Nov 29, 2011 - islands/island groups in Indonesia, which are .... 3rd generation contract signed by Rio Tinto. ..... Sulawesi, Rio Tinto discovered the Masabo.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SULAWESI MINERAL RESOURCES 2011 SEMINAR MGEI‐IAGI 28‐29 November 2011, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia
Mineral Deposits of Sulawesi Theo M. van Leeuwen and Peter E. Pieters ABSTRACT Sulawesi can be divided into three geological‐metallogenic provinces: 1) Northern Sulawesi, which consists of series of Late Cenozoic calc‐alkaline magmatic arcs built on a basement of Early Cenozoic tholeiitic basaltic volcanics underlain by oceanic crust; it contains numerous mineral deposits and occurrences of predominantly Late Miocene‐Pliocene age, including porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo, high‐, intermediate‐, and low‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐ Ag, sediment‐hosted Au, intrusion‐related base metal‐Au, skarn, and VMS styles of mineralization; 2) Western Sulawesi, composed of Late Cenozoic high‐K calc‐alkaline to ultrapotassic igneous suites overlying a series of Early Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and subordinate calc‐alkaline volcanics deposited on a basement of metamorphic complexes and Late Cretaceous flysch deposits; mineralization styles include porphyry Mo, porphyry Cu±Au, intrusion‐related(?) Au, intrusion‐related base metal±Au, and VMS; and 3) Eastern Sulawesi, comprising a western metamorphic belt and eastern ophiolite belt, which are interthrusted with Mesozoic‐Early Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and unconformably overlain by Late Cenozoic post‐orogenic sequences; weathering of the ophiolite has given rise to a number of Ni and Fe laterite deposits, and chromite beach sands; gold mineralization of uncertain origin is locally hosted by metamorphic and post‐orogenic sedimentary rocks. Mineral exploration and mining activities have been undertaken in Sulawesi since the turn of the 19th century, but by world standardslarge parts of the region remain underexplored. Todate only two commodities have been mined on a significant scale, viz. gold with a total production of about 90 t (excluding artisanal mining), and nickel totaling about 4.8 Mt. Gold deposits found todate are of small to modest size (2km respectively) suggest that significant flow of lower crust, from beneath basins towards topographically elevated areas, may also have been a contributing factor (Hall, 2011). 3.3 Eastern Sulawesi Province The eastern Sulawesi Province comprises the East and Southeast Arms, the eastern part of central Sulawesi, and the island of Buton. The terrain is in many places very rugged. This, combined with the highly tectonized nature of the region, means that its geology is still poorly understood. As discussed by Hamilton (1979), the province consists of several quasi‐centric arcuate belts, which are composed of, from west to east: 1) sheared metamorphic rocks, 2) highly tectonized mélange of ophiolitic, metamorphic, and Mesozoic‐Paleogene rocks; the latter also occuring as more coherent masses; and 3) predominantly ophiolitic rocks. A fourth zone of imbricated Mesozoic and Paleogene rocks that fringes the southeast margin of the East Arm belongs to the Banggai‐Sula Province and marks the collision zone between the Banggai‐Sula continental fragment and the ophiolite terrane of the East Arm. The rocks that constitute the four zones are unconformably overlain by syn‐to post‐ orogenic sedimentary deposits (“Celebes Molasse”). Metamorphic rocks form a 460km long, 80km wide zone, including the Pompangeo Metamorphic Complex in central Eastern Sulawesi (Parkinson, 1991; 1998), and the Mehongga and Teimosi Metamorphic Complexes in the SE Arm (Rusmana and Sukarna, 1985). Several smaller masses occur at the south end of the SE Arm and on Kabaena Island. In central Sulawesi, the metamrphic belt is bounded on the west by a profound tectonic dislocation, the 17
Median Line (Brouwer, 1947), against Western Sulawesi, and to the east it grades into a tectonic mélange. In the SE Arm, the southwestern boundary of the metamorphic zone is marked by a narrow strip of ophiolite, whereas a major strike‐slip fault (Lawanopo Fault) forms the northeastern boundary, separating the metamorphic zone from the ophiolite zone. The metamorphic rocks include both blueschist and greenschist–amphibolite facies (e.g. Parkinson, 1998; Helmers et al., 1989; 1990). In central Eastern Sulawesi an increase in the degree of metamorphic crystallization is apparent from east to west (Brouwer, 1947). This together with the style of deformation of the Pompangeo Schists is consistent with successive underthrusting of slices of downgoing material in a west‐dipping subduction, which based on limited K/Ar dating of the schists probably took place during the mid‐Cretaceous (Parkinson, 1991; 1998). Parkinson (1998) suggests that the protoliths of the metamorphics consists in part of Jurassic sedimentary rocks, similar to the ones exposed in small terranes to the east. Until the recent discovery of gold in metamorphic rocks near Bombana in the SE Arm the metamorphic complexes were considered to have little mineral potential. The contact zone between the metamorphic rocks and the ophiolite is marked by a tectonic mélange in central Eastern Sulawesi, which is composed of a highly complex mosaic of tectonized and metamorphosed ophiolite fragments, schist fragments and variably disrupted Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. K/Ar ages of 28‐32 Ma suggest that the mélange was formed during the middle to late Oligocene, possibly as the result of eastward subduction beneath the ophiolite terrane, that was subsequently thrusted westward over the metamorphic basement (Parkinson, 1996). Large ophiolite masses are distributed over most of the East Arm and the northwest part of the Southeast Arm, and on the adjacent islands of Buton and Kabaena. They cover over 15,000km2 and are known as the East Sulawesi Ophiolite or ESO (Simandjuntak, 1986). From an economic
point of view this is the most important rock unit in Eastern Sulawesi, as it has given rise to extensive Ni laterite deposits and chromite beach sands deposits. A complete, but highly imbricated ophiolite sequence has only been observed in the East Arm, whereas elsewhere only the lower, ultramafic portion of the sequence is present. The age of the ophiolite is poorly constrained. A wide range of K/Ar ages have been obtained from ESO rocks, varying from Cretaceous to Miocene (Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al., 1994; Simandjuntak, 1986), which are difficult to interpret. It has been suggested that Cretaceous deep marine pelagic sedimentary rocks which are spatially associated in several places with the ESO may represent the uppermost part of the sequence (e.g. Kündig, 1956). Various origins and timing of emplacement have been proposed for the ESO. It is likely, however, that the ESO is a composite terrane with more than one origin and of different ages (Hall and Wilson, 2000). Mesozoic‐Paleogene sedimentary rocks are mostly interthrust or in interminable fault contact with the metamorphic basement and ophiolite sequences throughout Eastern Sulawesi. Broadly speaking, they consist of fluvial to shallow marine siliciclastics and subordinate carbonates of late Triassic‐Jurassic age that were formed along the Australian continental margin, and Cretaceous‐ Oligocene deep marine, pelagic sedimentary rocks, which were laid down on fragments rifted from the margin and transported westwards to the Sulawesi region (e.g. Pigram and Panggabean, 1984; Villeneuve et al., 2001; Surono, 2008). Syn‐to post‐orogenic deposits are widely distributed throughout Eastern Sulawesi. They can be divided into clastic and carbonate sequences with coarse‐grained clastic sediments dominating (Surono, 2008). Deposition started earlier in the southern part of the province (around the Early Miocene) than further north (Middle‐Late Miocene). 18
4.0 Mineral deposits In this chapter we present a review of the various mineralization styles that are known to occur in the Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi Provinces. Examples of each type are described in some detail as either individual deposits or mineral districts, for which a brief summary of their exploration history is also given. We have assigned them to 17 categories, which are shown in Figure 5 together with their map symbols for Figures 6, 25 and 35. In this paper we have adopted the most widely used nomenclature. The reader will be familiar with most of the terms, but a few need further explanation. 1) High‐, intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag.This broad group of epithermal mineral deposits has been subjected to over a dozen classification schemes since the late 1970s, which in part reflects the wide range of characteristic features displayed by orebodies belonging to this group (Simmons et al., 2005). The currently most widely used terminology of high‐, intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation, terms introduced by Hedenquist (1987), Hedenquist et al (2000) and Einaudi et al (2003), is based upon the sulphidation state (or sulphur fugacity) of sulphur‐bearing minerals that occur in the epithermal mineral assemblage. Intermediate‐ sulphidation is a relatively new term, which was previously included in the low‐sulphidation category. Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) emphasize the linkage between sulphidation types and volcanotectonic settings; most high‐ sulphidation deposits are generated in calc‐ alkaline andesitic‐dacitic arcs under neutral stress state or mild extension conditions, and commonly show a close connection with porphyry Cu deposits; intermediate‐sulphidation deposits occur in a broadly similar environment but lack such close relationship; and most low‐ sulphidation deposits are associated with volcanic suites in a broad spectrum of extensional settings. Corbett and Leach (1998) divided the low‐ intermediate sulphidation deposits into two broad groups. The first group dominates in magmatic arcs and displays an association with
