Layering of the lithospheric mantle beneath the ...

TECTO-126392; No of Pages 21 Tectonophysics xxx (2014) xxx–xxx

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Layering of the lithospheric mantle beneath the Siberian Craton: Modeling using thermobarometry of mantle xenolith and xenocrysts I.V. Ashchepkov a,⁎, N.N. Vladykin b, T. Ntaflos c, S.I. Kostrovitsky b, S.A. Prokopiev d, H. Downes e, A.P. Smelov f, A.M. Agashev a, A.M. Logvinova a, S.S. Kuligin a, N.S. Tychkov a, R.F. Salikhov d, Yu.B. Stegnitsky d, N.V. Alymova b, M.A. Vavilov a, V.A. Minin a, S.A. Babushkina f, Yu.I. Ovchinnikov a, M.A. Karpenko d, A.V. Tolstov a, G.P. Shmarov d a

Institute of Geology and Mineralogy SD RAS, Koptyug ave 3, Russian Federation, 63090 Novosibirsk, Russia Institute of Geochemistry SD RAS, Irkutsk, Russia c Vienna University, A-1090 Vienna, Austria d Alrosa Stock Company, Mirny, Russia e Birkbeck College, University of London, UK f Institute of Geology of Diamond and Noble Metals SD RAS, Yakutsk, Russia b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 7 June 2013 Received in revised form 1 July 2014 Accepted 16 July 2014 Available online xxxx Keywords: Mantle layering Siberian craton Terranes Transects Monomineral thermobarometry Garnet

a b s t r a c t Single-grain thermobarometric studies of xenocrysts were used to compile local SCLM transects through the major regions of kimberlite magmatism in Siberia and longer transects through the subcontinental mantle lithosphere (SCLM) beneath the Siberian craton. The mantle structure was obtained using P-Fe#, Ca in garnets, oxygen fugacity values fO2 and calculated temperatures T°C. The most detail transect obtained for the Daldyn field on the Udachnaya-Zarnitsa reveals layering showing an inclination of N35° to Udachnaya. Mantle layering beneath the Alakit field determined from the Krasnopresnenskaya-Sytykanskaya transect shows a moderate inclination from N to S. The inflection near Yubileinaya-Aykhal is also supported by the extreme depletion in peridotites with low-Fe sub-Ca garnets. Beneath the Malo-Botuobinsky field the sharply layered mantle section starts from 5.5 GPa and reveals step-like P-Fe#Ol trends for garnets and ilmenites. The deeper part of SCLM in this field was originally highly depleted but has been regenerated by percolation of protokimberlites and hybrid melts especially beneath Internationalnaya pipe. The three global transects reveal flat layering in granite-greenstone terranes and fluctuations in the granuliteorthogneiss Daldyn collision terranes. The mantle layering beneath the Daldyn - Alakite region may have been created by marginal accretion. Most of southern fields including the Malo-Botuobinsky field reveal flat layering. The primary subduction layering is smoothed beneath the Alakit field. Lower Jurassic kimberlites from the Kharamai-Anabar kimberlite fields reveal a small decrease of the thickness of the SCLM and heating of its base. The Jurassic Kuoyka field shows an uneven base of the SCLM inclined from west to east. SCLM sequences sampled at this time started mainly from depths of 130 km, but some pipes still showed mantle roots to 250 km. The garnet series demonstrates an inclined straight line pyroxenite P-Fe# trend due to interaction with superplume melts. © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Craton mantle structures, layering and compositions record the long-term development of the Earth (Boyd et al., 1997; Griffin and O'Reilly, 2007; Griffin et al., 1999a, 2003, 2004, 2005; Lehtonen et al., 2004; O'Reilly and Griffin, 2010; Pearson, 1999; Pearson et al., 1995a,

⁎ Corresponding author at: Sobolev’s Institute of Geology and Mineralogy SD RASc, academician V.A. Koptyug avenue 3., 63090 Novosibirsk, Russia. Tel./fax: + 7 950 5918327; Institute fax: +7 (383) 333-27-92. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] (I.V. Ashchepkov).

b). Mantle structure beneath Siberia has been studied by geophysical methods (Artemieva, 2009; Bushenkova et al., 2002; Egorkin, 2004; Koulakov, 2013; Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010; Kuskov et al., 2011, 2014; Pavlenkova, 2011; Pavlenkova et al., 2002; Suvorov et al., 2006) and shows variations in layered structure beneath different parts of the craton. Detailed data for other cratons (Dufréchou and Harris, 2013; McKenzie and Priestley, 2008; Naganjaneyulu and Santosh, 2012; Pasyanos and Nyblade, 2007; Snyder and Lockhart, 2009) support the presence of continental mantle layering and its origin. Petrological models of the mantle structure under the large kimberlite pipes in Lesotho, South Africa (Bell et al., 2003; Grégoire et al., 2005; Griffin et al., 1999b; Katayama et al., 2009; Nixon and Boyd, 1973), Slave

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.07.017 0040-1951/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Ashchepkov, I.V., et al., Layering of the lithospheric mantle beneath the Siberian Craton: Modeling using thermobarometry of mantle xenolith and xenocrysts, Tectonophysics (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.07.017

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The most common model for subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) growth invokes the underplating of oceanic (Jagoutz et al., 1994; Pearson, 1999) and probably continental lithosphere (Snyder and Lokkart, 2009) beneath the keel of a craton which is responsible for the sharp mantle banding. Here we compile local SCLM transects through the major regions of kimberlite magmatism (Figs. 1, 2) in Siberia (Kostrovitsky et al., 2007; Sobolev, 1974) and wider transects through the Siberian craton). Variations of Fe# (Fe/(Fe + Mg)) are the major feature which helps to detect the layering. Ophiolitic peridotite sequences usually show increasing Fe toward the top (Akizawa and Arai, 2009; Bodinier et al., 1988; Furnes et al., 2009; Nicolas and Dupuy, 1984). We suggest that wide variations of Fe# depend on the petrographic type of host rocks: dunites usually have Fe#Ol = 0.05–0.07; typical harzburgites (0.075– 0.085); lherzolites (0.085–0.095), pyroxenites (0.10–0.15) and typical eclogites (0.12–0.30). It is possible to estimate several P–Fe#Ol trends in mantle sequences beneath the Siberian and other kimberlite pipes (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a,b, 2012, 2013a,b). Division into Archon, Proton and Tecton according to the Fe# of olivine (Griffin et al., 2003) generally reflects variations of mantle temperatures and melting degrees. Nevertheless it is controlled by the petrographic features of peridotites in the SCLM and remains relatively stable over time within cratonic areas. The

craton (Aulbach et al., 2004; Kopylova and Caro, 2004; Kopylova et al., 1999) other worldwide localities (Wittig et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2009) as well Udachnaya pipe in Siberia (Boyd et al., 1997), have been based mainly on polymineral thermobarometry of mantle xenoliths (Brey & Kohler, 1990; Nickel and Green, 1985). However, monomineral thermobarometry using orthopyroxene (Boyd, 1973; McGregor, 1974) and clinopyroxene (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a,b, 2011, 2012; Nimis and Taylor, 2000) can yield more detailed reconstructions (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a,b; Tychkov et al., 2014). Garnet thermobarometry based on the projections of Ni-in-garnet temperatures (Griffin et al., 1989) onto conductive geotherms has been widely used for such reconstructions (Batumike et al., 2009; Griffin and O'Reilly, 2007; Griffin et al., 1999a, 2003, 2004, 2005; Ryan et al., 1996). It produces very general structures of mantle layering and division into 2–4 large units (Aulbach et al., 2004, 2007; Griffin et al., 1999a,b, 2002, 2005; Lehtonen et al., 2004). Our modified garnet thermobarometry gives much more precise PT estimates close to the orthopyroxene-based model of McGregor (1974) (Fig. 3d) (Afanasiev et al., 2013; Ashchepkov et al., 2010a,b, 2011, 2012) and yields more detailed layering of the mantle (6–12 layers) beneath Udachnaya (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2013a,b; Pokhilenko et al., 1999, 2000) (Sf5), Mir (Jerde et al., 1993; Snyder, 2008; Snyder et al., 1997) and other (N100) pipes in Yakutia (see diagrams in sf6).

Siberian craton and location of long transects

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Fig. 1. Location of kimberlite and kimberlite fields in Siberian platform (from Kostrovitsky et al., 2007). 1. Siberian platform. 2. Shields. 3. Precambrian kimberlites. 4. Paleozoic kimberlites. 5. Low Triassic kimberlites. 6. Upper Jurassic kimberlites. 7. Tectonic terranes (according to Gladkochub et al., 2006). 8. The direction lines of the transects of the SCLM. 1 – Kharamai – Anabar-Kuoyka-Lena mouth (Karny tuffs); 2. Malo-Botuobinsky-Toluopka fields; 3 Ingashi (Shary-Zhalgai)-Manchary (West Aldan). Fields: 1. Malo-Botuobinsky, 2. Nakyn; 3. AlakitMarkha, 4. Daldyn, 5.Upper Muna, 6. Chomurdakh, 7. Severnei, 8. West Ukukit, 9. East Ukukit, 10. Ust-Seligir, 11.Upper Motorchun, 12. Merchimden, 13. Kuoyka, 14. Upper Molodo, 15. Toluop, 16. Orto-Yargyn, 17. Ebelyakh, 18. Staraya Rechka, 19. Ary-Mastakh, 20. Dyuken, 21. Luchakan, 22. Kuranakh, 23. Middle Koupnamka, 24. Middle Kotui, 25. Chadobets, 26. Taichikun-Nemba, 27. Tychan, 28. Muro-Kova, 29. Tumanshet, 30. Belaya Zima, 31.Ingashi, 32. Chompolo, 33. Tobuk-Khatystyr, 34. Kharamai. 35. Manchary; 36. Karny sediments. The terranes according to Gladkochub et al. (2006): I – Tungus; II – Magan; IIIa – West Daldyn; IIIb – East Daldyn; IV – Markha; V – Khapchan; VI – Birekte; VII–XII – Aldan-Stanovoy province: VII – Olekma, VIII – Central Aldan, IX – East Aldan, X – Batomga. Global transects: 1. Malo Botuobnsky field – Toluopka field. 2. Kharamai field – Lena mouth (Karny sediments); 3. Ingashi field – Manchary field.



