Lentil cultivation and post harvest management

LENTIL CULTIVATION AND POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT Technology Bulletin No. RCM (TB) – 09

Authored by M. A. Ansari, Scientist (Agronomy), ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre N. Prakash, Joint Director, ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Punitha P., Scientist (Agril. Extension), ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre S. K. Sharma, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre Sanatombi Kh., SRF, ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre N. Arunkumar Singh, SMS (Agril. Extension), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Imphal West Technology Bulletin No. RCM (TM) –09 Published under – ICARDA-DAC-ICAR Collaborative project March 2015

All Rights Reserved © 2015, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region

Correct citation: M. A. Ansari, N. Prakash, Punitha P., S. K. Sharma, Sanatombi Kh. and N. Arunkumar Singh 2015. Lentil cultivation and post harvest management. Technology Bulletin No. RCM (TM) –09. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal- 795004.

Published by: Join Director ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal- 795004

Designed and Printed at: print21, Ambikagirinagar, RG Baruah Road, Guwahati-781024, e-mail: [email protected]

Acknowledgements The authors of this publication “Lentil cultivation and post harvest management” would like to place on record the deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to Dr. S.V. Ngachan, Director, ICAR Research Complex For NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya, Dr. N. Prakash, Joint Director, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region Manipur Centre, Imphal and Dr. Ashutosh Sarkar, Project Coordinator, ICARDA South Asia and China Regional Programme Block C, NASC Complex, DPS Marg, Pusa Campus New Delhi-110012 for their kind interest in the subject and providing all the support for the publications of this technology bulletin. We are also thankful to Programme Coordinator, KVK Thoubal for taking kind interest during implementation of programme. Special thanks to Department of Agriculture and Co-operation, Government of India; International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas, Asia and China Regional Programme Block C, NASC Complex, New Delhi and Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi for the financial assistance. The authors believe that the publication will be informative and useful to the farmers, extension personnel and development departments for enhancing the pulses productivity through specific management practices and their post harvest management.

Authors

CONTENTS S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Particulars Introduction Nutritional value of Lentil Agro climatic conditions Site selection and land preparation Cropping system and crop rotation Why use the crop rotation Options to increase the area under lentil cultivation in NE India Improved cultivars and their features Package and practices Liming of acid soils Fertilizer management Integrated weed management Water management Disease management Pest management Harvesting Post harvest management Post harvest profile and losses of pulses Pulse milling Commercial milling of pulses by traditional methods Toxic constituent of pulses Processing Demonstration of lentil in Manipur under DAC- ICARDA-ICAR collaborative project

Page No. 1-2 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 7 9 10 13 14 14 19 20 20 21 21 24 24 25 26

List of Tables Table No. 1 2 3 4 5

Particulars

Page No.

Nutritional value per 100 g Improved cultivars and their features Organic manures Fertilization of micronutrients Nutrient deficiency symptoms in lentil

2 6 11 12 12

List of Figures Figure No. Particulars 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Rhizobium inoculants Rhizobium application in furrows granular inoculation Nodulation in Lentil Sowing of lentil crops in Thoubal district of Manipur under zero tillage Root rot, healthy (left side) and infected (right side) plants Symptoms of Aschochyta blight on leaves, pod and seeds Botrytis infected pods and grey discolouration of seeds Symptoms of lentil white mold Lentil rust Larvae and adult of cutworm Helicoverpa armigera infestation Post harvest system of lentil Post harvest profile and losses of pulses Training programme on lentil cultivation in Haokha, Thoubal Awareness cum demonstration programme on lentil cultivation in Haokha, Thoubal Field visit at Haokha Awareness cum demonstration programme on lentil cultivation organized at Kaleikhong, Lilong, Thoubal Training programme on lentil seed production at Thoubal district Training programme on lentil Cultivation at Ngairangbam, Imphal (West) Farmers field day organized at Sekmai Hijam Khumou Farmers field day organized at Ngairangbam village Farmers field day organized at Ngairangbam village Demonstrations of Lentil (HUL-57) at Sekmai Hijam Khunou village, Thoubal Frontline Demonstrations on Lentil at Ngairangbam village, Imphal (West) Demonstrations of Lentil (PL-08) at Haokha NRL Maning village, Thoubal Demonstrations of Lentil (HUL-57) at Kakching Loushipat village, Thoubal Field visit at Sekmai Hijam Khunou, Thoubal

Page No. 8 8 9 10 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 26 27 27 28 29 29 29 30 30 31 32 33 33 34

1. INTRODUCTION Pulses are the cheapest and rich source of protein which can be considered as lifeline for vast vegetarian population of India. Apart from being the good source of protein, pulses also contain substantial quantity of minerals, vitamins, crude fiber etc. Amino acid composition of pulses is complementary to that of cereals. Mixed diet of cereals and pulses, which form staple diet to majority of Indian population, is of the superior biological value than either taken separately. In India, pulses are the second major source of dietary protein (27%) after cereals (55%). The share of animal protein is as low as 18% (Ali N, 2003). In addition to meeting the protein needs of the human population, pulses are also essential for the health of soil. Each plant of the pulse crop fixes atmospheric nitrogen in their root system, which enables plant to meet its own nitrogen requirement. Benefits of this nitrogen fixation percolate to the succeeding cereal crops. By-products of pulse plants are an excellent fuel and feed. Besides providing human nutrition and soil recuperation, pulses are important for sustainable agriculture. Lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) is an important cool season leguminous crop is believed to have originated in central Asia. They are moderately resistant to drought because of its tap root system which usually grows to a depth of 15 inches. It contains second highest level of proteins and fiber after soybeans. Lentil is an excellent supplement to cereal grain diets because of its good protein/carbohydrate content. Lentil also plays an important role as they help in the nitrogen fixation process which improves the soil health and reduces the application of nitrogen in soil. It can also be grown as green manure crop. Excess moisture before the plant is in full bloom can delay and reduce seed set. Excess moisture near the time of harvest encourages the spread of fungal diseases. Lentils also vary in size and are sold in many forms, with or without the skins, whole or split. On account of their values as nutritious food, feed and forage, lentil remained an integral component of subsistence cropping system since time immemorial. It can be grown as a sole crop, intercrop, catch crop, relay crop, cover crop and green manure crop etc., under sequential/mono-cropping in different agro-ecological regions. India is producing 14.76 million tons of pulses from an area of 23.63 million hectare, which is one of the largest pulses producing countries in the world. India stands second in the world next to China in lentil production followed by Turkey, United States and Australia. However, about 2-3 million tons of pulses are imported annually to meet the domestic consumption requirement. The major areas under lentil production in India are Uttar Pradesh (45.79%), Madhya Pradesh (30.21%), Bihar (12.00%) and West Bengal (4.21%). A standing crop in the field, ready to be harvested, is always a treat for farmers who depend so heavily on the yield of the ensuing crop. But it turns out to be a great disappointment if after the harvest, a large part of the produce gets lost, or deteriorate so badly that it

