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Ministers’ statements: a policy implementation instrument for sustainable tourism? a
a
Atila Yüksel , Fisun Yüksel & Osman Culha
b
a
School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Adnan Menderes University (ADU), Aydin, Turkey b
Department of Travel Management and Tourism Guidance, Yasar University, Izmir, Turkey Available online: 04 Nov 2011
To cite this article: Atila Yüksel, Fisun Yüksel & Osman Culha (2011): Ministers’ statements: a policy implementation instrument for sustainable tourism?, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, DOI:10.1080/09669582.2011.617823 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.617823
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Journal of Sustainable Tourism iFirst 2011, 1–20
Ministers’ statements: a policy implementation instrument for sustainable tourism? Atila Y¨uksela∗, Fisun Y¨uksela and Osman Culhab a
School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Adnan Menderes University (ADU), Aydin, Turkey; Department of Travel Management and Tourism Guidance, Yasar University, Izmir, Turkey
b
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(Received 8 March 2010; final version received 17 August 2011) Consistent communication of tourism policies by tourism ministers might raise public and industry awareness and promote support for sustainable tourism. The statements made by ministers contain messages that can inform the public and industry stakeholders, and potentially, these statements can draw attention to sensitive issues and bring about changes in practices that encourage sustainability in the tourism industry. Analyzing the statements of the five most recent tourism ministers in Turkey, delivered between 2001 and 2009, this study identifies the ministers’ priorities for tourism and compares them with the tourism policy objectives set out in Turkey’s Tourism Strategic Action Plan. Further comparison is undertaken to see whether priorities changed within and between governments. The results of the content analysis indicate that the statements of the Turkish tourism ministers were economically driven and growth-oriented, and that there were inconsistencies between the ministers’ priorities and the corresponding policy objectives in the national tourism strategy. While the period between 2001 and 2009 saw changing governments and ministers, the different ministers emphasized an almost identical set of priorities. Implications are discussed for public awareness of tourism policies and for sustainable tourism. Keywords: tourism policy; sustainable tourism; public communication; policy statements; media; tourism ministers
Introduction Increasing awareness about the detrimental effects of haphazard tourism development, particularly on the natural environment and local communities, has led many governments to adopt sustainable tourism development initiatives since the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Sustainable tourism development is expected to lead to the management of all resources so that economic, social and esthetic needs are met, while maintaining cultural integrity, ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems (Tourism Canada, 1990). Practice has shown, however, that simply adopting the concept is not sufficient to ensure that it becomes a reality, and that without planning and public support, there is little hope for sustainable tourism development (Dodds & Butler, 2010; Graci, 2010). Communication with the public is important for sustainable tourism policymaking since policies will not be successfully developed or implemented unless they are transmitted clearly to the public (Burstein, 2003). Consistent communication of policies and policy objectives by government officials and ministers can help raise public and
∗
Corresponding author. Email:
[email protected]
ISSN 0966-9582 print / ISSN 1747-7646 online C 2011 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2011.617823 http://www.tandfonline.com
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industry awareness and support (Y¨uksel & Y¨uksel, 2008). According to Yanow (1993), policy stakeholders may hold different interpretations of policy intentions, and these interpretations may diverge from the policy legislators’ intentions. These multiple interpretations may impede the policy’s implementation unless there is consistent and effective communication by government (Curtain, 2000). Examples from different countries show that policy success may depend on top executives’ support for a policy. For example, in Papua New Guinea, inconsistent statements and behavior by public servants and ministers are reported to have delayed or undermined proposed changes in policies and practices (May, 2009). Similarly, Gelders and Brans (2007) report that provision by ministers of incomplete, untimely, inconsistent and polemical information had severely hampered the implementation of Belgian federal cannabis legislation. Ministers are key agents of political initiative, charged with translating their party’s conception of public interest into policy. They have responsibility for reviewing programs, handling current and strategic issues and providing leadership in forward planning. The precise role which ministers play in policy development and implementation varies between countries and ministers. It may vary depending on whether there is an entrenched departmental philosophy which ministers come to endorse and on the extent of support the ministers receive from the prime minister (Dorey, 2005). Ministers in such high-number tourist-receiving countries as Spain, Portugal, Egypt and Turkey occupy a prominent position in public policymaking. In these countries, ministers are involved in various stages of the policy cycle, including identification of problems, option setting, preparation of legal documentation, inquiries of relevant groups, negotiation with other ministries, policy dissemination campaigns and preparation of recommendations to the relevant parliamentary group. Thus, statements