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Location of transects in Dalyn, Alakite, Nakyn, Malo – Botuobinsky, Kuoyka and Chompolo regions a)

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Fig. 2. Locations of kimberlites in the Daldyn Alakit, Malo-Botuobinsky, Nakyn, Kuoyka and Chompolo fields. Transects: 1. Udachanay pipe – Zarnitsa (Letnyaya) in Daldyn field; 2. Udachcnaya pipe – Zagadochnaya pipe; 3.Sytykanskaya-Krasnopresnenskaya pipe in Alakit filed; 4. Udachanay pipe – Krasnopresnenskaya pipe; 5. Mir pipe – Taezhnaya pipe in Malo – Botuobinsky field; 6. Nyurbinskaya pipe – Mayskoe body in Nakyn field; 7. Muza pipe – Mery pipe in Kuoyka field; 8. Gornaya pipe – Aldanskaya pipe in Chompolo field. 3. The correspondence of the PT estimates for the Opx-based methods Opx T°C (Brey, Kohler,1990) – P (GPa) (McGregor, 1974) with the other monomineral methods. a) Cpx: T°C Nimis and Taylor, 2000 – P (GPa) Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) for peridotites; b) the same for eclogites; c) the same for pyroxenites; d) garnet (monomineral) T°C (O’Neill and Wood, 1979) – P (GPa) Ashchepkov et al., 2010a); e) Chromite T°C (O’Neill and Wall, 1987) – P (GPa) Ashchepkov et al., 2010a); f) Ilmenite (Taylor et al., 1998) – P (GPa) Ashchepkov et al., 2010a).


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activated parts and the base of cratons show important reactions with mantle melts, shown by the increase of Fe# (Burgess and Harte, 2004). The Fe#Ol and other chemical features of peridotites depend on the geodynamic environment (Stern et al., 2004) which may be the key to determine the primary tectonic setting of peridotite formation. Systematic difference in mineral chemistry (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a) and modal composition of mantle peridotites (Bascou et al., 2011; Ionov et al., 2010) occur beneath different tectonic terranes of Siberia.

2. Location of profiles Kimberlites have been discovered in most terranes that form the Siberian craton (Fig. 1). Most of them follow a NNE/SSE trend which crosses the middle part of the craton including Toluopskoe, Upper Muna, Nakyn, Daldyn-Alakit, Malo-Botuobinsky fields (Fig. 2) which have ages between 350 and 360 Ma (Agashev et al., 2004; Kostrovitsky et al., 2007; Zaitsev and Smelov, 2010). A further continuation is found in the Mura-Kova and Tumanshet placers (fields) of similar DevonianCarboniferous age. We have compiled several profiles through the individual kimberlite fields shown on Fig. 2. The long SN profile from Malo-Botuobinsky to Toluopka field crosses 5 terranes. The extensive WE profile through the Anabar shield (Fig. 1) also passes through 5 terranes. It crosses the Ary-Mastakh, Staro-Rechenskoe, Dyuken, Kuranakh and Ogoner Yuryakh fields, Kuoyka and Toluopka and extends further to the mouth of the river Lena where diamond-bearing deposits of Karnian age are common (Grakhanov et al., 2009).

3. Data set About 30000 analyses of kimberlite concentrates and xenoliths were used to construct the mantle transects. Most of them were carried out at the Institute of Geology and Mineralogy, Siberian division Russian Academy of Sciences (IGM SD RAS). Electron Probe micro-analysis (EPMA) methods were described in previous papers (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2013a,b; Lavrent’ev and Usova, 1994; Sobolev et al., 1973, 2009a) and analyses taken from the reports of joint research programs with the ALROSA Company are also used (Ashchepkov et al., 2008) as well as N 14000 new analyses for large pipes in Daldyn (3 pipes), Alakit (7 pipes), Malo-Botuobinsky (5 pipes) and from Kuoyka fields (16 pipes) and fields locating in Anabar shield and nearby regions (Sf 1). The mineral analyses for northern kimberlites regions from the kimberlite laboratory of IGM SB RAN were also involved for constructions of some mantle profiles. Microprobe data for Yakutian xenoliths from dissertations (Alymova, 2006; Kuligin, 1997; Malygina, 2002; Ovchinnikov, 1991; Pokhilenko, 2006) were also used. About 240 mineral associations of peridotite xenoliths from Udachnaya pipe and N 100 xenoliths from Dalnyaya and 120 from Sytykanskaya were analyzed by EPMA recently in the IGM SD RAS (Ashchepkov et al., 2010b). In addition, analyses of 240 associations from these pipes were made in Vienna University in thin-sections on Cameca SX 100. All analyses were made against mineral standards with wavelengthdispersive spectrometers; acceleration voltage and beam current were 15 kV and 20 nA, respectively, and standard correction procedures were applied.



4. Determination of the layering using thermobarometry for mantle xenoliths and xenocrysts The single grain thermobarometers for orthopyroxene (Opx) clinopyroxene (Cpx), garnet (Gar), chromite (Chr) and ilmenites (Ilm) from mantle peridotites have been statistically calibrated on the pressure and temperature (PT) estimates for orthopyroxene for temperature (Brey & Kohler, 1990) and for pressure McGregor (1974) for large data set (~ 3700) of kimberlite xenoliths (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a,b, 2013a,b). They were tested using the compositions of mineral phases obtained in high pressure experiments with natural peridotites (530 runs) and eclogites (340 runs) (see supplement files 2–3). The precision of the recently recalibrated Cpx barometer (Ashchepkov et al., 2011) is close to that of Nimis and Taylor (2000) barometer and it is applicable to a wide spectrum of mantle rocks including peridotites, pyroxenites (Downes, 2007) and eclogites which is favorable for SCLM reconstruction using mineral concentrates from kimberlites. The calculated fO2 values for garnets (Gudmundsson and Wood, 1995), (Taylor et al., 1998) for chromites and ilmenites in monomineral modification, showing very good agreement with the polymineral methods (Ashchepkov et al., 2012) are used also for the construction of the transects. A new version of the original PT program Termant55 (Sf 4) compiling N47 thermometers and 42 barometers, including enhanced versions of internally consistent monomineral thermobarometric equations, finds solutions by an iterative procedure for calculations of P, T and Fe#Ol of Cpx, Gar, Ilm, Sp (Fe# of coexisting minerals) and includes corrections not only for temperatures but also for TiO2, Na2O and Cr2O3 contents of the garnets. New corrections on Cr2O3/CaO introduced for garnets solve the problem of pressure estimates for the garnets from sheared peridotites. Corrections for Fe# for the ilmenite and chromite barometer enhance the precision and gives better clustering into the separate groups. Agreement of the estimates from the Opx methods is much better than in previous version (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) (Fig. 3). The subdivisions for garnet on the CaO–Cr2O3 diagram (Gurney, 1984; Sobolev et al., 1973) may be also used for preliminary detection of petrography of peridotite xenoliths without using trace elements. Variations of Fe# and Ti with pressures and their elevated values in garnets, clinopyroxenes and chromites displayed versus pressure values determined by our methods (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) are used to show the metasomatic associations (Fig. 3b, Sf. 4). The joint increase of all these components is usually associated with melt metasomatism (Griffin et al., 1999b; Solovieva et al., 1997; Solov'eva et al., 2012). The geochemical criteria for the subdivision of such melt components are often shown in Zr–Yn (Hf) diagrams (Afanasiev et al., 2013; Griffin et al., 2002). Commonly fluid metasomatism is not accompanied by significant Fe–Ti increase. The influence of metasomatism by carbonatite and protokimberlites could increase CaO, Th, U, sometimes high field strength elements (HFSE) and also brings Fe. The variations of the major components for bulk rocks and components vs pressures are coherent and are not changed by redistribution of components between the phases. The high variations of the components within the same pressure interval (Sf5, Fig. 2) cause difficulty in estimating the exact values for the components used to construct the mantle sections. Relative abundance of the minerals in the pressure interval also highly influences the final structure of the mantle transect. To obtain primary mantle layering, we usually used Fe#Ol for the silicates. The domination of clinopyroxenes formed by the fertilization brings elevated CaO, Fe# and SiO2 components to the layer. In addition to the common variations of Fe# (or Mg’) or CaO in garnets, we used also the calculated parameters such as ToC and fO2 to construct the transect diagrams. The values determined for garnet and ilmenites and their superposition produce rather contrasting diagrams, allowing better observation of the layering especially in the lower part of mantle section. To determine the position of the pyroxenite layers, which commonly exist in the middle part of the mantle section

