where the nuclear family split from the extended family as a form of co-housing, which led to the division of residential premises; the ground floor began to be used exclusively for work and the upper floors for housing, after which residential premises started to be partitioned to create individual rooms. 164 At the end of the seventeenth century, the hygienic aspect of comfort, which was related to housing, began to manifest itself as a spatially conditioned need for lighting and clean air. This led to understanding comfort as something physical, with technological innovation finding its way to it somewhat later, quite similar to how comfort is defined today. In the eighteenth century, the term comfort got its contemporary meaning, implying the kind of service a place or setting can provide, in the sense of making living comfortable. The image of the bourgeois home, with all

its rooms, furnishings and appliances, became the highly preferred model of the “comfort of living”, something to be habitually achieved. In the first half of the eighteenth century,

comfort became a motif commonly found in popular culture models, which dictated the preferred housing modes and models, through home furnishing that was deemed a “must”. Until the mid-eighteenth century, comfort concerned the use of scientific and technological innovations allowing the preferred design of residential premises; however, in the final decades of the century, the ideal of physical comfort could be characterised as an ideological force that incorporated humanity through standards of minimal comfort for all social orders. 165 In future, a representation of comfort as an attribute rather than as a state or condition came to dominate the theoretical explorations of comfort, especially in building. In her study on comfort, Elizabeth Shove notes that the moment comfort was

Rybczynski, ibid., 68. John E. Crowley, The Invention of Comfort: Sensibilities and Design in Early Modern Britain and Early America (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 224. 164 165

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materialised and defined as an attribute was crucial for how it is understood today. 166 Ever since then, the term has been spatially conditioned, eventually leading to the loss of its centuries-long meaning as concerning the provision of spiritual support. The peculiar complexity of the term, which became increasingly intricate with the passing of time, and the resulting lack of the possibility that it be used unequivocally, led to a whole range of uses and significations. With reference to that, Rybczynski notes: “In the seventeenth century, comfort meant privacy, which lead to intimacy and in turn, to domesticity. The eighteenth century shifted the emphasis to leisure and ease, the nineteenth to mechanically aided comforts – light, heat, and ventilation. The twentieth-century domestic engineers stressed efficiency and convenience. At various times, and in response to various outside forces – social, economic, and technological – the idea of comfort has changed, sometimes drastically.” 167 The historically conditioned characteristics, compounded by the newly added ones, define comfort in at least three ways: • • •

Firstly, comfort is defined as a sensitised and satisfying relation between the human body and its immediate surroundings; Secondly, comfort implies the enhancement of the immediate surroundings, through the use of new technology and innovations in the field of architectural design and design in general; Thirdly, this relation is conditioned by culture, that is, comfort becomes a mechanism of popular culture and market instrumentalisation, as one of the generators of consumer society.

The historical development of the notion of comfort, which initially meant support and later nurture and hygiene, only to be understood eventually as relating to the personal and domestic, capitalised on the gap between needs and luxury, to become incorporated in models of the popular consumer culture on the one hand, and those of technological standardisation on the other.

COMFORT IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION In the early nineteenth century, the new understanding of comfort was essentially connected to the indispensability of what was realistically needed, rather than to any preference for luxury. Architecture publications issued at that time presented summer houses as representative of the archetype of spatial comfort, of great functional and practical value. Since then, the connection between comfort and the home has been emphatically made material in two respects. The first is cultural and implies the architectural commodification of the home, also redefining the position of women, and restructuring consumption by society in line with new forms or patterns. The second has to do with 166 167

Elizabeth Shove, Comfort, Cleanliness and Convenience: The Social Organization of Normality (Oxford: Berg, 2003), 24. Rybczynski, ibid., 231.

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TOPIC XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES technological advances in the area of lighting, heating and ventilation, with comfort used as a physical property that can be improved and measured. 168 And from that moment it seems that comfort in building construction was understood as the quantitive condition depended of the space and technologies. The term comfort as understood and used in building construction today can in large part be traced back to Povl Ole Fanger’s conventional theory of comfort as formulated in the 1970s. The conventional comfort theory proposed and was the source of the quantitative criteria/standards of four basic/physical types of comfort, thermal comfort, air quality, noise level and lighting. In building construction, standardised quantitative parameters are used to calculate the level of comfort in building by means of comparison of the set, universal values and the actually measured values of individual types of comfort for a selected place or area. The quality of a building is often evaluated and determined only on the basis of basic or physical comfort, without taking into account the context specifics and the relations dictating and producing the architectural value and qualities of the place or area under consideration. Ian Cooper holds the view that “comfort theory is based on the reductionist premise that environments can meaningfully be atomised, be reduced to constituent elements, such as the so-called thermal environment, each with independent existence and capable of being labelled and treated discretely.” 169 This kind of approach is negligent of the complexity of comfort, with all the contextual and cultural impact, for the purpose of creating a simplified image of a “neutral environment” in buildings, which contradicts the nature of architectural space, which strives toward a variety of sensory stimuli through qualitative cognitive experiences. The implications of any simplifications in using the term comfort in building construction as originating in the conventional comfort theory can be seen as illogical in three ways: •

•

Comfort is not a universal concept. Creating standardised, neutral spatial environments actually has very little to do with comfort. The way in which people as individuals form connections with physical space and their feelings of satisfaction as embodied through multiple and multilayered connections is what really constitutes comfort.