from elected officials become important since they can define the salience of issues to be discussed concerning tourism. With appropriate communication by ministers, the public may develop a sense of ownership of the problem and its solutions so that action is sustained (Hesselink, Goldstein, van Kempen, Garnett, & Dela, 2007). Despite their core role in the policymaking cycle (P˘aces¸il˘a, 2010), top executives in policy implementation such as ministers have not been the subject of studies examining sustainable tourism planning. An examination of ministers’ (or equivalent authority in countries not having a Tourism Ministry) statements about tourism plans appearing in the mass media is justified when one considers the importance of news in people’s everyday life. By analyzing five most recent tourism ministers’ statements, the present research ascertains their policy priorities and examines any changing priorities within and between ruling parties in Turkey over the period 2001–2009. The assessment examines the level of consistency between the ministers’ priorities and the corresponding objectives set out in the Tourism Strategic Action Plan (SAP) (or the Five-Year Tourism Development Plans effective during their tenure). The assessment involves analysis of 707 statements by the sampled tourism ministers, collected from electronic media. The following discussion is divided into six sections. The first section presents definitions of tourism policy and government roles in policymaking. The second section focuses on communication and on the function of governmental communication in policymaking. The Turkish tourism policy and the SAP are briefed in the third section. An explanation of the research methodology follows in the fourth section. Then, in the fifth section, findings are presented on the extent of consistency between the ministers’ priorities and the policy objectives. Conclusions and recommendations for future research are presented in the last section.
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Literature review Tourism policy and policymaking Policy is meant to influence human behavior (Van Woerkum, Aarts, & Leeuvis, 2000), and policymaking is argued to be a continuous and interactive process (Lindblom, 2000, as cited in Zhang, Pine, & Lam, 2005). While there is no universal definition of tourism policy (Zhang, Chong, & Jenkins, 2002), the term “policy” is frequently used to denote the direction and objectives of an organization pursued over a set period of time (Page & Connell, 2006). Edgell, Allen, Smith, and Swanson (2008) define tourism policy as a set of regulations, rules, guidelines, directives, and objectives and strategies that provide a framework within which collective and individual decisions are taken that directly affect tourism development and destination activities. Government tourism policy states the government’s vision, goals and objectives, and describes what it is trying to achieve, how it wants to achieve it and where certain disciplines fit in (Kerr, 2003). An examination of a number of existing tourism policies (e.g. Australia, South Africa, Turkey) indicates that the usual purpose of governmental tourism policies is to integrate the economic, political, cultural, intellectual and environmental benefits of tourism cohesively with people, destinations and countries in order to improve the quality of life and to promote peace and prosperity (Liu & Liu, 2009; Kerr, 2003). However, previous research on policy implementation (Altinay, Var, Hines, & Hussain, 2007; Dodds, 2005, 2007; Duc, 2009; Graci, 2010; Harris, 2000; Swanson, Kuhn, & Xu, 2001; Y¨uksel, 2002, 2003) revealed that some barriers, such as inadequate technology, low finances, limited human resources, poor public environmental awareness, lack of information and lack of skills to collect data, cause implementation problems for sustainable tourism policy. Additionally, a number of researchers on tourism policymaking draw attention to the necessity of interaction and communication between stakeholders both during and after policymaking (Bramwell, 2006; Stevenson, Airey, & Miller, 2008). Larsen and Valentine (2007), for example, found that poor communication of tourism policy changes between upper management levels and in-park rangers was responsible for a loss of goal congruence, infighting, low morale and organizational turmoil. According to Van Woerkum et al., “regulations, provisions and money can become much more effective if careful attention is given to communication and the communicative dimension of various policy instruments” (2000, p. 260). Hence, if governments are to be successful in implementing policies for sustainability, communication has to be an integral part of all policy or program phases (Roskin, Cord, Medeiros, & Jones, 2006; Wheeler & Bijur, 2000). Bramwell and Lane (2010, p. 4) contend that strong public support for long-term priorities is likely to make it harder for politicians to abandon them. Based on media effect theories, one may conclude that ministers have an opportunity to focus their statements on raising public awareness of the values inherent in sustainable tourism development. Given that even highly educated and involved citizens know little about even the more basic elements of policy issues (Gelders, 2005), ministers’ constant and consistent policy communication becomes extremely important. Communication can serve different goals at different stages of policymaking (Van Woerkum et al., 2000), and the informative, priority setting and persuasive functions of public communication by government officials seem to be a neglected instrument during the sustainable tourism policy implementation stage. This is interesting since the policy implementation stage requires continuity of interactions between the various actors in order to secure the distribution, acceptance and realization of the desired sustainable policy objectives (Van Woerkum et al., 2000). Bramwell (2006) and Vereczi, Christie, and Scuppa (2006) call for significant attention to communication after policy formulation.