intrusions grading away from the intrusion source as; quartz‐sulphide‐Au+/‐Cu, carbonate‐base metal‐Au and epithemal Au‐Ag. The second group, termed adularia‐sericite epithermal Au‐Ag, dominates in rift settings. Corbett (2007) subsequently renamed the latter group “banded chalcedony‐ginguro epithermal veins”. Where appropriate we refer to this classification scheme in the text. 2)Intrusion‐related base metal‐Au. This category includes vein deposits which usually contain significant amounts of base metal sulphides and show, or are inferred to have, a close association with (porphyry) intrusions. It overlaps with the quartz‐sulphide‐Au+/‐Cu category of Corbett and Leach (1998). 3)Intrusion‐related Au. This category has been assigned to a few deposits in Western Sulawesi, including Awak Mas, Mangkaluku and Poboya. As discussed below, the origin and classification of these deposits is problematic. We describe them in 4.2.4 under the (more neutral) heading “Gold in metamorphic terrains” As for many mineral deposits and occurrences in Sulawesi there is no detailed information available, assigning them to a particular category can be quite subjective. In a few cases where there was too little togo by, or an occurrence did not seem to fit any of the categories,we assigned them to the “not classified” category. For each of the three provinces we have prepared a map showing mineral localities and the names of deposits/prospects or mineral districts mentioned in the text. The maps were compiled from the Indonesian Mineral Deposit Data Base (van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011). 4.1 Northern Sulawesi Province Northern Sulawesi is relatively well endowed with mineral deposits and prospects (Figure 6). As discussed earlier it is a region of both past and present gold mining activity. A number of mineral styles have been recognized todate. These are porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo, high‐, intermediate‐ and 19
Figure 5. Mineralization types found in Sulawesi and their symbols used in Figures 6, 25 and 35
Figure 6. Northern Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types, and location of prospects and mineralized districts mentioned in the text; for symbols see Figure 5
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low‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag, sediment‐ hosted Au, breccia‐hosted base metal‐Au mineralization, intrusion‐related base metal‐Au veins, Fe±Au skarns, and Cu‐Pb‐Zn volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS). The VMS mineralization is the only styleassociated with the Paleogene volcanic activity. All the others were formed during the Miocene and particularly Pliocene magmatic epochs. Tables 3 and 4 show selected features of the more significant Northern Sulawesi’s porphyry copper and precious metal systems respectively. 4.1.1 Porphyry Cu‐Au Mo mineralization More than 40 porphyry‐style deposits and occurrences have been identified, which commonly occur in clusters. They can be divided into two groups, Late Miocene and Pliocene. Their main features have been described by Pearson and Caira (1990). The Late Miocene group (e.g. Bahumbang, and Dunu) are hosted by irregular dykelike bodies of diorite to quartz diorite compositionintruded into co‐magmatic basaltic andesite‐ andesite volcanics. A central quartz‐biotite‐magnetite zone grades outwards to chlorite‐epidote‐calcite alteration, and upwards to quartz‐sericite‐ carbonate‐clay assemblages. Albite is present in some prospects. Advanced argillic lithocaps are absent. In some deposits sheeted quartz veins are well developed (e.g. Petulu) but most are characterized by quartz stockworks. The porphyry systems are poorly mineralized, showing the following zonation: central chalcopyrite+molybdenite pyrite+chalcopyrite pyrite lead‐zinc. Gold is associated with chalcopyrite. Molybdenite commonly occurs in early veins. Rather unusual is Bulagidun (4.1.1.2) where Cu‐Au mineralization is hosted by a series of hydrothermal breccias developed peripheral to a biotite altered, but unmineralized diorite complex. The Pliocene systems show both similarities and differences with the Miocene systems. Examples include the Tapadaa district (4.1.1.3) and Tombulilato district (4.1.1.4) and Taware on Sangihe Island (4.1.1.5). With a few exceptions
(e.g. Taware) the Pliocene systems are better mineralized. They are centred on multi‐phase cylindrical stocks and dykes showing fractionation to more felsic end‐members (quartz diorite to dacite porphyry) that are associated with co‐ magmatic volcanics of dacite composition. Diatreme breccias are commonly present. Alteration zonation consists of a central quartz‐ albite‐magnetite‐biotite±chlorite core, an outer chlorite‐actinolite‐magnetite zone, and an upper sericite‐kaolinite‐alunite‐diaspore zone. Quartz‐ sulphide stockworks are well developed. Higher gold grades show a strong association with bornite, magnetite and chalcopyrite in the central zone that grade outwards to a pyrite zone with supergene chalcocite. Au:Cu ratios are relatively high. 4.1.1.1 Bahumbung Bahumbung is the only Miocene porphyry Cu prospect that has been described in some detail (Lubis et al., 2011). It consists of several mineralized centres up to 500x400m in diameter. The area was identified during Newcrest’s regional exploration programme in the late 1990s as a Cu‐Au anomaly. It was investigated in more detail by Ivanhoe Mines Ltd in the late 2000s, including groundmagnetics and drilling of 3 deep holes (1,544m) and 13 shallow holes (561m). The prospect area is underlain largely by andesitic lava, tuff and volcanic breccias belonging to the Bilungala Volcanics. These are accompanied by minor dacitic volcanics and intruded by multiple intrusives ranging in composition from diorite to aplite. Three diorite units have been recognized, referred to as Old, Intermediate and Young Diorite. The Old Diorite (only detected in two drill holes) is characterized by strong alteration (potassic and pale green mica), moderate to high density quartz stockwork, and moderate copper grades (0.3%–0.4%). The Intermediate Diorite has a lower density of quartz stockwork (up to 3%) and lower copper grades (0.1‐0.3%), and is moderately altered (PMG). The Young Diorite occurs as late‐mineral dykes with low sulphide and Cu contents, 4 ppm Mo halo, that only includes Mogi Wapo. Plots of Cu and Au in rock show small Au bull eyes (>0.1 ppm) within larger Cu (>500 ppm) zones. At Tapadaa West the largest Au anomaly measures 460mx400m. Porphyry mineralization appears almost continuous from Tapadaa South through to Tapadaa North, except where obscured by post‐mineral Pinogu Volcanics over an area of 100‐300m by 3000m. Mogi Wapo measures about 200mx1000m, and Tapadaa West has the smallest exposure (200x400m). Mapping by Newcrest has shown that the Tapadaa West mineralization is hosted by the Bilungala Volcanics, and not by diorite intrusive as thought by previous explorers. This introduces the possibility of a larger concealed intrusive‐hosted system. The porphyry prospects occur in a NW‐trending structurally controlled blocks. Copper mineralization is associated with early alteration consisting predominantly of quartz‐chlorite‐ biotite‐anhydrite, and in areas of better grades (0.2‐0.4%) also green sericite and albite together with albite‐quartz and magnetite±quartz veinlets. Two secondary biotite samples yielded K‐Ar ages of 5 and 2.5 Ma. Sulphide contents (chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite) are typically low. Sulphides and magnetite are present mostly as fracture infill, and also as disseminations and in quartz veinlets. There appears to be a positive correlation between primary Cu grades and magnetite concentrations. The early alteration–mineralization assemblages are overprinted by sericite+quartz or clay, quartz‐ sericite‐diaspore, and/or andalusite±pyrophyllite assemblages. Corundum and specularite are associated with high pyrite contents. Supergene blankets, up to 30m thick, are locally developed
