'Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela's Contribution .... Maturana, Humberto R. and Francisco J. Varela. 1980. ..... Tranchefort, François-René (ed.). 1989.
Live-Electronic Music
During the twentieth century, electronic technology enabled the explosive development of new tools for the production, performance, dissemination and conservation of music. The era of the mechanical reproduction of music has, rather ironically, opened up new perspectives, which have contributed to the revitalisation of the performer’s role and the concept of music as performance. This book examines questions related to music that cannot be set in conventional notation, reporting and reflecting on current research and creative practice primarily in live electronic music. It studies compositions for which the musical text is problematic, that is, nonexistent, incomplete, insufficiently precise or transmitted in a nontraditional format. Thus, at the core of this project is an absence. The objects of study lack a reliably precise graphical representation of the work as the composer or the composer/ performer conceived or imagined it. How do we compose, perform and study music that cannot be set in conventional notation? The authors of this book examine this problem from the complementary perspectives of the composer, the performer, the musical assistant, the audio engineer, the computer scientist and the musicologist. Friedemann Sallis is Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the Music Department at the University of Calgary, Canada. Valentina Bertolani is currently pursuing a PhD in musicology at the University of Calgary, Canada. Jan Burle is a scientist at Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Outstation at MLZ in Garching, Germany. Laura Zattra is a Research Fellow at Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) in Paris, France.
Live-Electronic Music Composition, Performance, Study
Edited by Friedemann Sallis, Valentina Bertolani, Jan Burle and Laura Zattra
First published 2018 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 selection and editorial matter, Friedemann Sallis, Valentina Bertolani, Jan Burle, and Laura Zattra; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Friedemann Sallis, Valentina Bertolani, Jan Burle, and Laura Zattra to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data [CIP data] ISBN: 978-1-138-02260-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-77698-9 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by codeMantra Every effort has been made to contact copyright-holders. Please advise the publisher of any errors or omissions, and these will be corrected in subsequent editions.
Contents
List of figures List of contributors Acknowledgements Introduction
viii xiii xvii 1
F riedemann Sallis , Valentina Bertolani , Jan Burle and L aura Z attra
Part I
Composition
15
1 Dwelling in a field of sonic relationships: ‘Instrument’ and ‘listening’ in an ecosystemic view of live electronics performance
17
Agostino Di S cipio
2 (The) speaking of characters, musically speaking
46
C hris C hafe
3 Collaborating on composition: the role of the musical assistant at IRCAM, CCRMA and CSC
59
L aura Z attra
Part II
Performance
81
4 Alvise Vidolin interviewed by Laura Zattra: the role of the computer music designers in composition and performance
83
L aura Z attra
vi Contents 5 Instrumentalists on solo works with live electronics: towards a contemporary form of chamber music?
101
F ranç ois -X avier F é ron and Guillaume B outard
6 Approaches to notation in music for piano and live electronics: the performer’s perspective
131
X enia Pestova
7 Encounterpoint: the ungainly instrument as co-performer
160
John G ranzow
8 Robotic musicianship in live improvisation involving humans and machines
172
George T zaneta k is
Part III
Study
193
9 Authorship and performance tradition in the age of technology (with examples from the performance history of works by Luigi Nono, Luciano Berio and Karlheinz Stockhausen)
195
A ngela I da De Benedictis
10 (Absent) authors, texts and technologies: ethnographic pathways and compositional practices
217
N icola S caldaferri
11 Computer-supported analysis of religious chant
230
Dá niel Biró and George T zaneta k is
12 Fixing the fugitive: a case study in spectral transcription of Luigi Nono’s A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum. À più cori for contrabass flute in G, contrabass clarinet in B flat and live electronics (1985) Jan Burle
253
Contents vii 13 A spectral examination of Luigi Nono’s A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum (1985)
275
F riedemann Sallis
14 Experiencing music as strong works or as games: the examination of learning processes in the production and reception of live electronic music
290
V incent T iffon
Bibliography Index
305 000
Figures
1.1 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening and Surveillance. Diagram of the complete performance infrastructure 21 1.2 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening and Surveillance, sketch of the complete process 24 1.3 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening and Surveillance, graphic score for flute action (excerpt) 27 1.4 Agostino Di Scipio, Two Pieces of Listening and Surveillance (score excerpt), signal flow chart describing some of the digital signal processing 32 2.1 The Animal algorithm is comprised of two parallel resonators with the logistic map in their feedback path 49 2.2 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from ramping up ratios of resonator delay lengths from 1.04 to 8.0 53 2.3 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from ramping up feedback gain to both resonators from 0.0 to 1.0 53 2.4 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from changing the balance between resonators 54 2.5 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from ramping up the low band pass frequency from 550 to 9000 Hz 54 2.6 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from ramping up ratios of resonator low band pass frequencies from 1.003 to 4.0 54 2.7 Amplitude and spectrogram display of two seconds of sound from ramping up the parameter r of the logistic map 55 3.1 Pierre Boulez at a desk working on Répons at IRCAM, 1984 (IRCAM, Paris, Espace de projection) 65 3.2 1975: Pierre Boulez brought an IRCAM team to CCRMA for a two-week course in computer music 69
Figures ix 3.3 Richard Teitelbaum (standing) and from left to right Joel Chadabe, and musical assistants Mauro Graziani and Alvise Vidolin in 1983, Venice Biennale, Festival ‘La scelta trasgressiva’ 73 5.1 Population distribution in terms of their first experience in musique mixte 103 5.2 Schematic depiction of the social interaction in musique mixte 104 6.1 Jonty Harrison, Some of its Parts, page 3 (excerpt) 135 6.2 Heather Frasch, Frozen Transitions, page 2 (excerpt) 137 6.3 Lou Bunk, Being and Becoming, bars 58–60 of full score 139 6.4 Lou Bunk, Being and Becoming, bars 58–60 of performance score 140 6.5 Denis Smalley, Piano Nets, page 11 (excerpt) 140 6.6 Elainie Lillios, Nostalgic Visions, page 2 (excerpt) 141 6.7 Juraj Kojs, Three Movements, page 2 (excerpt) 143 6.8 Juraj Kojs, All Forgotten, page 14 (excerpt) 144 6.9 Per Bloland, Of Dust and Sand, bars 73–75 (piano part) 145 6.10 Larry Austin, Accidents Two, Event 36 1/2 146 6.11 Dominic Thibault, Igaluk: To Scare the Moon with its Own Shadow, bars 213–15 147 6.12 Hans Tutschku, Zellen-Linien, page 1 (excerpt) 148 6.13 Bryan Jacobs, Song from the Moment, bars 84–92 149 6.14 Scott Wilson, On the Impossibility of Reflection, bars 1–4 150 6.15 Alistair Zaldua, Contrejours, page 3 (excerpt) 152 6.16 Karlheinz Essl and Gerhard Eckel, Con una Certa Espressione Parlante, page 6 (excerpt) 154 6.17 Karlheinz Essl and Gerhard Eckel, Con una Certa Espressione Parlante, page 9 (excerpt) 155 6.18 (a) The author with The Rulers, image by Vanessa Yaremchuk. (b) Detail from Figure 6.18a 156 6.19 D. Andrew Stewart, ‘Sounds between Our Minds, page 4, full score (excerpt). The Rulers notation is shown on the 156 two bottom staves 7.1 A partially 3D printed version of Hans Reichel’s daxophone constructed by author, with the ‘dax’ resting on tongue 162 8.1 Mahadevibot robotic percussion instruments designed by Ajay Kapur 174 8.2 Early robotic idiophones by Trimpin 176 8.3 Percussion robots with microphone for self-listening 179 8.4 Velocity calibration based on loudness and timbre: (a) MFCC-values, (b) MFCC-inverse-mapping, (c) PCA-values, (d) calibrated PCA 182
x Figures 8.5 Pattern recognition – average precision for different gestures on the radiodrum and vibraphone. The mean average precisions (MAP) are 0.931 and 0.799 185 8.6 Kinect-sensing of free space mallet gestures above a vibraphone 187 8.7 Virtual vibraphone bar faders 188 8.8 Trimpin next to one of the robotically actuated piano boards developed for Canon X + 4:33 = 100 189 9.1 Charles Rodrigues, ‘And now, electronic music of Stockhausen...’, Stereo Review (November 1980) 195 9.2 (a) Luciano Berio, Sequenza I (Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, n.d.), p. [1] (© 1958), S. 5531 Z. (b) Luciano Berio, Sequenza I (Milan: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, n.d.), performance notes, p. [1] (© 1958), S. 5531 Z 199 9.3 Luciano Berio, Sequenza I (Vienna: Universal Edition, n.d.), p. [1] (© 1998), UE 19 957. 201 9.4 Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel, Kontra-Punkte, Zeitmaße, Adieu, The London Sinfonietta, Dirigent: Karlheinz Stockhausen, LP Hamburg: Polydor 1974, dustjacket LP Deutsche Grammophon (2530 443) 203 9.5 (a) Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel (Vienna: Universal Edition, n.d.), performers notes, n. p (© 1960); UE 13 117. (b) Karlheinz Stockhausen, Kreuzspiel, rev. 4th edn. (Vienna: Universal, 1990), performance notes, n. p. (UE 13 117) 204 9.6 Luciano Berio, Sequenza III (London: Universal, n.d.), p. [1] (© 1968), UE 13 723. 206 9.7 Luciano Berio, handwritten page from the electronic score of Ofaním, cue clarinet (Luciano Berio Collection, Paul Sacher Foundation) 208 10.1 Simha Arom, analysis of the music of Banda Linda as found among Luciano Berio’s sketches for Coro (Scherzinger 2012, 412) 221 10.2 Steven Feld, wearing DSM microphones, records canti a zampogna (voice: Giuseppe Rocco, zampogna: Nicola Scaldaferri). Accettura (Matera, Italy) 14 May 2005; (Scaldaferri and Feld 2012, 84) 226 11.1 Qur’an sura, Al-Qadr recited by Sheikh Mahmûd Khalîl al-Husarî, pitch (top, MIDI units) and energy (bottom, decibels) contours 232 11.2 Qur’an sura, Al-Qadr recited by Sheikh Mahmûd Khalîl al-Husarî, recording-specific scale derivation 233 11.3 Screen-shot of interface: paradigmatic analysis of neume types in Graduale Triplex 398 as they relate to melodic gesture 234