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According to Bramwell (2006), a concentration on communication and consultation effort at the formulation stage alone is a common weakness in policymaking, since public consultation should occur both before and after the release of national policies, local plans and tourism programs. Similarly, Vereczi et al. (2006) stress the need for governments to create and maintain websites with regularly updated information, and they warn government officials that websites should disseminate information on tourism policies and plans as well as marketing materials. Since public perceptions of the importance of issues are largely determined by news media (Hall, 2003), a number of other researchers also concur that government officials’ statements can raise and sustain public awareness and support for sustainable tourism and related behavior change (Slade & Weitz, 1991; Stanley & Dennis, 2003, as cited in Okaka, 2007). Policy communication Tourism policies and their implementation are likely to be influenced by the political philosophies and ideological preferences of the government of the day, including the minister in charge. Ministers can have an influential role in new policymaking and in the discontinuity or continuity of existing policies (Gelders, Bouckaert, & van Ruler, 2007). Consequently, one can argue that the execution of a sustainable tourism policy can be jeopardized by circumstances affecting the minister. This can involve situations where (1) ministerial turnover is high and the new minister does not agree with policy priorities shaped by the political ideologies of his/her predecessor; and (2) when ministers are left with little time or energy to pursue a new policy due to changing political circumstances, parliamentary and departmental tasks, or the departmental ethos. Even if the same government continues in power for a subsequent term, the fate of tourism policy implementation can be determined by the level of policy commitment and communication by the succeeding government officials (e.g. the new minister and his/her advisers). As a political product, tourism policy can be partly influenced and distributed by the media. Media effect theories generally indicate that what appears in the media has an effect on its audiences through agenda setting and framing. Through repeated news coverage, agenda setting suggests that the media has the capability to raise the importance of certain issues in the public’s mind (McQuail, 1994; Severin & Tankard, 1997). The agenda-setting theory further suggests that the news media may not directly affect how the public thinks about political matters, but it does affect the subjects the public thinks about (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987). Media scholars define framing as the media’s power to influence how people comprehend issues by using interpretive frames to cover the issue (Gamson & Modigliani, 1987; Takeshita, 2005); it is a “thematic shorthand, structuring policies and intimating political solutions” (Terkildsen, Schnell, & Ling, 1998, p. 47). More specifically, Entman describes framing as the process of selecting some aspects of a story to make them more salient or memorable as a “way to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation” (1993, p. 52). These effects are achieved through contextual cues (e.g. highlighting certain facts over others, using descriptive adjectives) that serve to influence the formulation and expression of opinions of citizens (Carpini, 2005; Iyengar, 1991). The theory is founded on the assumption that people do not have elaborate knowledge about political matters and do not take into account all of what they do know when making political decisions; rather, they consider what more readily comes to mind. By drawing attention to some aspects of politics at the expense of others, the media might help to set the terms by which political judgments are reached, including evaluations of political figures and policies (Alger, 1989).