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(Ashchepkov et al., 2010a; Pokhilenko et al., 1999), we also used the separate Cpx diagram (Sf 5, Fig. 3). In addition the calculated temperatures and oxygen fugacity values for garnets (Gudmundsson and Wood, 1995), chromites and ilmenites (Taylor et al., 1998) in monomineral version (Ashchepkov et al., 2011 corrected) were used for the construction of transects. 5. PT diagrams and criteria of estimation of mantle layering 5.1. General regularities of SCLM Major regularities of the upper mantle structure beneath Yakutia (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2013a,b) were determined for N110 pipes (Sf 6). Compositional and textural variations of mantle xenoliths are wider in large pipes, probably because their roots contained discontinuities within the upper mantle which were used as channels for different rising melts that formed pyroxenites and metasomatites during the long history of the craton. The largest pipes such as Mir (Beard et al., 1996; Roden et al., 2006; Sobolev, 1974; Sobolev et al., 2009b; Spetsius et al., 2002) and Udachnaya (Agashev et al., 2010; Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, b, 2012, 2013a; Jagoutz et al., 1994; Kuligin and Pokhilenko, 1998; Malygina, 2002; Pokhilenko, 2006; Pokhilenko et al., 1991, 1999; Sobolev et al., 1984, 2003; Snyder et al., 1997) show different sets of xenoliths. PT diagrams for the SCLM beneath both pipes show rather cold geotherms determined for pyroxenes in lower part of the mantle section N4 GPa, the variations of the heating degree are highest in middle part within the pyroxenites layer 4.0–3.5 GPa (Sf5, Sf6). Sections reveal the highest variations of xenoliths in the lower part of the sections where low-Cr pyroxenites with ilmenites, peridotites with mosaic and porphyroclastic structures, dunites and eclogites all yield similar pressure estimates. The thermal regime in this part of the section is most variable. PT estimates and chemical compositions of garnet and pyroxenes for the SCLM beneath the Kalahari (Hasterok and Chapman, 2011) and other cratons in Africa (Bell et al., 2003; Griffin et al., 1999b; Katayama et al., 2009; Viljoen et al., 2009) and North America (Aulbach et al., 2004, 2007) show similar results. This high temperature variation of ~500 °C cannot be explained by radiogenic input or even by convection in the upper mantle (Boyd et al., 1997) but can only be explained by the influence of plume melts. Variations of Fe# and other characteristics (CaO, TiO2) of the minerals are used to divide the SCLM units and reveal mantle layering (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2012, 2013a,b). The lower part of the SCLM beneath the Mir pipe is depleted according to the prevailing sub-Ca compositions of garnets but the upper part is more fertile and represented by lherzolites with mosaic or protogranular textures often having metasomatic phlogopites which occur also in diamonds (Sobolev et al., 2009a). So-called refertilized peridotites containing newly formed clinopyroxenes with higher Fe and Ti (and other HFSE) are common in the lower part of mantle sections. Thermobarometry and geochemical features of the minerals suggest that many mantle associations are not completely equilibrated (Burgess and Harte, 2004; Griffin et al., 1999b), especially in refertilized peridotites. Similar conclusions may be drawn from the trace element patterns for associations with green garnets (Ashchepkov et al., 2013b) and several branches of mantle monomineral geotherms in the lower parts of mantle sections. The geotherms obtained from the garnets are commonly cooler than those derived from orthoand clinopyroxenes. This is due to the difference of the thermal regime determined by the lithosphere thicknesses (Ashchepkov et al., 2012, 2013b; McKenzie and Priestley, 2008) evolving in time. For example the diamond inclusions (Logvinova et al., 2005) and depleted peridotites trace the 35 mW/m2 geotherm (Logvinova and Ashchepkov, 2008) which is related to the thick 300 km SCLM (Artemieva, 2009; Ashchepkov et al., 2012). The fertilization influenced by protokimberlite event refers to 40– 70 mW/m2 geotherm. The inclined geotherm or melt PT path near the 45 mW/m2 is advective and formed mainly by crystallization of evolved


6


5.2. Methods of calculations of transects

protokimberlite melts close to carbonatites near the graphite-diamond transition (Tappe et al., 2007). The 70–90 mW/m2 geotherms in the upper mantle section are mainly the PT path of the crystallizing of H2Obearing basaltic and other mantle melts near 3.0–2.0 GPa close to the depression of the water-bearing peridotite solidus (Wyllie and Ryabchikov, 2000). Hence the SCLM structures determined from different mineral formed in different stages of mantle activity with the monomineral thermobarometry also vary but critical boundaries marking with the inflections are very close. So the xenolith suites in each stratigraphic unit represent different petrographic varieties and have various Fe# and other characteristics which are changing in each level. This contrasts with South Africa peridotite columns (Griffin et al., 2003). General primary depletion of peridotites with depth (Griffin et al., 2003, 2009; O'Reilly and Griffin, 2006) is similar. The mantle column beneath Udachnaya pipe (Boyd et al., 1997; Goncharov et al., 2012; Ionov et al., 2010; Yaxley et al., 2012) do not gives continuous arrays of PT points but forms discrete arrays that show irregular heating. From the base (at 8.0–6.0 GPa) there are at least 6 different levels which were described more in detail in the recent work (Ashchepkov et al., 2013b) and in Sf5. Our division (Fig. 3a) is more detail than that determined by Tychkov et al. (2014) which is supported by the clustering in Fig. 3b. The depth of SCLM base near 8.0 GPa and formation of the deformed peridotites to 6.0 GPa, which was common for Devonian time, was probably determined by breakage of olivine crystal structures and creep caused by intrusion of volatile-rich melts because the maximum deformation rate of olivine corresponds to this interval (Karato, 2010). Increase of volatiles and temperature can also produce shearing in lower pressures (Katayama et al., 2009) and formation of asthenospheric lenses.

We calculated the PT transects using Surfer 8 software and determined the XY isoline plots based on three parameters: 1) distance between pipes (as if they were drill holes in the mantle); 2) the determined pressures, temperatures and fO2 values; 3) mineral compositions. In this paper we mainly used Fe# to characterize the minerals. Commonly lower Fe# is determined for the garnets and those levels showing refertilization with newly formed Cpx are enriched in Fe commonly in the lower part of mantle sections (Ashchepkov et al., 2013b,c). Presence of sub-Ca garnets mark levels of depletion. Some diagrams were prepared for separate minerals to see the detailed mantle structures. The longest SCLM transects (SCLMT) crossing several kimberlite fields were compiled for the silicate minerals and ilmenite together giving the contrasting SCLMT layering and positions of metasomatic associations and magmatic bodies concentrated at the boundaries of the primary layers. The grids were obtained by a kringing method with linear approximations between the net points. Two types of diagrams are used. Shading relief maps (Sf5, Fig. 3) appeared to be unstable when the directions of the profiles were changed. Such a procedure for contour map with the isolines of Fe# or other components of the mineral compositions produced symmetric diagrams. Our data base and the amounts of analyses used for the construction of the SCLMT is higher for the most productive fields. Interesting results are given by the complex diagrams P–fO2 for silicates and oxides together. The contrasting values for Ilm and garnet determine the layering because ilmenites commonly mark the boundary between primary bands. The temperature profiles show the influence of heat transfer near the large pipes.

Daldyn SCLMT Udachnaya – Zagadochnaya pipes

N

a)

0

Fe#All Minerals with Ilmenite

Crust

Crust

1

FO2 for silicates

1 35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.3 0.225 0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -1.6 -2 -2.4 -2.8 -3.2 -3.4 -3.8 -4.2 -4.6 -5

2 3 4 5 6 7

Irelyakhskaya

Zagadochnaya

Ukrainskaya

60

Dalnyaya

Leningradskaya

50 Dolgozhdannaya

Geophysicheskaya

Ilmenitovaya

Distance km Lennyaya

Zimnyaya

40

Akademicheskaya

30

Osennyaya

Zarnitsa

20

Nevidimka

Bukovinskaya Malyutka

Festivalnaya

Gornyatskaya

Polyatnaya

d)

10

Aeromagnitnaya

0

70

Udachnaya

Irelyakhskaya

Zagadochnaya

Ukrainskaya

60

Dalnyaya

Leningradskaya

Ilmenitovaya

Zimnyaya

Lennyaya

Osennyaya

Zarnitsa

Distance km

50 Dolgozhdannaya

40 Geophysicheskaya

30 Akademicheskaya

20

Nevidimka

Bukovinskaya Malyutka

Festivalnaya

Gornyatskaya

Polyatnaya

Udachnaya

0

10

Aeromagnitnaya

8

0

c)

S

b)

0

70

0

ToC All minerals

CaO Garnet

1

1 1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0

10

20

30

40

Distance km

50

60

70

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Distance km

Fig. 4. Schematic subcratonic litospheric mantle transect (SCLMT) through Daldyn field (contour maps) from Udachnaya to Zagadochnaya pipe based on: a. P GPa – Fe # for all minerals; b. P GPa – fO2 for all minerals together; c. P GPa – T°C; d. P GPa – CaO in garnets.



5.3. Comparison of layering obtained by different monomineral methods We tested the SCLM west-east (WE) profile from Udachnaya to Zarnitsa including the SCLM beneath the 12 pipes with the highest number of PT estimates (based on 200–2100 analyses) for each (Fig. 4) and densest kimberlite population. Several mantle sections were projected to this line. All variants of transects used on separate minerals and calculated PTF values in this line give a nearly flat structure of mantle layering with an inclination to the west. 6. Mantle transects through the kimberlitic fields in Siberian Craton 6.1. SCLMT determined using concentrates from Paleozoic kimberlites 6.1.1. Daldyn field Several variants of transects were constructed through Daldyn field SCLM and further to Alakit. The WE Udachnaya-Zarnitsa profile for all peridotite minerals together shows a more detailed picture for the same section than those for minerals separately (see Sf 5). The darker (blue) areas correspond to Ilm and some Cpx from refertilized and pyroxenite and

7

megacrystalline Ilm associations produced by protokimberlites, for example in SCLM beneath Udachnaya pipe (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a,b). Judging by elevation of dark area to 4 GPa, it is clear that the level of metasomatism in the eastern part near Zarnitsa is increasing (Fig. 4a,b) compared to the western part near Udachnaya. The high concentration of small pipes in Zarnitsa cluster probably reflects the concentration of melts in the relatively permeable zone. At least 3 units can be recognized in the upper part of the SLMT on P–fO2 diagram. In the lower SCLM part the double line for the reduced garnets also show the inclination to the west supported by the plot for calculated temperatures for silicates. It appears to be gentle but if we recalculate GPa to kilometers the slope should be higher. In the southern part of the Daldyn the SCLM shows less contrast in composition. Rarity of dunites causes the absence of low Fe# values. Three divisions recognized in the lower part which corresponds to three Cr-enrichment levels determined from ilmenites (Amshinsky and Pokhilenko, 1983; Ashchepkov et al., 2010a). The Ca-rich garnets are close to them. Two or three reduced layers determined for the sub-calcic garnets which are common in the lower part of the SCLM (Gudmundsson and Wood, 1995) are separating these units. The level near 4.0 GPa is more Fe-rich and may relate to the pyroxenite lens.