Comfort is not a product; it is an achievement. The conventional comfort theory presents it as a set of products required in a building in the sense of the minimum sanitary conditions. Fanger claimed that thermal comfort is a product which is produced and sold to buyers. 170 However, Shove advises against seeing comfort as a product, but rather proposes seeing it as an achievement, deeming it possible “to view chairs, dressers, tables,

Crowley, ibid., 142. Ian Cooper, “Comfort theory and practice: barriers to the conservation of energy by building occupants,” Applied Energy, 1982, 261. 170 Povl Ole Fanger, in: J. Nicol and M. A. Humphreys, “New standards for comfort and energy use,” Building Research & Information, 2009, 69. 168 169

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and so forth, not as embodying comfort but as the tools with which this state is achieved .” 171

Comfort is measured according to pleasure levels, the source of which is one’s relation to space, and not space itself. Even when considered from the standpoint of engineering disciplines, the spatial and cultural dimensions of comfort should be borne in mind. As advised by de Dear claims, we should keep away from the engineering definition of comfort and view it in the full spectrum of its meanings in relation to architectural, atmospheric, psychological and environmental, in accordance with the social and cultural specifics of a place and its users. 172 Comfort cannot be evaluated only based on material criteria and its psychological content must always be borne in mind.

Modification of comfort in building construction In the early twenty-first century, within the framework of the conventional comfort theory, attended to some researchers, the term comfort is tied to qualifications that point out its psychological, social and cultural aspects. Brager and de Dear claim that “the psychological dimension of thermal adaptation refers to an altered perception of, and reaction to, sensory information due to past experience and expectations.” 173 Specifying three categories of thermal comfort, social, physiological and psychological, Brager and de Dear propose a complex methodology of evaluation of thermal comfort, as dependent on atmospheric, social and contextual conditions. Chappells and Shove also use a socio-cultural platform in their criticism of understanding comfort as a universally determinable condition, considering it as a particular cultural and historical experience, with the ability to define the social phenomenon initiating the creation of new, different experiences of comfort. 174 In the building construction, it is obvious that there is a few of research that indicates the necessity to redefine comfort, even the physical parameters indicative of it, turning attention to the impact of architectural, contextual and psychological factors stemming from social and cultural circumstances. If the conventional theory is looked at closely, there has been an shift from understanding the term comfort as a “measurable physiological condition” to a psychologically, socially and culturally conditioned state, which bears a relation to the space around us. But this shift is not adopted and it is still dominated by quantitative approaches of the Shove, ibid., 25. Gail Brager and Richard J. de Dear “Historical and Cultural Influences on Comfort Expectations.” In Buildings, Culture and Environment, edited by Raymond Cole and Richard Lorch. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2003) 177-202. 171 172

Richard de Dear and Gail Brager, “Developing an Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort and Preference” ASHRAE Transactions. Last modified january 1998. Accessed January 20, 2015. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qq2p9c6 174 Heather Chappells and Elizabeth Shove, “Debating the future of comfort: environmental sustainability, energy consumption and the indoor environment,” Building Research & Information, 2005, 34. 173

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TOPIC XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES conventional theory. So there is a need to redesign comfort and move it to compound, complex and systematic notion in the building construction starting with architecture. However, when it comes to architecture as a discipline, right now, there are very few studies examining comfort taking into consideration the complex meaning of the term. Therefore, while this research finds a foothold in architecture, it also adopts a redefined understanding of comfort, which, as observed from a socio-cultural perspective, does not only connote physical aspects of space, but also experiential and cognitive processes, necessary for understanding the existential dimension of architecture.

COMFORT AS A PSYCHO-SOCIO-LOCAL CONSTRUCT While taking account of its historical and disciplinary multilayeredness, it is the intention of the authors of this paper to restructure the term and then incorporate it in a process of redesign of the knowledge of spatial comfort as understood integrally. The complexity of the meaning of the term comfort is expounded below from three perspectives. In the first part, as viewed from an architect’s standpoint, comfort is presented as a composite integral qualitative spatial experience. The second part describes the process of development of its meaning, which grew in complexity, as it went from being understood as spiritual support to a materially conditioned need. In the third part, universal, material and emphatically instrumentalised aspects of comfort are problematised. In a summary of the above conclusions, comfort may be seen as conditioned by three elements: various socio-cultural contextual factors and their co-relations; a person’s subjective re-interpretation; and the place notion. With reference to the qualification stated above, a redefinition of comfort is possible, as a relation between the human body and its immediate environment, which is psychologically, socially and spatially conditioned.

Comfort as conditioned by the socio-cultural environment It should be borne in mind that comfort is dependent on geography, meaning climate and topography; that it is also culturally dependent, in the sense of language, customs and culture taken generally; and also socially, in the sense of acting within and upon a human community. The socio-cultural qualification of comfort presupposes the existence of a user as an active subject or member of community, who achieves comfort through possibilities provided by and for himself/herself, as well as the community. As the physical environment shapes the user’s experiences, based on his/her perception and understanding of relations, he/she also adapts space or fully accepts it as a place where comfort is achievable through one’s activities. It is in this sense that Raymond Cole notes that “social comfort refers to the phenomenon of collective understandings of experienced comfort…” 175 Cole objects to prescribing the same set of values for comfort at a global level, for all people and all places. Comfort thus downgrades an essential dimension of humanity, by denying such fundamental human qualities as uniqueness and adaptability. Comfort is neither a norm nor a unified, universally accepted code, and as such it is not subject to universal quantification methods or procedures, which are often used to instrumentalise and operationalise the world around us. 175

Raymond Cole, “Re-contextualizing the notion of comfort,” Building Research & Information, 2008, 332.

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Comfort as conditioned by human personality The psychological definition of comfort takes account of experiential and cognitive processes unfolding between the object and subject, which are closely dependent upon one’s personal experience and needs. According to Jung-hye Shin, this experience is an individual thing that is spatial and sensorial by nature, and is processed through sensation, perception and cognition. First, environmental stimuli generated by physical structures are registered through sensation, and the raw sensory information thus obtained processed through perception and cognition. The sensory input is organised, its meaning evaluated, and it is recognised as pleasant or unpleasant; possible implications are foreseen, driving one to potential actions. 176 Still, the neurological process whereby stimuli are transformed into cognition takes place at a far more complex contextual level. The psychological dimension of the notion of comfort concerns changes in perception, and one’s reaction to the sensory information obtained through the senses, which depends on one’s past experiences and expectations. 177 Personal needs, aspirations and motifs, when put in similar socio-cultural contexts, normally “read” different comfort levels. In literature, the notion of comfort is quite often explained in accordance with Maslow’s theory of human needs. 178 Space that takes into consideration both primary and secondary human needs can be assessed as comfortable; also, comfort levels correlate with the fulfilment of complex, higher-order needs, according to Maslow’s hierarchy. Today’s understanding of comfort, as “immobilised” by the discourse of sustainable building, acknowledges only the basic physiological needs. Simplifying and reducing reality to a physical entity, and one’s mental state to physiological sensations, has resulted in a reductionist understanding of comfort, making it unusable beyond the boundaries of the conventional comfort theory. Therefore, it is necessary to expand the understanding of human comfort from merely physiological bodily sensations and perception, to include higher-level cognitive activities, including comprehensive decision-making based on interrelations between humans and the environment.