Figures xi 11.4 Béla Bartók, transcription of Mrs. János Péntek (#17b) from 1937 238 11.5 Density plot of the recording of Mrs. János Péntek 239 11.6 Density plot transcription of the recording of Mrs. János Péntek 240 11.7 Pitches, based on the density plot, ordered in terms of their density 240 11.8 Pitches, based on the density plot, ordered in terms of scale degree 240 11.9 Bartók’s original transcription, juxtaposed with the version with scales derived from density plot 241 11.10 Bartók’s Original Transcription, juxtaposed with the version with scales derived from the density plot; primary pitches have note heads marked by an ‘x’, secondary pitches by a triangle and tertiary pitches by a diagonal line through the note head 241 11.11 Sirató, paradigmatic analysis of text/melody relationship as displayed in the cantillion interface 242 11.12 Pitch-histograms of Genesis chapters 1–4 (a) and Genesis chapter 5 (b) as read in The Hague by Amir Na’amani in November 2011 244 11.13 (a) Distribution of distances between unrelated segments. (b) Distributions of distances between sof pasuq renditions in Italian (a) and Moroccan (b) renditions 246 11.14 (a) Density plots of frequencies occurring in Indonesian (a) and Dutch (b) recitation of sura al Qadr. (b) Scale degrees derived from Indonesian (solid) and Dutch (dashed) pitch density plots for sura al Quadr. (c) Contours of the same cadence as sung by Dutch (a) and Indonesian (b) reciters quantised according to the derived scale degrees 247 12.1 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, diagrams of the position of the loudspeakers (left) and the live electronic configuration with line recordings identified (right) (Nono 1996, xv) 259 12.2 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, unprocessed spectrogram of a performance recorded on 28 February 2009 262 12.3 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, spectrogram of the contrabass clarinet sound recorded on 28 February 2009 262 12.4 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, spectrogram of the contrabass flute part, bars 4–7, recorded on 28 February 2009 263 12.5 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, manual transcription of sound of the flute and clarinet, bars 1–9 264
xii Figures 12.6 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, bars 15–31 268 12.7 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, contrabass clarinet part, bars 24–25, (a–c) present stages of the transcription process 270 12.8 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, contrabass flute part, bars 24–25, (a–c) present stages of the transcription process 271 12.9 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, contrabass flute and contrabass clarinet parts, bars 17–29, (a) Loris analysis, (b) final transcription 272 13.1 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, transcription of the entire performance, recorded in Banff on 28 February 2009 281 13.2 Luigi Nono, A Pierre. Dell’azzurro silenzio, inquietum, transcription of sounds produced by the contrabass flute and the contrabass clarinet directly, bars 17–29 282 13.3 Luigi Nono, A Pierre, transcription of sounds produced by the harmonisers and filter 3, bars 17–29 283 13.4 Luigi Nono, A Pierre, amalgamation of Figures 13.2 and 13.3, bars 17–29 284 13.5 Luigi Nono, Notes for a lecture ‘Altre possibilità di ascolto’ presented during August 1985 at the Fondazioni Cini 288 14.1 Marco Stroppa, …of Silence…, photo of the ‘acoustic totem’ 293 14.2 Marco Stroppa, …of Silence…, diagram of the audio setup 294 14.3 XY installation, diagram of the audio device and capture 295 14.4 XY installation, technical schemata 295
Contributors
Valentina Bertolani is a PhD candidate at the University of Calgary. Her dissertation focuses on the relationships among American, Canadian and Italian avant-garde collectives of composers/performers in the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on their aesthetic principles and improvising procedures. She holds a Masters in Musicology from the University of Pavia. She presented her work at society meetings and International conferences in Canada, the UK, France, Italy and Japan. Valentina has been the recipient of several awards, and in 2016 she received an Izaak Walton Killam Pre-doctoral scholarship. Dániel Péter Biró is Associate Professor of Composition and Music Theory at the University of Victoria, BC, Canada. After studying in Hungary, Germany and Austria, he completed his PhD in composition at Princeton University in 2004. He was Visiting Professor, Utrecht University in 2011 and Fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University in 2014–2015. In 2015, he was elected to the College of New Scholars, Scientists and Artists of the Royal Society of Canada. Guillaume Boutard is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Library and Information Studies at the State University of New York at Buffalo (SUNY Buffalo). His research interests include digital curation and preservation, creative process documentation methodologies, especially in relation to music and digital technology. He holds a PhD in Information Studies (McGill University), an MSc in Computer Science (Pierre et Marie Curie University-Paris VI), a MSc in Geophysics (Pierre et Marie Curie University-Paris VI), and conducted a two-year postdoctoral research in the music department of the Université de Montréal. He previously worked at IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) as an engineer from 2001 to 2009. Jan Burle currently develops scientific software at Jülich Centre for Neutron Science in Garching bei München, Germany. Before that, he was Assistant Professor in the Music Department at the University of Lethbridge, Canada. His main research interest is general application of computing
xiv Contributors related to musical sound and music: analysis, transcription, microtonal aspects, performance and reception. Chris Chafe is a composer, improviser and cellist, developing much of his music alongside computer-based research. He is Director of Stanford University’s Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA). Computer synthesis of novel sounds and music remains an interest ever since his first exposure to the work of John Chowning, William Gardner Schottstaedt and David Wessel as a student at the Center in the 1970s and 1980s. Angela Ida De Benedictis is a scholarly staff member and curator at the Paul Sacher Foundation. Previously she was Assistant Professor at the University of Pavia (Cremona), and she taught at the Universities of Padova, Salerno, Parma and Berne. Among her scholarly interests are the Italian postwar avant-garde, radiophonic music, music theatre, study of creative process, and electronic music. Publications includes the writings of Luigi Nono (Ricordi 2000 and il Saggiatore 2007) and Luciano Berio (Einaudi 2013); Imagination at Play. The Prix Italia and the Radiophonic Experimentation (RAI/Die Schachtel 2012); Radiodramma e arte radiofonica (EDT 2004); New Music on the Radio (ERI-RAI 2000), critical editions of Maderna’s, Nono’s and Togni’s work (by Suvini Zerboni and Schott) and other books and essays of theory and analysis mainly featuring twentieth-century music. Agostino Di Scipio composer, sound artist, scholar. As a scholar, he is interested in the cognitive and political implications of music technologies and in systemic notions of sound and auditory experience. As a composer, he is well known for performance and installation works based on man-machine-environment networks. A thematic issue of Contemporary Music Review documents his efforts in such direction. He is a DAAD artist (Berlin 2004–2005) and Edgar-Varèse-Professor at Technische Universität (Berlin 2007–2008). He is a Full Professor of Electroacoustic Composition at Conservatory of Naples (2001–2013) and L’Aquila (since 2013). François-Xavier Féron holds a Master’s Degree in musical acoustics (University of Paris VI) and a PhD in musicology (University of Paris IV). After teaching at the University of Nantes (2006–2007), he was a postdoctoral researcher at the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music Media and Technology (CIRMMT, Montreal, 2008–2009), then at the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM, Paris, 2009–2013). Since 2013, he has been a tenured researcher at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and works at the LaBRI (Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique). His research focuses on contemporary musical practices, perception of auditory trajectories and, more broadly, on interactions between art, science and technology.