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becomes unfit for marketing and human consumption. Pulses are not exception, rather more vulnerable to it. Way must be found to know what all happened, and when? And above all, what can be done to avoid post-harvest losses? Before attempting to answer these questions, it will be better to briefly discuss the series of operations, which the pulse grains have to undergo after the harvest. 2. NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF LENTIL With about 30% of their calories from protein, lentils have the third-highest level of protein, by weight, of any legume or nut, after soybeans and hemp. Proteins include the essential amino acids isoleucine and lysine, and lentils are an essential source of inexpensive protein in many parts of the world, Nutritional value per 100 g especially in West Asia and the Indian subcontinent, which have large vegetarian 1,477 kJ (353 kcal) populations. Lentils are deficient in two Energy Carbohydrates 60 g essential amino acids, methionine and Sugars 2g cysteine. However, sprouted lentils 31 g contain sufficient levels of all essential Dietary fiber 1g amino acids, including methionine and Fat Protein 26 g cysteine. Lentils also contain dietary fiber, Vitamins folate, vitamin B1, and minerals. Red (or (76%) 0.87 mg pink) lentils contain a lower concentration Thiamine (B1) Riboflavin (B2) (18%) 0.211 mg of fiber than green lentils (11% rather than Niacin (B3) (17%) 2.605 mg 31%). Health magazine has selected lentils as one of the five healthiest foods. The low Pantothenic acid (B5) (42%) 2.120 mg (42%) 0.54 mg levels of Readily Digestible Starch (RDS) Vitamin B6 Folate (B9) (120%) 479 mg 5%, and high levels of Slowly Digested (5%) 4.4 mg Starch (SDS) 30%, make lentils of great Vitamin C interest to people with diabetes. The Trace metals (6%) 56 mg remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant Calcium Iron (58%) 7.54 mg starch that is classified RS1, being a high (34%) 122 mg quality resistant starch, which is 32% Magnesium Phosphorus (64%) 451 mg amylose. Lentils also have some antiPotassium (20%) 955 mg nutritional factors, such as trypsin (0%) 6 mg inhibitors and relatively high phytate Sodium Zinc (50%) 4.78 mg content. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in Other constituents digestion, and phytates reduce the bio10.4 g availability of dietary minerals. The Water phytates can be reduced by soaking the lentils in warm water overnight. Lentils are a good source of iron, having over half of a person’s daily iron allowance in a one cup serving.

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3. AGRO CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 3.1 Climatic requirement Lentil is adapted to cool growing conditions, and the young plants are tolerant of spring frosts. Lentils have been grown extensively in the semi-arid parts of the world, where they have slightly lower yields, but good seed quality. High humidity and excessive rainfall during the season encourages vegetative growth, which prevents good yield and can reduce seed quality. Excessive drought and/or high temperatures during the flowering and pod-fill period also reduce yields. The temperature is required for germination from 28 to 30 0C, 15 to 25 0C for vegetative growth and branching and 20-30 °C for reproductive stages. 3.2 Soil Lentil is adapted to all soil types, from sand to clay loam, if there is good internal drainage. Lentil does not tolerate flooded or waterlogged soils, and does best on deep, sandy loam soils high in phosphorus and potassium. Good drainage is required, because even short periods of exposure to waterlogged or flooded field conditions kill plants. A soil pH near 7.0 is best for lentil production. 4. SITE SELECTION AND LAND PREPARATION The site for lentil cultivation should be well drained, light in soil texture and calcium rich with moderate organic carbon in nature. High lentil yields are obtained on soils with moderate acidic reaction (soil pH 6.0 to 6.4), alkaline soils being undesirable. The ill drained acidic, alkaline and saline soils should be essentially avoided for lentil production. There will be a reduction in lentil yield due to soil salinity and reduction in pod size and the number of pods per plant. The soils with following characteristics are suitable for lentil cultivation ❖ Well - drained, light textured, loose, friable sandy loam or sandy clay loam soils ❖ Lack of proper drainage adversely affects root respiration, resulting in inhibition of root growth, ultimately affecting the plant growth and development through retarded metabolic functions. In the absence of adequate oxygen in the root zone, beneficial soil bacteria, especially the nitrogen fixers become ineffective and uptake of nitrogen by roots is hampered. ❖ Adequate supply of micronutrients mineral in the soil is very essential for the production of lentil pods with sound and mature kernels. ❖ A moderate amount of organic matter (about 2%) has been reported to increase the water and nutrient - supplying capacity of the soil. ❖ Electrical conductivity less than 4.0 mmhos/cm (saturation extract of soil) ❖ Exchangeable sodium percentage less than 15 ❖ Calcium carbonate equivalent less than 4%. Timely field preparation facilitates timely sowing which ensures higher yield. Field should be prepared to a fine tilth so that proper soil physical environment is obtained for

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good seed germination and seedling emergence. Two to three cross ploughings (15 to 30 cm) followed by planking is done to ensure that all crop residues, crop volunteers and weeds are completely buried. Deep ploughing up to depth of 30 cm is advantageous in rain fed areas because of better retention of moisture, improved porosity of soil and enhanced nutrient availability. The objectives of field preparation are based on the following principles: ❖ Provide favourable conditions for sowing, allowing germination, emergence and good plant development ❖ Maintenance of fertility and productivity over the long term by preserving the soil organic matter and avoiding erosion ❖ Breaking of hard pans or compacted layers to increase water infiltration through the avoiding soil erosion ❖ Facilitating mixing of fertilizers, lime, or agro-chemical products into the soil ❖ Incorporation of organic and agricultural residues. 4.1 Lentil under conservation agriculture An exception to the predominant use of conventional tillage in lentil production is no-till seeding of lentils after paddy harvesting. This is currently a successful and increasingly common practice. Having the option of seeding a lentil under conservation tillage could greatly reduce soil erosion potential. In addition, soil water storage could be increased as a result of reduced runoff and evaporation where a portion of the previous crop’s residue is left on the surface overwinter and through the early growth stages of the lentil crop. This could increase lentil yield potential in areas where water is a major yield limiting factor. 5. CROPPING SYSTEM AND CROP ROTATION Cropping system is a kind of sequence and arrangement of crops grown on a given area of land over a period of time. Cropping systems are the outcome of the technological innovations, household needs, reflection of government policies, availability of production inputs, market forces and socio-economic compulsion. An ideal cropping system should use natural resources efficiently, provide stable and high returns and do not damage the ecological balance. Cropping system is broadly grouped into sequential cropping and intercropping. ➢ Rice-Lentil ➢ Maize-Lentil ➢ Groundnut-Lentil ➢ Rice-Mustard + Lentil ➢ Maize-Mustard + Lentil ➢ Maize + Groundnut - Lentil ➢ Groundnut-Mustard + Lentil