underlying of strongly leached pyritic zones in advanced argillic rock. 4.1.1.4 Tombulilato district(Figure 9) The Tombulilato district has been an exploration teaser for many years. Following its discovery in 1971 by Endeavour Resources, Kennecott carried out exploration between 1972 and 1975 which led to the discovery of Cabang Kiri where 1,070m of drilling outlined a resource of 24 Mt @ 0.7% Cu and 0.75 g/t Au, Kayubulan Ridge with an estimated resource potential of 200 Mt @ 0.5% Cu and 0.35 g/t Au based on surface data only, and Cabang Kanan. Following Kennecott’s withdrawal in 1976, Endeavour drilled 6 holes at Kayubulan Ridge, one of which intersected significant mineralization. Between 1980 and 1982 Utah International embarked on a major exploration programme involving 5 drilling rigs and 2 helicopters. The three known deposits plus a new discovery, Sungai Mak, were drill tested (~1600m) outlining a combined resources of 296 Mt @ 0.57% Cu and 0.47 g/t Au. The original Endeavour COW was terminated in 1986. Two years later BHP entered into a JV with Antam which obtained two so‐called super KPs over the district. In 1991, a national park was declared over the area and all work ceased. After a 2 year exploration permit was obtained from the Minister of Forestry in 1996 BHP embarked on a heli‐borne magnetic survey, which identified a number of anomalies, two of which appeared to be associated with previously unknown porphyry‐ style mineralization, i.e. Gunung Lintah and West Kayubulan Ridge. Because of uncertainties pertaining to the national park and other reasons BHP withdrew in late 1997. Recently the district was excised from the park and exploration title was awarded to Bumi Resources. The Tombulilato district (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985; Carlile et al., 1990; Perello, 1994; BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997) is composed of a >3400m thick volcano‐ sedimentary sequence in which three main stratigraphic units are recognized: i) Bilungala Volcanics (Upper Miocene– base Pliocene) divided into a Lower Member (tholeiitic basaltic and spilitic volcanics), Middle Member 26
(alternating andesitic and felsic volcanics with minor sedimentary intercalations), and Upper Member (subaerial andesitic fragmental volcanics); ii) Motomboto Volcanics (Upper Pliocene), which consists of subaerial felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks; iii) Pinogu Volcanics (Pleistocene), characterized by poorly consolidated, subaerial bimodal volcanics.The sequence is intruded by strongly porphyritic bodies of andesitic to dacitic composition, and equigranular bodies of granodioritic to dioritic composition. Field relationships and two whole rocks K‐Ar ages of 2.35 and 2.05 Ma suggests a Late Pliocene age for these intrusions. A foliated granodiorite exposed in the NE part of the district is probably Middle Miocene (or older). The structure of the Tombulilato district is characterized by northerly striking high‐angle faults, normally a few metres wide and containing tectonic breccias, high‐to‐moderate angle normal faults showing an easterly trend and of post‐mineralization origin, and common low‐angle thrust faults, typically accommodated by ductile sedimentary intercalations in the Bilungala Volcanics and showing a random orientation. All intrusive bodies postdate folding and thrusting. Five mineralized system have been identified todate, i.e. Cabang Kiri, Sungai Mak, Kayubulan Ridge, Cabang Kanan, and Gunung Lintah which show both similarities and differences (Figure 10). Mineralization at Cabang Kiri East is hosted by a cylindrical multiple diorite porphyry stock intruded in the Middle Member of the Bilungala Volcanics. Syn‐mineralization breccias occur at the intrusive‐wall rock contact. Post‐ mineralization breccias are also present. The bulk of the mineralization occurs in intrusive phases, with some hosted by volcanic wallrocks. The deposit displays subhorizontal alteration zonation, from top to bottom, clay‐sericite‐ alunite‐diaspore‐pyrite (30‐150m thick), montmorillonite‐sericite‐pyrite (40‐60m), chlorite‐actinolite (0‐60m), sericite‐silica‐ montmorillonite (0‐30m), and silica‐albite‐ sericite‐chlorite‐magnetite (>150m). The
alteration geometry may be the product of the superimposition of several hypogene events coupled with the effects of late‐mineralization intrusions. Remnants of biotite‐bearing K‐silicate alteration is present, which yielded a K‐Ar age of 2.93 Ma. Mineralization at Cabang Kiri has been tested over 400 vertical meters. It is associated with moderate to strong quartz stockwork zones. Increasing potassium feldspar and magnetite alteration with numerous hairline magnetite‐ chalcopyrite‐bornite veinlets typify mineralization at depth. There is a steady increase in Au values going downward with a corresponding decrease in Cu/Au ratios, from >1 at the top to 1% Cu) are associated with strongly developed quartz vein stockwork zones at high levels. As at Cabang Kiri, remnants of quartz‐magnetite‐biotite alteration are also present. The geological resource was estimated to be between 32 Mt @ 0.60% Cu, 0.33 g/t Au and 92 Mt @ 0.60% Cu, 0.34 g/t Au. Intrusions at Cabang Kanan occur as feldspar porphyry dykes. Copper and gold mineralization is hosted both by the dykes and hornfelsed stockwork‐bearing wallrocks. Mineralized intrusions display weak to moderate potassium‐ silicate alteration of the groundmass, numerous hairline magnetite–K‐feldspar veinlets, and chloritized hornblende. Only three holes have been drilled with the best intercept being 138m @ 0.5% Cu and 0.35 g/t Au. Gunung Lintah, a relatively new discovery, is a north eastern extension of Cabang Kanan. It is characterized by a high magnetic anomaly wich lies at the intersection of NW and NE trending lineament. Detailed mapping and grid soil sampling has identified a 400x400m zone of quartz‐sericite‐clay‐chlorite alteration coinciding with copper and gold soil anomalies. Drilling intersected zones of sericitic alteration with quartz stockworks and copper mineralization. A number of gold‐bearing quartz‐veins are present in the southern part of the Tombulilato district, including at Kaidundu, Mamungaa, Mootadaa, and Bilogantunga. These are believed to represent distal manifestations of the porphyry Cu‐Au cluster located further to the north, and are classified as intrusion‐related base metal‐Au veins (see 4.1.6). The veins are hosted in regionally chloritized volcanics belonging to the
Upper Member Bilungala Volcanics, and controlled by N to NE trending steeply dipping faults. Single veins vary from 5cm to 3m in thickness. The best studied prospect is Kaidundu with a total known length of 350m and an average thickness of 2.5 to 3m. Quartz from the main lode is both crystalline and chalcedonic, displaying comb and cockade textures. A typical feature is open vugs, up to several decimeters across lined with coarse‐grained, terminated and botryoidal quartz. Adularia is conspicuously absent. Sulphides (4.5km and a width locally exceeding 250m. A central zone of vuggy silica with an average width of 150m is surrounded progressively by zones of quartz‐alunite (0‐ 120m), quartz‐kaolinite, and chlorite‐epidote‐ calcite. Several stages of brecciation and silicification have affected the central zone. Pyrite, enargite and luzonite are locally major components (up to 15%), occurring a disseminations or as vug fillings. Native sulphur is locally present. Ore‐grade Cu‐Au‐Ag mineralization is restricted to the silicified cores, whereas the quartz‐alunite and quartz‐kaolinite assemblages are characterized by lower gold values, typically > silica altered wall rock with grades of>10 g/t Au in the breccias, 1.0 to 5.0 g/t Au in the peripheral hydrofractured zones, and 1.0 to 3.0 g/t Au in the outer, alunite‐rich shells; and iii) intensive but structurally constrained supergene oxidation and weathering. 31
Figure 11. Motomboto. (A) Simplified geology map; (B) Map showing alteration zonation; (C) Cross section of simplified geology and alteration zonation at Tulabelo and Motomboto East; legend alteration as in Figure 10 B (modified after Perello, 1994) 32
Figure 12. Simplified geological map of Lanut district showing location of different styles of mineralization (after Flindell, 2003)
Figure 13. Riska. (A) Alteration map; (B) Cross section (after Nugroho et al., 2005)
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Petrographic studies indicate a very high temperature gradient between the lower and upper sections of Riska during the main events, possibly due to the capping effect of the silica‐ alunite zone in the upper part of the deposit. Isotopic characteristics of alunite material indicate a strong magmatic input. A K‐Ar alunite age of 2.09 0.08 Ma indicates that the main event took place during the Late Pliocene. High gold values in pitch limonite veins in the oxide zone, the presence of native sulphur at depth, and a broad increase in Au grades at the oxide‐sulphide zone interface suggest supergene leaching and reprecipitation of gold during the later event. In conclusion, Riska follows a similar evolutionary pathway to most high sulphidation deposits, but possess a unique feature in that the main mineralization event is characterized by alunite dominant alteration deposited along structures that are of a different orientation than those that controlled the early alteration phase. 4.1.2.3 Bakan district(Figure 14) The Bakan district was initially identified during a regional survey carried out by a Placer Dome‐ BHP–Antam team in the late 1980s as a broad zone of scattered Au‐Ag‐Pb‐Zn‐(Cu) stream sediment anomalies associated with vuggy silica alteration. These were followed up by Newmont in 1995, which led to the discovery of several sub‐ cropping silica ledges. Detailed investigations (mapping, soil and trench sampling, and various geophysical surveys) resulted in the identification of nine mineralized sites. Between 1996 and 1998 five of these were drill tested (17 holes totaling 2008m). Although several significant gold mineralization intervals were intersected Newmont decided to shift its activities to the Lanut district as Bakan’s perceived potential did not meet its corporate objectives. Avocet acquired the tenement in 2002 and following the commencement of developing the Riska Mine in North Lanut, began exploration in the Bakan district targeting a similar style of mineralization, i.e. oxide high‐sulphidation gold.