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The literature on priming, persuasion and cue-taking offers insights into how elected officials’ opinions shape how citizens approach public policy issues and what attitudes they adopt (Callagan & Schnell, 2001; Fogarty & Wolak, 2009; Schneider & Jacoby, 2005; Valentini, 2006). Gabel and Scheve’s (2007) evidence shows that more negative elite messages about European integration did decrease public support for Europe, and this effect of elite messages did not vary for more politically aware individuals. Borrowing from agenda-setting and framing theories, one may suggest that ministers’ statements in newspapers could reflect the tourism-related priorities of the ministers/government and the importance that they attach to them. The contents of the statements can draw the public’s attention to sensitive ecological issues and trends. By calling for more (or less) attention to some policy issues, and by according them prominence in statements, the ministers’ communications may subtly shape the public’s perceptions about the main concerns facing tourism in a country. Communication about policies by ministers and government officials can reduce or avoid unintended consequences later on, such as surprises, misunderstandings, resistance, frustrations and speculation among citizens and organizations (Gelders & Brans, 2007). Provision of information about a policy can help to sustain newly adopted attitudes and behavior, and can create opportunities for fine-tuning the policy (Gelders & Brans, 2007). Media communications can raise awareness and political impact, and the consequent public opinion may result in political rethinking by the government (Okaka, 2007). For example, the Uganda media recently locked horns with the government when it gave extensive coverage to an impending government plan to replace part of the country’s natural forest with a sugarcane plantation. The streets of the capital city soon overflowed with demonstrators, with fatal consequences when the police fired on the protesting crowds. Statements can shape community attitudes by persuading audiences to see the ministry and its government in a particular light. The public cannot become part of the learning process if there is no communication with them after a policy is developed. Hence, statements can promote change, particularly for the public at large, on whose acceptance the success of the policy ultimately depends. Communication by government representatives about tourism development may signal whether the government subordinates tourism policy in favor of other sectors (Stevenson et al., 2008). Statements may hint as to whether the tourism policy objectives decided by a former government are to be followed by its successors. They can also influence how the industry interprets and operates in relation to the policy objectives. Additionally, policymakers need to interact with policy consumers at the international as well as the national level (Briassoulis & van der Straaten, 2000). This is because the communication of tourism policy by tourism ministers may, for example, have implications for how travel brochures developed by national and/or international tour operators depict the destination. Turkish tourism policy and the Strategic Action Plan The Turkish tourism sector has been one of the most important drivers behind Turkey’s economic development over the past two decades. In 2009, the industry generated TL 95.3 billion of economic activity (approximately 10.2% of Turkey’s GDP) and the employment of approximately 1.8 million people (7.2% of total employment) (Republic of Turkey Prime Minister’s Office, 2010). As many as 27.3 million tourists visited Turkey in 2009, resulting in a total revenue of US$ 21.3 billion. With the major increases in the number of tourists and foreign exchange revenues, Turkey is now ranked seventh in the world in terms of international tourist numbers and eighth in the world in terms of tourism revenues (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2010).
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As Turkey has started to confront a substantial number of tourism development challenges (Var, 2001), there has been an increase in the number of queries about the existence, appropriateness and efficiency of Turkish tourism policy and its objectives. Tourism in Turkey has been examined by studies dealing with tourism planning practices (Tosun, 2006; Y¨uksel, Bramwell, & Y¨uksel, 2005), tourism marketing (Y¨uksel, 2004), tourism administration (Goymen, 2000; Ilkin & Dincer, 1991; Sezer & Harrison, 1994; Y¨uksel, 2002), and labor development and planning (Brotherton, Woolfenden, & Himmeto˘glu, 1994). A common contention in previous studies is that Turkish tourism either lacks a proper policy framework or that the policy framework is a ready-made one, borrowed from other countries, and one that cannot be implemented fully in Turkey. Another criticism is that there has been very little consistency in the tourism policy, with continuing changes of policy as successive governments came to power. The studies also frequently isolate a lack of (or pseudo type of) community participation in Turkey as a major impediment to successful policy formulation and implementation. In line with suggestions in the literature on sustainable tourism development, researchers in Turkey frequently call for “full support of people”, without much consideration as to how this can be achieved (Tosun & Jenkins, 1998). Recognizing the problems that Turkey faces due to rapid tourism development, the Tourism Sector Master Plan, covered by the 9th Five-Year Development Plan (2007–2013), was prepared with a range of objectives. These include intentions to achieve a long-term, sound development of the tourism sector; create new capacity; increase service quality; diversify marketing channels; protect cultural assets; make natural capital sustainable; and bring forth