4

6. WHY USE THE CROP ROTATION? ❆ Growing of different crops in rotation helps to stop the buildup of pests and diseases, which are found in the soil. ❆ Plants need nutrients in different amounts and take them from different parts of the soil. ❆ Changing the crops in an area means that nutrients in all parts of soil are used. ❆ Families of cereals often need similar nutrients (food). Keeping families together means that crops get the best growing conditions. ❆ Some plants have dense foliage (leaves which are close together and lots of them). These plants help to stop weeds growing. Changing from plants that do not have dense foliage, to those that do the next year, will help to keep the weeds down. It also protects the soil from erosion and conserves soil moisture. 7. OPTIONS TO INCREASE THE AREA UNDER LENTIL CULTIVATION IN NE INDIA ❆ By cultivating lentil in rice based low moisture uplands of eastern and north eastern hills. In this system lentil is cultivated either in residual moisture (Utera cultivation/ relay cropping) or with little irrigation in rice plots after the harvest of rice under conservation agriculture. ❆ There is vast scope of cultivating lentil in the empty fields of rice in eastern and north eastern hills of India. In these areas lentil is sown in between October as water level decreases in the rivers as soon as rice is harvested. ❆ In this system short duration varieties (80-100 days) of lentil can be grown.

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8. IMPROVED CULTIVARS AND THEIR FEATURES Name

Duration Average Recommended (Days) yield area (kg/ha)

Malaviya Medium Vishwanath 112 -130 (HUL-57)

1400

Rainfed conditions in eastern and central UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Assam

MOITREE medium (WBL-77) 118-120

1500

KLS-218 Medium (AZAD 120 -125 MASUR-1)

1350

Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam and West Bengal in rainfed conditions. Eastern UP and Bihar.

NDL-1 (Narendra Massor -1) PL-6

Medium 120 -130

-

Rabi season in Uttar Pradesh

Medium 125 -145

1100

PL-8

Medium 118-168

1520

Rainfed and timely sown conditions of plains of Uttarakhand Punjab, Haryana, Plains of Uttarakhand, Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Rajasthan as a pure crop in Rabi season

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Reaction to pest and disease

Developed by

Moderately resistant to pod borer and nematodes. Moderately resistant to wilt/root and resistance to rust. Resistant to wilt and grey mould under field conditions.

BHU, Varanasi

Tolerant to pod borer. Resistant to rust, wilt and root rot. Resistant to rust. Tolerant to wilt and root rot disease. Resistant to rust, wilt, Ascochyta blight and tolerant to pod borer pest . Resistant to pod borer. Moderately resistant to rust and wilt diseases.

CSAUA &TKanpur

PORS, Berhampore (W.B)

NDUA&T, Faizabad GBPUA &T, Pantnagar

GBPUA& T, Pantnagar

9. PACKAGE AND PRACTICES 9.1 Time of sowing The optimum time of sowing of lentil should be done in the mid-October to midNovember (After 15th November yield may be reduced). In the rainfed areas, generally sowing should be done with paddy harvesting along with their residual moisture. So that the residual moisture can efficiantly utilised for growth of lentil. 9.2 Spacing and plant population ❐ Row to row distance= 30 cm ❐ Plant to plant distance= 10 cm 9.3 Seed rate ❐ 50-60 kg/ha for bold seeded ❐ 30-40 kg/ha for small seeded ❐ Under zero tillage 15% more seed is required 9.4 Seed treatment Seed priming by overnight soaking in water, fungicide treatment (Bavistin 2 g/kg of seed), Rhizobium application (20-30 g/kg of seed) were found to help in crop establishment. Lentil being a legume crop fix the atmospheric nitrogen with a group of bacteria of Rhizobium family. The Rhizobium bacteria penetrate the roots of legumes and form root nodules. 9.5 Seed inoculation Lentil inoculated with the proper Rhizobium (bacterial) strain has the potential to fix up to 80 percent of its nitrogen requirement through nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is a symbiotic relationship. Both the Rhizobium and the plant benefit from the relationship. Rhizobium enters the root hairs of the plant and induces nodule formation. The plant provides energy and nutrients for the Rhizobium living inside the nodules. The Rhizobium, in return, converts atmospheric nitrogen from the soil air surrounding the roots into a form that can be used by the plant. Rhizobium is not very mobile so the inoculants must be placed close to the seed for maximum nodulation. Maximum nitrogen fixation occurs if the supply of available soil nitrogen is low and the soil moisture and temperature levels are good at the time of seeding. If the soil plus fertilizer nitrogen level exceeds 40 kg/ha, nodulation may be reduced. If the nitrogen level will 55 kg/ha or higher, nodulation can be dramatically delayed and fixation greatly reduced or eliminated. The seed should be inoculated with Rhizobium leguminosarum just prior to planting (within 24 hours). Follow the instructions for inoculation, and protect treated seed from high temperatures and drying winds until planted. ❆ A solution of 5% jaggery or sugar is prepared using water. For treating 100 kg kernels of lentil, 800 ml of solution is required.

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❆ The farmers use rice gruel as a sticker. ❆ Two hundred grams of carrier-based Rhizobium culture is added to the above solution to form slurry. ❆ Seeds are evenly spread on a cement floor or on a polythene sheet. ❆ The slurry is evenly poured and gently smeared on the kernel surface. ❆ For uniform application of the inoculums Fig.1: Rhizobium inoculants small batches of seed may be treated. ❆ Seeds are evenly spread on a cement floor or on a polythene sheet. ❆ The treated seeds are dried in the shade to avoid death of the Rhizobium. ❆ The seeds are then sown immediately. ❆ Most of the seed-treating fungicides used to prevent seed-borne diseases kill the inoculating Rhizobium. ❆ When both seed treatments are essential, the seeds may be treated with fungicide first and then with the Rhizobium culture. 9.6 Liquid inoculation ❆ Liquid inoculum is prepared by mixing the Rhizobium culture in 50-100 liters water. The liquid culture is poured in seed furrows evenly where seeds are sown. The furrows need to be covered immediately. ❆ This method of Rhizobium application will be useful in areas where sowing is done behind the country plough. ❆ Granular inoculums are prepared by mixing 200 g of carrier-based inoculums with 1 to 1.5 liters of aqueous methyl cellulose. Then, these inoculums are mixed with 15 kg of washed river Fig. 2: Rhizobium application sand to evenly coat with the peat. in furrows granular inoculation ❆ The above inoculums mixture is air-dried, and then uniformly distributed in the seed furrows by hand. If seed cum fertilizer drill is used, the inoculums mixture is placed in fertilizer hopper. 9.7 Rhizobium-inoculants mixed with compost ❆ 500 g of Rhizobium-inoculants is thoroughly mixed with 1000 kg of welldecomposed compost. This enriched compost is applied into the seed furrows and the crop is sown immediately. 8