The company’s programme consisted of two phases, target generation and resource definition. By 2007 a small high grade Au resource was outlined at the Osela prospect and a larger resource, but with lower grade, at the Durian prospect, totaling 16.87 Mt @ 0.96 g/t Au. A comprehensive discussion of Bakan’s discovery and exploration history is presented by Harjana and Sweeney (2011). Their report forms the basis of the following summary of the district’s geology and mineralization. The geology consists of a thick sequence of Middle to Upper Miocene marine to submarine sedimentary rocks that is overlain and/or interfingers with andesitic lava flows. These rocks are intruded by stocks and dykes of diorite. Unconformably overlying the Miocene basement is the informally named Bakan Sequence that consists of a series of Plio‐Pleistocene subaerial dacitic pyroclastic rocks and coeval dacitic stocks or domes. During the waning stage of the felsic volcanism, diatreme and hydrothermal breccias were emplaced and the dacitic rocks were reworked. Renewed volcanism during the Pleistocene to early Recent times resulted in the formation of tuffaceous laharic breccias and debris slide breccias. Continued uplift of the district in recent times led to the development of raised alluvial gravels, outwash fans and extensive slope rubble. The structure of the district is dominated by a conjugate set of NW‐SE and NNE‐SSW faults with sub‐vertical dips. These constituted the main channelways for the hydrothermal fluids. High sulphidation alteration assemblages hosted by structures of different orientation form zones that coalesce into a large area at Bakan, measuring 2.5x3.5km. Structurally controlled vuggy silica cores grade outwards into silica‐ alunite, kaolinite‐alunite, and illite‐smectite alteration assemblages. Disseminated gold and silver mineralization is largely restricted to the silica core zones in the upper parts of the alteration system, where it is associated with pyrite, whereas enargite and covellite are found at depths in some of the prospects. The NNE‐SSW structures, which 34
control mineralization at Durian and Osela, appear to host higher grade, especially where intersected by NW‐SE faults, and at Osela also, where the structure bends to the northeast at its northern end, possibly reflecting a dilational zone. At Osela, gold appears to have been added by a later phase of chalcedonic veining and extremely fine‐grained quartz deposition typical of intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation epithermal styles. Gold enrichment has also occurred by supergene processes, as evidenced by the presence of gold in vugs and cavities in association with goethite, limonite and supergene clays. 4.1.2.4 Bawone‐Binabase district The Bawone and Binabase deposits are located in the southern part of Sangihe Island. The first record of mineral exploration on the island dates back to 1987 when Muswellbrook undertook reconnaissance exploration in the southern part. This resulted in the discovery of Au‐, Ag‐ and Ba‐ bearing rock float on the coast at Binabase. Results of extensive soil and outcrop sampling and limited geophysical survey were used to develop drill targets. A 5000m diamond drilling programme was completed between 1989 and 1993, which mainly tested targets at Binabase and Bawone, and to a lesser extent, at Salurang. This work led to the discovery of gold mineralization at Binabase and Bawone. Ashton Mining Ltd, which had taken over the property from Muswellbrook in 1990, relinquished the area in 1994. Limited trenching was undertaken by an Indonesian company in 2006. The following year East Asia Mineral Corporation commenced drilling at Bawone and Binabase, in part testing anomalies identified from an IP dipole‐dipole survey. The two deposits are estimated to contain a total inferred resource of oxide material of 11.3 Mt with a grade of 1.27 g/t Au and 20.23 g/t Ag. In addition Bawone contains about 6 Mt of sulphide material grading 1.12 g/t Au and 0.97 g/t Ag, and Binabase 10 Mt with a grade of 0.49 g/t Au and 13.60 g/t Ag. Descriptions of the geology and mineralization Binabase and Bawone have been provided by Swift and Alwan (1990), Corbett and Leach
(1998), Bautista et al. (1998), Williams‐Jones (2008), Wisanggono et al (2011), and Sangihe Gold Corporation (2011). Sangihe Island is composed of volcanic rocks erupted from at least four volcanic centres, which became progressively younger in a N‐NW direction. These centres include the active Awu volcano in the north of the island, the Tahuna caldera immediately to the south of Awu, the extinct Tamako volcano in the centre of the island, and the deeply eroded Taware volcanic centre in the south. The Binabase and Bawone prospects are located immediately to the east of Tamako. Prominent east‐trending structures dissect the area between the volcanoes. Other major lineaments trend northwest and northeast. The oldest rocks in the Binabase‐Bawone arc are andesitic pyroclastics (Binabase Group), which are the main host to alteration and gold mineralization. They are intruded by dykes and high level‐stocks of porphyritic andesite and dacite domes. Polymitic breccia intruded the older units and consists of similar material. The youngest lithological units are unconformably overlying basaltic andesite flows and volcaniclastic rocks derived from the Tamako volcano (Tamako Group) and epiclastic and marine sedimentary rocks of the penecontamporaneous Pintareng Formation. The presence of Stegadon fossils in the Pintareng formation indicates a Late Pliocene (2 Ma) to Late Pleistocene age. The young unitscontain fragments of hyddrothermally altered volcanic rocks, including silica‐pyrite material. NNE‐NE trending structures transect southern Sangihe island and control regional alteration pattern. In the Bawone‐Binabase area, a NNW trending structural corridor is defined by magnetic lineaments. Its subdued topographic expression suggests it may be a graben‐like feature. Mineralization is localized where it intersects the through‐going NE structures. At Binabase, four ENE to NE striking zones of gold mineralization have been identified with a combined overall dimension of 900m x 425m. Both o xi d e a n d s u l p h i d e typ es o f gold 35
Figure 14. Map of Bakan district showing alteration zonation, structures and prospect locations (after Hardjana and Sweeney, 2011)
Figure 15. Schematic cross section through the Binabase deposit (after Sangihe Gold Corporation, 2011)
36
Figure 16. Bawone‐Binabase, structural setting and fluid flow model (after Corbett and Leach, 1998)
Figure 17. Simplified geological map of Gunung Pani district showing prospect locations (after Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi, 1999)
37
mineralization are present. The oxide zone is up to 60m thick, with an abrupt transition to sulphide mineralization. Gold grades commonly exceed 1 g/t. Supergene enrichment played an important role in producing economic precious metal grades. Silver grades increase significantly toward the base of oxidation. At a deeper level, the mineralization is closely associated with pervasive silica‐pyrite‐barite alteration zones and brecciation. The breccias consist of +10mm quartz±barite‐rich clasts, pyrite grains and chalcocite‐bearing patches set in a predominantly fine‐grained quartz groundmass. Common cavities, vugs and veinlets locally contain traces of chalcopyrite. In places appreciable amounts of Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag are present within, or adjacent to, the zones of gold mineralization. The main gold zone is interpreted to occur as a vertical to sub‐vertical body that flares in the upper levels where oxidation is most intensely developed (Figure 15). At Bawone, the gold mineralization is interpreted to occur as a vertical to steeply dipping tabular body which trends in a NW direction over a strike distance of 300m and has a maximum width of around 75m. It is hosted within breccia zones in pyrite‐alunite‐quartz‐barite altered rocks. Angular to sub‐angular quartz and sulphide‐rich clasts are embedded in a grey to greenish‐grey groundmass. Pyrite is the most abundant alteration mineral followed by quartz, clay, barite and marcasite. Massive pyrite is cut by thin barite‐enargite‐pyrite veins. Alunite has been confirmed by XRD analyses. Significant amounts of copper are associated with gold‐rich intervals, and Zn, Pb, As and Ag are moderately anomalous. Copper minerals include chalcopyrite, covellite and enargite. Sphalerite is generally Fe poor as indicated by its light yellowish colour. The main mineralized body appears to be zoned with stockworks and breccias surrounded by selvages of clay±silica±pyrite±barite alteration. Wall rock alteration around a nearby diorite porphyry stock consists of a 2.5km x 1.5km zone of clay‐silica‐ chlorite‐pyrite with some local structurally‐ controlled clay‐silica‐pyrite and K‐feldspar‐ quartz‐sericite‐pyrite‐biotite assemblages in areas of quartz‐ chalcopyrite‐pyrite veining.
Early workers, who noted at Binabase the common presence of gypsum and barite (implying a major seawater component to the hydrothermal fluids), a strong stratabound control, and the very fine nature of the sulphides with colloform and framboidal textures( indicating rapid deposition), tentatively interpreted the mineralization to have been deposited from volcanic‐related seafloor hydrothermal exhalations (Swift and Alwan, 1990; Garwin, 1990). Carlile and Mitchell (1994) drew a comparison with the VMS deposits on Wetar Island, noting that both appeared to have a high‐sulphidation component. Corbett and Leach (1998) and the geological staff of East Asia Minerals subsequently proposed a high‐ sulphidation epithermal origin for the mineralization on the grounds that pyrite is largely secondary in origin, alunite and kaolinite are important alteration minerals, and high gold grades are associated with the occurrence of enargite. Detailed core logging at Bawone by Williams‐ Jones (2008)hasshown that in gold‐enriched zones fine‐grained crystal tuff isreplaced by very fine‐grained pyrite and minor to subordinate silica, varying from incipient pyritization along fractures to complete replacement of the tuff by pyrite‐quartz assemblages. This alteration was followed by fracturing and brecciation, partial infilling of the remaining open spaces by barite‐ pyrite‐enargite assemblages, and the formation of veins up to 0.5cm thick, containing the same mineral assemblages. In only partly pyritized rocks, crystal fragments, and commonly also groundmass, have been partially replaced by kaolinite and alunite. The fact that pervasively pyritized rock devoid of later brassy pyrite and barite‐enargite‐pyrite generally contains >1 g/t Au suggests that much of the gold mineralization was early. However, the coincidence of high gold grades in intervals with barite‐enargite‐pyrite in pores and veins impliesthat there was also significant introduction of gold late in the evolution of the hydrothermal system. The gold is either in the structure of the pyrite or as nanoparticles that are not visible under a high power electron microscope (Williams‐Jones, written comm., 2011). 38