varieties of tourism in compliance with comparative advantages. More specifically, in order to establish a framework for utilizing tourism alternatives in the country, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism issued Turkey’s 2023 Tourism Strategy (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). This strategy intends to guide the tourism industry through production, management and implementation phases. The preparation of the strategy involved a dynamic process entailing participation by many relevant stakeholders, the utilization of reference documents such as official reports produced by ad-hoc tourism committees, and search conferences on tourism coordinated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). Research methodology The study adopted conceptual analysis, one of the two general types of content analysis. Conceptual analysis, also known as thematic analysis, establishes the existence and frequency of concepts in a text, most often represented by words or phrases. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence. The focus in this study is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms (e.g. tourism income, planning, investment, tourism diversification) within the sampled (five) ministers’ statements, although the terms may be implicit as well as explicit. While explicit terms are easy to identify, coding for implicit terms and deciding on their significance is complicated by the need to use subjective judgments. Thus, a coding scheme was developed, including a code list and a coding form for the concepts and categories in the statements (Hall & Valentin, 2005). This was done to ensure that the researchers coded consistently, in the same way every time, throughout the texts. A consistent coding process was developed among the researchers, a set of rules was developed and the coders were trained accordingly. The SAP 2023 (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007) was used as a baseline to construct the coding scheme. The headings of
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the development objectives in the SAP 2023 were utilized in the coding and categorization of the contents of the ministers’ statements. All positive or negative words that appeared relevant to tourism development in the country were coded. Two independent coders were recruited in order to minimize the risk of researcher bias (Hall & Valentin, 2005). A level of coding flexibility was exercised since there could be other categories that were not included in the coding scheme. As suggested by Hall and Valentin (2005), pilot spotchecks on selected statements were carried out to make sure the judgments were similar. This allowed new, important material to be incorporated into the coding process. As the number of times that the concept appears can be indicative of its importance, frequency was also noted. Different words with the same meaning were used to express an opinion, and these were coded the same, although they appeared different. The coding of the text was done by reading through the text and manually writing down the concepts’ occurrences, and the frequency was also noted, as this indicated a greater emphasis on that particular concept. Cohen’s kappa, a statistical coefficient of inter-rater agreement for qualitative (categorical) items, was estimated (Landis & Koch, 1977; Neuendorf, 2002). If the coders are in complete agreement, the value of Cohen’s kappa is 1. If there is no agreement among the coders, the value of Cohen’s kappa is 0. In this study, Cohen’s kappa was close to 1 (0.82), indicating substantial agreement between the coders (Rust & Cooil, 1994). After the coding, categories that were not agreed were further discussed until agreement was reached. The suggestion of the more experienced coder was accepted in the rare cases of unresolved disagreement (Williams & Plouffe, 2007). Data collection The ministers’ reported statements, published and saved in electronic media, between 2001 and 2009 were searched by inserting keywords in the most common Internet search engines. Archives of several national newspapers were searched, within cost and effort limits. The scanning of relevant material took place between 17 March 2009 and 17 May 2009, producing 707 statements delivered by the ministers. Considering the number of statements analyzed in other studies (Stamou & Paraskevopoulos, 2003, N = 705 statements; Stamou & Paraskevopoulos, 2006, N = 84 statements; Xiao, 2006, N = five speeches), the number of collated statements in the two months was deemed sufficient for the analysis. We have excluded statements delivered by other bureaucrats, governors and business operators as the tourism minister is the highest authority who has the legal rights, duties and responsibilities in relation to Turkey’s tourism administration. The five most recent tourism ministers held office for almost a decade, a period sufficient to allow for significant changes in the tourism industry. This period also witnessed two government changes and facilitated comparison between ministers and also between governments. Findings: ministers and their tourism agenda As shown in Table 1 and Figure 1, in their statements, all ministers mentioned rising tourism income and tourist numbers more frequently than other topics. Income and numbers were commented on in 172 (24%) of the 707 statements (Table 1). Current tourism minister, G¨unay, indicated that “an economic crisis is being experienced in the world and at home . . . But despite the worldwide crisis the number of tourists [to Turkey] has risen 12% this year” (“G¨unay Hatay’da”, 2009). While similar statements about rising tourist numbers and income were delivered by all ministers, the frequency at which tourist arrivals were mentioned varied between ministers (33% Aks¸it, 28% Tas¸ar, 11% Mumcu, 14% Koc¸ and
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Table 1. Comparison of frequency between ministers.