Comfort as conditioned by a specific place Space is not a set of quantitative characteristics, but rather a multitude of spatial relations and co-relations, which create meaning as people relate to them. In order for space to create meaning – taking into account human needs, as well as values – it needs to become a place. Understanding the place phenomenon can be associated with the discipline of phenomenology, on the other side of physical manifestation, where the border separating places from people is erased. According to Heidegger, the space that we go through every day does not stand opposite man, and 176 Jung-hye Shin, “Toward a theory of environmental satisfaction and human comfort: A process-oriented and contextually sensitive theoretical framework,” Journal of Environmental Psychology . Wiskonsin, 12 april 2016. 177 Brager and de Dear, ibid., 2. 178 Abraham Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, physiological needs, such as the need for air, excretion, food, water and sleep, are the lowest type of needs and concern body functions and physiological processes. There is also the need for safety, belonging and esteem, and the need for self-actualisation, which is at the very top of Maslow’s pyramid.

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TOPIC XII: HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF TECHNOLOGY AND PLACES it is guaranteed by space itself. 179 This does not mean we have space on one side, and humans on the other; rather, it means the two co-exist, humans in space, and space in humans. Quite similarly, Christopher Alexander defines comfort as something that “exists in us, when it exists in our buildings; and it only exists in our buildings, when we have it in ourselves.” 180 Alexander links comfort to one’s past integral qualitative experience, circular by nature and concerning inner possession. Correspondingly, Juhani Pallasmaa sees the role of architecture as extending “far beyond the material, physical and measurable conditions, and even aesthetic pleasure, into the mental and existential sphere of life.” Pallasmaa finds the potential and possibility for comfort precisely in this interweaving of the material and conscious. Therefore, as integral qualitative spatial experience, comfort is linked to the act of possession, manifested as emotions and body gestures of place appropriation. Architecture, which is aware of the simultaneous structuring of both physical and existential dimensions of places, is capable of raising the possibility of having complex qualitative combinations of different kinds of comfort.

CONCLUSION According to the conventional comfort theory, for a place or an area to be comfortable, it needs to meet the basic human needs, such as physiological and safety needs. However, buildings made on the basis of such elementary principles and focused on the physical properties of space are far removed from the true agenda of architecture. Comfort concerns our experience of physical reality and stems from the manner and nature of connection between humans and space, within a certain socio-cultural environment. Therefore, a redefined understanding of comfort must be structured in light of the relations between the basic and higher; quantitative and qualitative; public and private; universal and unique; product and achievement; space and place. Such a complex phenomenon is conditioned by social, personal and contextual factors. With reference to the redefined understanding of comfort, in further research it will be necessary to redesign the knowledge of comfort and its distinct types into a new structure, which will take into account both quantitative and qualitative properties of space. Architecture as grounded on precisely such binaries as quantitative and qualitative, poetic and scientific, theoretical and practical, material and cognitive, is posited as the key discipline capable of organising and structuring the complex relations between people and space in a way that will duly acknowledge and appreciate comfort.

REFERENCES Alexander, Christopher. 1979.The Timeless Way of Building. New York: Oxford University Press. Brager, Gail and Richard de Dear. 2003. “Historical and Cultural Influences on Comfort Expectations.” In Buildings, Culture and Environment, edited by Raymond Cole and Richard Lorch. 177-202. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, Chappells, Heather and Elizabeth Shove. 2005. “Debating the future of comfort: environmental sustainability, energy consumption and the indoor environment,” Building Research and Information, no 24: 32—46. Cole, Raymond J. 2008. “Re-contextualizing the notion of comfort.” Building Research and Information, no 36: 323—336. 179 180

Martin Hajdeger, Mišljenje i pevanje (Beograd: Nolit, 1982), 96. Alexander, ibid., 62.

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Cooper, Ian. 1982. “Comfort theory and practice: barriers to the conservation of energy by building occupants.” Applied Energy, no11: 243-288. Crowley, John E. 2001. The Invention of Comfort: Sensibilities and Design in Early Modern Britain and Early America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. de Dear, Richard / Gail Brager. 1998. “Developing an Adaptive Model of Thermal Comfort and Preference” ASHRAE Transactions. Last modified january 1998. Accessed January 20, 2015.

https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4qq2p9c6

Hajdeger, Martin. 1982. Mišljenje i pevanje. Beograd: Nolit. Maslow, Abraham. 1943. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review. Nicol, Fergus and M. A. Humphreys. 2009. “New standards for comfort and energy use.” Building Research & Information , no 37: 68-73. Rybczynski, Witold. 1986. Home: A Short History of an Idea. New York: Viking Print. Shin, Jung-hye. 2016. “Toward a theory of environmental satisfaction and human comfort: A process- oriented and contextually sensitive theoretical framework.” Journal of Environmental Psychology, no 45: 11–21. Shove, Elizabeth. 2003. Comfort, cleanliness and convenience: the social organization of normality. Oxford: Berg.