Wisanggono et al. (2011) note two phases of barite fracture filling crosscutting silica‐sulphide alteration. Barite is typically massive to weakly crystalline in the early phase and accompanied by light coloured spalerite, galena and minor chalcopyrite, whereas the later phase is coarse crystalline and lacks base metal sulphides. Decreasing amounts of barite fracture fill with depth support a seawater source. The primary sulphide‐gold mineralization and alteration at Binabase are quite similar to those observed at Bawone, with the main difference being that the former deposit contains considerably more silica. This indicates that both deposits owe their origin in large part to the same hydrothermal processes (Williams‐Jones, 2008), an interpretation that is consistent with the model proposed by Corbett and Leach (1998). These authors infer a magmatic source for the high sulphidation system localized on the margin of a NNW graben by the intersection of through‐ going NNE structures, and dilation of ESE structures by sinistral rotation on NNW structure (Figure 16). Fluid up‐flow was centred on Bawone with hot magmatic fluids having been derived from the vicinity of a nearby diatreme breccia. The fluids flowed laterally along dilatant structures to the northwest (Binabase) and southeast (Salurang). The model explains the declining metal grades and alteration intensity from upflow to outflow. Mineral assemblages also indicate a distal relationship of Salurang to Bawone, while Binabase is marginal to the fluid upflow zone (Bautista et al., 1998). The local sharp contacts between residual silica, silica‐ alunite and peripheral clay alteration are indicative of a high level setting/distal relationship to the inferred magmatic source. The abundant gypsum and barite suggest that incursion of seawater could have occurred, possibly from the NW. A seawater source is supported by the decrease in the amount of barite fill with depth (Wisenggoro et al., 2011). In a recent paper Wisanggono et al. (2011) suggest that the mineralization is not of high‐ sulphidation origin, but more characteristic of low/intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal
mineralization for the following two reasons: i) the alunite is supergene in nature, and ii) the “vuggy” silica is not a residual primary product, but rather represents oxidized boxwork remnants of silica‐pyrite altered breccia. They suggest that the interaction of seawater with possibly weakly acid fluids may have had a buffering effect. This interpretation is not shared by A. Williams‐Jones (written comm., 2011) who comments: “The alunite is clearly hypogene and intimately associated with auriferous pyrite, and our evaluation of changes in bulk rock chemistry shows clearly that silica was leached during hypogene alteration, consistent with the presence of vuggy silica”. 4.1.2.5 Comments Corbett and Leach (1998) categorize high‐ sulphidation (HS) systems as: Porphyry‐related Lithological controlled Structurally controlled The latter two categories are end‐members of a continuum with many systems displaying a combination or variation between these two elements. A typical example of a porphyry‐related system is the high sulphidation alteration‐mineralization at Cabang Kiri. It shows a style of alteration that is indicative of progressive cooling and decrease in fluid pH away from the porphyry intrusion. It is initially dominated by andalusite, than pyrophyllite+diaspore, and most distally, alunite+kaolinite. Significant Cu‐Au mineralization occurs in andalusite‐pyrophyllite zones, but does not extend out into the alunite‐ bearing assemblages (Lowder and Dow, 1978). Motomboto can be classified as a structurally controlled system. Alteration and mineralization are apparently controlled by rift faults parallel to the Neogene arc (Kavalieris et al., 1992). Based on the limited information available the Bakan deposits are probably also dominantly structurally controlled. Riska and Binabase‐ Bawone display aspects of both lithological and 39
structural control. Structural control is provided by dilatent structures and lithological control by permeable rock units such as pyroclastics. Hydrothermal breccias appear to be a common feature, and diatremes have been reported from Motomboto and Binabase‐Bawone. A (spatial) association of high‐sulphidation deposits with porphyry copper systems has been commonly observed (e.g. Sillitoe, 1983) and in recent years a genetic connection has been more firmly established (e.g. Heinrichs et al., 2004). In the case of the Northern Sulawesi HS systems, such association is most obvious at Cabang Kiri. Motomboto displays a clear spatial relationship to a porphyry copper system, 1.5 km east at Sungai Mak. Similar ages shared by the two systems suggest that they may be also genetically related. Alternatively, a blind porphyry Cu body may be present at depth. Perello (1994) proposes a model whereby one or more hydrothermal systems developed around several quartz diorite porphyry stocks, about 3 Ma ago, which was accompanied by porphyry Cu‐Au mineralization. Following collapse of the hydrothermal system(s), ca 2.35‐2.00 Ma, enargite‐bearing Cu‐Au‐Ag formedaround 1.9 Ma at Motomboto. Weak porphyry Cu mineralization/alteration has also been observed in the other three HS epithermal Au districts, but its relationship to the HS mineralization is unclear. Corbett an Leach (1998) note that HS systems in the southwest Pacific are generally remarkably low in silver, unlike those in the eastern Pacific. Motomboto appears to be an exception (Table 4). The authors also note that in most HS systems copper‐gold mineralization post‐dates the formation of silica‐alunite‐clay alteration. At Motomboto, the timing and location of the gold dposition is known only poorly. At least one phase of enargite‐luzonite mineralization posesses a good correlation between Cu and Au, but EDS scanning failed to detect gold in the copper minerals, pyrite and marcasite; limited metallurgical test work suggests it may be free (Perello, 1994). As we have seen, at Riska the main gold mineralizing event post‐dates enargite‐luzonite depsition, and is accompanied
by alunite. For Binabase‐Bawone two scenarios have been proposed: the main gold mineralizing event is early (Williams‐Jones, 2008; see above) or took place during a later phase of silica, pyrite and minor chalcopyrite deposition (Wisenggoro et al., 2011). 4.1.3 Intermediate‐Sulphidation Epithermal Au‐ Ag Mineralization The category of intermediate‐sulphidation (IS) epithermal Au‐Ag mineralization is well represented and includes (bonanza‐style) vein systems (e.g. Bolangitang, Lanut) associated, at least spatially, with andesiticdacitic volcanics, and mineralization related to felsic volcanic dome‐diatreme complexes (G.Pani and Tototopo). Mineralization styles include stockwork, disseminated, vein and breccia‐hosted gold mineralization. Veins and stockworks consist of commonly colloform banded quartz adularia carbonate. Most vein systems have very low sulphide and base metal contents (e.g. Bolangitang and Lanut), whereas a few carry a higher sulphide and base metal content (e.g. Doup) (Carlile et al., 1990; van Leeuwen, 1994). Pearson an Caira (1997) note numerous mineral occurrences hosted by hydrothermal breccias, which are commonly associated with rhyodacite‐ dacite intrusions and contain gold and/or base metals. They occur in six ENE‐trending mineralized corridors that are defined by Plio‐ Pleistocene regional dilatant zones. The authors recognize two metal associations: Cu‐Pb‐Zn and As‐Sb‐Pb‐Zn‐Mo, characterized by chalcopyrite‐ covellite‐galena sphalerite and tetrahedrite‐ tennantite‐molybdenite assemblages respectively. The breccias commonly occur in the unconformity zone between Pliocene subaerial felsic volcanics and Miocene andesite‐diorite basement. The unconformity has provided a reservoir for groundwaters, which have been superheated by high level felsic intrusions and mixed with magmatic fluids, forming extensive argillic and advanced argillic alteration zones.The breccias are common along volatile‐rich apophyses and margins of larger Pliocene felsic intrusive bodies (e.g. Buata). 40
Table 4 Selected features characteristics of Au‐Ag systems in Northern Sulawesi – examples Deposit Name Bawone Binabase
Class
Deposit Style
‐ high‐ sulphid.
qtz‐py‐ba bx; ba‐en vns
Ag/Au ratio andesitic tuff & tuff 1:1 breccia
qtz‐carb vn
subvolcanic andesite
8:1
qtz‐carb‐sulphvns; replacement qtzvns, dissem, fractures, bx qtzstwk; fracture dissm, bx replacement; minor qtzvns hydroth, bx, vns
qtz diorite, sed rocks
2:1
rhyodacitevolcanics; dome‐diatreme complex interbeddedvolcanics&se dimentary rocks limestone, jasperiod rocks andesitic volcanics
1000m long and about 400m wide, following the general outcrop patterns of the porphyritic rhyodacite and the dominant structural trends. The gold mineralization is controlled by WNW extensional fractures and along NNE millimeter wide, but closely‐spaced fractures. Lithological control is shown by pyrite‐limonite fillings in vugs, quartz‐adularia along fractured wall rocks on the margins of silicified rhyodacite, and in the matrix of hydrothermal breccias and permeable volcanic rocks. The pyroclastic and rhyodacite intrusive contacts also exert strong lithological control on the mineralization, probably because of hydrofracturing along the margins due to escaping fluids from the intrusive. The primary control of mineralization at Pani Ridge is a NNE trend, with a series of silicified and non‐silicified flow banded units that have a shallow westerly dip away from the ridge. Intersection with three