❆ It is very important to use only well decomposed compost, as partially decomposed compost may bring down the population of inoculated Rhizobium. 9.8 Nodulation ❆ Using a shovel, carefully dig plants from three or four different locations in the field at about six weeks after germination of the crop. ❆ Count the number of nodules on the roots. Fig.3: Nodulation in Lentil

9.9 Inoculation with Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) The ability of a few soil microorganisms to convert insoluble forms of phosphorus to an accessible form is an important trait in plant growth-promoting bacteria for increasing plant yields. The use of phosphate solubilizing bacteria as inoculants increases the P uptake by plants. Inoculation of efficient strains of PSB species like Pseudomonas straita and Bacillus polymixa with seed increase the availability of phosphorous from the soil thus improves the grain quality and yield. PSB inoculation can be done along with Rhizobium inoculation. 9.10 Method of sowing Lentil seeds should be sown in lines with above recommended spacing. Lentil can be sown under zero tillage just after harvesting of paddy with their residual moisture. Lentil can grow as Para crop (relay) which facilitates double cropping and sustainable production of the systems. 9.11 DEPTH OF SOWING: Seed should be sown on 3-4 cm soil depth. 10. LIMING OF ACIDIC SOILS Liming means addition of any compound containing Calcium alone or both calcium and magnesium, that is capable of reducing the acidity of the soil. Lime correctly refers only to Calcium oxide (CaO), but the term as applied in agriculture is universally used to include various other materials also, like Calcium carbonate, Calcium hydroxide, Calcium - magnesium carbonate (marl) and Calcium silicate slags. Bacteria, that fix nitrogen in relation to the peanut plant, do better and form more nodules with an adequate calcium (Ca) level and with pH around 6.0 or higher. Generally soils of Manipur (both hills and valley) are acidic in nature and compulsorily require lime application. Apply 500 kg of lime/ha in furrows and properly mix thoroughly with the soil before sowing of the crops since it may take as long as 6 months for full reaction. 9

Fig.4: Sowing of lentil crops in Thoubal district of Manipur under zero tillage

The effects of liming on the soil and plants are as follows: 1. Lime neutralizes soil acidity, 2. Beneficial soil bacteria are encouraged by adequate supplies of lime in the soil, 3. Lime makes phosphorus more available, 4. Liming helps the availability of potash and molybdenum, 5. Lime furnishes two essential elements, namely calcium and magnesium (if lime is dolamitic) for plant nutrition, 6. Lime reduces toxicity of Al, Mn and Fe and improves soil physical conditions. 11. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS Fertilizer should be apply as basal (at the time of sowing). Nitrogen: 20 kg/ha (Urea: 45 kg/ha) Phosphorus: 60 kg/ha (SSP: 375 kg/ha) Potash: 60 kg/ha (MOP: 95 kg/ha)

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Zinc sulphate: 25 kg/ha (After paddy, lentil may deficient of Zinc, it should be mixed at the time of sowing) 11.1 ORGANIC MANURES: Manures are organic substances applied to the soil to supply one or more nutrients to plants to obtain increased yields. Well decomposed FYM or compost @ 8-10 t/ha should be apply well before sowing and should be properly incorporated into the soil. Organic manures good source of micronutrients also. Manures are classified as follows: Table 5. Organic manures Organic manures Bulky

Concentrated

Bulky (Slow acting with large quantities of organic matter) Eg: Cattle, Sheep Poultry, Pig, Goat, Horse manures, Compost, Green Manures, Sewage and Sludge.

Concentrated (Quick acting with small quantity of organic matter. Eg: Groundnut cake, Castor cake, Bone meal, Blood meal, Horn meal, Wood ash, Cotton and Linseed Meal.

11.2 CROP RESIDUES In present scenario both soil quality and productivity have affected as a result of the intensive agriculture rotation system, and hence organic matter amendments throughout the available organic residues can be used to enhance soil fertility, crop production and agricultural sustainability. Application of crop residues (straw, mulching material, leguminous leaf) to the soil is must for supplying organic carbon. 11.3 INORGANIC FERTILIZERS Varies with yield, nutritional status and parts removed at harvest. Because of the high proportion of nutrients in the vines, the removal of nutrients is much less if the vines are returned to the soil than if they are removed. 11.4 RECOMMENDATION OF FERTILIZERS ❆ Nitrogen should be applied based on soil nutrients available in soil. 20 kg N/ha should be apply as basal dressing. ❆ The phosphorus deficiency is the main problem in throughout India causing low pod filling, 40 kg P/ha is recommended. Rock phosphate is a cheap source of P, which may be used in acid soil, however for calcareous soil SSP is best. ❆ Potassium should be available throughout the growing season. 40 kg potassium should be applied as basal dressing. Among the source of potassic fertilizers, potassium sulphate should be preferred, because it contains sulphur (18%) besides (K2O 50%). 11

❆ Sulphur is directly involved in the improvement of the nodulation, prevent premature leaf fall and increase pod yield. 20 kg sulphur should be applied as basal. 11.5 Micronutrient application: To correct the micronutrient deficiency following nutrients should be apply; Table 8. Fertilization of micronutrients Micronutrient

Application (soil)

Application (spray)

Boron Copper Manganese Zinc Molybdenum Iron

Borax: 5-10kg/ha Copper sulphate: 10-15kg/ha Manganese sulphate: 10-15 kg/ha Zinc sulphate: 10 – 20 kg/ha Sodium molybdate: 15-25 kg/ha Ferrous sulphate: 10 kg/ha

0. 2% borax 0.1% copper sulphate+ 0.5% lime 0.5% manganese sulphate + 0.3% lime 0.5% zinc sulphate + 0.25% lime 0.5% sodium molybdate 0.15 % ferrous sulphate + 0.15% citric acid

Table 9. Nutrient deficiency symptoms in Lentil S. No. Nutrient

Symptoms of nutrient deficiency

1.

Nitrogen

2.

Phosphorus

3.

Calcium

4.

Potassium

5.

Magnesium

6.

Sulphur

7.