Contributors xv John Granzow is Assistant Professor of Performing Arts Technology at the University of Michigan. He teaches musical acoustics, sound synthesis, performance systems and digital fabrication. He initiated the 3d Printing for Acoustics workshop at the Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics at Stanford. His instruments and installations leverage found objects, iterative CAD design, additive manufacturing and embedded sound synthesis. Xenia Pestova’s performances and recordings have earned her a reputation as a leading interpreter of uncompromising piano repertoire of her generation. Her commitment and dedication to the promotion of music by living composers led her to commission dozens of new works and collaborate with major innovators in contemporary music. Her widely acclaimed recordings of core piano duo works of the twentieth century by John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen are available on four CDs for Naxos Records. Her evocative solo debut of premiere recordings for piano and toy piano with electronics on the Innova label titled Shadow Piano was described as a ‘terrific album of dark, probing music’ by the Chicago Reader. She is the Director of Performance at the University of Nottingham. www.xeniapestova.com. Friedemann Sallis is Professor at the School of Creative and Performing Arts of the University of Calgary. He is an established scholar with an international reputation in the field of sketch studies and archival research in music. His research interests include the study of music that escapes conventional notation (such as live electronic music) and of how music relates to place. Recent publications include Music Sketches (Cambridge University Press, 2015), Centre and Periphery, Roots and Exile: Interpreting the Music of István Anhalt, György Kurtág and Sándor Veress (Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011), as well as numerous articles on twentieth- century music. Over the past twenty years, he has received six standard research grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Nicola Scaldaferri is Associate Professor of Ethnomusicology at the University of Milan, where is the director of the LEAV (Laboratory of Ethnomusicology and Visual Anthropology). He received his PhD in Musicology at the University of Bologna and the degree in Composition at the Conservatory of Parma; he was Fulbright scholar at Harvard University and visiting professor at St. Peterburg State University. His interests include twentieth-century music and technology, Balkan epics, Italian folk music, instruments from Western Africa. Among his recent publications: When the Trees Resound. Collaborative Media Research on an Italian Festival (2017, edited with Steven Feld). Vincent Tiffon is a Professor of musicology at the University of Lille, researcher in the CEAC research centre, and co-director of the EDESAC
xvi Contributors research team. He is also an associated researcher at IRCAM in Paris. Tiffon’s research addresses the history, analysis and aesthetics of electroacoustic and mixed musics and takes special interest in analysing the creative process in music and musical mediology. His work has been published in journals including Acoustic Arts & Artifacts/Technology, Aesthetics, Communication, Analyse musicale, Les Cahiers du Cirem, Les Cahiers de Médiologie, Contemporary Music Review, DEMéter, Filigrane, LIEN, Medium, Médiation et communication, Musurgia, NUNC, Revue de musicologie, and Circuit. George Tzanetakis is Professor at the Department of Computer Science at the University of Victoria, BC, Canada. He holds cross-listed appointments at the School of Music and the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department. He received his PhD at Princeton University in 2002. In 2011, he was a visiting scientist at Google Research in Mountainview, California. Since 2010, he has been a Canada Research Chair (Tier II) in the computer analysis of music and audio. Laura Zattra obtained her PhD at Sorbonne/Paris IV and Trento University. She collaborates with research centres, archives and universities (Padova, De Monfort, Calgary, Sorbonne). Research Associate at the Analysis of Musical Practices Research Group, IRCAM-CNRS (Paris) and IreMus (Paris-Sorbonne). Her research interests cover twentiethand twenty-first-century music, especially the interaction of music and technology, collaborative artistic creativity, the analysis of compositional process, women’s studies and music. She is currently lecturing at University of Padova, as well as at the Parma and Rovigo conservatoires (Italy).
Acknowledgements
The editors would like to heartily thank Heidi Bishop and Annie Vaughan for patiently shepherding us through the publication process. Their kind advice was much appreciated. We would also like to thank Elizabeth Levine for her help in getting this project up and running. We are grateful to the following people and institutions for allowing us to publish material for which they hold copyright: John Chowning and the Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA) of Stanford University, Marion Kalter, Marco Mazzolini (Casa Ricordi), Nuria Schoenberg Nono and the Archivio Luigi Nono, Alvise Vidolin and the Centro di Sonologia Computazionale (CSC) of the Università di Padova, as well as Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM), the Paul Sacher Foundation and Universal Edition.
3 Collaborating on composition The role of the musical assistant at IRCAM, CCRMA and CSC Laura Zattra
A ping-pong match: this metaphor neatly sums up the very close cooperation between a composer and a musical assistant on a computer-based artistic project.1 It served as the headline of an article by Pierre Gervasoni: ‘Le ping-pong de Pierre Boulez’, discussing the collaboration between Boulez and Andrew Gerzso. Boulez declared that as I do not make daily visits to the studio [IRCAM – Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique in Paris], we discuss the project at length. Not in the abstract, but starting from my previous works. I come up with some musical proposals, which Andrew Gerzso, musician, comes to understand. He seeks for and provides solutions, which I evaluate in order to check whether this corresponds to my objectives or still needs to be expanded. And so on [...]. Foresight should always alternate with the control of real possibilities.2 The last sentence highlights the kind of situations and dynamics that come to play in this collaboration: a path of endless adjustment in the dialogue between the artistic vision and the scientific visionaries. And yet, the idea of role-play and game contained in Gervasoni’s provocative title assumes there is a winner and a loser in this collaboration. Speaking at a conference held at IRCAM in 2007 on the role of the computer music designer, Gerzso, who had been collaborating with Boulez since the creation of Répons (1980), described the role and the profession of the musical assistant in these words.3 The emergence of the profession of Computer Music Designer (previously called musical assistant) at IRCAM at the beginning of the 1980s came about in response to a specific need: freeing researchers from an excessively exclusive relation with the composer coupled with the need to translate from the world of music to the world of science and vice versa. With the increase in the number of production projects in the 1990s, the musical assistant’s responsibilities increased. He had to take charge of the composer, manage the production projects, and
60 Laura Zattra carry out musical work in collaboration with the sound engineer and the composer. Gerzso then asked: Are these needs still pertinent today [in 2007]? Is the Computer Music Designer specific to IRCAM? Probably not, since today everyplace where artists work with new technology in the fields of sound or music – dance, theater, computer graphics, video, fine arts, music – one finds professionals who master similar concepts, techniques, and practices although they may be called by a different title (e.g. sound designer, Foley artist, etc.). However, today there is no shared professional identity, no public recognition of the profession, and no related training program guaranteeing the acquisition of the technical and musical competences necessary to practice this relatively recent profession.4 Gerzso’s words still apply today. Ten years after that conference, the debate is still open. Back in 1988, a four-handed article by Boulez and Gerzso stressed that exploring possible musical relations between computers and traditional instruments requires much communication [emphasis added] between composers and those who design computer hardware and software. Through such collaboration, electronic devices can be constructed that serve the composer’s immediate purpose while preserving enough generality and flexibility for future musical exploration – a task complicated by the fact that the composition’s musical complexity is usually not commensurate with the technical complexity needed for its realization. What appears to be a simple musical problem often defies an easy technological solution. Perhaps for the first time in history a composer has to explain and formalize the way he or she develops and manipulates concepts, themes and relations in a musical context in order for technicians (who may have little musical training) to bring them into existence. (Boulez and Gerzso 1988) These introductory quotations are intended to acquaint the reader with the themes of this chapter: the art-science collaboration, the emergence of a profession and the traces remaining from the habitually wordless communication between a composer and an assistant in the early era of computer music. The chapter covers the period that runs from the early computer programs until the first real-time experiments (ca. 1960–80). The end of this period is marked by: (1) the 4X digital work station programmed by Giuseppe Di Giugno at IRCAM (a project developed since 1976 and culminated in the creation of this powerful real-time audio hardware, which was used in
Collaborating on composition 61 Répons by Pierre Boulez), and (2) the era of the microprocessors. Computer music means here both music produced and performed in differed time (computer generated ‘acousmatic’ music or music at combines live musicians and fixed computer-generated sounds) or in real time. In this context, terminology will also have to be taken into consideration. The emerging profession presented in this chapter has been described and defined in different ways over the years: musical assistant, technician, tutor, computer music designer, music mediator (Zattra 2013), klangregisseur, live electronics musician, digital audio processing performer (Plessas and Boutard 2015).