NW‐trending structural zones crossing Pani Ridge may control the location of high grade shoots. Recent interpretations as a result of new 3D geological modeling indicate the possibility of stacked sheets of mineralization. On a district‐wide scale mineralization and alteration are associated with a wide, late crackle breccia and fracture event that commonly hosts drusy quartz‐lined cavities, they occur in zones of strong structural control, such as around the margins of diatremes and along through‐going faults. Quartz‐illite alteration is pervasive with broad haloes of adularia. The Au‐Ag epithermal adularia‐sericite system is transitional at depth into a base metal‐carbonate system. Late domes are fresh or display only weak alteration. Gold occurrences can be disseminated or occur in facture and vein stockworks, micro‐veining, and traction breccias. High grades are focused in hydrothermal breccias, shears, quartz veins, and where rhyodacite dykes cut basement. Broad, low‐grade drill intersections of gold mineralization are found in porphyritic rocks near the margins of diatreme bodies and their concentric ring fractures. The Pani Ridge deposit occurs within big blocks of rhyodacite hosted within the large central diatreme. The phreatic breccias themselves are poorly mineralized, probably because their high clay content has rendered them virtually impermeable. Strongly anomalous antimony coincides with high gold. Elevated base metal values occur in basement rocks, in deeper epithermal levels within the rhyodacite, and in carbonate veins. There is a zonation from higher base metals in the NW to high Sb and As in the south and east. 4.1.3.2 Tototopo district(Figure 18) The area is located 55km west of Gorontalo and measures 13km x 8km. It was explored by New Hope between 1987 and 1991. Their work located narrow, low‐grade NE‐trending quartz veins in the upper part of the Tototopo drainage (Lalunga and Motebo prospects). Newcrest re‐ assessed the district between 1994 and 1996, recognizing that it is underlain by a felsic caldera 43
complex. The work was concentrated on the Motebo and Lalunga prospects where 14 holes (2427m) were drilled with as best intercept 86m @ 0.6 g/t. Subsequent more detailed mapping at Tototopo West in 1996 identified narrow Au‐ bearing quartz‐adularia veins. A 9 holes (3021 m) scout drilling program was undertaken in 1998 to test the depth extensions of the veins and the presence of conceptual large tonnage unconformity‐related disseminated gold mineralization similar to the McDonald gold deposit in Montana, USA. Further work was carried out, including an IP/resistivity survey to define follow‐up drilling targets. Soon afterwards Newcrest withdrew from Sulawesi. Renewed exploration was undertaken by Avocet in 2007/8, which outlined an Inferred Mineral Resource of 5.4 Mt @ 3 g/t Au at the Bundulipu prospect. The following summary of the geology and mineralization of the Tototopo district is largely based on reports by PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi (1999), Pearson and Caira (1999), Santos et al. (1999), and Budiman and Hardjana (2011). The Tototopo district is centred on a dacite volcanic complex considered to be contemporaneous with the Early Pliocene Pani Volcanics. It unconformably overlies a Miocene basement consisting of andesitic volcanics intruded by a polyphasal batholith (granodiorite‐ quartzdiorite‐diorite), which contains earlier porphyry Cu‐Au‐Mo style mineralization. The dacitic volcanics include subaerial pyroclastics and lavas and are accompanied by epiclastics. The sequence is intruded by high level rhyodacite dykes and stocks and cut by associated diatreme breccias. Surface outflow from the volcanic system deposited sinters. These are closely associated with lacustrine sediments, which are strongly silicified (interpreted as silica caps). Hydrothermal breccia boulders are found on top of a diatreme body. All of the above rocks are flanked by young sediments and an extensive dacite pyroclastic cover collectively marking an ancient vent area within the Tototopo caldera. EW to ESE‐trending arc‐parallel fault corridors transect the district and are cut by NW to NNW trending arc‐normal faults, one of which bounds
the western flank of the caldera. A major arc parallel structure forms the northern margin of the district. Broad zones of silica‐clay alteration with associated quartz veining are emplaced in NE to ENE‐trending structures. These are interpreted to be dilational splay faults related to sinistral wrenching of the regional fault fabric, and to roughly define the boundaries of a pull‐ apart basin that played an important role in the deposition of the pyroclastic‐epiclastic pile, and emplacement of diatreme and auriferous breccia vein zones. Zones of epithermal quartz stockwork straddle the unconformity between the Pliocene volcanic complex and Miocene basement within zones of quartz‐illite‐adularia‐pyrite alteration. At least three broad zones are present, namely Tototopo West, Lalunga and Motebo. Low grade gold and silver mineralization with higher grade patches is present in association with minor base metals and molybdenum in the stockworks at the Motebo and Lalunga prospects. Thousands of local miners became active on these prospects in 1996. At Tototopo West, a quartz+illite±adularia±barite alteration affects all rock types except the younger pyroclastic cones/domes and dacite dykes. These are also the most common gangue minerals occurring with the auriferous breccia veins. Steam heated alteration consisting of kaolinite‐ dickite±alunite and displaying vuggy leached surfaces occur in the area of hydrothermal breccia boulders. This alteration assemblage and the presence of sinter indicate the upper levels of an epithermal vein system. Quartz, illite/smectite, ankerite, chlorite±epidote alteration occurs at depth and peripheral to the vein field. Mineralization at Tototopo West includes diatreme‐breccia, vein style and unconformity‐ related dissemination style. The former style occurs in steeply‐dipping quartz veins and veinlet stockworks concentrated at the edge of the diatreme. Gold is present in the form of native gold and electrum in several generations of gold‐ bearing veins. The early mineralization is associated with sphalerite, barite, galena, chalcopyrite and stibnite as cement and cavity filling, whereas the later mineralization occurs as 44
map of Tototopo district Figure 18. Simplified geological (modified after Budiman and Hardjana, 2011)
Figure 19. Diagram showing the evolution of the Tototopo West epithermal gold system (modified after Santos et al., 1999)
45
Figure 20. Simplified geological map of Doup district showing prospect locations (modified after Porter, 1997)
of Toka Tindung district showing Figure 21. Simplified geological map prospect locations (modified after Angeles, 2001)
46
cement and is associated with quartz, pyrite and arsenopyrite. Fluid inclusion studies yielded homogenization temperatures of 221‐246o C and 0.70‐1.04 wt % NaCl eq. The primary fluid inclusions are generally vapor‐rich and CO2– bearing. These findings combined with the occurrence of hypogene hematite, bladed barite and late kaolinite, and breccia vein textures are indicative of deposition resulting from fluid mixing and boiling. Several vein systems show a marked increase in gold grade from surface towards depth. The Oletanggunga‐loba, Solupite‐Niwu and Bandulipu prospects are interpreted to represent different structural levels in the hydrothermal system. At the highest level is Oletanggunga‐ loba, which is characterized by a thick silica cap, illite‐illite/smectite‐kaolinite‐silica alteration and chalcedonic, simple banded veining, features all typical of a low temperature environment of formation. Veins at Solupite‐Niwu show multiple banded and dogtooth textures. At Bandulipu, mineralization zones consist of quartz‐sulphide veins, veinlets and stockworks. Veins are generally thin (5 g/t. There are at least four major events in the development of the Tototopo West epithermal gold mineralization as shown in Figure 19. 4.1.3.3 Lanut district (II) The exploration history and geology have been described in 4.1.2.2. Here we briefly describe the Lanut and Tobongan deposits. At Lanut (Carlile et al., 1990; Register of Indo‐ Pacific Mining, 2004), gold mineralization is hosted by a Miocene sedimentary‐volcaniclastic sequence and overlying Pliocene volcanic unit, which consists of trachyandesitic lavas and interbedded volcanics. The volcanic section, which is at least 250m thick, hosts most of the mineralization. It is developed as quartz‐adularia vein‐veinlets zones enveloped by chlorite‐illite‐ pyrite haloes and overprinted by kaolinite‐pyrite‐ marcasite assemblages in the upper part of the
system. The quartz vein‐veinlets are generally sulphide poor and include green to grey chert veinlets, dog tooth quartz veins and veinlets/stockwork, and quartz cemented wall rock breccia zones. The different styles of quartz veining developed from multiple events of hydraulic fracturing. The richest gold mineralization occurs in quartz veins up to 1.5 m wide, which in places show evidence of episodes of brecciation recemented by later generation of quartz. Fluid inclusion temperatures of 175‐250o C have been reported. Carlile et al (1990) observe that the contact between the sedimentary– volcaniclastic and volcanic units had a significant control on the mineralization with the upper unit forming a cap to fluids focused along faults in the lower units. Lateral flow along the contact produced brecciated, flat‐dipping veins and a stockwork in the hanging wall. At Tobongan (Carlile et al., 1990), mineralization occurs in quartz veins and stockworks, and as fracture disseminations hosted by andesitic rocks and surrounded by illite‐pyrite alteration grading outwards to chlorite. As is the case at Lanut, pyrite and base‐metal contents are low. 4.1.3.4 Doup district(Figure 20) The Doup district is located about 10km SW of the Mesel district in the Regencies of Mongondow and Minahasa. It hosts four intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal Au prospects (Doup, Benteng, Tungau, Parabo) and an alluvial Au deposit (Tapabeken). The Dutch carried out both hard rock and alluvial mining in the area. The district was investigated by Placer Dome between 1984 and 1991, including 7252m of diamond drilling at the two main prospects, Doup and Benteng. A resource of about 12 Mt @ 2.09 g/t Au and 4.4 g/t Ag was outlined. Initial metallurgical testwork suggested that the deeper mineralization, which contains sulphides, may be refractory. The upper 40m of the prospects is oxidized and gold is recoverable using conventional carbon‐in‐leach technology. Antam subsequently obtained a KP over the area and in 1995 entered into a joint venture with Pacific Wildcat Resources, which conducted further drilling. In late 1996, the company calculated an 47