Manganese

Younger leaves become lighter green than normal. In severe cases the entire leaf becomes pale yellow. Stems are thin and elongated. In mature plants older leaves fall. Growth is stunted, and the stem becomes reddish. Poor pod and kernel development. Plants are stunted. Leaf size is reduced. Initially affected plants become bluish green, later a dull and dark green. Older leaves turn orange yellow. Later the entire leaf becomes brown and finally drops. It results in localized pitted areas on the lower surface that turn into dark brown necrotic spots. Severe deficiency causes death of leaf tips and terminal buds. Roots become short, stubby, and discolored. Wilting of young leaves and death of apical buds occur in severe deficiency. Calcium deficiency in addition to aborted, shriveled fruit, include darkened plumules and production of ‘pops’ (i.e., pods without seed). Potassium deficiency results in marginal chlorosis of leaves or sometimes interveinal chlorosis. Older leaves show marginal yellowing, and scorching at maturity, leaf margins curl upward, and the leaf dries. The first deficiency symptom is interveinal chlorosis of the terminal leaves and stunting of plants. Older leaves develop necrotic spots and drop off. Stems are slender and weak. Sulphur deficiency restricts root development and new leaves become pale green or yellow. Leaf chlorosis occurs mainly at the growing point. It decreases the number of pods per plant and quality of kernels. It decreases nodulation, interferes with the plant’s nitrogen uptake, and results in lower oil content of the kernels. Sulphur-deficient plants have less branches thus they are upright. Young leaves turn yellow and then brown. Manganese deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis and brown spots on the leaf margin. The yellowing begins at margins and extends towards the midrib. The edges may become orange and crinkle or curl. Older leaves develop necrotic areas and fall off.

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8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

Molybdenum Its deficiency decreases vegetative growth, effective nodulation, and nitrogen content of foliage. Molybdenum availability increases under alkaline conditions. Boron Severe boron deficiency causes leaves to turn deep green. Plant growth is reduced. Terminal leaves are small and deformed. Internodes length is reduced, due to secondary branching. Plants appear stumpy and short. It reduces flowering and fruiting and causes “hollow heart”. Such kernels do not develop properly, leaving a depressed area in the center that is often brown. Iron Young leaves initially develop interveinal chlorosis on the terminal leaves and may have crinkled margins. Later leaves turn yellow then white. Iron-deficient plants have limited roots. Affected leaves develop brown spots or necrosis on the lamina. Copper Copper deficiency leads to deformation of young leaves that are greenish yellow or chlorotic. Plants are stunted and rosetted. The stunted plants are dark green and wilt in an early stage. All leaflets become cupped as the leaf margin turns upward. Necrosis develops in the tips and margins progressing inward, until the petiole drops. Zinc Young leaves turn bronze and become chlorotic. Under high temperature, leaves appear bronze due to development of small necrotic spots. Growth of internodes is reduced, and plants are stunted. Stems and petioles become purplish.

(Sources: Feakin 1973; Cox et al. 1982; Reid and Cox 1973; and Cox 1984.)

12. INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT Major weeds infesting lentil are Chenopodium spp. (Bathua), Fumaria parviflora (gajri), Lathyrus aphaca (Chatri matri), Vicia sativa (ankari), Crisium arvense (Kateli), Melilotus alba (senji), Asphodelus enuifolius (jungli piaji), Convolvulus avensis, Phalaris minor and Avena ludoriciana. Orobanche, a parasitic weed is also seen as major problem at some places. Similarly V. sativa adulterate the grain due to its size, shape & colour. Minimizing the crop-weed competition particularly at early stage of lentil usually encounters with diverse weed flora, the yield could improved upon by about 20–30%. Reduction of pod yield owing to competition with weed depends on the duration of the crop weed competition in general and the stages of crop growth in particular. The yield losses are more pronounced in rain fed crop. When the lentil fields are kept weed free for a period of at least first 6 weeks there is no significant reduction in pod yield. On the other hand, when lentil competes with weeds at 4-7 weeks the reduction in pod yield is substantial. Effectiveness of weed control is largely dependent on the weed species prevalent, its life cycle and method of propagation. Since mechanical/cultural method alone does not ensure weed free condition, the use of herbicides in combination with cultural methods should be adopted. In areas where agricultural labourer is scarce and costly, herbicides may be used as pre and post emergence application to control weeds. Therefore, one hand weeding/inter culture at 30 DAS and another at 55-60 DAS, depending upon the intensity of weed infestation or application of herbicides along with one or two intercultural operations controls the weeds effectively. Pre sowing soil incorporation of Alachlor or Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i./ha along with two intercultural operation at 30 and 45 DAS have been recommended for effective and economical control of weeds in lentil. 13

13. WATER MANAGEMENT On an average, lentil crop requires about 300-500 mm of water depending upon the soil type. The most critical stages for irrigation are flowering, pod formation and pod filling stage. When technical advice is available, irrigating at irrigation water (IW)/cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) ratio of 0.6-0.8 is recommended. Determining IW/CPE ratio is not at all a complicated and costly affair. 14. DISEASE MANAGEMENT Diseases have the potential to significantly affect the quality and yield of lentil if the inoculum is in abundant and environmental conditions are favourable. The economically important diseases and management strategies are as follows: 14.1. Seed Rot, Seedling Blight, Damping off, Wire Stem & Root Rot ➢ These are soil borne fungal diseases which infect lentil seedlings. These diseases are caused by a number of soil-borne fungi viz. Pythium species, Fusarium species, Rhizoctonia solani and Botrytis species. These fungal pathogens can attack the plants individually or collectively any time between the germination and early flowering stages. Together they cause the symptoms of poor emergence, seed rot, damping off, seedling blight, root rot, foot rot, stunting, yellowing and wilt diseases. Lesion may also develop on the basal portion of stem leading to collapse of seedlings. ➢ Warm temperatures, wet soils, soil compaction and poor seed quality are the predisposing Fig .5: Root rot, healthy (left factors for these diseases. side) and infected (right side)

Symptoms plants ➢ Water-soaked lesions on the roots and base line of stem that eventually turn reddish brown. ➢ Decay begins on the feeder roots and progresses gradually towards the main root (in some cases, all roots are destroyed). ➢ Symptoms on foliage are progressive, ranging from a few yellow leaves to pronounced yellowing of the top growth, plant wilting and severe stunting. ➢ These foliar symptoms often appear following warm temperature and heavy rainfall. ➢ Infected seedlings usually die, resulting in poor stands, and infected plants lack vigour and often yield poorly. Management ➢ Using high quality healthy seed free from fungal infection and seed treatment

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with Thiram or Bavistin 2g/kg before sowing are the best way to manage this disease. ➢ Crop rotation with cereals and oil seeds can reduce the level of soil inoculum. ➢ Other option is to treat the seeds with Benomyl @ 2g/kg of seeds before sowing. ➢ Foliar application of fungicides has no effect as the products are not carried to the roots, and by the time symptoms are noticed, it is too late. 14.2. Ascochyta Blight Ascochyta in lentil is caused by the Ascochyta complex comprising of three fungi: ➢ Mycosphaerella pinodes, which causes leaf, stem, and pod spot and foot rot ➢ Ascochyta pisi, which causes leaf, stem, and pod spot ➢ Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella, which causes leaf spot, stem lesions and foot rot. ➢ The pathogen is seed-borne, air-borne, spread by rain splash, and can survive on stubble for many years. ➢ Cool temperatures, high humidity in the canopy, rain splashed spores, air-borne spores are the causal and predisposing factors. Symptoms ➢ Symptoms appear as stem, pod and leaf spots that are tan or grey spots surrounded by dark margins. Tiny black specks known as pycnidia occur in the centre of the spot. ➢ Under drier conditions, the concentric ring pattern of the symptoms is less pronounced and may show up only as a uniform yellowing of lower leaves. ➢ The tips of branches turn brown, and often die. In addition there is premature drop of infected leaflets. ➢ Ascochyta in lentil can also cause flower and pod abortions. Infected seeds turn purplish-brown and are often shriveled and smaller in size.