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TOPICS XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES

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REVERSE BIOMIMETIC ANALOGIES IN DESIGN OF ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES Jelena Milošević PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected] Miodrag Nestorović PhD, Full Professor, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Architecture, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia, e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper explores the concept of reverse analogies in biomimetic design of architectural structures. Design paradigms based on biological models are engaged in appropriation of the biological forms, processes and terminology. They are grounded in multidisciplinary studies of modes of transposition and implementation of identified principles and natural laws in the discourse of spatial design with the goal of realization of optimal solutions that have certain desired attributes of the biological systems. On the other hand, reverse analogies are related to the application of concepts initially developed in architecture for research in different fields. It should be made distinction between nature as a source of explanation and source of inspiration. While in the context of natural sciences validity of the analogy is essentially important, in the case when the natural phenomena are used as a starting position for design research week form of analogy is tolerable. Even misinterpretations and heretical concepts could be simulative for design. The main advantage of the reverse analogies is in application of the freedom and liberal nature of the architecture that enables development of the concepts out of pure design reasons. Sometimes in the modelling of the phenomena not explained by the nature this approach could be simulative and catalytic. The goal of this paper is to exploit potentials of reverse analogies for deriving patterns or feedback data that can be used for conception and development of strategies and tools, or as an inspiration for formulation of intern morphological processes in design of architectural structures. Keywords: Biomimicry, Reverse analogies, Architectural design, Architectural structures

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INTRODUCTION Synonyms biomimetic, biomimicry, bionics, bio-appropriation, bioinspired design, etc., in spite to minor differences in meanings are used interchangeably in the literature (Vincent, 2009), (Gruber, 2011) to denote multidisciplinary studies of modes of identification, transposition and implementation of the natural patterns in the field of science, engineering, art and design. Exchange can be conducted at the distinct levels form literal reproduction, imitating or repetition to derivation of the principles on more abstract level and finding explicit system solutions (Gruber, 2011). In any case, the aim is realization of optimized solutions which have certain desirable attributes of biological systems. In recent years, design paradigms based on biological models are revised considering the current technological capacities and developments (Hensel et al., 2004, 2006, 2008), (Cruz et al., 2008), (Vincent, 2009), (Spiller et al., 2011). Besides appropriation of natural forms and processes, current tendencies are also characterized by the application of terms borrowed from the biological sciences. Use of the notions such as morphogenesis, homeostasis, emergence, evolution, regeneration, adaptation, self-organization, self-assembly, self-replication, etc., has considerable etymological implications on architectural language consequently changing our understanding of architecture. Equating architectural objects or structures with living organisms involves seeking ways to create conditions in which designs emerge, develop, adapt, react and mutate according to external and internal, subjective or natural parameters. In this way, generated designs are characterized by a symbiotic behavior and metabolic balance inherent to the natural environment. Correspondingly diverse concepts and generative models were proposed (Negroponte, 1970), (Holland, 1975), (Fraser, 1995), (Soddu, 1991-2011), etc. Their results diverge in creation of aesthetically complex, repetitive, variant forms inspired by the works of Novak, Lynn, Parrell, etc. (Novak, 1993), (Lynn, 1999), (Oxman et al., 2014), which often exclude tectonic principles, or in form-finding of shape resistant structural forms, aroused by the researches of Gaudi, Isler, Otto, etc. (Isler, 1980), (Otto, 1996), (Allen, 2010), in which the mechanical behavior is inextricably related to the global spatial configuration. When the structure is not only technical requirement but also interacts with architectural form, technology needed for its development (formfinding or optimization methods and tools) is integral part of the creative design process. And when the objective is to design beyond biomorphic shape a natural construction (Otto et al., 1982), that is extremely efficient, sustainable and demonstrates underlaying physical, biological and technical processes, nature-oriented technology represents a tool to reach this end. Although there are numerous studies on the biomimetic design and in specific of architectural structures inspired by nature (Gruber, 2011), the concept of reverse analogies, focused in this work, is not extensively discussed in architectural theory (Fraser, 1995). Furthermore, there is not any study that reviews and investigates systematically the character of reverse analogies concept and their implementations in design of architectural structures. The objective of the present paper is to study concept and framework of such systems. Several indicative examples are examined and discussed. Moreover, we present the potentials of exploitation of feedback data derived from reverse analogies in conception and development of design strategies and tools, or as an inspiration for formulation of intern morphological processes in design of architectural structures.

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CONSTRUCT

Reverse biomimetic analogies construct is related to the application of ideas and technologies developed and used in the fields of architecture and engineering for exploration of natural phenomena, and possible application of feedback data of such explorations in the creative design processes. Contrary to the common approach in which nature is a guide or a model for the architecture, in reverse analogies the transfer is inverted and directed from the architecture to the nature, enabling natural sciences (primary biology and their sub-disciplines) to exploit diverse architectural concepts, methods and tools (Figure 1). Biomimetic analogy:

nature

⟹

architecture

⟸

architecture

transfer Reverse biomimetic analogy: Figure 48: Reversing transfer arrow

nature

The advantage of application reverse analogies approach for the natural sciences could be in using freedom and open nature of architectural discipline that facilitates development of the concepts for pure design reasons (based even on un-orthodox and un-exact standpoints). In the case of modelling phenomena which explanation was not provided by the science this could be stimulating and catalytic. And for the architectural design introduction of feedback information and experience of such studies could generate new impulses directed towards refinement of concepts, improvement of tools, increase rationalization of designs, etc.