Alakit field, SCLMT Krasnopresnenskaya – Sytykanskaya pipes a)

c)

S

b)

N

d)

Fig. 5. Schematic SCLMT (contour maps) through Alakit SCLMT profile from Sytykanskaya to Krasnopresnenskaya pipes compiled on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 4.


8


The level of Ilm metasomatism from Zarnitsa to Dalnyaya (Rodionov et al., 1988, 1991) becomes deeper and then rises again near Zagadochnaya (Nimis et al., 2009). 6.1.2. Alakit field The SCLM traverse in the Alakit field is roughly divided into two parts by the line joining Yubileinaya and Aykhal pipes (Fig. 5) which

corresponds to the abundance of the depleted dunites and high diamond grade. The southern part from Aykhal and Krasnopresnenskaya pipes geochemically relates to rocks with lower content of Zr and HFSE in clinopyroxenes and garnets in general (Ashchepkov et al., 2010b). The southern part of the Alakit SCLMT shows more contrast in its layered structure especially near the Krasnopresnenskaya pipe. The northern part around the Sytykanskaya and Komsomolskaya pipes is

SLMT in Daldyn – Alakit fields Udachnaya – Krasnopresnenskaya pipes NE

SW West Daldyn (Alakit field)

East Daldyn (Daldy field) 0

Fe#All Silicates and Chr

Crust

35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

20

40

60

80 Distance km

0

100

120

140

160

ToC for Silicates and Chr

1

1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0

20

40

0

60

80 Distance km

Crust

100

120

140

160

FO2 for Silicates and Chr

1 0.3 0.225

2

0 -0.4

3

-0.8 -1.2 -1.6

4

-2 -2.4 -2.8

5

-3.2 -3.4

6

-3.8 -4.2 -4.6

7

Fainshtainovskaya

Soboleva

Aprelskaya

Radiovolnovaya

Zarya

Yubileynaya

140

Ozernaya

Aykhal

120 Noyabrskaya

Molodost

Komsomolskaya

100 Sytykanskaya

Irelyakhskaya

80 Distance km Zagadochnaya

Dalnyaya

Dolgozhdannaya

60 Leningradskaya

Ukrainskaya

Geophysicheskaya

Akademicheskaya Ilmenitovaya

Osennyaya

40

Yakutskaya

Zimnyaya Lennyaya

Nevidimka

Zarnitsa

Polyatnaya Festivalnaya

20

Aeromagnitnaya Gornyatskaya Bukovinskaya Malyutka

Udachnaya

0

Krasnopresnenskaya

-5

8

160

Fig. 6. Schematic SCLMT(contour maps) through Daldyn-Alakit fields from Udachnaya to Krasnopresnenskaya pipes based on: a. P GPa – Fe # for all peridotite minerals; b. P GPa – T°C for all minerals; c. P GPa – fO2 for all minerals.



probably somewhat similar to the northern part of Daldyn, also having three major units in the lower SCLM marked by ilmenite clusters which probably indicate the location of magma chambers for protokimberlites. The pyroxenite layer in the northern part of Alakit field judging by the xenoliths from Sytykanskaya pipe (Ashchepkov et al., 2014; Spetsius and Serenko, 1990) is composed of eclogites (Pernet-Fisher et al., 2014) and high-Al pyroxenites and hybrid pyroxenites but Cr-diopsides are common in the Komsomolskaya SCLM. The amount of pyroxenites in the middle part of the Alakit field is much less and the layer is not so thick (Fig. 5). The roots of the magmatic systems should also be deeper in this part of the field. The SCLMT through the Daldyn-Alakit field as a whole (Fig. 6) from Krasnopresnenskaya to Sytykanskaya pipe allows us to answer the question whether this structure is continuous or discontinuous, as suggested by tectonic analyses (Gladkochub et al., 2006). It seems that there is no sharp boundary in the lithospheric mantle structure from Daldyn to Alakite field and from Zagadochnaya to Sytykanskaya pipe. But the composition of clinopyroxenes and their trace elements, and bulk rock as well as the degree of metasomatism are changing significantly (Ashchepkov

9

et al., 2004a,b, 2010a,b, 2013a). The inflection near Yubileinaya and Aykhal pipe corresponds to the axis of an anticlinal structure (Fig. 6) with the large amount of relatively low-Fe dunite-harzburgite core that has undergone intense metasomatism with the highest K/Na ratios (Ashchepkov et al., 2004a,b,c; Sobolev et al., 2009). The lower part SCLM in the northern part of the field contains higher amount of the sub-Ca garnets and less oxidized material. In the central part the Carich pyroxenite garnets often occur in the SCLM base. In the southern block the inclination of mantle layers in the lower part of SCLM decreases to Krasnopresnenskaya pipe. 6.1.3. Malo-Botuobinsky field The Malo-Botuobinsky kimberlite field has two highly productive pipes Mir and Internationalnaya which have been studied in more detail. Addition to the profiles of the estimates from other pipes allows us to compile a relatively short SCLMT only ~20 km long (Fig. 2b). The SCLMT derived using garnets and clinopyroxenes separately shows a layered structure starting from ca 6.0 GPa to the Moho. The section is divided into two parts by the profile for Internationalnaya (Fig. 7). The

SCLM transect of Malo Botuobinsky filed, Mir – Taezhnaya pipes a) SW

b)

Crust

FO2 all silicate Min

Fe# All Min with Ilmenites 1

4 5 6

0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2

4

-1.6 -2 -2.4

5

-2.8 -3.2 -3.4

6

-3.8 -4.2 -4.6

7

-5

d)

0

Dachnaya

5

XXIII Siezda

0

20

Mir

15

Sputnik

10

Taezhnaya

Dachnaya

XXIII Siezda

5

Mir

Sputnik

0

0.225

3

8

Amakinskaya

8

Internationalnaya

7

0.3

10

15

20

Taezhnaya

3

2

Amakinskaya

45 40 35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2

Internationalnaya

1

c)

NE

0

0

0

ToC for all minerals

CaO in garnet

1

1 1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

2 3 4 5 6 7

15 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2 3 4 5 6 7

8

8

0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Fig. 7. Schematic SCLMT (contour map) for Malo-Botuobinsky field based on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 4.


10


northern (left part of the diagram) related to more diamond productive region is formed by the more depleted peridotite material. The SCLMT beneath Internationalnaya and 23 Siezda pipes shows the presence of Ca-rich garnets together with Fe-rich clinopyroxenes in the lower part of the section from 5.0 GPa. These garnets are rarer beneath Mir pipe but sub-Ca prevail in the lower part of SCLM beneath the Mir pipe. The very low fO2 values are typical for garnets from the northern part of Malo-Botuobinsky field. The SCLM beneath the Internationalnaya pipe characterized by abundance of eclogites and metasomatic clinopyroxenes with high contents of Na2O, Cr2O3, FeO and Al2O3 (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a), typical for hybrid peridotite rocks. The SCLM beneath south-western Amakinskaya and Taezhnaya pipes is similar layered according to the garnets but not so sharply banded according to ilmenite. The diagrams (Fig. 7a,b) also shows flat layering above 5 GPa. The deeper lithospheric keel for the Mir pipe and surroundings including Dachnaya and 23 Siezda pipes and sharper layering formed by thinner layers. The diagram with the ilmenites makes the layering in the NW part more evident.

The P–fO2 section reveals the domination of the reduced garnets in the NW part of profile and continuous oxidation upward. The temperature profile is relatively uniform. 6.2. SCLMT for Triassic kimberlites from Northern fields of Yakutia Most kimberlites in the Anabar shield and fields surrounding this structure were intruded in the Lower Triassic time around 245– 220 Ma (Smelov and Zaitsev, 2013; Zaitsev and Smelov, 2010). These fields cross the northern part of Siberia from west to east for a distance of about 1000 km or more. Rather restricted data sets for some fields like Staraya Rechka and Dyuken give only a sketch of the mantle structure (Ashchepkov et al., 2001). Only in the western part beneath the Kharamai field (Griffin et al., 2005) (Sf5, Fig. 8) the garnet-bearing associations are common and represent the deeper lithospheric roots starting from 6.5 GPa. Presence of such deep lithospheric roots is supported by the PT estimates for pyroxenes and calculations for xenoliths (Griffin et al., 2005). Similar mantle sections were determined for the western part of the Anabar shield beneath the Ary-Mastakh field (see

SLM transect Kuoyka field, Mary -Seraya a)

c)

S

b)

N

d)

Fig. 8. Schematic SCLMT (contour maps) through Kuoyka field based on based on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 4.



the diagram for Khardakh pipe (Sf4) (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2013a). But in the nearest fields in Kuranakh and Dyuken, garnet associations in the deep level N 6.0 GPa are rare whereas Cpx-bearing associations giving high pressures (to 7 GPa) (sometimes with Ilm) are common everywhere in these fields. They are more Fe-rich than the garnet-bearing associations. The northern part of the Anabar SCLM is more depleted and metasomatized than the southern one. A high degree of metasomatism with abundant ilmenite sometimes associated with clinopyroxene is common for mantle beneath this large area of the Anabar shield is visible in high Fe# values. 6.3. SCLMT for Late Jurassic kimberlites 6.3.1. Kuoyka field This field is formed mainly by a dense population of Jurassic pipes approximately 175–150 Ma old. We have representative material (N 200–300 grain analyses) from 16 pipes in a NS profile from Muza to Titan pipe over a distance of 45 km. Data from the Obnazhennaya pipe