Who is the musical assistant? The term musical assistant has been loosely applied over the course of music history, to a musician, a translator or an interpreter of musical ideas (copyist, amanuensis, transcriber, etc.), who work alongside the composer. Collaboration can occur in a number of different work phases: the transcription of working documents (e.g. a manuscript score can be cleaned and transformed into a fair copy), the arrangement of a musical piece, the development of rough ideas or sketches provided by the composer, assistance in the direction of a performance. (Consider. for example, the working relationships of Joseph Joachim Raff and Franz Liszt, Imogen Holtz and Benjamin Britten, Alex Weston and Philip Glass.) The same term can be applied conveniently for other less defined and more complex relationships: Ernst Krenek at the Staatstheater Kassel where he assisted Paul Bekker during the 1920s; Robert Craft, musical assistant of Igor Stravinsky, defined by Richard Taruskin (1995, 362) as an ‘interlocutor, ghost-writer, musical assistant and executor’; Joseph Joachim who collaborated with Johannes Brahms as an assistant and a performer as the latter wrote his Violin Concerto (Schwarz 1983). The history of music shows that the word ‘musical assistant’ has taken on different meanings, based on several applications of its original etymology: help (someone), typically by doing a share of the work … from Latin assistere: ‘take one’s stand by’ (ad: ‘to, at’ + sistere: ‘take one’s stand’) (The New Oxford Dictionary). The revolution of sound recording, synthesis and transformation (musique concrète 1948, electronic music 1950), followed by the birth of computer music (1957), caused the natural emergence of a new professional profile – someone who can work in research, writing, the creation of new instruments and recording and performance on electronic devices during concerts. The composition of music had gone from a paradigm based on ‘writing, score, performance, listening’ to one based on ‘writing, notation, projection, listening’ (Tiffon 2002) or more often ‘technological research, writing, control-evaluation-implementation, new writing, control and so on. From the early days, laboratories and electronic music studios have normally involved the presence of different individuals with diverse but
62 Laura Zattra intertwined competencies. This is true for the centres in Milan, Cologne, Paris and San Francisco during the first analogue generation and has continued with the digital revolution (at CCRMA in Stanford and other centres in the United States, in France, Italy, Great Britain, Germany, East Asia, to name a few). Yet the existence of the musical assistant has been often unreasonably neglected, both in the literature and by audiences. As one frustrated French musical assistant acknowledged: ‘the fact is, by and large the public ignores the implications of a musical assistant for the creation of contemporary music’ (Poletti et al. 2002, 243). The musical assistant is responsible for the technical setup from the early experimentation phases until the concert production. S/he explains the possibilities of the various instruments and applications, as well as the potential sound effects to the composer.5 The musical assistant also explains the most recent results in musical research and translates artistic ideas into programming languages. Finally, s/he transforms those ideas into a score or a computer program and often is involved in performing the musical piece in concerts. Unfortunately, in the musical score, the program notes and other published sources, the presence of the musical assistant remains hidden most of the time. I shall therefore focus on primary and secondary archival sources and administrative documents, conserved at three computer music centres: the IRCAM in Paris, the Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA) at Stanford University and the Centro di Sonologia Computazionale (CSC) at the Università degli Studi di Padova. My analysis will examine two points: 1 Institutionalisation and recognition: I will investigate the presence, absence or understatement (as the case may be) of an expressed concern for collaboration and the role of the musical assistant. 2 Source information: I will describe the ways in which this collaboration was undertaken between musical assistant and composer. As well as research grounded on material sources, further investigation has been conducted based on oral communication. As Bennett (1995, n.p.) once stressed: ‘Electroacoustic music […] is an almost exclusively oral culture. There is very little written documentation of compositional practice (as opposed to technical practice)’. The choice of these three centres is motivated by the close historical, musical, organisational, scientific and technological connections and numerous technical, cultural and scientific exchanges among them. IRCAM may also be considered the first facility to officially recognise the musical assistant as a professional. However, in an unpublished source written in 1977, John Chowning indicated that CCRMA provided software and human resources to IRCAM.6 According to Laurent Bayle (director of IRCAM from 1992 to 2001), ‘the musical assistant was historically born with a composer profile;
Collaborating on composition 63 rather young and freshly initiated to new technologies, normally within the framework of a residence in the USA’ (cited in Gervasoni 2000e, 20). For example, James (Andy) Moorer (co-founder of CCRMA) was the Scientific and Technical Advisor at IRCAM and came highly recommended by John Chowning.7 The CSC was funded using the same structure as CCRMA (a musical centre located within a university structure) and quickly recognised the presence of the musical assistant. French and American composers and researchers from IRCAM and CCRMA worked at the CSC.
IRCAM, Centre Pompidou, Paris IRCAM was created under the leadership of Pierre Boulez in 1974 and 1975, as the Centre Georges Pompidou was being conceived. The presence of the assistant was acknowledged at the official opening of the institution, which occurred in the last months of 1976.8 In fact, IRCAM seems to be the first institution to professionalise this activity and define the assistant’s specific function within its organisational charter. Archival documents show that the assistant’s identity was based on a model of collaboration.9 Jean-Claude Risset (head of the Computer Department for four years) recalls that in 1970 Boulez explained to him his desire to create an institution based on the idea that a ‘collaborative research project was necessary in order to solve some problems composers came to face […]. [His] ambitious project – calling into question the [traditional] context of musical creation in a collective approach – was obviously exciting’.10 The naming of the assistant’s occupation followed a tangled path, reflecting the emergence of this career (Zattra 2013). During the 1970s, names such as scientist, researcher, engineer and technician were used equally.11 The designations of tutor and musical assistant emerged during the 1980s.12 Finally in 2007, to achieve a more effective and stable appellation, the title Réalisateur en Informatique Musicale (RIM) was chosen, which is usually translated as computer music designer (Zattra 2013, 118). Initially, researchers and engineers could choose to voluntarily share their experience and help composers, but in an ‘unofficial’ capacity (Born 1995, 332–63).13 Therefore, they remained scientists, researchers, engineers and technicians. Under Boulez’s leadership, the heads of departments were all composers. This was done to ensure that aesthetic issues would take precedence over technical issues. According to Risset (2014, 14), this was important but inevitably established a hierarchy, if not a subordination, of researchers to composers. An IRCAM activity report identified the interlocking of musical collaboration in 1978 and declared that the programming for Wellenspiele by Balz Truempy (commissioned by IRCAM) was done by Giuseppe di Giugno and Jean Kott. Instrument design was done by Neil B. Rolnick together with Truempy. Rolnick also participated in the performance.14 Moreover, reports of the activity carried out at IRCAM in 1979 mention several works
64 Laura Zattra realised by researchers, engineers and technicians.15 The state of technology and its limitations led to increased cooperation. In an interview with Andrew J. Nelson, researcher Xavier Rodet observed: All the main things were done on the PDP-10 (computer). What was very interesting was the sharing of the digital to analogue converter. That was a very complicated and costly and difficult piece of hardware at the time. So there was one, essentially, attached to the PDP-10. Everyone would work on the PDP-10 and send the sounds to the converter. Then, the sounds were distributed in all the rooms by analogue lines, which was very interesting because it means that we were hearing the sounds done by all the others. That was fascinating because, you would hear something [and think], ‘Wow, this sound has something.’ So, you would go to the computer and ask the guy [who made the sound], ‘What are you doing? What is this you have been doing?’ It became an excellent exchange of knowledge. I found several of my collaborators by hearing them doing that. (cited in Nelson 2015, 64) At IRCAM, the necessity of defining a role for the musical assistant grew over the years; it is exemplified in a number of internal documents. On 15 October 1982, Pierre Boulez states that ‘tutors will be regularly summoned in the artistic committee, in order to report on the state of the projects where they are responsible and to make any suggestions they might think advantageous for the performance of their work’.16 The earliest documentary evidence of the term ‘tutor’, as a professional designation, is dated 3 March 1983. The tutor was to ensure teaching and guidance and on the other hand is himself active in musical research and related documentation.17 He embodied the connection between the research and its application to pedagogy and musical production.18 During this period, the activity of assisting the composer started to separate from the others within the Institution, hence the idea of a veritable profession (‘poste de tuteur’). When a member of the steering committee asks the musical direction of IRCAM to equip each national conservatory of music with the 4X System (20 May 1983), another member outlines the problem of pedagogy. Boulez then states that this problem occurs every year at IRCAM and that IRCAM calls for the establishment of positions for recognised tutors.19 Other documentary sources similarly refer to ‘contracts for supplementary tutors’.20 In a meeting of the board of directors in 1988, the first item of the agenda reads: The problem of tutors: the question has been with for many years, and we have certainly not come up with a solution, not even in terms of statute, the time management, the distinction between their job as a tutor and their will to compose.21
Collaborating on composition 65 For the first time, the importance of a sideline compositional activity was acknowledged, which was necessary ‘in order to understand composers’.22 During this meeting, Gerzso defined tutors as ‘instrument players, instrument virtuosos (Synthesiser, computer…), with deep technical know-how’. The tutor’s mission was now clear: to realise a composer’s idea – teaching composers how to use technology, to organise the schedule of the studio, to follow the musical work process, to prepare musical documentation, to teach a wider audience (i.e. presenting workshops on computer music), to undertake administrative tasks.23 Within the context of this discussion, the term ‘musical assistant’ began to appear in 1989, parallel to tutor.24 A report, edited by Marc Battier in 1989, envisioned the assistant’s activity in three distinct phases (Figure 3.1). 1 The composer explains the ideas and vision to the assistant. They work together to formalise these ideas (experiments, testing, software adaptation or writing). The project and the technical environment are adapted into a quasi-definitive form. 2 The composer begins to work independently. During this phase, the assistant’s intervention is moderate, while the composer writes the score. 3 The project is completed at the institute, where the tutor’s role is crucial.25
Figure 3.1 Pierre Boulez at a desk working on Répons at IRCAM, 1984 (IRCAM, Paris, Espace de projection). Seated left to right, Denis Lorrain, Andrew Gerzso, Pierre Boulez; standing, left to right, Emmanuel Favreau and Giuseppe Di Giugno; sitting in the back of the room, unknown. Source: Courtesy ©Marion Kalter.