inferred resource totaling 17 Mt @ 2.15 g/t Au (uncut) or 1.64 g/t Au (using a 20 g/t top‐cut). Preliminary test workconfirmed that the primary ore from both Doup and Benteng is refractory, but might be amenable to a bio‐oxidation process. In 1998, reconnaissance sampling was undertaken around Doup, which generated several targets including Hulu Sita (up to 156 g/t Au), but work was stopped in 2000. The property was obtained in 2007 by Avocet, which carried out 11,288m of diamond and reverse circulation drilling and in early 2009 announced an Inferred Mineral Resource of 25 Mt @ 1.2 g/t Au. The following account is largely based on unpublished reports by Porter (1997) and Wake and Lapian(1998). The Doup district is located 30km northeast of the Gunung Ambang Volcanic Complex, which is an area of active geothermal systems. It consists of Miocene volcanic and marine sedimentary rocks, which are intruded by diorite stocks and overlain by Late Miocene limestone and calcareous clastic sediments and Pliocene to Recent volcanics and alluvium. Structurally the area is complex with subduction related NE‐ trending arc parallel faults and subsidiary NW‐ trending fault development. The interaction of these faults is interpreted to control the emplacement of shallow and deeper level intrusive bodies, together with proximal porphyry and intermediate‐sulphide styles of mineralization (Doup), and more distal sediment‐ hosted (Mesel) and high‐sulphidation (Hutu Sita) styles. The Doup‐Benteng area is largely covered by alluvial dioritic‐dacitic boulder conglomerate and waste material produced by the Dutch and more recent artisan mining activities. The host rock to the Doup mineralization is a quartz diorite which has undergone an early porphyry style alteration (biotie±albite) overprinted by intense illite/illite‐ smectite‐pyrite‐adularia alteration assemblages. Late fine‐grained andesitic to dacitic porphyry’s cut the altered diorite. The mineralization forms a pipe‐like body that extends to a depth of at least 200m, and is 100 by 200m in diameter elongated in a NW‐SE direction. At Benteng, a separate
dioritic body is present that intrudes sedimentary rocks and shows alteration that is similar to the clay assemblage seen at Doup. Gold‐bearing silica‐pyrite replaces calcareous mudstone in an E‐W oriented zone, 50‐100m wide and 300m long, that extends to a depth of 300m. Three styles of gold mineralization occur in the district. These are: 1) Early porphyry Cu‐Au mineralization associated with quartz‐magnetite‐sulphide stockwork stringers/veinlets centred on altered diorite intrusions. These show relatively high Au/Cu ratios like the Taware porphyry deposit on Sangihe Island with better intersection of the order of 0.7‐1.32 g/t Au and 0.10% Cu. 2) Higher grade, carbonate‐base metal–Au/Ag veins associates with sericite‐carbonate‐clay alteration controlled by diorite‐sediment contacts and fault intersections. The veins are generally narrow (15km. Other prominent structural trends in the Plio‐Pleistocene rocks are ENE, NNE and NW. Circular fracture sets representing possible caldera features have also been observed. The main gold deposits are interpreted to lie peripheral to one such circular feature associated with dilational N‐trending fracture sets at the intersection of NNW and ENE trending faults. The gold mineralization is mostly hosted by fault controlled veins, stockworks and breccias. The Toka Tindung deposit is a series of steeply dipping linear stockwork vein zones with more than 60 vein domains, up to 200m wide and over 1.7km long, elongated along a northerly striking structure. It has a drill tested depth of 175m. At the southern end this zone is separated into the Ako and Western vein systems with low intensity stockwork veining occurring between them. Volcaniclastic rocks sandwiched between basaltic andesite flows are the primary host of the gold mineralization. They comprise massive to thick bedded volcaniclastic conglomerate grading
upwards into thinner bedded, locally carbonaceous, volcaniclastic sandstones, siltstones, mudstones interbedded with silica sinters at the top of the package. The coarse sediments are interpreted to have been deposited as a series of mass‐flows in a fault‐ bounded basin changing with time into a lacustrine environment. At least three silica sinterbeds, each up to several metres thick and separated by fine grained volcaniclastic rocks, are recognized at Toka Tindung. These occur at the top of the mineralized zone; the lower sinter horizons are cut by the gold veins. The silica sinters, which generally form thin beds, are composed of chalcedony after an opaline silica precursor. They show rhythmic wavy laminations, geyserite pearls, vertical growth structures (fossilized filamentous algal mats), dehydration cracks, hydrothermal brecciation, and are characterized bylocally anomalous Sb‐Hg‐Mo geochemistry, and low level Au anomalism. The mineralized zone is overlain by hydrothermal eruption breccia, up to 50m thick, composed of fragments of all the underlying rock types, including some mineralized vein, wall rock and silica sinter material at its base. The breccia matrix comprises multiple generations of silicified, locally carbonaceous and sulphidic, hydrothermal mud together with comminuted rock flour. The brecciacross‐cuts the lower sinter beds and terminates(?) within a third sinter bed horizon exposed at the northern end of Toka Tindung. The breccia unit produces strong As, Sb, Hg and Mo anomalies, whereas anomalous Au values occur only where the breccia has incorporated mineralized fragments or is cut by weakly developed vein stockwork. The vein systems in the Batupangah area are hosted in a porphyritic basaltic andesite unit overlain by recent mantle‐bedded tephra, up to 5m thick. The main gold deposits found to date lack the near‐surface features present at Toka Tindung, such as sinters and hydrothermal breccias, and are interpreted as deeper level deposits. These deposits consist of 1) Pajajaran, two parallel NW‐trending composite veins, 2‐7m 51
thick, 800m long, with a drill tested depth of 250m, intersected by a N‐trending vein set; 2) Blambangan, single curvilinear N‐trending composite vein, 1 to 15m thick, 1.25km long, > 200m vertical extent; 3) Araren, two parallel N‐ trending vein sets, 1‐7m thick, with high‐grade gold mineralization restricted to localized pods associated with cross‐cutting faults or flexures, and 4) Kopra, composite vein system comprising eight anatomizing veins, including centrally located main vein, 2‐5m thick, 600m long, drill tested to a depth of 135m. The Talawaan area, located about 15km west of Batupangah, contains several vein deposits, the most important of which is Bima. This is a simple NW‐trending sheeted vein stockwork system, defined by drilling over a strike length of 1km and widths of up to 125m, and to a depth of 140m. Stockwork veins range in thickness from 0.1m to 5m. Twelve principal veins make up the northwestern portion of the deposit, which progressively reduce to a single main vein along a WNW‐trending fault in the south east. These are hosted by a rhyodacitic flow dome and breccias complex. At Marawuwung, located 3km NW of Toka Tindung, gold mineralization is associated with silicified sulphidic hydrothermal breccias and minor banded quartz‐adularia veins. In contrast to the Toka Tindung and Batupangahdeposits,significant gold mineralization (>1g/t Au) at Marawuwung occurs in the matrix of sulphidic breccias and is accompanied by pronouced As‐Sb‐Hg anomalism. The gold‐bearing veins in the Toka Tindung district consist predominantly of chalcedony, quartz and adularia. The strongest gold grades occur in colloform banded, ghost‐sphere, ghost‐ lattice bladed,and moss‐textured chalcedony‐ adularia rich veins. Lower grade gold grades generally occurin brecciated veins cemented by later stage crystalline quartz. Vein breccias are generally younger than the chalcedony‐adularia veins. Late barren to poorly mineralized calcite have been observed in a number of deposits. The sulphide content of the veins is generally very low (60 tonnes Au) defined in an oceanic island‐arc setting”. We are not aware of other sediment‐hosted gold deposits having since been found in a similar setting, i.e. Mesel may be unique in this respect. Otherwise it shows many similarities with sediment‐hosted Au deposits in Nevada (the classic Carlin‐type), including micron‐size gold in arsenian pyrite, a distinct Au‐As‐Sb‐Hg‐Tl geochemical association, and passive alteration of silty carbonate units characterized by decalcification, dolomitization, silicification, and argillization (Turner et al., 1994), and control by high‐angle faults (Sillitoe, 1994). 57
Like several of the other mineralized districts in Northern Sulawesi, the Ratatotok district is characterized by the presence of more than one mineralization style.Carlile et al. (1994) note that the spatial association of the Mesel mineralization with intermediate‐sulphidation veins may suggest a genetic relationship where similar structurally focused mineralizing fluids may either pervade porous reactive host‐rocks, or be contained within structures in impermeable rocks to form veins. More speculative is Kavalieris et al.’s (1992) suggestion that high‐ sulphidation mineralization at Simbalang, located 20 km away,may also be related to the same magmatic‐hydrothermal system. Various models have been proposed for the genesis of sediment‐hosted gold deposits (Hofstra and Cline, 2000, and references therein), including; i) intrusion‐driven circulation of meteoric water, plus or minus magmatic fluid input; ii) meteoric fluid circulation resulting from crustal extension and/or widespread magmatism; and iii) ascent of metamorphic fluids to shallow levels in the crust. In the case of Mesel, isotope characteristics suggest a direct connection with magmatism (see above). Another example is the Bau district in Sabah, where a genetically link has been proposed between porphyry stocks and skarn , vein, and distal sediment‐hosted gold mineralization (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990). As mentioned above, porphyry type mineralization has been observed in the nearby Doup district. This, or another proximal porphyry system, may have been the source of the gold deposited at Mesel. 4.1.6 Intrusion – related base metal – gold mineralization Numerous base metal–gold vein and vein swarm occurrences are present in Northern Sulawesi. They occur at varied distances around individual intrusions, commonly porphyries or within porphyry Cu districts, of both Miocene and Pliocene age. Examples include Taware Ridge (4.1.1.5), Kaidundu (4.1.1.4), Paleleh, Sumalata, and Petulu. Some of the vein and vein swarms (e.g. Paleleh, Sumalata, Dinuke, Kwandang, and Kasia) have witnessed production from both