11

(Ovchinnikov, 1991; Taylor et al., 2003) are projected to this line (Fig. 2d). The results of modeling suggest that the margins of this profile from Seraya to Mery pipes, in which the deep-seated peridotitic garnets and clinopyroxenes are common, correspond mainly to a depth of 220 km (6.5 GPa) (Fig. 8). The section with garnet peridotites beneath Djanga and Vodorasdelnaya show deeper base. Rather shallow sections beneath Obnazhennaya, Vtorogodnitsa and some other pipes possibly correspond to local uplift of metasomatic material, location of intermediate magma chambers or permeable melting zones. The middle SCLM part ~3.5–4.0 GPa has abundant Mg-rich eclogites (Taylor et al., 2003) that correspond to the pyroxenite lens. The lithospheric roots beneath Djanga are divided into two intervals according to the garnet estimates. The PT conditions for ilmenites everywhere starts from 6.5 GPa indicating a rather deep SCLM root. During the period of magmatism, some local zones were subjected to Ilm metasomatism and became partly molten, as is proved by the presence of deformed high temperature Ilm harzburgites (Ovchinnikov, 1991). At least three lenses of deep garnet peridotites are found beneath these fields. The SCLM beneath Kuoyka field possibly represent the fractured structures where the

Transect Malo–Botuobinsky - Toluopka field SSW

NNE Markha

Magan

a) 0

Crust

West Daldyn

East Daldyn

Khapchan

Birekte

Fe#All Minerals with Fe# Peridotite minerals with IlmIlmenite 35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0

b)

200

400

600

Distance

800

1000

km

0

ToC for peridotite minerals with Ilm 1 2 3 4

Toluopka

Ogoner-Yuryakh

Upper Muna

Daldyn

Alakit

7

Nakyn

6

Morkoka

Malo-Botuobinsky

5

8

0

200

400

600

Distance

c) 0

800

1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

1000

km

FO2 for peridotite minerals with Ilm

1

0.3 0.225 0

2

-0.4 -0.8 -1.2

3

-1.6 -2

4

-2.4 -2.8 -3.2

5

-3.4 -3.8

6

-4.2 -4.6 -5

7

-5.4 -5.8

8

0

200

400

600

Distance

800

1000

km

Fig. 9. Schematic SCLMT (contour map) from Malo-Botyobinsky to Toluopka field based on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 6.


12


SLM transect through Kharamai - Anabar fields - Lena Mouth sediments

SW a)

NE West Daldyn

Magan

Tungus 0

East Daldyn

Birekte

Khapchan

Fe#All Minerals with Ilmenite

1 15 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0

b)

100

200

300

400

Distance

500

600

700

800

km

0

ToC All Minerals with Ilmenite 1

1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

c)

0

100

200

300

400

Distance

0

500

600

700

800

km

Fo2 All Minerals with Ilmenite 1 0.3

2

0.225 0 -0.4

3

-0.8 -1.2

4

-1.6 -2 -2.4 -2.8 -3.2

Karny tuffs

Kuoyka

Orto -Yargyn

Kuranakh

Dyuken

7

Staraya rechka

Kharamai

6

Ary-Mastakh

5

-3.4 -3.8 -4.2 -4.6 -5

8

0

100

200

300

400

Distance

500

600

700

800

km

Fig. 10. Schematic SCLMT(contour map) West – East through Anabar field from Kharamai to Lena mouth (Karny limestones) based on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 6.

lithosphere was partly destroyed and kimberlite melts captured xenoliths from different pressure intervals. 6.3.2. Chompolo field, Aldan shield One more example of the Lower Triassic mantle transect through the Chompolo kimberlite field (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) (Fig. 2f) shows nearly flat layering with an Fe-rich lithosphere sequence close to dunites and Fe-rich pyroxenites at the base of the SCLM (Fig. 12). 6.3.3. Sedimentary deposits near Lena The muddy limestones of Karny age in the Lena river mouths (Grakhanov et al., 2009) which are common in the north-east part of craton near the Laptev sea coast in several localities contain abundant deep-seated peridotite minerals similar to those from Devonian kimberlites. The PT calculations suggest a thick SCLM (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a) and complementary trend for the minerals in PTXfO2 diagrams means homogeneous sources in each locality.

6.4. NS global mantle transects through the Siberian Craton The first mantle transect in N–S direction from Malo-Botuobinsky field to Anabar Griffin et al. (1999a) was based on ~ 3000 precise EPMA and trace element (TRE) analyses. The Y, Zr, Ga, Hf and other trace elements determined by proton microprobe allowed to subdivide minerals into lherzolitic, dunitic and harzburgitic lithologies (Griffin et al., 1999c). The SCLM profile diagram was rather smooth but not detail. It displayed continuous depletion toward the north. Our NNW–SSE transect based on the mineral concentrates from Devonian kimberlites is based on ~40000 EPMA analyses and more dense net compared with previous work (Griffin et al., 1999a). The distance from the Nakyn to Malo-Botuobinsky field contains only one intermediate point in Morkoka pipe, The amount of garnet analyses is not sufficient to compile a detailed profile so we used all minerals together to compile the longer transects which give more fluctuations than based only on garnets.



13

Transect through the southern part of Siberian craton Ingashi - Manchary fields

WWS

EEN

a)

East Aldan

Markha

Magan

Tungus

0

Crust

Fe#All Minerals with Ilmenite Fe# Peridotite minerals withou Ilm

1

35 30 25 20 14 13 12 10 8.5 8 7.5 7 6.5 6 5.5 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0

200

400

600

b)

800

Distance

1000

1200

1400

1600

km

0

ToC for peridotite minerals with Ilm 1 2 3

Manchary

Nakyn

Tychan

Tyradak

7

Mura-Kova

Ingashi

6

Tumanshet

5

Morkoka

Malo-Botuobinsky

4

8

0

200

400

600

800

Distance

c) 0

1000

1200

1400

1500 1450 1400 1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200

1600

km

FO2 for peridotite minerals with Ilm

1

0.3 0.225 0

2

-0.4 -0.8

3

-1.2 -1.6 -2

4

-2.4 -2.8

5

-3.2 -3.4

6

-3.8 -4.2 -4.6

7

-5 -5.4

8

-5.8

0

200

400

600

800

Distance

1000

1200

1400

1600

km

Fig. 11. Schematic SCLMT(contour map) in southern part of Siberia from Ingashi lamproite field to Manchary field based on the same relationships with P GPa as for Fig. 6.

The long mantle profile from Malo-Botuobinsky to Upper Muna and further to Ogoner-Yuryakh and Toluopka field (Fig. 13) reveals that Devonian kimberlite fields represent the SCLMT with individual features of mantle domains probably belonging to the different tectonic terranes. General divisions to the 6–7 large units are typical for the Siberian SCLM which is supported by the P–fO2 profile. The middle part with the boundary at 4.0–3.5 GPa corresponding to the pyroxenite layer may be also determined in most places by the elevated Fe# and fO2 values as well as CaO in garnets. The data sets are more representative for the productive fields like Daldyn-Alakite and Malo-Boutuobinsky fields revealing individual complex SCLM structure beneath each field. General decrease of Fe and other basaltic components (CaO, Na2O) is common for the Magan and Markha terranes. The northern fields show in general more Fe-rich mantle based on pyropes and high concentration of ilmenites and eclogitic garnets in kimberlites. The mantle columns beneath Upper

Muna and Ogoner-Yuryakh field in Khapchan terrane show less contrasting layering and Fe-poor mantle domains compared with those near Anabar region and most other northern fields. The general divisions of Devonian SCLM beneath the individual fields sometimes look similar (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a). But there are distinct differences for the Alakite, Daldyn and Upper Muna and Malo-Botuobinsky fields (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a). There is continuous depletion with increasing depth as was determined for many regions of Africa (Griffin et al., 2003; O'Reilly et al., 2009). In most cases the amount of dunites and pyroxenites increase together in the base of the lithosphere. The Markha terrane represented by the Nakyn and Morkoka fields also show a reduced lower part of SCLM. The difference between the fields and terranes is better seen in the oxidation state of the P-fO2 diagram. The most depleted lower parts of the mantle sections beneath Malo-Botuobinsky field correspond to reduced conditions dominating within the mantle beneath the Magan


14


Fig. 12. Schematic models of the formation of mantle layering.

terrane. But the oxygen conditions in mantle of Alakit-Daldyn region are rather variable. The high oxidation state of the Khapchan terrane which was also determined using Fe3 + of clinopyroxenes is detected in the northern part of transect in Toluopka field. The temperature profile shows slightly less heated conditions in the northern part of the Siberian craton compared with other parts.

a)

MiddleArchean Archean Early stage stage

b)

EarlyArchean Middle Archean stage stage

c)

6.5. WS-EN global mantle transect through the northern part of Siberian Craton The transect from Kharamai field (Griffin et al., 2005) to the OrtoYargyn, Kuoyka (Ovchinnikov, 1991; Taylor et al., 2003) and Lena mouth (Grakhanov et al., 2009) (Fig. 10) partly repeats the transect

Late Archean stage stage

d)

Late Archean–Early Prorozoic stage stage

4 GPa (130 km)

4 GPa(130 km)

pyroxenite layer (130km)

8 GPar (270km)

8 GPa (270km)

1.25 GPa 410km)

e)

Middle Paleozoic D-C 355 - 360 ma 350-360 Ma stage

f)

Low Triassic 250-220 250 -stage 220 ma

4 GPa (130 km) 8 GPa (270km)

1.25 GPa 410km)

Basaltic Plum Fig. 13. Schematic models of the development of Siberian craton.