Applications Although the concept of reverse analogies is not frequent examples of its application demonstrate its effectiveness. Application of the architectural drawing for studies of natural systems morphology and anatomy is one instance. Drawing is basic tool for exploring, describing and communicating

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Figure 2: Technical drawing as a tool of representation and study of morphology of plant │ Commelina communis L. - photography (www.fotolia.com), front view and detail by Macoto Murayama (www.zqjournal.org)

design ideas in architecture. Applied as a tool for record certain qualities of natural systems (such as form, structure, texture, etc.) in the biological sciences, drawings enable exploration of their properties and underlying principles with specific technical precision and accuracy. The results of such explorations could manifest dual art-science nature inherent to the tool and the discipline for which it was originally developed (Figure 2). And visual conclusions of such studies have design potentials that can be utilized and interpreted in architecture. Another case is application of the engineering simulations in analyses of natural structures behaviour in a way that it provides new models of structure and material organization for architectural structures. For example, Finite element analysis (FEA) can be used, relying on a general nature of this method, in the studies of the integrated morphology of natural systems to clarify their complex structural dynamics, the range of their elastic behaviour, and draw conclusion on the deep strategies evolved by biology to efficiently adapt to changing environmental stresses (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: FEA as method for study structural performance of plants │ Palm leaf - photography (www.pinterest. com), FEA obtained stress patterns developed over the folded-plate palm leaf and similar unfolded geometry due to wind pressure, global morphology of the leaf and the structural articulation of folds (Weinstoc, 2006)

Implementation of the architectural models in the botanic as a method and tool for study forms, structures and development of plants represents another example. Generative logic of L-system (Prusinkiewicz et al., 2004), a sort of shape grammar, was originally computationally implemented for simulation of the plant growth. Generative rules of L-system can be very concisely expressed, and a simple set of defined rules can produce very complex objects in a recursive process which consists of only a few steps. With the advent of algorithmic architecture discourse, Lsystems along with other biomorphic algorithms (Wallace et al., 2015) found many applications in the creation of formally complex architectural designs.

Figure 4: L-system as method for generation tree structures │ Tree branches - photography (www.pinterest.com), Fractal Tree 3D in Processing (Wallace et al., 2015)

Architectural concepts have capacity to be expended in other fields. The example of extending the concept of tensegrity, originally proposed by Fuller, architect, system theorist, designer, and inventor, to other fields is analogy made by Ingber, cell biologist and bioengineer (1985). Work on tensegrity led him to investigate the role of mechanical forces in biological development, and moreover to propose it as fundamental design principle and mechanism that governs how living systems are structured, from individual molecules and cells to whole tissues, organs and

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organisms. Ingber determined that living cell use tensegrity architecture (Figure 5) to stabilize their shape and that cytoskeletal tension (or prestress, which is central to the stability of tensegrity structures (Nestorović, 1994)) is fundamental regulator of many cellular responses to mechanical cues.

Figure 5: Tensegrity as concept of explanation of cell behaviour │Cytoskeleton (www.wikipedia.org); Tensegrity - Icosahedron by R. B. Fuller, 1949; Tensegrity structures (www.pinterest.com)

FRAMEWORK We discuss framework of reverse biomimetic analogy in design of architectural structures (Figure 6) from the aspects of nature of interchange, features and levels of transfer.

Figure 6: Reverse biomimetic analogies framework diagram

Generally, the interchange between biology/nature and technology/architecture is bidirectional. Transfer introduces approaches characteristic to one field into another - flexibility and soft approach in scientific researches, and objectiveness and rationalization in design processes. However, the realization of the concrete actions of abstraction,

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TOPIC XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES interpretation, and implementation is crucial in any transfer. Also, common application of digital technologies facilitates transfer creating integrated environment in which architecture and scientific disciplines crossover, exchange, analyse, and produce information of all kinds.

Features Technologies and concepts are the features that can be transferred from the architecture to the biology and vice versa. Technology transfer include application of diverse methods and tools, initially developed for the architecture and engineering, in the studies of natural phenomena. There are many examples of application of drawings and models, a basic mode of architectural communication, for representation and explanation biological structures. Lately there are examples of application of Finite Element Method (FEM), originally developed for engineering diagnostics, for the simulations of structural performances of natural objects. However, it is important to note that these delocalization of methods and tools calls for an approach that involves their tuning to the specific problem exploration while assuring them optimal performance. Concept transfer implies application of notions originally developed in architecture and engineering for explanation of biological phenomena. It is necessary to make a distinction between nature as a source of inspiration and the explanation. While in the context of life sciences, the validity of analogy is of essential importance, in the case where natural phenomena are used as starting points for the research in the design process low form of analogy is tolerated. It is important to distinguish the nature of diverse types of theories. In this regard, March (1976) wrote: Logic is interested in abstract forms. Science explores existing forms. Design initiates new forms. The scientific hypothesis is not the same as design hypotheses. Logic proposal is not to be confused with the design proposal. While certain architectural concepts can be used for production of an exploratory theory in biological sciences, in architecture we are mainly interested in design potentials of the concepts reintroduced through feedback loop, i.e. their ability to generate architectural structures.

Levels The features from the architecture can be transferred to the biology and vice versa by reproducing and patterning, which represent two distinct levels of translation. Reproducing is direct coping and utilization of architectural concepts, methods and tools in biological studies. It is obvious, but not enough general approach mainly concerned with the studies of form, structure, texture, etc. of biological objects. Feedback data of such studies can be interpreted in architecture by copying formal patterns of natural structure of leaves, shells, trees, bones, etc. The disadvantage of this approach is that biological structures and their mechanisms can be taken out of context without sufficient understanding of the reasons for their

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effectiveness. For example, architectural drawing techniques and tools can be used for study of plant morphology and such forms can be taken as starting point in architectural design. However, topic of manifestation of certain characteristics of the organisms (in this case, its form) is far more complex and both dependent on the interpretation of genetics and the influences of the specific environment. Patterning is more general approach of translation that involves recognition and identification of principles in how to eliminate and solve the problems (that may vary in scale and complexity), in the fields of technology/architecture and biology/nature. A considerable number of successful engineering solutions use simple and obvious natural principles as it is for example the case of tensile structures, which shape eliminates stress concentration. On the other hand, computational modeling could be used for pattern recognition of the plant growth or for the simulation of performance of biological structures. Outcomes of such explorations – derived principles can be interpreted, paraphrased or in another way implemented in design process. Application of ТРИЗ (Russ. Теория решения из обретательс к их з адач ) ontology specifically developed for the inventive problem solving (Altshuller, 1956, 1984) can be higher level of translation. At this level, patterns are even more abstract, and the problems are defined and solved within the narrow framework set. While organic forms are common inspiration in architecture, patterns performed on the second level can be used for designs, development of strategies and tools, or for the formulation of internal logic of morphological processes. In both cases, creative potential of reverse biomimetic approach can be implemented in the creation of architectural structures (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Architectural structures designed by the students of the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture │ freeform spatial structure, folded plate structure, branching structure and tensegrity structure