66 Laura Zattra The designation musical assistant lasted for about fifteen years, until the 2000s.26 However, unpublished documents show that IRCAM members still felt somewhat uneasy with the term and its functions. During an administrative meeting in 2001, Boulez asked ‘…where are we? Are composers advanced enough to act on their own without the help of musical assistants?’ Bernard Stiegler (who, in a few weeks, became the new director following Laurent Bayle) responded that composers would always need a musical assistant to realise a musical research project that involved technology and would need to come to IRCAM to finalise this.27 However, the problem regarding copyright, recognition and authorship remained. During the 2000s, IRCAM officially adopted the designation RIM, computer music designer in English.28
CCRMA, Stanford University Originally located at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratories (SAIL) during the 1960s, CCRMA (pronounced ‘karma’) was officially founded in June 1975 by John Chowning, a professor, researcher and musician. Chowning spent his career synthesising sound fields; he is the father of FM synthesis technology. Until then, research in the analysis, synthesis and psychology of sound perception was undertaken through the largely unsupported work of professors, graduate students and staff members. In two famous publications, Chowning presented his research on the control and movement of synthesised sounds in an illusory acoustical space (1971) and on frequency modulation synthesis (1973), a technique widely used in computer music installations around the world.29 Early compositions from those pre-CCRMA days include Sabelithe (1971) and Turenas (1972) by Chowning, Rondino by Leland Smith (1968), a realisation of John Erikson’s Loops by John Grey (1974) and Leland Smith’s SCORE, ‘a computer programme written in FORTRAN which enable composers to synthesize and compose pieces using the DEC PDP-6 and later the PDP-10’ and other important contributions to the field of computer music made by James (Andy) Moorer, Loren Rush, John Grey and F. Richard Moore (Serra-Wood 1988). CCRMA quickly established a reputation as a major research centre for computer music, a multidisciplinary facility where researchers and composers worked together to create computer-based technology and digital audio as artistic media and research tools. Numerous authors (Chadabe 1997; Collins 2007; Dean 2009; Manning 2013; Nelson 2015) and essays dedicated to the history of CCRMA agree on the interdisciplinary nature of the facility. ‘Collaboration’, ‘working together’, ‘cooperation’ are common terms used to describe this approach, and yet, to the best of my knowledge, all the sources – published and unpublished – clearly show that there was no intentional division of labour within the centre.30
Collaborating on composition 67 The question of interdisciplinarity is mentioned in several texts, such as the one dated 13 June 1977, in which Chowning wrote: the extraordinary results already obtained have occurred in those few instances where scientists and musicians have taken the opportunity to bring their respective skills to bear on problems of common interest in a rich interdisciplinary environment. It is an example of cooperation, but more, an expression of the freedom of intellect and invention, where creative minds from diverse disciplines have joined in a common goal to produce fundamental knowledge which must be the source for new music, and to produce works of art which reflect the scientific-technological riches of the present.31 Since the beginning, synergy is the keyword in CCRMA policy. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts and the essence is to value differences (‘rich interdisciplinary environment’, ‘diverse disciplines’) and to work together (‘cooperation’) through the creative process for a common benefit (‘common interest’, ‘common goal’). ‘At Stanford University’, – the text continues – ‘such cooperation has been commonplace over the past ten years’.32 CCRMA did not formally acknowledge the institutional role of assistants, because strictly speaking there were no musical assistants. Anyone could be either composer or assistant, and all participants were scientists, engineers or researchers, who could also become artists or composers. Aspects of Chowning’s thinking are very helpful in this regard. He stressed that as far as I remember there was no idea of Musical Assistant in the sense that existed at IRCAM, e.g. Jonathan Harvey/Stanley Haynes. However, there were collaborations that were extremely effective and came about informally – mutual interests or a question that resulted in a longer interchange and eventual collaboration, e.g. David Jaffe/ Julius Smith. At CCRMA, collaborations involved people who had at least programming skills as a common language and, of course, music.33 During the 1980s, the collaboration between Jaffe and Smith enabled the two computer musicians to discover a mutual interest in physical modelling and the Systems Concept Digital Syntheziser at CCRMA (Jaffe and Smith 1983).34 One result of this collaboration was Silicon Valley Breakdown by David Jaffe, premiered at the Venice Biennale in 1983.35 Jaffe and Smith went on to work on the seminal NeXT computer, on which future Apple products are based.36
68 Laura Zattra Starting in 1977, Moorer introduced Chowning to the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language (SAIL) as Chowning composed his influential piece Stria (Zattra 2007). Moorer – also a scientist/composer – was working at IRCAM when Chowning came to give his first performance of the piece.37 Moorer helped him mix the sections of Stria into the complete piece at IRCAM. As Chowning recalls ‘no IRCAM technician was involved in the production, except for Andy Moorer, who had worked at Stanford and was temporarily there at IRCAM, and simply helped in the starting and stopping of tape recorders to make the final tape’.38 As the reader will note, the term ‘technician’ is used, which was also used at IRCAM at that time. As was the case at IRCAM, shared equipment was crucial in shaping the collaborative environment at CCRMA. SAIL Laboratory participants shared the same computer. Bill Schottstaedt, composer and computer scientist who worked at CCRMA for 36 years, recalled that during the 1970s, [w]e had people, parties and things were going on all the time. You could come in at any time day or night and there was always the same number of people doing things, they never slowed down... In those days there was one [computer for music]. If you wanted to do it [work with the computer], you had to be at that place. (Schottstaedt, cited in Nelson 2015, 32) This was the era of the mainframe computer, big, high-performance machines, which were used for large-scale computing purposes. They operated in ‘time sharing’, and all users (through terminals) could operate simultaneously with batch processing. According to Moorer you all came together round the computer [...] and everybody was together in these rooms with the consoles or with the terminals, so sharing of what you were doing was pretty common. You’re walking around seeing what was on the screen of the person next to you: a very, very intense, collaborative, open atmosphere. (Moorer, cited in Nelson 2015, 32) The examples of collaboration I mention in these paragraphs are some of the highlights of the sources I have sifted through over the years (files are stocked within the CCRMA Saildart Archive). By themselves, however, they do not reveal the full extent of the paths articulating the process of collaboration and the relationships linking the persons involved in this creative cooperation. It is more difficult to find passages describing how the actual collaboration took place within the research and musical projects. Information on this can be deduced from programme notes on
Collaborating on composition 69 works produced at CCRMA. For example, Fred Malouf (Chromatonal, 1985) writes that ‘the creation of this piece would not have been possible without the cooperation of the staff at CCRMA [...] My sincere gratitude goes out to those people’.39 Michael McNabb (Invisible cities, 1987) is similarly grateful to ‘CCRMA, its staff, and others there whose help in this effort was invaluable’.40 In another document compiled by Richard Karpen, we read that ‘CCRMA has a long tradition of accommodating composers with diverse views about what music is and how to go about making it’.41 The terms ‘accommodate’ and ‘diverse views about...’ denote once again the strongly collaborative character of the centre: researchers and musicians stepped forward with different views, but they let the composer develop his or her own technological project. Even the openness of the SAIL/CCRMA space, rooms and technological environment helped this cooperation. As composer Michael McNabb stresses: ‘people listened to everybody else. You never know when you might hear some interesting sound that peaks your interest and you think “That would fit in the piece that I’m working on”’ (McNabb, cited in Nelson 2015, 33). Thus, CCRMA policy did not seek to establish a clear division of labour. Chowning has recently confirmed to me that there was never a policy regarding visiting researchers and composers being assigned someone to help them, number of hours/day, etc. It was assumed that the visitor would audit classes, read documents and ask questions of anyone – faculty, staff, or students – to acquire the means to pursue their project. That is still the way that it works as far as I know.42 Exchanges, cooperation and transfer of expertise also occurred between CCRMA and IRCAM, well before the official opening of IRCAM. John Chowning described the future French laboratory in a message sent on 20 June 1977: ‘the general conception of IRCAM as a structured research environment where scientists and musicians will interact in pursuit of problems of common interest belongs to Pierre Boulez who will serve as director of the institute’.43 The identity of the future French institution is seen through the eyes of the CCRMA director as a place – mirroring CCRMA policy – where interaction is pursued for the benefit of all. From the same text, we know that two years earlier, in August 1975, a team from the future IRCAM had attended a ten-day intensive seminar. The team included Pierre Boulez, Luciano Berio and Jean-Claude Risset, who would each become the head of one of IRCAM departments in 1976.44 ‘Each visiting member (including Pierre Boulez) made extensive use of the computer in a “hands-on” environment. Each attendant was instructed in the usage of the computer and encouraged to experiment with synthesis techniques’ (Figure 3.2).45
70 Laura Zattra
Figure 3.2 1975: Pierre Boulez brought an IRCAM team to CCRMA for a two-week course in computer music. Seated by the computer (left to right) Pierre Boulez and Steve Martin (graduate student); standing (left to right) James (Andy) Moorer, John Chowning, Max Mathews. Photo by José Mercato. Source: Courtesy Stanford University.