Planning Investment Institutionalization Domestic tourism Research and development (R&D) Marketing and promotion Education Service quality City branding Tourism diversification Rehabilitation of tourism zones Tourism development zones Tourism cities Ecotourism zones Employment Tax and regulations World peace Controlling Tourism income and tourist numbers Foreign relations Total
Mustafa R. Tas¸ar
Guldal Aks¸it
Erkan Mumcu
Atilla Koc¸
Ertu˘grul G¨unay
Total
12 16 13 1 –
11 8 16 – 2
21 40 10 – 7
25 28 4 5 2
12 24 3 5 1
81 116 46 11 12
35 12 3 2 5 6 1 2 1 6 21 – 1 41
41 – 1 5 15 2 3 2 – – 10 – – 36
14 – 4 5 14 8 6 11 2 5 14 – 6 34
18 1 – 10 46 14 9 2 9 1 12 1 – 33
17 2 1 2 21 2 1 6 11 6 31 9 7 28
125 15 9 24 101 32 20 23 23 18 88 10 14 172
15 193
5 157
8 209
3 223
7 196
38
14% G¨unay, see Figure 1). One reason why income and numbers were often mentioned could be to imply that successful government management lay behind this. The second most frequently discussed topic was marketing and promotion (N = 125 statements) (Table 1), mentioned in 18% of the statements. The emphasis placed on marketing and promotion appears to match up with what is mentioned in the SAP 2023 (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007) objectives. The SAP specifically states that “promotional efforts shall completely be based on scientific analyses and studies . . . they are meant to be used for the promotion and market analysis of a particular tourism area” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). In line with this objective, Koc¸ emphasized that the “search for new markets continues in order to draw different customer groups. We are going to campaign in the Far East, Eastern Europe and Latin America and publicity campaigns are underway in these parts of the world so as to increase our market share. The campaigns are developed in accordance with tourist profiles, holiday periods and demand predispositions of these particular countries. The campaigns aim to promote a favorable image of the country” (“Koc¸ hedef y¨ukseltti”, 2006). He also emphasized that “health, golf and adventure tourism are to be heavily promoted in order to extend the tourism season” (“Koc¸ hedef y¨ukseltti”, 2006). New markets were on the agendas of all ministers, but what these markets were varied between ministers. Mumcu, for example, considered that Turkey should become a holiday destination for Eurasian markets, stating: “Eurasia will offer lots of advantages particularly for Antalya . . . I do not see this as a promotion effort, but as economic entrepreneurship” (“˙Incoming’de d¨unya”, 2004).
Figure 1. Comparison of frequency between ministers.
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Another frequently raised topic was the need for superstructure and infrastructure investment (N = 116 statements). According to the SAP, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism places special emphasis on completing the Mediterranean–Aegean Tourism Infrastructure Coastal Management Project. The Ministry had already made plans for design engineering and construction of various utilities, such as potable water, sewerage, wastewater treatment and discharge, and solid waste collection and disposal facilities. Such infrastructure is needed for both residents and tourists on the coast from Antalya to C¸anakkale, and for environmental protection and, arguably, for more sustainable development. Other types of infrastructure, however, were discussed by Koc¸: “Tourism cannot exist without the successful fulfillment of two conditions: one of them is motorways and the other is lodging facilities. Our government has managed to connect all corners of Turkey with newly built motorways and now we are diverting our efforts on to lodging facilities . . . We are in discussions about building an airport at the border between Us¸ak, Afyon and K¨utahya provinces” (“K¨ult¨ur ve turizme”, 2005). G¨unay maintained that “our effort is to attract new investment, build productive zones and increase employment in these areas for the benefit of the local people” (“Orman alanları”, 2008). The ministers made numerous statements in line with the SAP objectives of boosting tourism investments by offering incentive schemes to make tourism investment projects economically feasible and viable. But even more frequent mentions were given to reductions in taxes, landing costs at airports and oil prices (“Aks¸it: Hedef ”, 2002; “Sahte ic¸ki”, 2009; “Master planı”, 2005). G¨unay even argued that the current level of taxes “constitutes formidable barriers for the development of sustainable tourism in the country” (“Turizmi acımasız vergilerle”, 2009). Another frequently discussed issue was the diversification of the tourism product (N = 101 statements), which potentially could support more sustainable development. It appears that the ministers were cognizant that the goal to spread the tourism season over the entire year is dependent on the diversification of tourism products. The ministers mentioned approaches to diversification similar to those set out in the SAP, such as intentions to “develop the means for alternative types of tourism, led particularly by health, thermal, winter, golf and sea tourism, as well as ecotourism and plateau tourism, conference and expo tourism activities” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). Despite its rich underground thermal resources, the country utilizes only 1% of this capacity, and Minister Koc¸ invited the industry to reconsider thermal water as an alternative tourism resource that can help spread the season (“T¨urkiye’nin termal”, 2005). Thus, he criticized how “all tourism products, except two, are seasonal and they may last 3 or 4 months, none of which last five months or over. But the tourism types catering for meetings, incentives, conventions, and exhibition tourism and also thermal tourism, continue non-stop during a year. Thermal tourism is my ambition and I am after it” (“T¨urkiye’nin termal”, 2005). In an attempt to promote product diversification, G¨unay argued that “Hatay is a mosaic of cultures”, and in that context, “we are aiming to bring Turkey up above the world average through the introduction of not only coastal tourism but also faith, culture, winter and thermal tourism. We are working in the middle of the crisis to diversify the tourism product . . . Hatay city boasts of both the intention as well as the basic assets” (“Hatay’daki”, 2009). Although diversification was discussed by all ministers, the ministers differed in what they emphasized to achieve this. For example, Aks¸it asserted that Turkey needed to develop alternative tourism destinations, with particular attention paid to the Black Sea and Aegean regions, as they were far from Iraq, which at the time of this speech was where war seemed possible (“Turizm Bakanlı˘gı”, 2003).