CONCLUSION Derivation of the solutions for design problems from the nature implies its position as a model that imposes standards to the architecture. Previously is exemplified in perfection and diversity of natural forms and organisms that are metabolically balanced with their environment. Architecture, on the other hand, faced with the task to answer on a whore range of impacts and constraints - spatial, functional, technological and environmental, has developed diverse

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TOPIC XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES concepts, methods and tools. While the influence of natural analogies on architectural design is common theme, the reverse analogies appear to be more exceptional. This paper demonstrates that certain architectural features (concepts, methods and tools) can be used for biological studies, and points on the potentials of re-introduction their feedback data in the design processes. This approach ignores the walls between different areas of expertise, enabling a wide variety of knowledge and skills (even those that seem irrelevant to the problem) to participate in the explorations, and supports stance of equal art treatment of natural and artificial systems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors are supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Project No TR36008).

REFERENCES Allen, Edward and Zalewski, Waclaw. 2010. Form and Forces: Designing Efficient and Expressive Structures. John Wiley & Sons.

Altshuller, Genrich S. and Shapiro, R. B. 1956. “ О Психолог ии из об of inventive creation)”. Вопрос (in Russ.)ы(6): Псих 37-9. олог ии (The Psychological Issues) Altshuller, Genrich. 1984. Creativity as an Exact Science. New York, NY: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers Inc.

Cruz, Marcos and Pike, Steve (ed.). 2008. “Neoplasmatic Design.” AD, 78 (6). Frazer, John. 1995. An Evolutionary Architecture. London: Architectural Association. Gruber, Petra. 2011. Biomimetics in Architecture - Architecture of Life and Buildings. Wien and New York: Springer-Verlag.

Hensel, Michael and Menges, Achim (ed.). 2008. “Versatility and Vicissitude: Performance in Morpho-Ecological Design.” AD, 78 (2). Hensel, Michael; Menges, Achim and Weinstock, Michael (ed.). (2004). Emergence: Morphogenetic Design Strategies. AD, 74 (3). Hensel, Michael; Menges, Achim and Weinstock, Michael (ed.). 2006. “Techniques and Technologies in Morphogenetic Design.” AD, 76 (2). Holland, John H. 1975. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial intelligence. The University of Michigan Press. Ingber, Donald E. and Jamieson, James D. 1985. “Cells as a Tensegrity Structures: Architectural Regulation of Histodifferentiation by Physical Forces Transduced Over Basement Membrane”. In Gene Expression During Normal and Malignant Differentiation, edited by In L. C. Anderson, G. C. Gahmberg, and P. Ekblom, 13-32. Orlando: Academic Press.

Isler, Heinz. 1980. “New Shapes for Shells – Twenty Years After.” Bulletin of the IASS (71/72): 9-26. Lynn, Greg. 1999. Animate Form. Princeton Architectural Press. March, Lionel. 1976. The Architecture of Form. Cambridge University Press. Negroponte, Nicholas. 1970. The Architecture Machine: Towards a More Human Environment. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

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Nestorović, Miodrag. 1994. Integralno zategnuti (Tensegriti) konstruktivni sistemi I i II, Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. Novak, Marcos. 1993. “Liquid Architecture in Cyberspace:” In Cyberspace. First Steps. Edited by Michael Benedikt. MIT Press. Otto, Frei and Rasch, Bado. 1996. Finding Form: Towards an Architecture of the Minimal. (3rd ed.), Edition Alex Menges. Otto, Frei; Barthel, Rainer and Burkhardt, Berthold. 1982. Natürliche Konstruktionen. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt Oxman, Rivka and Oxman, Robert. 2014. Theories of the Digital in Architecture. Routledge. Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw and Lindenmayer, Aristid. 2004. The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants. New York: Electronic version of the book that was published by Springer-Verlag in 1990. and reprinted in 1996. Soddu, Celestion. 1991-2011. Papers on Generative Design. Accessed March 20, 2013.

http://www.argenia.it/papers/html. Spiller, Neil and Armstrong, Rachel (ed.). 2011. “Protocell Architecture.” AD, 81 (2). Vincent, Julian. 2009. “Biomimetic Patterns in Architectural Design.” AD, 79 (6): 74-81. Wallace, Mint P. and Schnabel Marc A. 2015. “Biomorphic Transportation Frameworks for Cities of the Future.” Conference: Project Information for Interaction - SIGraDi 2015, vol. 2: 626-30. Weinstock, Michael. 2006. “Self-Organisation and the Structural Dynamics of Plants.” AD, 76 (2): 26-33.

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TOPICS XIV: PARTICIPATORY AND CRITICAL DESIGN IN URBAN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES Page | 718


MODERN SPATIAL CONCEPTS, PROGRAMMES AND TECHNOLOGIES AIMED AT SUSTAINABILITY OF HISTORICAL NUCLEI – THE CASE OF THE TOWN OF BUJE Sanja Filep Professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Jesenko Horvat Professor, Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, Kačićeva 26, [email protected] ABSTRACT Space needs to be treated as an economic value and at the same time awareness should be raised that space is the chief resource of any economy. In parallel with this, individual specific features of local spaces ought to be appreciated and new values built upon them. Importantly, politicians and investors need to be convinced that they are not at opposite ends from professionals but rather that only the joint coordinated activities can revitalize economic growth and help avoid mistakes. The case of the town of Buje shows that it is possible to realize a new value in the old town structure, actively work on protection and also achieve economic sustainability of the operation by introducing new programmes and technical innovations. The old nucleus of Buje is an example how the most valuable ambiance of the town becomes dilapidated and is turned into a periphery due to the failure to adjust it to the requirements of modern life and technology. The new traffic regulation opens up the most valuable space, a garage meets the requirements of inhabitants and tourists, lifts and elevators are introduced, and new programmes further activate positive revitalisation of the old nucleus. Conclusions: - Old nuclei, which are the most attractive and powerful elements for branding a town or a region fail to meet the required standards of modern living. It is therefore necessary to bring closer the heritage protection and conservation institutions to the realities of economy and to new housing and traffic standards, and to integrate modern architecture in old structures. - Professional teams need to be of interdisciplinary composition, and the project should involve local politicians, local population and entrepreneurs from the very start of the design process. - In order to gain trust, the clarity of presentation is of great relevance because architectural profession often ignores the fact that expert studies and plans are often incomprehensible to final users, and that makes them counterproductive. - Action plans are needed in order to strengthen – through events and art installations – the awareness of the heritage and its potential. - The recognition and designation of project holders who become the generators of change. - Continued process of appreciation of politics, experts, inhabitants and entrepreneurs. Keywords: technologies, heritage, economic value, strategic projects