CSC (Centro di Sonologia Computazionale dell’Università di Padova) As with CCRMA, activity in the field of computer music in Padova started within the research activities of the University and within the same technological environment. The Institute of Electrical Engineering (today School of Engineering) provided computer facilities and space.46 Early activities started well before the official opening of the CSC in 1979. Giovanni Battista Debiasi, professor at the Faculty of Engineering, had worked on vocal synthesis since the late 1950s. He attracted the interest of his sound engineering students – Giovanni De Poli, Alvise Vidolin and Graziano Tisato, as well as the American composer James Dashow. Together they founded the Computer Music Group in 1974, which was the first name of the CSC.47 Dashow installed the Music 4BF program in the IBM System 370 and composed Effetti Collaterali, for clarinet and synthesised sounds on tape (1976), the first computer music piece in Padova. De Poli had worked at IRCAM from December 1975 to May 1976 in the Department directed by Risset, before returning to Italy (De Poli, cited in Zattra 2000, 129). During his stay at IRCAM, De Poli presented MUSICA, one of the first software programs for music notation that he and Debiasi had developed in Italy (Debiasi and Depoli 1974; 1986).
Collaborating on composition 71 When I came back from France, I brought with me the software MUSIC 5, I was given by IRCAM friends; at the CSC [then still called Computer Music Group] we already had the MUSIC 4BF thanks to James Dashow. From then on, we could work with composers. (De Poli, cited in Zattra 2000, 129) Composers and students, both Italian and foreign, began to collaborate. For example, Richard Karpen, later associated with CCRMA, worked at CSC in 1984–85. Reminiscing on his pre-Italian studies and how he got to Padova, he remarked: I met James Dashow in New York in 1983. I was studying composition and computer music with Charles Dodge at Brooklyn College at that time. James came to present his work there. He told me about CSC and suggested that I could perhaps visit. So I applied for a fellowship to Padova University. My application was successful and I arrived at CSC in September 1984.48 From the beginning, the purpose of the work undertaken at the Università di Padova was to create an interdisciplinary space where scientific and musical expertise could meet so as to achieve a constant application of theoretical research to the production of music with computer equipment [and] to encourage scientists to investigate and formalise together with the creative utopias of the composers. (Marinelli 1995, 95) The statement certainly recalls passages from CCRMA documentation. However, unlike the members of CCRMA – who could be composers and researchers at the same time – the CSC founders and associates were either composers or researchers. The engineers presented the latest results of their research to the composers and the composers submitted their requests to the engineers (Tisato [1999], Vidolin [1999], both cited in Zattra 2000, 133–34 and 138–42, respectively). These roles, established by training, remained clearly identified, and the role of the engineer had the characteristics of a musical assistant. However, this differentiation did not impede collaboration, and it did not stop some individuals from acquiring skills in both domains. Colleagues who were both composers and researchers were not common: James Dashow, Mauro Graziani, Daniele Torresan and Marco Stroppa.49 The CSC’s visionary programme attached great importance to investment in both high-level scientific research and high-quality musical production: a musical composition project and a scientific publication were equally significant (Vidolin [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 45–111). In both cases, serious investigation, professionalism and progress in terms of results had to
72 Laura Zattra be guaranteed. ‘This is a result of the presence, in the organising committee, of pure engineers, who are interested in the advances of technological and musical research, rather than the affirmation or the continuation of the work of one single Maestro’ (Vidolin 1988a; 1988b; 1988c; 1989b; 1990). Edgar Varèse had always believed that collaboration would lead to the ‘liberation of sound’ (Chadabe 1997, 3). According to Wladimiro Dorigo, ‘what [Varèse] wished for in 1922: “the composer and the technician will have to work together” finally came true [at the CSC]’ (Dorigo 1977). Unlike IRCAM, CSC members never intended to create a specific ‘school’ or aesthetics; for this reason a much diversified production followed. According to CSC protocols, engineers (who could be compared to the musical assistants at IRCAM), were fully at the disposal of composers whenever and for as long as the composers wished. This collaboration was nonetheless precisely scheduled to allow researchers enough time to undertake their own research activities. However, as Vidolin recalls, it did happen that some composers asked us to find and make artistic choices, but we have never accepted this. Whenever this delegation act took place, we insisted in pushing composers to give voice to their own personal artistic approach so that they could contribute valuable ideas to research projects. They would have to be research composers, not composers requesting provision of services. (Vidolin [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 50) Vidolin’s statement testifies to the richness of musical and artistic ideas and to the research capability at the CSC, to which both the composers and the engineers contributed. Each musical project illustrated a different way in which computer software or results on sound research could be used. In this way, engineers and composers were able to work together to produce works with sound synthesis or computer-assisted composition, acoustic sound processing, acousmatic pieces, live electronics or open works using IBM, Next, Atari, DOS, Windows 9x, Macintosh, PowerMac (Zattra et al. 2001).50 Conditions for use of CSC machines by composers were defined by the founding board of directors. The applicant had to provide a detailed work sheet (provided by the centre including a description of the work, scheduling, etc.) at least one month before the beginning of the creative process.51 The CSC founders did not entertain any formalisation of the division of competences. ‘There was a great deal of willingness to cooperate. We had the entire personnel from the Centro di Calcolo [University Computer Centre], who helped us in every way. If, for example, we had to archive our data, we could always find someone willing to do that, even if it was not in his job description. This resulted in a lively production of music and research’ (Tisato [1999], cited in Zattra 2000, 41).
Collaborating on composition 73 In my archival research, I was unable to find minutes from meetings containing any real discussions of the practical actions of cooperation, collaborative creation or related problems.52 However, in musical programs, musical working sheets and scientific articles, it is possible to find trace evidence of this collaboration. Teresa Rampazzi completed Fluxus in 1979 in collaboration with musical assistants Mauro Graziani and Gianantonio Patella. The work was made using the Interactive Computer Music System (ICMS) software, realised by engineer Graziano Tisato specifically to help less expert composers with sound synthesis, voice synthesis, processing, interpolation and mixing, including in real time.53 Many other pieces were composed using ICMS, most probably the very first ‘user-friendly’ computer programme ever made, allowing composers to bypass the difficulties inherent in the alphanumeric MUSIC series software.54 In 1983, another occasion of collaboration occurred, when three American composers (David Behrman, Joel Chadabe and Richard Teitelbaum) were asked to compose a piece to be presented at the Venice Biennale. They used the system 4i, implemented on a 4i processor given by IRCAM derived from the 4X (the ‘I’ stood for Italy!). They had only a week to work in close collaboration with the CSC musical assistants. On that occasion, Behrman wrote that as anyone who has worked with computer music system may have noticed, composition will need months to get all processes done and working. The fact that we were given only few days to complete the commission, that meant we had to make decisions quickly and make mutual helping and concessions trusting in everyone’s competence and intuitions [...]. 4i system turned out to be extremely flexible and potent [...]. We found out that we could complete a piece within a matter of days, by grace of CSC members’ skills. (Behrman et al. 1984, 86) Behrman realised Oracolo, for 4i real-time system (voice synthesis and transformation, keyboard connected with the 4i system and a videogame) in collaboration with Graziano Tisato. Richard Teitelbaum created Barcarola, for 4i real-time system, based on sound synthesis to simulate sea waves and wind. Joel Chadabe composed Canzona veneziana, with Frequency Modulation synthesis to simulate drum sounds, manipulated to become an imaginary bell (Figure 3.3). One of the most important collaborative projects at CSC was Prometeo. Tragedia dell’Ascolto by Luigi Nono (1984–85). Nono recalled that ‘with Alvise Vidolin, Sylviane Sapir and Mauro Graziani, we worked as follows: first of all, we agreed on the use of some type of sound material I have been interested in; they provided me with a sort of sound catalogue, which became a starting point; from here we began testing and discussing’ (cited in Tamburini 1985).
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Figure 3.3 Richard Teitelbaum (standing) and from left to right Joel Chadabe, and musicalassistantsMauroGrazianiandAlviseVidolinin1983,VeniceBiennale, Festival ‘La scelta trasgressiva’. Source: Courtesy Padova University, CSC – Sound and Music Computing Group.