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The SAP recognizes that the tourism industry’s overall success depends on setting up an effective structure or organization for managing the industry. This is needed to provide dynamism to the sector and to minimize tourism’s vulnerability to international crises. The SAP argues, for example, that “the development of tourism activities both at national and regional levels is an objective that is attainable only when top priority regions and areas are determined according not only to the sector specific plans worked out by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, but also to the macro policies evolved and institutionalized in national development schemes prepared by the State Planning” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). Despite the importance of this issue for coordinated sustainable development, it was not a highly prominent theme in the ministers’ statements, although it was mentioned (institutionalization, N = 46, or 7% of statements). Thus, G¨unay drew attention to the barriers formed by tourism’s current institutional arrangements, noting that “we have been faced with challenges in our planning attempts aiming to bring new investments. A considerable number of plans had been cancelled because of ordinary petitions looking like trivial letters. Although the country boasts of areas designated for investment, ironically we are having difficulty in producing land for this investment” (“C¸ES¸TOB’un c¸a˘grısıyla”, 2008). Mumcu urged that both tourism demand and supply should be planned in a coordinated way, complaining that “someone is building in the middle of the coastal strip without or with a license from a municipality or a license from the Ministry of Construction, and we (the Ministry of Tourism and Culture) are left alone to tackle the subsequent problems emanating from these haphazard arrangements” (“Turizm gelirleri”, 2004). In another statement, Mumcu announced a new system involving local government, NGOs, business associations and central government in the management of newly developed tourism destinations (“Hedef 20 milyon”, 2003). The SAP, at times, indicates that tourism would be used in efforts to eliminate regional inequalities, reduce poverty and increase employment opportunities, all of which are objectives for sustainable development. The vision in the SAP suggests a planning approach, and this has potential to assist in sustainable development. But this planning approach was mentioned much less frequently compared with tourism income and numbers in the ministers’ statements (planning, N = 81, or 11% of the statements compared with 24% for tourist income and numbers) (“Turizmi acımasız vergilerle”, 2009). One minister, however, argued that sustainable tourism planning is an important reason why the country had become a top tourist-receiving destination, and he explained that there was a need to ensure compatibility among the physical, social and cultural environments in sustainable tourism (“Parayı veren d¨ud¨ug˘ u¨ ”, 2004; “Turizmin amiral gemisi”, 2004). The following approaches in the SAP, however, were almost never touched on in the ministers’ statements: “ . . . An integrated approach shall be adopted and maintained for planning efforts in areas with high local tourism potential, instead of a problem-focused conception of planning . . . The fragmented and plot-based planning practice shall be discontinued . . . Provisions shall be made for establishing participative mechanisms, such as Local Agenda No. 21, with the local council’s becoming functional in a given neighborhood” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). The SAP indicates that the development of the domestic market is as important as that of the international market for the growth of Turkey’s tourism industry, but there was only limited mention of domestic tourism by the tourism ministers. This subject appeared only 11 times in the 707 statements. Koc¸ calls for cooperation among banks, airlines and hospitality enterprises so that “affordable holiday prices are to be offered to domestic visitors in accordance with the place of choice, reservation and payment dates” (“Turizme yerli”, 2006). Without shedding light on how this would be achieved, G¨unay criticized the
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current state of domestic tourism, stating: “We need to initiate a new wave in domestic tourism and we have to fight with the discrimination where foreign visitors enjoy splendid facilities at a cheaper price than our own citizens” (“Bas¸bakan: Hedef ”, 2008). Another interesting disparity between the agendas of the ministers and those of the SAP is the issue of R&D (research & development). The SAP stresses that R&D efforts should be a top priority in order to work out “the big picture for the sector and [for] determining models and trends at both national and international scales; ascertaining of tourism activity determinants and constraints and drafting of policies; determining the amounts and ways for augmenting social and economic gains obtained from tourism activities, and on what might be done for the elimination of negative aspects; making use of minimum