Fig .6: Symptoms of Aschochyta blight on leaves, pod and seeds

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Management ➢ Since it is a seed borne disease, use of disease free seeds can be the first line of management. Under favourable environmental conditions, even as low as 1-2% of aschochyta infected seeds may cause epidemic. ➢ Three years crop rotation may help in management of the disease. Avoid sowing of lentil in the field where same crop was sown in the previous year. ➢ Burry all the residues by deep ploughing. ➢ Seed treatment with thiram or Cymoxanil + mancozeb @ 2g/ kg seeds. ➢ Presoak the seeds in water at 20ºC for 6 hours followed by immersion in hot water (53ºC for 15 minutes). This is very effective in management of seed-borne infection. ➢ Post emergence fungicides like Bravo 500 containing 500 g/l (40.3% w/w chlorothalonil) can be sprayed prior to flowering. If the level of disease is more, it is necessary to go for more than one spray. ➢ Integrated management option is seed treatment with Bavistin + Thiram (1:3 ratio) @ 2.5 g/kg of seeds followed by 3 sprays of Bavistin (2 g/l) at 10 days interval at the time of disease appearance. 14.3. Grey Mold (Botrytis) ➢ It is caused by Botrytis cinerea. Grey Mold in lentil can be seed, stubble, air and soil-borne and can attack at various stages of plant growth. Infected seed produces infected seedlings, which die before emergence or soon after. On older plants, a greyish mold is observed, which quickly spreads under moist condition. ➢ Cool temperatures, high humidity, wet soils and dense canopies are the main causal factors. Symptoms ➢ Appears as a grey moldy growth visible at the soil surface on young plants. ➢ The infected sites first develop as small water-soaked lesions that expand to form large brown lesions with concentric zones. ➢ Symptoms also appear as fuzzy grey or dirty white moldy growth on flowers, pods, or lower areas of the stem on older plant.

Fig .7:Botrytis infected pods and grey discolouration of seeds

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➢ Under humid conditions, massive grayish brown spores are produced to cover the infected tissues. ➢ Sometimes, black sclerotia may be formed on old infected tissues. These lesions spread to the entire lower foliage. ➢ As the disease progresses the wilting, premature ripening, failure of pods to fill can be seen. The dead infected crop areas can be seen in patches. Management ➢ Use the healthy and disease free seed. ➢ Use wider row spacing or lower seeding rates to improve air circulation in the crop. ➢ Potassium fertilizer in potassium deficient soils reduces the severity of Grey Mold in lentil. ➢ Seed treatment with thiram or Cymoxanil + Mancozeb @ 2g/ Kg seeds. ➢ Foliar sprays of carbendazim or mancozeb or chlorothalonil (0.2%) prevents the spread of botrytis grey mold. 14.4. White Mold (Sclerotinia) ➢ White Mold or pod rot, Sclerotinia rot is caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. ➢ The critical infection period is during the flowering stage. ➢ Cool temperatures, high humidity, dense canopies, growing pea in the same rotation are the predisposing factors. Symptoms ➢ The first sign of White Mold is the appearance of a light brown, water-soaked discolouration on the stem, leaves, or pods and a cottony thread like growth in the collar region ➢ If the temperature and humidity levels remain high, water-soaked area appears that spreads both upwards and downwards. ➢ Dark brown spots then develop on the stem, and Fig.8: Symptoms of lentil the entire plant eventually turns brown. white mold ➢ Affected plants often appear wilted and ripen prematurely due to rotting stems, lodging is also common in affected areas. ➢ Stems when split open, exhibit characteristic white fungus growth, numerous, black, hard resting bodies (sclerotia) may be present in the pith. ➢ Affected plants yield poorly and often die prematurely. Management ➢ Bury all crop residues by deep ploughing. ➢ Fungicide use for control of Sclerotinia stem rot in the majority of pulse crops is 17

not cost-effective because, once the canopy closes, the fungicides cannot reach their target. 14.5. Wilt ➢ Wilt in lentil is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis. It is a soil-borne disease. ➢ Disease is favoured by warm and dry conditions. Optimum temperature for disease is around 25ºC. Symptoms ➢ Disease can be seen in patches at seedling and adult stages. ➢ Seedling infection is characterized by sudden drooping, followed by drying of leaves and whole seedlings. ➢ Flowering to pod filling stages are very susceptible. Infected plants show stunting, wilting of top leaves, yellowing of foliage and finally the death of plant. Management ➢ If the disease becomes established in the field, follow three years crop rotation and clear cultivation. ➢ Use healthy seeds. ➢ Avoid early sowing. ➢ Add heavy dose of organic matter or compost to the soil to suppress the activity of the pathogen by enhancing antagonistic microorganisms. 14.6. Rust ➢ Lentil rust is caused by Uromyces fabae ➢ Low temperature of 17º to 22ºC favours the spread of disease during the growing season. ➢ During the off season fungus survives in the left over diseased plant trash. Symptoms ➢ The characteristic symptoms appear as pink to brown pustules on the leaves and stems in the month of January onwards. ➢ Pustules can be observed on every green part of host including pods. The uredial pustules develop on both surfaces of leaves. ➢ Later on the pustules become black on leaves and stem. Management ➢ Affected plant debris should be buried deep by ploughing. ➢ Early maturing varieties should be preferred.

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Fig. 9: Lentil rust

➢ Spray Mancozeb (0.2%), Bayleton (0.05%) and Calixin (0.2% a.i.), immediately after appearance of disease followed by 2 to 3 sprays at 10 days interval. 15. PEST MANAGEMENT Together with diseases, insect pests cause serious damage to lentil crop. The major insect pests of lentil are: 15.1. Aphids (Aphis craccivora and Acrythosiphon pisum) Both nymphs and adults suck the plant sap from the tender leaves, stems and pods. They mostly colonize on young leaves which become deformed. Management ➢ After harvesting the crop, debris must be destroyed by deep burying ➢ Neighouring infested weed hosts must be destroyed. ➢ To prevent the rapid reproduction of aphids and infestation level, use the coccinellids as natural enemies under field conditions. ➢ In case of severe infestation before or during flowering spray Dimethoate (0.06%). A second spray can be given before pod maturity. ➢ Other insecticides like Fenvalerate, Malathion and Metasystox (0.03 %) are also effective in managing aphod population.Spray the entire plant to achieve control. ➢ Put yellow sticky traps for monitoring the aphid population (@ 100 traps/ha) 15.2. Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) ➢ A polyphagous pest, whose larvae feed on leaves, stem and roots. ➢ The older larvae cut the plant above the root crown. After cutting the larvae move to another plant leaving the earlier one to wither and dry.