underground and surface mining methods for decades by the Dutch and more recently by artisan miners. Published information regarding this style of mineralization is limited. According to Kavalieris et al. (1992) at Petulu, sheeted quartz‐ chalcopyrite‐bornite‐magnetite veins intersect a zone of magnetite alteration and are (spatially) associated with dacitic dykes inferred to be related to a deeper granitoid. Gold is present in pyrite‐rich veins peripheral to the magnetite zone. It should be noted that Pearson and Caira (1999) classify Petulu as a porphyry Cu‐Au deposit. Palelehis hosted by diorite porphyry with Au occurring in native form associated with chalcopyrite was a significant producer of gold, silver and lead during the Dutch time. Miocene andesitic volcanics are intruded by diorite. Pervasive quartz‐chlorite‐illite alteration is developed along the intrusive contact, which appears the main control on mineralization. Quartz‐gold‐pyrite‐pyrrhotite‐chalcopyrite‐ galena‐sphalerite mineralization is localized within subvertical zones of hydraulic fracture breccias that grade outwards to veinlet and fracture zones in both volcanic and intrusive rocks. Gold occurs in native form (Carlile et al., 1990; Pearson and Caira, 1999). 4.1.7 Volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralization Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) mineralization is hosted in the Papayato Volcanics in two localities at the western end of Northern Sulawesi. These are referred to as the Papayato and Bukal prospects (Aspinall et all., 1980). The Papayato prospect is exposed in the Papayato River, about 20km upstream from its mouth. A 32m thick massive pyrite body with intercalations of pyritic mudstone occurs in a sequence of felsic tuffs. The sulphides display in places colloform banding or fine laminations. Samples taken across the body gave values of only 0.1% Cu and traces of Pb, Zn, and Mo. 58
The Bukal prospect is located in the headwaters of the Bukal River. It was investigated in some detail by a London based company in 1900 that excavated shallow pits and aidits in the main body (“Dixon Lode”) over a strike length of 130m. Several companies revisited the area in the 1970s, including Utah and Rio Tinto. The mineralization occurs as two en‐echelon stratiform lenses in massive rhyolitic volcanics, which are chloritized, especially along the hanging wall contacts. Where exposed in old trenches it consists of a 2.25m thick zone of massive pyrite and chalcopyrite overlain by 0.75m of sphalerite, chalcopyrite and subordinate pyrite. The sulphides show in places fine‐grained banding. Gangue minerals include barite and quartz. In addition, an up to 2.7m thick discordant lens is present consisting of sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, tetrahedrite, and minor galena, enveloped by pyrite selvages. Disseminated chalcopyrite and sphalerite occur within narrow zones of kaolinized rhyolite. While base metal grades are high (3.8‐12% Cu, 2.7‐33.7% Zn, 0.5‐2.6% Pb,) the length of the lenses appears to be limited (up to 140m). 4.1.8 Skarns Skarns are developed as partial aureoles in the propylitic zones surrounding several Miocene porphyry stocks (Kavalieris et al., 1992; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Examples include Matinan‐6 (4.1.1.2) , Adapi, and Boloila. The skarns are hosted by the Dokokapa Formation. They are controlled by both steeply dipping faults and calcareous beds. Their mineralogy consists of magnetite, pyrite, epidote, and garnet, containing locally high gold values which are associated with horizons of pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite, galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite‐tennantite. 4.1.9 Placer Au and Fe deposits The widespread occurrence of primary gold mineralization in Northern Sulawesi has resulted in the common presence of alluvial gold throughout the province. However, the deposits are generally small and/or of low grade. The
Dutch worked alluvial deposits at Tapaibekin in the Doup distric between 1938 and 1942 producing in total 68 kg Au and 13 kg Ag. Endeavour Resources carried out Bangka drilling in the Gunung Pani district, where 2.8 M cum @265mg Au and 400‐500,000 cum @ 500 mg Au were outlined in two deposits. They also carried out exploration in the Paguyaman river reporting a resource of 0.5 M cum @ 169 mg Au/cum. A larger resource figure (1.6 M cum @350 mg Au/cum) is given by PSDG (2010). No other alluvial gold exploration has been reported, reflecting its restricted potential for company‐ scale exploitation. However, in recent years the region has witnessed extensive artisanal panning and sluicing activities supported by high gold prices. The lack of large size alluvial deposits is due to the mountainous nature of most of Northern Sulawesi with poor development of alluvial plains. Dilution of grades occur in areas with unconsolitated sedimentary/volcanic cover rocks. PSDG (2010) reports the presence of a few Fe placer deposits along the coast of the Minahasa section up to 31M cum in size (hypothetical resource). No further inrormation is available. 4.2 Western Sulawesi Province Western Sulawesi appears to be less well mineralized than Northern Sulawesi. Furthermore it hosts mostly different styles of mineralization, reflecting significant differences in geological setting between the two provinces. As mentioned earlier, mining activities have been very limited todate. The oldest known mineralization comprises chromite in the Cretaceous Barru Complex, which is hosted in serpentinized peridotite intruded by diorite and dacite, and is best developed in shear zones and at intrusive contacts (Purawiardi, 2008). Copper occurs in the so‐called “Koper‐ Lei” (Copper‐Slate) Formation, now known as Toraja Formation, in the foothills of the Latimojong Mountains as small pockets of native copper and malachite in a shaly sequence (van Bemmelen, 1949). Only a few porphyry Cu 59
prospects/occurrences are known, all of which appear to be associated with Neogene potassic alkaline intrusives and have peripheral vein and/or skarn mineralization. Mineralization associated with intrusive rocks other than porphyry style, include base metal veins at Baturappe, base metal‐Au veins at Esang, and magnetite‐hematite skarns at Tandjung and Salo Talimbangan. A small cluster of Kuroko‐type deposits is found near Sangkaropi. Manganiferous ironstones, the weathering product of sulphide and magnetite mineralization, occur widespread in the Biru area. A notable feature of the metallogeny of Western Sulawesi is the apparent poor development of typical epithermal‐style gold mineralization. In the central eastern part of the province several significant gold deposits are present in the Awak Mas and Palopo districts and near Palu. We have tentatively classified them as intrusion‐related Au vein deposits and discuss them under the heading “Gold in metamorphic terrains” Following are description of the more significant and/or interesting deposits and occurrences in Western Sulawesi. Their locations and those of others are shown in Figure 25. Table 5 summarizes the main features of some of the more important deposits. 4.2.1 Porphyry copper ± gold Known porphyry copper Cu prospects/occurrences are present atSasak and Seko, both found during a reconnaissance geochemical sampling programme carried out by the Geological Survey of Indonesia in CW Sulawesi and drill tested by Antam in the early 1970s, and at Masabo and Malawa. No information is available for Seko, other than that only low grade Cu mineralization (0.40%) was intersected (Geomin, 2010). It is located about 200km north of Sangkaropi, but its exact position is not known. Malawa, which is present near Malawa village in SW Sulawesi, is a recent discovery. Only preliminary investigation has been carried out todate (www.terrafirmaresources.com). Copper mineralization (malachite, chalcopyrite in veinlets, covellite and Cu‐bearing gossan) occurs
as float and outcrop associated with an altered and sheared diorite body. Potassic alteration (K‐ feldspar and biotite segregations) is overprinted by phyllic assemblages (quartz‐sericite‐pyrite‐ kaolinite) and surrounded by propylitic alteration. Skarn veins, dominated by carbonate and containing chalcopyrite pyrite and arsenopyrite, have also been observed. The other two prospects, Sasak and Masabo, are described below. 4.2.1.1 Sasak district Porphyry copper mineralization was discovered near Sasak in 1969. It has been intermittently explored between 1972 and 1998 by Antam, Aberfoyle, and North Ltd, and is currently being investigated by Victory West Moly. The exploration activities included drilling of about 43 holes. The following account is based on Taylor and van Leeuwen (1980), Muller (1998) and Schwager (1998). A cross‐section is shown in Figure 26. The Sasak area comprises mainly andesites, diorites and various tuff breccias, which have been intruded by monzonite stocks and related dykes. The region forms a large magnetic high anomaly reflecting the high magnetite content of the dioritic and andesitic lithologies that dominate the geology at Sasak. The monzonites have medium‐ to coarse‐grained porphyritic textures and consist of large plagioclase and alkali feldspar (up to 10mm) crystals and smaller biotite, set in a fine‐grained groundmass of alkali feldspar and minor quartz. No geochemical and age dates have been reported for the intrusive rocks, but they are likely to belong to the Neogene potassic suite. Three types of tuff breccias have been recognized: andesitic breccia, polymict breccia with diorite, andesite, monzonite and silicified siltstone fragments, and a felsic tuff breccia, which has been described as a “fragmented monzonite”. The Sasak area is crosscut by a NW‐trending structural corridor, which forms a magnetic low anomaly, probably reflecting the presence of an elongated monzonite stock at depth. A second well‐developed fracture‐fault system has a NE 60
Table 5 Selected features of porphyry Cu‐Au & Mo and Au±base metal veins systems in Western Sulawesi – examples Deposit Name Malala (Anomaly B) Sasak
Class
Deposit Style
Host Rocks
porphyry Mo porphyry Cu‐Au intrusion‐ related Au
qtz‐kfsp‐veins
quartz monzonite
1) 2) 1) 2)
disspy + cp qtz‐kfsp‐sulph veins diss qtzvns, micro‐ fractures qtz‐alb‐carb vns, partly sheeted, stk, bx
monzonite stocks & dykes; breccia syenite dykes; metabasalt meta‐sediments