Conclusions Let us cast our minds back to the ping-pong match I discussed at the beginning. Is there a winner within the process of collaboration? As Richard Sennett pointed out: Natural cooperation […] begins with the fact that we can’t survive alone. The division of labour helps us multiply our insufficient powers, but this division works best when it is supple, because the environment itself is in a constant process of change. (Sennett 2012, 73) According to Sennett, the spectrum of the give and take exchange can be defined as follows: 1 2 3 4 5
altruistic exchange, which entails self-sacrifice; win–win exchange (both parties are equal and benefit from the cooperation); differentiating exchange (parties are aware of their respective differences); zero-sum exchange (one party prevails); winner-takes-all exchange (one party completely defeats and wipes out the other). (Sennett 2012, 72)
Collaborating on composition 75 We may then try to evaluate the experiences of cooperation at IRCAM, CCRMA and CSC and position each in relation to the above points. The CSC experience – with its non-aesthetic approach – was oriented towards a kind of altruistic exchange in which a win-win exchange allowed both parties (composers and engineers) to pursue interesting musical research and therefore maintain the respective differences (differentiating exchange). Cooperation at CCRMA was, according to sources, also a win–win exchange, which may be interpreted as an environment, described once by Chowning as similar to the ‘Socratean abode’ (Moorer, cited in Nelson 2015, 32; also cited in Roads 1982, 13; Markoff 2005). At CSC, the roles of composers and engineers (who also functioned as musical assistants) remained differentiated; at CCRMA, all participants were researchers who could also become artists or composers or vice-versa. The history of collaboration at IRCAM reflects the specific character of the institution and the position of its founder and first director. In the conclusion to his now-famous article, ‘Technology and the Composer’ (originally published in 1977), Boulez wrote: ‘Research/Invention, individual/collective, the multiple resources of this double dialectic are capable of engendering infinite possibilities. That invention is marked more particularly by the imprint of an individual goes without saying’. (1984, 494). IRCAM, perhaps by nature of its structure – notably the ‘art-science’ dichotomy – helped to establish a ‘musical assistant’ culture in the 1980s. The composer was the ‘grand architect’ of the electronic and live electronic aspects of a work; the musical assistant was responsible for the realisation of the composer’s idea. The danger is that the “musical assistant” culture [helps] composers to work more effectively by removing the requirement for expert knowledge in electronics technology, but [has] the side-effect of distancing the technology from the creative process. It ultimately [creates] a culture of dependence – perhaps even subservience. (Bullock 2008, 204–5) Risset observed that unfortunately not all composers are worried about the collaborative issues to the same extent. On the one hand, a composer is often in a hurry, or even not fully interested in research, and he may restrict collaboration to a simple provision of service. On the other hand, real innovations always fall outside the boundaries of expectation and prediction. Research has not the same timing of creation: research puts urgency between brackets. Composition has to be made quickly; by its nature, research never ends. Victor Hugo has once said “Science seeks perpetual movement. It has found it; it is itself perpetual motion”. (Risset 2014, 14)55 These quotations suggest a zero-sum or a winner-take-all exchange at IRCAM. For this reason, Risset’s claim that ‘every creative artist is also a researcher’
76 Laura Zattra (2014, 14), is all the more important, not only for the specific case of IRCAM. As a researcher and composer himself, his words point to a vision of collaboration from the very early computer music era, when computer music centres such CSC or CCRMA asked every composer to be a composer/researcher and every scientist a musician/researcher. Within his/her respective role, each member of this dichotomy had a responsibility to ensure professional ethics: each creation should reflect a profound artistic and personal research. By its very nature, computer music requires comparable amounts of pure creativity and research, characteristic of this ‘community of practice’ (Lave and Wenger, 1991; see also Wenger, 1998). Thus if, according to Risset, ‘every creative artist is also a researcher’, then every musical assistant is also an artist.
Notes 1 This chapter provides results of an individual research project initially conducted at IRCAM funded by the CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; invited researcher, CNRS INS2I, June–October 2012) and by Padova University (Research Grant, project ‘COEM – Cooperative Electroacoustic Music’, 2011–12). This research is currently in progress and is designed to assess the network of agents and processes involved in music making with new media, the implications of musical mediation and music’s changing ontology. 2 ‘Comme je ne vais pas journellement en studio, nous parlons longuement du projet. Pas dans l’abstrait mais à partir de mes réalisations antérieures. Je fais des propositions musicales qu’Andrew Gerzso, musicien, comprend. Il cherche et me propose une solution que j’étudie pour voir si elle correspond à ce que je veux ou s’il faut encore l’élargir. Et ainsi de suite […]. Il faut donc toujours alterner prévision et contrôle des possibilités réelles’ (Gervasoni 2000a, 20). This special issue of Le Monde dedicated to the Festival Agora, also included in the articles Gervasoni (2000b, 2000c, 2000d, 2000e). 3 Gerzso spoke at the first conference devoted to the profession of the computer music designer. The conference, which he organised, was held at IRCAM on 22–23 June 2007. 4 Gerzso concluded by saying that ‘the ambition of this meeting is to sketch the contours of this new profession in its different forms and elicit the best type of training programs’. Andrew Gerzso, presentation text (brochure) for conference on the profession of the computer music designer, IRCAM, June 22–23 2007, p. 5. 5 Until the 1990s and the development of the first user-friendly software, such as Max/MSP, very few composers were able to generate computer music pieces autonomously, from the first conception and synthesis, to the diffusion of sound. We can cite John Chowning, Jean-Claude Risset and James Tenney among the rare composers who were at the same time composers, researchers and computer programmers (Kahn 2012, 131–46). 6 ‘As a prototype for other such systems, the software produced here over the years has been exported internationally. At least one system that of IRCAM in the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, was patterned entirely after the Stanford system, even to the type of computer used. They are currently running a large fraction of the Stanford programs and will soon be running the entire Stanford program library.’ John Chowning, ‘A Brief History of the Stanford Computer Music Project, 13 June 1977, unpublished, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-13 15:12 APPA .PUB [TXT, JC]’.
Collaborating on composition 77 7 ‘I request that James A. Moorer be granted leave from June 14 1977 until 1 September 1978. During this period Moorer will act as scientific adviser for the IRCAM in Paris. His responsibilities at IRCAM will include the development of A.I. Lab type software on the PDP-10 system at IRCAM in addition to providing technical and scientific advice’. John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 25 May 1977 CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘ANDY[TXT,JC]: 1977-05-25)’. 8 My investigation has, to a very large extent, revolved around unpublished archival sources at the Centre de Ressources de l’IRCAM (CRI). 9 An archival unpublished source reads: ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. pourquoi?/Depuis une dizaine d’années, d’importantes découvertes dans les domaines de l’électroacoustique et de l’informatique ont profondément modifié la fonction des compositeurs de musique; […] Cette révolution, dont les conséquences sont encore embryonnaires mais n’ont pas fini de s’étendre, doit être maîtrisée. Tel est l’objet de l’I.R.C.A.M. [sic], qui se propose: – d’inventorier systématiquement les possibilités nouvelles qu’offrent aux compositeurs et interprètes les techniques scientifiques récentes de production de sons nouveaux; – de mettre les compositeurs, que leur formation n’a pas préparés à utiliser ces nouvelles ressources, en mesure d’appréhender la démarche des scientifiques qui en assurent le maniement, et par un travail en commun de l’influencer en vue d’en tirer le meilleur profit pour la création musicale; de diffuser, dans un public de spécialistes et de non- spécialistes….’ (emphasis added). ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. pourquoi?’, unpublished typed document (9 pages), IRCAM Archives, 7 October 1976; the same text had been sent to the Minister of Interior in June 1977 entitled ‘L’I.R.C.A.M. Ses objectifs – son statut – ses activités’, IRCAM Archives, 1977. 10 ‘Boulez expliquait qu’une recherché en collaboration était nécessaire pour résoudre certains problèmes se posant aux compositeurs […]. Et l’ambitieux projet de remettre en question le context de la creation musicale dans une demarche collective était évidemment enthousiasmant’ (Risset 2014, 13). 11 A report on research mentions ‘chercheurs, ingénieurs et techniciens de l’IRCAM’. ‘La recherche à l’Ircam en 1979’. Rapports IRCAM 29/80, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1980, 1. 12 With regard to the term ‘tutor’, see, ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished typed document, 15 October 1982, IRCAM Archives. For ‘musical assistant’, see ‘Le tutorat à l’IRCAM’, unpublished document, probably the late 1980s, IRCAM Archives. Other documentary sources are quoted in (Zattra 2013). 13 Personal communications from Serge Lemouton 27 June 2012 and Andrew Gerzso 19 October 2012. 14 Gerald Bennett, ‘Research at IRCAM in 1978’, Rapports Ircam 19/79, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1979. 15 ‘La recherche à l’Ircam en 1979’, Rapports IRCAM 29/80, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1980. 16 ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished typed document, 15 October 1982, IRCAM Archives. 17 ‘L’IRCAM – Bilan et perspectives’, unpublished document, 3 March 1983, IRCAM Archives. 18 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 3, sections b/c, 25 April 1984, IRCAM Archives. In French texts of the day, pronouns would all be in the masculine. My research has shown that were no female assistants or tutors. Today, IRCAM employs one female computer music designer. 19 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 20 May 1983, IRCAM Archives. 20 Structures/Création bureau de Production Juillet, unpublished document (3 pages), in ‘Diffusion générale’, unpublished document signed by Boulez, 5 July 1983, IRCAM Archives.