Fig .10: Larvae and adult of cutworm

Management ➢ Deep ploughing of fields, which bring the larvae and pupae to to the soil surface making them susceptible to predator and exposure to sun light. 19

➢ Destroy the weed hosts, which are preferred sites of oviposition and sites of survival during off seasons. ➢ In general cut worms are difficult to control as by the time they are identified, the pest has already developed to a stage which is not as susceptible to insecticides as the early larval stages. ➢ Apply the poison baits prepared with rice or wheat bran, groundnut cake moistened with water and Carbaryl and Parathion, and apply @ 10 kg/ha during evening time. 15.3. Pod borers (Helicoverpa armigera & Heliothis spp.) ➢ Larvae cause damage to the leaves with young instars scraping the surface of leaflet and feeding on flowers, while older larvae feed on foliage and pods. Management ➢ Destroy the crop debris and alternate weed hosts. ➢ Spray Deltamethrin (0.05 g a. i. /l) or Dichlorvos (2ml/l) at the time of flowering or early pod setting. ➢ Nuceopolyhedrosis virus (NPV) can also be used as an alternative biopesticide. ➢ Trichograma pretiosum attacks on eggs of Heliothis. Release Trichogramma parasites at the rate of 20,000/acre.

Fig.11: Helicoverpa armigera infestation

16. HARVESTING Harvesting is the operation of gathering the useful part or parts of the plant and is carried out at the time when all the nutrients have developed and the edible parts have reached the appropriate degree of maturity. In general, the harvest takes place 10 to 15 days after the grain has reached physiological maturity. At the time of maturity, the grain has specific moisture content and special physical characteristics. The most appropriate time of harvest is determined based upon the length of the growing cycles (which differ according to the crop and varieties) and also the degree of maturity of the grain. Lentil can harvest when upper leaves dry and pods become pale yellow. 17. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT After harvesting of the crop, drying should be done prior to the subsequent threshing operation. After threshing of produce, the inert materials should be removed and grain should be clean, so that it can be stored at proper temperature or undergo further processing. The grains can be stored in bulk or gunny bags/containers on the farm storage structure or with storage agencies. Depending upon requirements, this may even be stored in household storage structures for domestic consumption. Finally, the grain is sent from the place of storage to market for sale to consumers, to small-scale food processors, to commercial dalmills or to 20

other agro-food industries. From these mills, the processed dal or other products are sent to consumers through wholesalers or retailers. The sequence and interactions of these operations constitute a complex system called the post-harvest system.

Fig. 12: Post harvest system of lentil

18. POST HARVEST PROFILE AND LOSSES OF PULSES At every stage of pulse food chain, some losses take place. The extent of the loss depends upon a number of factors, which will be discussed subsequently. A complete profile of post harvest operations of pulses is shown below which depicts the number of units that is actually available to the consumers out of total production (Fig.13). 19. PULSE MILLING Pulses are usually converted into dal by decutilating and splitting. Both dry and wet milling processes are employed. By and large carborundum emery rollers are used for dehusking and burr grinders for splitting. Decuticling is seldom complete in single pass requiring multiple passes, each pass producing 1.5 to per cent fines reducing recovery of dal. Basic processes in dal milling are cleaning, dehusking, splitting, separation and bagging. Major variation is involved with dehusking process only. Dal like Arahar, urad, moong and lentil are difficult to dehusk as a result repeated operations by dehusking rollers are required. Rewetting and drying is done to loosen portions of husk sticking after repeated rolling. Linseed oil is used to impart shine or better appeal to the milled dal. The removal of the 21

Fig .13: Post harvest profile and losses of pulses

outer husk and splitting the grain into two equal halves is known as milling of pulses. To facilitate dehusking and splitting of pulses alternate wetting and drying method is used. In India trading milling methods produce dehusked split pulses. Loosening of husk by conditioning is insufficient in traditional methods. To obtain complete dehusking of the 22

grains a large number of abrasive forces is applied in this case as a result high losses occur in the form of brokens and powder. Yield of split & pulses in traditional mills are only 65 to 75% due to the above losses compared to 82 to 85% potential yield. 19.1. Milling of Pulses In India, there are two conventional pulses milling methods; wet milling method and dry milling method. The latter is more popular and used in commercial mills. 19.2. Traditional dry milling method (‘DHAL’ MILLING) There is no common processing method for all types of pulses. However, some general operations of dry milling method such as cleaning and grading, rolling or pitting, oiling, moistening, drying and milling have been described in subsequent paragraphs. 19.3. Cleaning and grading Pulses are cleaned from dust, chaff, grits, etc., and graded according to size by a reel type or rotating sieve type cleaner. 19.4. Pitting The clean pulses are passed through an emery roller machine. In this unit, husk is cracked and scratched. This is to facilitate the subsequent oil penetration process for the loosening of husk. The clearance between the emery roller and cage (housing) gradually narrows from inlet to outlet. As the material is passed through the narrowing clearance mainly cracking and scratching of husk takes place by friction between pulses and emery. Some of the pulses are dehusked and split during this operations which are then separated by sieving. 19.5. Pretreatments with oil The scratched or pitted pulses are passed through a screw conveyor and mixed with some edible oil like linseed oil (1.5 to 2.5 kg/tonne of pulses). Then they are kept on the floor for about 12 hours for diffusion of the oil. 19.6. Conditioning of pulses Conditioning of pulses is done by alternate wetting and drying. After sun drying for a certain period, 3-5 per cent moisture is added to the pulse and tempered for about eight flours and again dried in the sun. Addition of moisture to the pulses can be accomplished by allowing water to drop from an overhead tank on the pulses being passed through a screw conveyor. The whole process of alternate wetting and drying is continued for two to four days until all pulses are sufficiently conditioned. Pulses are finally dried to about 10 to 12 per cent moisture content. 19.7. Dehusking and Splitting Emery rollers, known as Gota machine are used for the dehusking of conditioned pulses About 50 per cent pulses are dehusked in a single operation (in one pass). Dehusked 23