through the Anabar shield (Sf5, Fig. 7). The Anabar SCLM is divided into at least 3 large parts and the lower part reveals inclination to the south west which is in generally the same direction as in Daldyn region. The SCLM division in west Anabar Kuranakh Dyuken and Ortho Yargyn fields into 4 units (Fig. 10) differs from layering beneath the Ary Mastakh and Staro-Rechenskoe fields which consist of 3 thick layers. Much more complex layering within the Kuoyka field is emphasized on the P–fO2 diagram marking permeable zones with Ilm metasomatites and magma feeders. The NE part of the mantle transect in Birekte terrane reveals relatively flattened and simple structure with low fO2 values in northern part of terrane favorable for diamond growth. The thermal profile in this direction is flatter but slightly fluctuating. The heating is found beneath the Dyuken and nearby field in the middle part of transect in Kuoyka field. 6.6. WWS-EEN global mantle transect through the southern part of Siberian Craton The WWS-EEN profile for the southern part of the Siberian craton (Fig. 11) is less representative. In the marginal regions in the SW, the lamproites with pyropes and diamonds (Egorov et al., 2006; Minaeva and Egorov, 2009) and kimberlites from the Manchary field in the east (Smelov et al., 2010) give material from diatremes as well as the Nakyn (Spetsius, 2004) and Morkoka fields. In three fields: MuraKova, Tumanshet (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a; Egorov et al., 2006) and Tychan we used the sand concentrates which preliminary results for the structure of the southern, western and eastern parts of the Siberian craton. In the Central part the transect repeats general features of the previous one (Fig. 9). The south-eastern fields in the Tungus terrane shows in each diagram a flat layered structure with moderately reduced conditions. All these localities contain mainly peridotite mineralogy with low abundance of ilmenites and probably represent typical continental mantle. The eastern part in Aldan block shows also a layered structure with a lack of highly depleted and reduced associations (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a)

15

which also is supported by the detail work of Suvorov et al. (2000). The depth of the local lower velocity zone varies from 260 km in the west to 220 km in the eastern part of the craton. The increased thickness near the Lena river mouth determined by the tomographic inversion of P and PP travel times (Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010) is not supported by mineralogy of garnets. General model of McKenzie and Priestley (2008) using seismic tomography shows a lithosphere thickness near 250 km beneath the central part of the Siberian craton and slightly less beneath the Anabar field. The thermal structure of the lithospheric mantle in seismic profiles determined by Kuskov et al. (2014) in general corresponds to the density layering and seismic velocities profiles close to those found in our profiles but are colder in 50 ~ 75 °C. It is possible to explain this difference by the cooling since Upper Devonian times. If we define the peridotite solidus close to 1200–1300 °C depending on volatiles (Wyllie and Ryabchikov, 2000), the roof of the asthenosphere or thermal boundary layer (TBL) may be determine on the "Kimberlite" and "Kraton" profiles between 250–270 km (7.5–8.1 GPa) which is in general close to those found by xenoliths. The layer or boundary in seismic profiles is rather narrow and corresponds to the increase of VP to 8.5 km/s. Mantle transects based on PP-P seismic waves in a realistic merged model (Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010) show that the thickness of mantle lithosphere is highly variable across the Siberian craton. The cold keel in the SW-NE profile reaches depths of 400 km in the northeastern part corresponding to the Lower Lena region, and the general thickness is 200–250 km in the southern part of the Siberian Craton with an upwelling in the middle part. A pronounced decrease of thickness of the SCLM beneath the middle part near the Tungus depression divides the western and eastern parts where the thickness of the SCLM (or cold area) again increases to 400 km mostly in the northern part. The general inclination of the cold lithospheric layer to the east is found in this model. The general tectonic schemes also suggested such an inclination of the whole structure of the Siberian continent in its north eastern part (Rosen et al., 2006).

7. Discussion

7.2. Variations of SCLM structures beneath different terranes

7.1. Thickness of lithosphere and comparison with the geophysical data

The most important question arising about the structure of the mantle beneath Siberia concerns the thickness of the lithosphere and whether it is continuous in structure. The kimberlite fields cross several tectonic terranes (Fig. 1) having different ages and probably original geodynamic setting (Zaitsev and Smelov, 2010). The Archean granitegreenstone and tonalite trondjemite terranes Tungus, Magan,West Aldan and Shary Zhalgai having ages of ~2.6–2.5 Ga include a few kimberlite fields and undiscovered sources for the Tychan, Mura-Kova and Tumanshet placers definitely related to kimberlites. The East Yakutian protocraton including Khapchan and Birekte terranes with ages of ~2.4–2.1 Ga contains a huge number of kimberlites without established diamond grades. But the early Proterozoic Daldyn granulite-orthogneiss terrane includes the most productive kimberlites. According to the general scheme, kimberlites are mainly located within the Paleoproterozoic Accretion Zone (Rosen et al., 2006) which has an age of ~1.8 or 1.9 Ga (Smelov et al., 2012) for gneiss zircons, corresponding to the peak of the isochron Re/Os ages for mantle xenolith silicate minerals (Ionov et al., 2011) and sulfides in pyropes (Malkovets et al., 2012). Similar ages grouped near 1.65, 1.75 and 1.85 Ga in Rb-Sr and Nd-Sm isochron isotopic systems for minerals and bulk rocks for crustal xenoliths in kimberlites, drill cores, and outcrops correspond to terrane thrusting (Rosen et al., 2006). Zircons (Koreshkova et al., 2009) from lower crustal xenoliths probably mark magmatic underplating events. It has been suggested that the diamondiferous kimberlite fields in the Siberian craton are situated along a line parallel to ancient subduction zones (Yakubchuk, 2010). It may be correct that the Daldyn terrain represents the suture zone (Rosen et al., 2006).

Our data and calculations show that in most cases the thickness of lithosphere in Devonian time was near 250–270 km (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2013a) which supports the geophysical models (Kuskov et al., 2014; Pavlenkova, 2011). The highest Cr-content of garnets near 13.5–14 wt % Cr2O3 for most Devonian pipes supports this conclusion. There is no evidence for the very thick lithosphere in the northern part of Siberian craton as suggested by Koulakov and Bushenkova (2010). Lower values prevail in the Kuoyka field though there are high-Cr garnets also. Triassic pipes there commonly have garnets with 7.5 wt % Cr2O3 (rarely 9 wt %) which according to calculations using Cr-garnet barometry (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) generally correspond to 5.0–6.0 GPa. According to such criteria, most Jurassic pipes containing low-Cr garnets to 5–7 wt% Cr2O3 and forming typical magmatic trends suggest the thickness of SCLM about 130–150 km. Geophysical models refer to the present time and do not show the heating related to Devonian plume. Commonly most geophysical models even those that are complex using thermodynamically selfconsistent approach based on a method of minimization of the Gibbs free energy show similarity of SCLM structures (Kuskov et al., 2011, 2014). Nearly the same structures of SCLM and mantle heating were obtained on seismic profiles using calculated travel-times for different seismic waves through the Siberian craton (Pavlenkova et al., 2002; Pavlenkova, 2011). They show that seismic velocities gradually increase with depth irregular in eastern part and near Vilyui basin. They fix gradual elevation of the mantle in Vilyui basin


16


The general inclinations of the deep-seated faults and mantle layers to the east coincide with the geophysical profiles for mantle (Koulakov and Bushenkova, 2010) and are also seen in the Daldyn SCLM. Our transects show that the boundaries of the kimberlite fields are close to the margins of the tectonic terranes. We cannot determine the inclination of the boundaries between terranes but can characterize in general the composition and some features of structure of such SCLM in each unit. The SCLM beneath the Magan terrane near the Mir pipe contains granular relatively fertile (Roden et al., 2006) and hydrous metasomatic peridotites in its upper part and an eclogite lens (Beard et al., 1996) in its middle part (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a, 2012). A more depleted lens starts from 5.0 GPa beneath the Mir pipe. But the SCLM beneath Internationalnaya pipe shows a large amount of eclogites and hybrid peridotite material in the lower part starting from the lithosphere base (Ashchepkov et al., 2004b). In the SCLM beneath Nakyn, the more continuous thick peridotite sections contain abundant various eclogites and garnet-bearing Ferich micaceous rocks (metapelites in protolith) (Spetsius, 2004) as well as peridotitic minerals and xenoliths (Ashchepkov et al., 2004c; Riches et al., 2010; Tolstov et al., 2009). The general granulite-gneiss siliceous character of Markha terrane coincides with the rather fertile mantle type. The mantle sections within Upper Muna field belonging to the Markha terrane show a tendency towards increasing amounts of pyroxenites with depth. The common feature of all silicate minerals in this terrane is rather high degree of melt-related metasomatism and oxidation state. Beneath the West Daldyn terrane, the SCLM is mainly metasomatized and contains mostly depleted lenses near the Aykhal and Yubileinaya line. This mantle section is not abundant in eclogites which appear again near the Komsomolskaya (Pernet-Fisher et al., 2014) and Sytykanskaya (Spetsius and Serenko, 1990) pipes where the peridotites also became more pyroxene-rich. The East Daldyn terrane is layered and consists of harzburgites close to abyssal peridotites in composition (Doucet et al., 2012; Ionov et al., 2010) which may appear in the SCLM as a result of subduction The SCLM beneath the Khapchan terrane (accretion complex) is extremely depleted in Al and Ca in the lower part but the dunites are more Fe-rich than common Mariana-like mantle peridotites (Parkinson and Pearce, 1998). The upper part here corresponds to peridotites which have been highly metasomatized by fluid-enriched melts. The mantle pyroxenes from the lower part of mantle lithosphere also show sharp peaks in U and enrichment in Sr, Ba, Rb (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a) which are common for back-arc peridotites (Chen and Zeng, 2007) and LREE-enriched patterns which are common for dunites and depleted harzburgites usually found in such environments. The reconstructed TRE patterns of the primary melts that created pyroxenes in Anabar terranes display MREE minima (Ashchepkov et al., submitted for publication) close to those of boninites or other arc melts. Archean ophiolite complexes representing ancient abyssal peridotites commonly have very flat uniform trace element spider diagrams (Furnes et al., 2009). But the Neoarchean peridotites and their pyroxenes from Southern Siberia have LREE-enriched patterns similar to those from Anabar Crdiopside xenocrysts. The SCLM beneath the Birekte granite–greenstone terrane, like Markha, again contains mildly depleted peridotites and abundant eclogites of hybrid origin (Taylor et al., 2003) near the 4.0 GPa boundary. The eclogites should be melted near this boundary in Archean time in high temperature conditions (van Hunen and van den Berg, 2008) and produce pyroxenites. This may be one of the reasons of the division of the lithospheric mantle into two parts and the origin of the pyroxenitic lens. Mantle peridotites here have features of high degree oceanic-type bulk rock depletion like that found beneath the Daldyn region (Ionov et al., 2010), which is supported by the trace element features of mantle melts (Ashchepkov et al., 2012). Comparing profiles it is clear that the ancient protocraton terranes reveal flatter SCLM structures in general and the collision Daldyn