78 Laura Zattra 21 IRCAM, Coordination Committee (Agenda and Minutes of the Meeting), unpublished document, 13 April 1988, IRCAM Archives. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 See ‘Le tutorat à l’IRCAM’, unpublished document, probably the late 1980s, IRCAM Archives and IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 9 January 1990 Ircam Archives. 25 Marc Battier ed., ‘Rapport d’activité 1989’, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1990. 26 In the mid-1990s, musical assistants at IRCAM were: Pierre Charvet, Eric Daubresse, Christophe de Coudenhove, Thomas Hummel, Serge Lemouton, Cort Lippe, Leslie Stuck. Rapport d’activité 1991, Paris, Centre Georges Pompidou, 1992, and dossier Ircam Conseil d’administration du 25 juin 1992 + PV signé, Ircam archives). 27 IRCAM, Administrative meeting (Minutes), unpublished document, 11 December 2001, IRCAM Archives, 8–9. 28 The term ‘Conseilleur et Réalisateur de l’Informatique Musicale’ was first mentioned during an informal meeting in 1997. I am grateful to Serge Lemouton, RIM at IRCAM, for showing me the email from Leslie Stuck, musical assistant, in which the term was used (Serge Lemouton, personal archive). 29 A brief history of CCRMA can be found in Xavier Serra and Patte Wood eds., ‘Overview. Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (Recent Work), report number STAN-M-44, March 1988, available at https://ccrma. stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf and Nelson (2015). 30 I had the opportunity to access the files stocked within the CCRMA SAILDART computer archive, a facility created by Bruce Baumgart that preserves most of the records (fewer than a million files) of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab from the 1970s and 1980s (part of these records are public and accessible on www.saildart.org). SAILDART also preserves a sort of internal messenger service, used by the members to communicate with each other. I was interested particularly in files written by John Chowning (founding director of the CCRMA from 1975 to his retirement in 1996). I am grateful to Bruce Baumgart and John Chowning for letting me access this incredible archive. 31 John Chowning, ‘A Brief History of the Stanford Computer Music Project’, unpublished, 13 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-13 15:12 APPA .PUB [TXT, JC]’. 32 Ibid. 33 Email from John Chowning to the author 22 March 2015. 34 They prototyped a method of digital sound processing in which physical properties of acoustical instruments (or voice or natural sounds) are represented as computer algorithms that can be manipulated. 35 YouTube can be an important source for oral history testimonies. In the documentary from the late 1980s ‘High Tech Heroes #6: Julius O. Smith & David A. Jaffe’ (probably 1988) (www.youtube.com/watch?v=15jG1zfx-IM), we can listen to the explanation of the two computer musicians (these are rough takes from the broadcast documentary). The video shows excerpts of Smith’s music. 36 Other examples of synergy at CCRMA include the collaboration of Chowning, Gareth Loy and Moorer. On 14 February 1978, Chowning thanked Loy and Moorer for the recursive entry feature, as well as Leland for the SCORE feature. He then went on to explain, in a very informal style, the syntax used in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language (SAIL): ‘this file will run as is... (remember a blank column 1 is not read by SCORE)[...]. To use SCORE for the sambox, first type yup… you guessed it... 999 and then the file name as per usual. SCORE will then use the same instrument name for conditions of overlap’. John Chowning, digital message from CCRMA, 14 February 1978, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1978-02-14 13:49 PTS. [SAM, JC]’.
Collaborating on composition 79 37 Among Moorer’s works: We Stopped at Perfect Days, Stanford, 1977; Lions Are Growing, Stanford/IRCAM, 1978, THX Logo Theme, Lucasfilm Ltd., 1985 (www.jamminpower.com/jam.html). 38 Personal communications from Chowning in 2004 and 2007, cited in Zattra (2007). 39 Fred Malouf, cited in Xavier Serra and Patte Wood eds., ‘Overview. Centre for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (Recent Work), report number STAN-M-44, March 1988, available at https://ccrma.stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf. 40 Ibid., 58. 41 Ibid., 39. 42 Email from John Chowning to the author, 22 March 2015. 43 John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 20 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-20 23:55 BLURB, [TXT, JC]’. 44 Four departments formed the original IRCAM charter: instruments and voice (head: Vingo Globokar), electroacoustics (Luciano Berio), computer (JeanClaude Risset) and a coordinating department known as the départment diagonal (Gerald Bennet); these were followed by a fifth department devoted to teaching (pédagogie: Michel Decoust). 45 John Chowning, unpublished digital letter, 20 June 1977, CCRMA, Saildart Archive, classified as ‘1977-06-20 23:55 BLURB, [TXT, JC]’. Because of their growing reputation, members of the pre-CCRMA computer music group were asked to participate in the planning of the future IRCAM as early as 1973. Xavier Serra and and Patte Wood, Overview. Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics. Recent work, report n. STAN-M-44, March 1988, available online: https://ccrma.stanford.edu/files/papers/stanm44.pdf. 46 The history of CSC can be found in Zattra (2000; 2002) and Canazza et al. (2012; 2013). 47 A reference to the year 1974 appears in the founding CSC Statute (6 July 1979). The group members presented for the first time their activity to an international audience and defined themselves as members of the ‘Computer Music Group’ at the third International Computer Music Conference (ICMC), held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston-Cambridge. 48 Email from Richard Karpin to the author, 10 July 2000. 49 While working at CSC, Marco Stroppa attended IRCAM summer courses for young composers in 1982. It was decided that he would continue working and collaborating in the Paris centre and proposed that he would stay after he finished this course and work as an assistant. After having discussed the matter with Pierre Boulez, he became an assistant to Tod Machover (then the head of the Research Department at IRCAM), who had been commissioned by Venice Biennale to compose the piece Fusione Fugace. Stroppa, together with Emanuel Favraeu, assisted Machover: ‘This piece was one of the first pieces entirely performed live by three performers, [Machover, Stroppa and Favreau]. Tod played the keyboard’ (Stroppa [1998], cited in Zattra 2000, 81). During that time, Stroppa regularly travelled to Padova and worked on his own piece Dialoghi, the second movement of the cycle Traiettoria, for piano and electronics (1982–1984). In 1985, Luigi Nono wrote that Marco Stroppa was an ‘unusual example of a person who has mastered the capabilities of the composer and the technician’ (Nono, cited in Tamburini 1985, 11). According to Stroppa, the technician/composer is comparable to the fusion of a composer and an orchestral conductor, who knows a work to the last detail and can therefore decide very thoroughly on the performance ([1998], cited in Zattra 2000, 82). 50 Since the 1976 piece by James Dashow Effetti Collaterali, a hundred works have been realised; among them are works by Claudio Ambrosini, Guido Baggiani, Giorgio Battistelli, David Behrman, Anselmo Cananzi, Joel Chadabe, Aldo Clementi, Wolfango Dalla Vecchia, James Dashow, Agostino Di Scipio, Roberto Doati, Franco Donatoni, Mauro Graziani, Hubert Howe jr., Richard Karpen,
80 Laura Zattra Jonathan Impett, Albert Mayr, John Melby, Wolfgang Motz, Luigi Nono, Corrado Pasquotti, Teresa Rampazzi, Fausto Razzi, Salvatore Sciarrino, Marco Stroppa, Richard Teitelbaum, Adriano Guarnieri (Zattra 2000). A complete list of composers may be consulted at: smc.dei.unipd.it/production.html. 51 ‘Regolamento per l’utilizzazione delle risorse del C.S.C.’, Centro di sonologia computazionale. Informazioni su scopi e attività, Bollettino notiziario dell’Università degli studi di Padova, n. 19, giugno 1981, anno XXX, a.a. 1980–81, pp. 7–8. 52 I was able to analyse several minutes of the board of founders from the 1970s to the 1980s. My first archival research dates back to 1999–2000 (Zattra 2000, 166–170; 2002). CSC was located in the same building from the 1970s up to the early 2000s, but its archive was not organised in a formal, structured manner. The centre has relocated three times since then. The repository contains records of invoices, minutes of committee meetings of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, drafts and records of composers’ works, scientific papers. 53 Instructions in ICMS were tapped by means of a light pen; the software showed a list of functions and parameter, instead of tapping single instruction as in MUSIC 5 or similar computer programmes. Graziano Tisato, ‘ICMS: manuale d’impiego’, Rapporto interno Centro di Calcolo, Università di Padova, 1978. See also Tisato (1976, 1977a, 1977b). 54 The first version was presented with success at the ICMC – International Computer Music Conference in Cambridge-Boston (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) in 1976 (Tisato 1976). 55 Victor Hugo’s quote is taken from his essay Shakespeare (1864).
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