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INTRODUCTION

Space should be treated as an economic asset or resource. Therefore, it is necessary to raise public awareness of its role as the backbone of a country's economy. And yet, each area with its local peculiarities deserves to be assessed and treated individually with the aim to further develop its true potential. It is of utmost importance to convince both the politicians and the investors that they are not on the opposite to the professionals in the field. Instead, a close cooperation of all interested parties might effectively contribute to economic development and help prevent serious mistakes. (1) The study „Mapping and programming – revitalization of the historic core of Buje“ carried out at the Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb shows that depopulation and decline of the ancient historic core zones is a common problem of all European cities brought about in general by multiple factors. On the one hand all ancient historic cores face daunting challenges posed by contemporary housing needs and work patterns. They are fraught with numerous problems, such as traffic flow, narrow streets, outdated and inadequate communal infrastructure, social infrastructure (health care, schools, playschools, …). On the other hand, almost all historic core zones are strictly protected as conservation areas which leads to further restrictions, inability to adjust to energy classification requirements, and high maintenance costs . Staircases are usually the only means of access to the buildings as well as the only means that ensures vertical communication inside them. This problem is practically impossible to resolve due to conservative and rigorous attitude of conservationists towards contemporary technological interventions. As a result, urban areas with exceptional ambiences are abandoned and derelict (as the case study of Buje confirms) or filled with facilities and accommodation intended for tourist purposes only resulting in some sort of an artificial town. This is undoubtedly an undesirable tendency in modern tourism development which aims to provide their clients with more than just an opportunity to enjoy local architecture and culture. Nowadays, tourists seek opportunities to enjoy local cuisine, get to know local customs, come into contact with local inhabitants, etc. Sanja Filep , Interdisciplinary research and studys as prevention of cultural heritage disasters International Scientific Conference „Protection of Cultural Heritage from Natural and Man –made Disaster”, Zagreb /Šibenik, 8-10May 2014.

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TOPIC XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES The present study has been undertaken with the aim to overcome the perceived shortcomings of the old Buje nucleus by mapping new programs and stimulate technical innovations. Design process should from the outset involve all relevant subjects of the local community, the general public, and multidisciplinary expert teams. One of the common problems is that local town authorities have short-time interests that last only until next elections. They are reluctant to support visionary projects and lose control over potential commercial benefits if they engage relevant experts. Consequently, local town dwellers are being denied the possibility of improving the potential of their town through a revitalization process of their historic core that might shape a more prosperous future in the long run. It is clearly evident that experts in the relevant fields should become more involved in the whole process. They should initiate changes, take part in developing effective strategies for urban revitalization, and ensure their implementation. Moreover, they should have more direct and profound influence on politicians with the aim to make them fully aware and responsible towards spatial resources. Intervention scheme:

An interdisciplinary team from the Faculty of Architecture proposes the first stage of the plan as follows: - to carry out research studies in collaboration with the local town government and local participators: tourist board, independent associations, craftsmen, manufacturers, conservationists and others as needed; -

to establish effective communication with all relevant subjects and jointly elaborate the plan of the

This collaboration is a long-term process subject to phased reassessment through public presentations within the local community. It is important to establish a two-way regular communication between the experts and the users. The form of the presentation is adjusted to lay public through a presentation of referential examples and simulations. This strategy has been proved effective since, on the one hand, it leads to a better understanding of the whole project and on the other, it helps to build trust between the two interested parties.

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proposed interventions

Town government

Conservationists

Technical service Department for

Team of architects Private entrepreneurs

Citizens

Non-profit associations Tourist board

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TOPIC XIII: BIOMIMICRY AND SMART INNOVATIONS TO HUMAN CHALLENGES The historic core of Buje clearly shows how the most precious ambience of a town becomes gradually derelict and turns into a periphery-like area due to its incapacity to adapt to the requirements of modern living and state-of-the-art technology. Development issues are: -Derelict and dilapidated buildings -Unresolved property relations -Low level of housing and infrastructure -Immovable traffic -Absence of diverse facilities -Lack of tourist accommodation facilities -Depopulation -Unused cultural and public resources -Lack of public awareness of the common interest in preserving the historic core and assessing its value -Absence of visionary planning and development strategies for the historic nucleus -Lack of physical planning documents -Absence of an integrated management system for the historic nucleus

The study provides an assessment of some local specific features through an in-depth analysis of relevant spatial characteristics focusing on morphology, topography (views), squares, green areas, the existing building stock, especially the dilapidated buildings.(2) Traffic has received particular attention.