pulses are split into two parts also, the husk is aspirated off and dehusked, split pulses are separated by sieving. The tail pulses and unsplit dehusked pulses are again conditioned and milled as above the whole process is repeated two to three times until the remaining- pulses are dehusked and split. 19.8. Polishing Polish is given to the dehusked and split pulses by treating them with a small quantity of oil and / or water. 20. COMMERCIAL MILLING OF PULSES BY TRADITIONAL METHODS The traditional milling of pulses is divided into two heads, namely, dry milling and wet milling. But both the processes involved two basic steps : (i) Preconditioning of pulses by alternate wetting and sun drying for loosening husk and (ii) subsequent milling by dehusking and splitting of the grains into two cotyledons followed by aspiration and size separation using suitable machines. 100 per cent-dehusking and splitting of pulses are seldom achieved particularly in cases of certain pulses like Red gram, black gram and green gram. Of them Red gram is the most difficult pulses to dehusk and split. Only about 40 to 50 per cent Red gram grains are dehusked and split in the first pass of preconditioning and milling. As sun drying is practiced the traditional method is not only weather dependent but also it requires a large drying yard to match with the milling capacity. As a result it takes 3 to 7 days for complete processing of a batch of 20 to 30 tonnes of pulses into dhals. Moreover milling losses are also quite high in the traditional method of milling of pulses. In general, simple reciprocating or rotary sieve cleaners are used for cleaning while bucket elevators are used for elevating pulses. Pitting or scratching of pulses is done in a roller machine. A worm mixer is used for oiling as well as watering of the pitted pulses. Blowers are used for aspiration of husk and powder from the products of the disc sheller or roller machine. Split dhals are separated from the unhusked and husked whole pulses with the help of sieve type separators. Sieves are also employed for grading of dhals. In general, the raw pulses may contain 2 to 5 per cent impurities (foreign materials), some insect infested grains and extra moisture. Though the clean pulses contain about 10-15 percent and 2-5 per cent germs, the yield of dhals commercial dhal mills varies from 6875 percent. It may be noted that the average potential yields of common dhals vary from 85 to 89 per cent. These milling losses in the commercial pulses mills can be attributed to small broken and fine powders found during scoring and simultaneous dehusking and splitting operations. 21. TOXIC CONSTITUENTS OF PULSES The seeds of pulses include both edible and inedible types. Even amongst the edible legumes toxic principles occur and their elimination is important in order to exploit them for edible purposes. Two thermo liable factors are implicated in toxic effects. Inhibitors of

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the enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin and amylase haemagglutinins, which impede the absorption of the products of digestion in the gut. In addition, legumes also contain a goitrogen, a toxic saponin, cyanogenic glycosides and alkaloids. 21.1. Elimination of Toxic Factors It has already been indicated that soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the pulses. Correct application of heat in cooking pulses can eliminate most toxic factors without impairment of nutritional value. Cooking also contributes towards pulse digestibility. Heat causes the denaturation of the proteins responsible for trypsin inhibition, haemagglutination and the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important. Autoclaving and soaking followed by heating are effective. Another way of eliminating toxic factors is by fermentation, which yields products more digestible and of higher nutritive value than the raw pulses. 22. PROCESSING Processing: Processing of pulses is of primary importance in improving their nutritive value. The processing methods used are soaking, germination decortications, cooking and fermentation. Soaking: Soaking in water is the first step in most methods of preparing pulses for consumption. As indicated above, soaking reduces the oligosaccharides of the raffinose family. Soaking also reduces the amount of phytic acid in pulses. Germination: Germination improves the nutritive value of food pulses. The ascorbic acid content of pulses increases manifold after 48 hours germination. Germinated and sprouted pulses have been used to prevent and cure scurvy. The riboflavin, niacin, choline and biotin contents of all pulses increase during germination. The germination process reduces and/or eliminates most of the antinutritional and toxic factors in several pulses. Decortication: A simple method is to soak the seeds for a short time in water; the husk takes up more water than the seeds and may be easily separated by rubbing while still moist. In the alternative, the soaked grains may be dried and the husk removed by pounding and winnowing. Roasting also renders the husk easier to separate. Roasted legumes like those of Bengal gram and peas are widely used in India. Cooking: Cooking destroys the enzyme inhibitors in pulses thus improves the nutritional quality of food pulses. Cooking also improves the palatability. Fermentation: The processing of food pulses by fermentation increases their digestibility, palatability and nutritive value. Fermentation process improves the availability of essential amino acids and, thus, the nutritional quality of protein of the blend. In general, the nutritive value of the legume based fermented foods has been shown to be higher than their raw counterparts.

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DEMONSTRATION OF LENTIL IN MANIPUR UNDER ICARDA-DAC-ICAR COLLABORATIVE PROJECT CAPACITY BUILDING PROGRAMME Training programme on lentil cultivation (seed treatment through fungicide, Insecticides and Rhizobium, Package and practices, Importance of nutrients and liming and their application, post harvest technology and Residue mulching and their importance were organized in various clusters at the time of sowing. Training programme on lentil seed production and seed harvesting was done on how proper seeds can be harvested and can be kept for future use. Farmers were also made aware about the special features of different lentil varieties like type of seeds, flowers and pods they bear. The demonstration of sowing through zero till has been done at farmer’s field. The farmer’s field organized at the reproductive stage of lentil crops at farmer’s field.

Fig.14: Training programme on lentil cultivation in Haokha, Thoubal (Technical session)

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Fig.15: Awareness cum demonstration programme on lentil cultivation (seed treatment, sowing under zero till, filling of seeds and fertilizer in zero seed drill) in Haokha, Thoubal

Fig. 16: Dr. S. K. Dutta, DDG Crop Science (ICAR), Dr. S. V. Ngachan, Director ICAR RC for NEH Region- Umiam and DR, Central Agriculture university visited on Lentil FLD site 27

Fig. 17: Awareness cum demonstration programme on lentil cultivation organized at Kaleikhong, Lilong, Thoubal (Welcome by Joint Director, ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre to Md. Abdul Naseer Hon’ble Agriculture Minister, Govt. of Manipur; Demonstration of lentil cultivation with zero till; Address to farmers by Joint Director ICAR RC for NEH Region, Manipur Centre; Hon’ble Agriculture Minister and input distribution and technical session)

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Fig.18: Training programme on lentil seed production at Thoubal district

Fig.19: Training programme on lentil cultivation at Ngairangbam, Imphal (West)

Fig. 20: Field day organized at Sekmai Hijam Khunou (Interaction with farmers)

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Fig. 21: Field day organized at Ngairangbam village (Interaction with farmers)

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Fig. 22: Field day organized at Ngairangbam village

Fig.23:Demonstrations of Lentil (HUL-57) at Sekmai Hijam Khunou village, Thoubal

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Fig.24: Frontline Demonstrations on Lentil at Ngairangbam village, Imphal (West)

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Fig.25: Demonstrations of Lentil (PL-08) at Haokha NRL Maning village, Thoubal

Fig.26: Demonstrations of Lentil (HUL-57) at Kakching Loushipat village, Thoubal

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Fig.27: Field Visit at Sekmai Hijam Khunou, Thoubal

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