terrane shows a rather heterogeneous mantle substrate and more irregular structure. 7.3. Temporal evolution Comparison of the mantle sections reconstructed for the Late Devonian, Triassic and Jurassic kimberlites shows the evolution of the mantle sections over time. The complete peridotite layered sequences in Devonian times had thick keels and a shear zone near 6.0–7.0 GPa. Triassic kimberlites show the SCLM base between 6.0 and 5.0 GPa. It is marked by low-Cr peridotites and pyroxenites and high temperatures peridotites of Cr-bearing type. The level ~ 5.0 GPa is significantly heated and contains abundant metasomatic minerals and shows signs of melt metasomatism. Abundant phlogopites in concentrates often associated with Mg-rich ilmenites suggest Phl metasomatism in lower SCLM level. In general Cr-hornblende and pargasitic amphiboles are common for mantle in this time in circum-Anabar region marking widespread metasomatism in middle and upper levels of SCLM. Many pyroxenebearing associations are found in the upper part of mantle sections starting mainly from 4.0 GPa. The conclusions about the decrease of lithosphere thickness toward the north after the Permo-Triassic superplume (Griffin et al., 2005) have some support (Ashchepkov et al., submitted for publication). Some decrease and elevations of the asthenospheric roots are related to areas of melt concentration. Outside the influence of the Siberian superplume, the lithosphere is as thick as beneath the Devonian pipes in the central part of craton, for example beneath the northern part of craton 600 to the west from Lena river mouth. Similar placers of pyropes belonging to Upper Triassic (Karnian) time are widely distributed on the shore of the Olenek Gulf of the Laptev Sea (Grakhanov et al., 2009) in the northern part of Siberia. The thickness of the Upper Jurassic lithospheric mantle was reduced to 150 km and sporadically to 130 km in some zones. It may have been rifted at the mantle level but such structure is not determined on the surface though many pipes in Kuoyka field are concentrated within a meridian line. The elevation of the level at which peridotite xenolith capture occurred may be explained by the presence of an intermediate magmatic chamber located at the boundary between the upper SCLM parts ~ 4.0 GPa where abundant eclogites are common. Kimberlite magma generation level was much deeper than 6.0 GPa because of the presence of lower mantle inclusions (Kaminsky et al., 2001). It seems that peridotites in the lower part of SCLM were subjected to the specific melt metasomatism with showing so-called pyroxenitic trend for garnets with the simultaneous increase of Ca, Fe, Cr, Na. The plumerelated melt metasomatism in Kyouka was related to the PermoTriassic superplume event and two episodes of kimberlite melt intrusions ~220–220 and 170–150 Ma and probably earlier events. 7.4. Models of layering formation Isotopic data show that most cratons have Mesoarchean roots (Griffin et al., 2003; Ionov et al., 2011; Malkovets et al., 2011; Pearson et al., 1995a, b) such as the Slave craton (Helmstaedt, 2009), Kimberly in Australia (Luguet et al., 2009) and the North Atlantic craton (Wittig et al., 2008). There are at least five models of craton growth: 1) high degree depletion of cores (O'Reilly and Griffin, 2006) (Fig. 13a) may occur as high degree melting of mantle diapirs in Archean time (Aulbach et al., 2011); 2) subduction-related fluxing of the peridotite wedge in frontal part of subduction (Santosh et al., 2009); 3) flat subduction of the hot plate with delamination of eclogites (Fig. 12a) (Gerya, 2014.); 4) lowangle subduction under the large superplume (Ashchepkov et al., 2010a) (Fig. 16A,C) or similar variant in Early Archean when eclogites or pyroxenites were melted at the high depths grading to Na-rich pyroxenites; 5) marginal growth of the craton due to sequential merging of high-angle stacked slabs (Fig. 12b) (Snyder, 2008). The thickness of the Archean lithospheric mantle may have reached 330 km



(Artemieva, 2009; Ashchepkov et al., 2012; Maruyama et al., 2007), possibly to 410 km (O'Reilly et al., 2009). The cores of the cratons are composed essentially of dunitic compositions without sharp layering like in Anabar (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a), Greenland (Wittig et al., 2008), Zimbabwe (Smith et al., 2009). Further growth could be due to flat subduction which in early stages should be accompanied by the melting of the basaltic–eclogitic layer and creation of pyroxenite layer at 3–4 GPa interval. After the general mantle cooling the flat subduction may be accompanied by the detachment of the eclogite layer (Fig. 12a) (Li et al., 2011). It is possible that could be two variants of subduction at the same time. If rather hot slab was subducting not far from the spreading ridge, the angle should not be high and eclogite may detach and submerge separately (Fig. 12b). On the other side (right in the diagram) the distant rather cold slab after the separation of H2O should form the island arc. The sinking down of such light arc material is not easy; after the closing of the backarc basin the subduction should stop. Newly developing high-angle subducting slab could merge with the continent after a new episode of arc basin closure. The repeated process could produce the series of the stacked slabs. In this variant the amount of the eclogites in the mantle should be very high. After significant cooling the low angle subduction could proceed mainly at the top of the mantle superplume (Fig. 12c). In this case the basic or eclogitic part of the slab could be remelted, thus producing hybrid pyroxenites. The remaining olivine slab should move horizontally due to flotation of olivine at a depth of about 270 km (8.0 GPa) (Agee et al., 1982). Detailed seismic studies show that SCLM beneath North America contains both inclined and horizontally layered slabs (Snyder, 2008). A possible sketch of such a scenario is shown in Fig. 12d. The low-angle subduction models of origin of the mantle lithosphere are most probable for the protocraton terranes. The inclination of deep mantle layers to Udachnaya detected in northern part of Daldyn terrane recalculated to a realistic scale should be about 35–45°. ore more. This is consistent with the stacked slab model (Griffin et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2011) for the growth opf the continents from the margins but do not exclude the low angle subduction model for Daldyn terrains may be terrane as a whole is favorable. The highly variable mantle structures in the central and southern part of Alakit may also suggest the possibility of a stacked slab model for the whole orthogranulite collision belt consisting of both West and East Daldyn terranes. The highly depleted craton core is recognized only beneath the Anabar region. The study of rare xenoliths from level of the 6.0 GPa level shows that dunites are rather Fe-rich (Fe# ~10–11) (Ashchepkov et al., 2001). They contain nests of garnets and pyroxenes. But the upper part of SCLM contains pyroxenites and metasomatic peridotites with pargasites. They may be related to fluxing by subduction-related fluids. Such a model may be suggested for the Khapchan terrane where the influence of fluid with high LREE is seen in the trace element patterns for most peridotitic minerals. Our thermobarometric models show general regularities of the structure of the craton. Low-angle subduction together with probable stacked slab layering determined for the central part of Siberian craton in East Daldyn terrane (Daldyn, Upper Muna field). West Daldyn terrane with the Alakit field probably have a more complex structure and contain mainly metasomatized peridotites which probably correspond to continental and continental margin mantle subjected to lengthy interaction with mainly subduction-related melts with high LILE content. In the Nakyn field located in the Markha terrane, presence of Al-rich micaceous rocks (Spetsius, 2004), together with common mantle peridotites, may suggest subduction of the wedge peridotites together with sediments. In the northern territories close located to the Anabar shield, similar complex layering may be suggested. But it may be a result of the lateral inhomogeneity of paleo subduction slabs or later local transformations by melt/fluid flow.

17

The Magan terrane, the mantle section beneath Malo-Botuobinsky, the SCLM of Mir pipe and Morkoka pipe are similar in general. So for a distance of 300 km the structure possible remains similar. But the SCLM of Kharamai field it is quite different in structure to the southern region (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a). But Kharamai field relates to another episode of kimberlite magmatism and layering may have been transformed. The Birekte region show also a irregular structure in its SCLM which relates probably to marginal growth of stacked slabs (Kusky et al., 2013). The relative depletion of the mantle rocks in Khapchan terrane and rather simple layering may suggest the low angle subduction origin as well as for Magan terrane One could suspect zonation of the constituent peridotite types from the south-west to north-east, pyroxene-enriched subcontinental-type peridotites in the upper part of SCLM beneath the Magan and Markha terranes are changing to the abyssal type in Daldyn terranes. Preliminary study of geochemistry supports this conclusion (Ashchepkov et al., 2013a, submitted for publication; Ionov et al., 2010). For the Khapchan and Birekte terranes the information is not so abundant. But preliminary geochemistry of primary pyroxenes with convex downward patterns as in some ophiolites (Gornova et al., 2013) may suggest back-arc origin. Other cratons worldwide also reveal a subdivision into large superterranes with differences in geochemistry of crustal and probably mantle parts (Ashchepkov et al., 2013b; Griffin et al., 2004; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Yakubchuk, 2010).