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Present condition and proposal One of the main problems is that the pedestrian zone is almost nonexistent because the most attractive places are occupied by cars which block the views. The new proposal eliminates some obvious drawbacks. A more efficient traffic regulation is proposed together with new parking garages.The main street is transformed into a pedestrian precinct while immovable traffic is relocated from the old historic core into a newly-designed parking garage below the green slope. This proposal aims to clear up the public space and recreate magnificient views. The parking garage would meet the parking needs of both the local dwellers and tourists while elevators link various levels. The study identifies and defines new programs that would help revitalize the old town core. Four urban areas are selected for intervention. The plan would help revitalize the old historic core and attract new investments. The perimeter with spectacular views shows great potential for accommodation facilities particularly for the so-called „albergo diffuso“ model of accommodation. Thus the existing urban fabric and small scale would remain intact. Local town government would be relocated into the old nucleus and a new school built there in order to ensure a more intensive circulation followed by new facilities and craft shops. The plan anticipates new venues for concerts and other events at the site of the old cemetery. Care should be taken to keep the organization of such events and the influx of tourists at manageable level in order to preserve peace for new town dwellers. Commercial exploitation of the old nucleus should be deliberately restricted since the fundamental goal in the revitalization process is to repopulate the historic core with local dwellers, not turn it into a stage for tourist purposes. The first phase when the needed projects are identified and defined is followed by the second phase when architectural and urban planning projects are carried out focusing in particular on the layout of the main street and the green slope Istarski vrt with a new parking garage below it. The street named 1. Svibnja (1st May), which is nowadays the main link between the old nucleus and the new center of Buje, is planned to be transformed into a pedestrian zone and thus substantially improve its quality and potential. This would entail the active use of the ground-floor levels in buildings in the form of some catering and commercial facilities. Owing to the fact that streets are rather steep, water drainage is technically a critical issue in case of heavy rains and torrents. An effective solution would be to separate rainwater from sewage system with the aim to channel rainwater to a reservoir at the street end and use it for a water installation on the lower square which is conceived as hommage to Digitron, IT industry which produced the first pocket calculator in Europe in 1971 (3)

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(3) The other question and a most delicate one, is the character of the memorabilia. Contrary to the conventional solutions, which would not be adequate, we believe that the virtual dimension of such an artifact should be highlighted – projecting the past of the IT brand „Digitron”. It should be structured in multi-medial art language form, but tangible in sense of its physical presence. An excellent reference to this are the well known installations in Zadar10 which communicate by sound and/or by light An important element of this entity is the parking garage with the green area which provides multiple benefits: removing immovable traffic from the historic core, recreating the views, and liberating the area for social events.

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The green roof of the garage is made into a park and recreation area with numerous temporary events.

The escalators link the garage with the square on top. The garage level also accommodates rainwater reservoirs for watering the park. Solar collectors are planned in the glass pavilions in the park and at the elevator level for lighting purposes.

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CONCLUSION Old historic cores, which are spatially the most attractive and the most powerful elements that build up an image of a town, are gradually being depopulated. In view of this fact it is necessary: - to adapt the present buildings and their access to increasing demands of a contemporary way of life. Conservationists play a crucial role in the whole process. They are often too conservative and too rigid towards any attempt at modernization within the historic core zones and consistently oppose the use of new materials, innovative design solutions, and state-of-the-art technologies (elevators, garages, restricted use of solar technology, and the

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like). They too often ignore the reality (high renovation costs, needs for additional facilities such as swimming pools etc.). (4) - Expert teams working on the study should be comprised of experts from various disciplines - local participators should be involved in the design process (tourist board, various associations, private sector, and general public through public presentations, workshops, etc.) - It is important to tailor the architectural presentation to lay population, i.e. to present the end result as faithfully as possible and to explain thoroughly the significance of the projects that might bring along positive changes and prosperity - it is vital to strike a balance between the demands and the interests of the local inhabitants and the commercial interests in exploiting spatial resources for tourism, to reduce noise, ensure affordable services (housing rents, supply), achieve a more realistic ratio between permanent housing and tourist accommodation. There is a direct correlation between sustainable living in old historic cores and tourism planning (sustainable tourism). (5) (4)equality of historical and contemporary architecture idioms-built heritage protection has to be directed at its use based on quality and equal selection of historical and contemporary architectural idioms. The richness of the built heritage isa resuilt of historical stratification, where contemporary architecture through valorisation and in the course of time becomes the heritage of the future.-Architectural policies of the Republic of Croatia 2013-2020., p 46 (5) Case 1: Barcelona-The new law, known as the special urban plan for tourist accommodation, seeks to limit the number of beds on offer from hotels and tourist apartments. It imposes a moratorium on building new hotels and a halt in issuing licences for tourist apartments. However, as a number of projects are already in the pipeline, the plan is not expected to have an impact before 2019. Residents’ associations calculate that some 17,000 flats are now tourist apartments and that the resulting shortage has driven up rents that are now the highest in Spain. Case 2: Dubrovnik- a maximum of 6000 tourists will be allowed into the Old Town at any one time. Dubrovnik residents will still be allowed in with a special pass. the plan came from Unesco who recommended a maximum capacity of 8000 in the Old Town at any time.

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REFERENCES -Helena Knifić Schaps, transition oft he City Centre-from Original to Surrogate,expert conference Urban regeneration Strategies, procedings Zagreb, 2016., Croatian Institut for Spatial Development, s: 72-81 - Architectural policies of the Republic of Croatia 2013-2020.,National guidelines for excellence and culture of buildings, Ministry of Construction and Physical Planning and Croatian Chamber of Architects, Zagreb, 2013. - Horvat, Jesenko, Pavković Marina. “Physical planning and Programming Agenda”, Prostor, 21 (2), 2013, p. 301. - Jivén, Gunila; J. Larkham, Peter. “Sense of Place, Authenticity and Character: A Commentary”,

-Jesenko Horvat, Non –material heritage potentials in integral development planning-case studies of Buje in Istria, Croatia Envisioning architecture:image, perception and communication of heritage, Edited by Anetta Kępczyńska-Walczak Monographs Lodz University of Technology LODZ -Darja Marinček Prosnec (POPULUS ltd., Slovenia) Protection of landscapes and historic cities-valorization of significane as a tool for the preservation of heritage site identity,Invited presentation, International Scientific Conference „Protection of Cultural Heritage from Natural and Man –made Disaster”, Zagreb /Šibenik, 8-10May 2014.

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