7.5. The factors of the evolution of the SCLM beneath the Siberian craton According to Re/Os ages the SCLM of Siberian craton was formed mainly in Early Archean times (Aulbach et al., 2004, 2007; Griffin et al., 2003; Jacob et al., 2005; Jagoutz et al., 1994; Malkovets et al., 2012; Pearson et al., 1995a,b) and modified in Late Archean- Proterozoic time (Ionov et al., 2011; Malkovets et al., 2012). Complex SCLM structures (Ashchepkov et al., 2011, 2012) modified by melt percolation (Griffin and O'Reilly, 2007; Heaman et al., 2006; O'Reilly & Griffin, 2006) of subduction and plume origin overprinted the Re-Os dates giving peaks near the plume events mostly found in the lower part of the mantle section (Pearson et al., 1995a,b; Pearson, 1999). Zircon ages of cumulate eclogites and lower crustal xenoliths were recorded during underplating of melts beneath the crust (Koreshkova et al., 2009; Schmidberger et al., 2007) and in the upper mantle. For Siberia lower crust ages are 3.8–2 Ga (Rosen et al., 2006) in Sm/Nd system and group near 1.8 Ga in the Rb/Sr system, as well as ages of 0.65–0.8 Ga corresponding to the breakup of Rodinia. The Pb/Pb age of sulfides in kimberlites from the Daldyn-Alkait region is close to 800– 600 Ma, corresponding to the age of melt-metasomatism of the lithosphere base (Bogatikov et al., 2009). The influence of subduction-related melts on the composition of the mantle observed in growth of silica in peridotites is well known (Boyd et al., 1997). Such features were recognized for the most kimberlite peridotite xenoliths from South Africa and Siberia. Primary magmatic partial melting to 20% typical for the abyssal oceanic mantle (Herzberg, 2004) was detected for most peridotites from Udachnaya pipe (Ionov et al., 2010), thus probably they had the stage of depletion in the ocean ridges. Later metasomatism in the upper mantle may correspond to subduction-related processes which give ages of about 550–1100 Ma, according to the Ar/Ar ages for Alakit peridotites, reflecting metasomatic processes in the mantle around intra-continental and marginal seas (Mukasa et al., 2007) the subducted plates in the ocean margins during Rodinia break-up in ancient time. The Ba, Sr, Pb peaks, which are typical for subduction fluids, often occur in trace element patterns for peridotite minerals from the Alakit and Malo-Botuobinsky regions (Ashchepkov et al., 2004a, 2013a).


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The concentrated flow of fluids (flames) in the relatively early period of continental evolution (3–2.5 Ga) probably was responsible for the origin of the megacrystalline garnet dunites (Malkovets et al., 2012; Pokhilenko et al., 1991). Most of them were channels of melt or fluid movement and most diamonds were created and associated with such rock-types. Fluid-bearing melt can penetrate practically through the whole SCLM section because H2O- and CO2-bearing peridotite solidus is low temperature (to 700 °C) (Foley et al., 2009; Tappe et al., 2007). Submelting and hybridization of eclogites with any type of melts/fluids could produce special alkaline melts which should easily rise and produce Cr-, Na-, Al-rich associations typical for SCLM beneath Internationalnaya and Mir pipe. Superplumes could greatly influence the composition of cratonic mantle (Condie, 2004; Maruyama et al., 2007; Santosh et al., 2009). Komatiite melts which were common in Archean and Early Proterozoic times (Aulbach et al., 2011) were essentially super-heated and could produce a special type of enrichment in pyroxenites showing abundant exsolution lamellae (Alifirova et al., 2012; Pokhilenko et al., 2010). Ultramafic melts cannot pass the entire lithosphere sequence and should differentiate at first near the lithosphere base ~270 km. The differentiated and carbonated melts could reach the pyroxenite layer and should crystallize near the 4.0 GPa boundary as is typical for carbonatitic melts (Tappe et al., 2006, 2007). However, most visible magmatic interactions are reflected in HFSEenriched melt metasomatized peridotites (Griffin et al., 1996) which are also volatile- and H2O-rich and probably were related to protokimberlites evolved from ultramafic to carbonatitic compositions, gradually increasing their REE and HFSE content. Low-Cr pyroxenites (Moore and Belousova, 2005; Rodionov et al., 1991) which form intergrowths with ilmenites are also related to protokimberlites. Water-rich melts related to group II protokimberlites are responsible for the specific metasomatism with growth of ulvospinels and Ti-rich phlogopites, garnets and clinopyroxenes. The lamproite-like breccias found in Udachnaya (Ashchepkov et al., 2013b) may have been formed by such melts. Basaltic melts related to superplumes also produced large-scale interactions but formed so-called magmatic or pyroxenitic type of garnet trends (Ashchepkov et al., 2012; Tychkov et al., 2008). Hydrous finger plumes, derived from the 410 km boundary (Lustrino and Wilson, 2007; Ohtani and Zhao, 2009), are associated with the periphery of superplumes and basaltic melts associated with the kimberlite plumes produced significant enrichment in Al, Fe, Ti, Ca in the 3.0–2.0 GPa interval of mantle column. All these types of interaction can pass through the lower part and partly through the upper part of the mantle lithosphere and strongly influence its composition, but they did not affect much the primary structure as seen from the contrast layering for SCLM beneath Mir pipe. No delamination was associated with plume interaction for the Siberian mantle in Phanerozoic time. The reduction of the lithosphere from 7.5 to 6.0 GPa in Mesozoic time in northern part of Siberian craton probably was produced by the influence of the Permo-Triassic superplume. The possible scenario of the evolution of Siberian and other cratons is represented in Fig. 13. Formation of the dunite cores derived from the high degree of melting of a large mantle plume (or diapir) causes the appearance of the protocontinents (Fig. 13a). Low-angle hot subduction produced the pyroxenite layers which are found from 3.5 to 4.5 GPa (Fig. 13b). The appearance of water in the mantle brought the appearance of rather colder subduction and periodic low angle subduction created the lithospheric keel in 3.0–2.7 Ga (Fig. 13c). The further process in relatively cold mantle could produce deeper subduction when eclogites were not remelted completely and very deep continental roots could bring to the formation of 410 km SCLM and stopping the convection. This is the "snow ball Earth" scenario (Maruyama et al., 2007) (Fig. 13d). The appearance of the new superplumes and fast convection was followed by the accretion of the protcontinents and growth of the super-continent Rodinia at 1.9 Ga.

Skipping the breakdown history which probably accompanied the delamination of the lower part of SCLM to 270 km, Fig. 13e shows the influence of the upper Devonian superplume on Siberian craton which was accompanied by some rifting in the Vilyui zone. The new Permian–Triassic essentially basic superplume brought some reduction of the lower part of SCLM and upwelling of the asthenosphere to the pyroxenite layer near 4.0 GPa (Taylor et al., 2003). 8. Conclusions 1. The structures of the SCLM beneath the Siberian craton are highly variable and strongly change from one region to another and between different terranes. The protocratonic Archean Tungus, Markha, Birekte terranes show flatter layering and less Fe-rich composition of SCLM than beneath the orthogranulite collisional Daldyn terrane which reveals contrasting layering. 2. Concentrated melt/fluid flows (flames) possibly strongly affected the composition of the mantle columns but did not change internal primary mantle structure. 3. Essentially dunitic composition of sub-Anabar mantle in the lower part of SCLM is related to the high elevation of the shield area. 4. Mechanism of growth of the continent in ancient time was mainly low-angle subduction, which may differ from the high-angle stack slab accretion within accretion belts. 5. The thickness of the lithosphere slightly decreased with time from 270–250 km in Upper Devonian time to 250–220 km in Lower Triassic time and to 130–170 km in Upper Jurassic time, due to the interaction with the superplume. This may be a result of the rising of asthenospheric lenses only which did not destroy the lithosphere roots. 6. No craton keel delamination was associated with plume interaction for the Siberian mantle. Acknowledgements The work is supported by RBRF grants 05-05-64718, 03-05-64146; 11-05-00060a 11-05-91060-PICSа. The work contains the result of the projects 77-2, 65-03, 02-05 UIGGM SD RAS and ALROSA Stock Company. We are grateful to Afanasiev V.P., Egorov K.N., and for providing concentrates from Northern and Southern kimberlite fields for this article. We grateful Austrian Academy of Sciences invited I.V. Ashchepkov to Vienna University for study of Siberian xenoliths. Many thanks to two anonymous reviewers for significantly improving the manuscript. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2014.07.017. References Afanasiev, V.P., Ashchepkov, I.V., Verzhak, V.V., O’Brien, H., Palessky, S.V., 2013. PT conditions and trace element variations of picroilmenites and pyropes from placers and kimberlites in the Arkhangelsk region, NW Russia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 70–71, 45–63. Agashev, A.M.,Pokhilenko, N.P.,Tolstov, A.V.,Polyanichko, V.V.,Malkovets, V.G.,Sobolev, N. V., 2004. New data about the age of kimberlites of Yakutian diamond province. Dokl. RAS ESS 99, 95–99. Agashev, A.M., Pokhilenko, N.P.,Cherepanova, Yu.V,Golovin, A.V., 2010. Geochemical evolution of the rocks of the mantle lithosphere base according to study of the xenoliths of sheared peridotites from the kimberlites from Udachnaya pipe. Dokl. RAS ESS 432, 510–513. Agee, J.J.,Garrison, J.R.,Taylor, L.A., 1982. Petrogenesis of oxide minerals in kimberlite, Elliott County, Kentucky. Am. Mineral. 67, 2842. Akizawa, N.,Arai, S., 2009. Petrologic profile of peridotite layers under a possible Moho in the northern Oman ophiolite: an example from WadiFizh. J. Mineral. Petrol. Sci. 104, 389–394. Alifirova, T.A., Pokhilenko, L.N., Ovchinnikov, Y.I., Donnelly, C.L., Riches, A.J.V., Taylor, L.A., 2012. Petrologic origin of exsolution textures in mantle minerals: evidence in pyroxenitic xenoliths from Yakutia kimberlites. Int. Geol. Rev. 54, 1071–1092.


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