energy and natural resources and consuming minimal fuel for use in enterprises; and transferring of new ideas and innovations with regard to products, people, practices and operations” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). Despite this emphasis on R&D, the issue appeared only 12 times in the ministers’ statements. Education too appeared only 15 times in the ministers’ statements (“˙Istanbul turizmin”, 2006), which again arguably does not reflect its importance in the SAP, and also in sustainable tourism (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). The SAP suggests that the “development of quality service with associated standards will bring about a management concept that upholds continuous development, and customer and worker satisfaction and participation. Consequently, continual quality practices will leverage the service standards of business enterprises as well as productivity, while bringing some impressive benefits to them, in terms of competitive power and marketing” (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). Yet the concept of service quality only appeared nine times in the ministers’ statements (“Aks¸it: Hedef ”, 2002; “Bakan Mumcu turizmcinin”, 2004; “G¨unay Moskova’da”, 2009). G¨unay, for example, stated: “We are trying our best to ensure the visitors revisit Turkey by providing high service quality. The UNWTO declared Turkey as the fastest developing country in tourism, and we are trying to keep the service quality high in order to maintain this development” (“G¨unay Moskova’da”, 2009). The ministers also mentioned control/inspection only 14 times (“12 yılda yapılan”, 2004; “Sahte ic¸ki”, 2009), despite the need for extensive control and inspection mechanisms for the industry’s healthy development, and often for progress toward sustainability. Finally, employment was mentioned only 18 times in the ministers’ statements (“Orman alanları”, 2008; “Turizm arazisini”, 2004), despite employment receiving coverage in the SAP and despite employment being an important benefit for local people in tourist areas. Discussion and conclusions The development of mass tourism by the industry and the approaches taken to tourism planning have led to mass tourism concentrations in Turkey’s Mediterranean and Aegean coastal areas (Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). These developments have threatened to destroy fragile ecosystems, local cultures and natural resources. In line with Turkey’s 9th Five-Year Development Plan, a strategic action plan with sustainable tourism development objectives has been adopted. By analyzing the statements of the five most recent tourism ministers, this study determined their priorities in relation to Turkey’s tourism development and examined the extent to which the issues they gave prominence to in the statements were consistent with the objectives in the national tourism action plan (i.e. SAP). It was found that regardless of their party, all ministers frequently mentioned in their statements such issues as rising tourist income and numbers, the necessity of infrastructure and superstructure investment, the need for publicity and marketing, the importance of
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tourism diversification, and planning for tourism development and tax/legal regulations. A comparison of statements between ministers shows that the mention of rising tourist income and numbers gradually decreased, whereas the ministers became more likely to discuss the need for tourism diversification in the country. Despite their inclusion in the SAP, the ministers did not seem especially concerned with the issues of service quality, employment, R&D and domestic tourism. Although such sustainability-related objectives often take longer than one political term to be realized – often up to 20 years to change a population’s mentality (Dodds, 2007) – the seeming lack of concern about sustainable tourism objectives must be examined by future studies. In short, the lack of regular mention of sustainability issues raises the question as to whether seeking “sustainability” is just a political tactic. The dominance of statements about achievements and growth numbers is probably an expected finding since the ministers are politicians. Interestingly, however, there was no mention of how much of the generated income remained in the country or of the cost of creating that income. According to Erdo˘gan (2004), two-thirds of the tourism income of the countries on the Mediterranean Rim leaks out to tour operators operating in Northern Europe. The ministers concur that tourism has contributed a good deal to the country, and they all appear to be content with further tourism growth. This attitude parallels that of many other developing countries where tourism is perceived as a key development resource (Marcouiller, Kim, & Deller, 2004). Nevertheless, there was no mention of such negative impacts as degradation, overcrowding, traffic and parking problems, increasing crime rates, decreasing living standards, disagreement between host community and tourists, and changing lifestyles (Andereck, Valentine, Knopf, & Vogt, 2005; Gartner, 1996). Accurate information other than how much money is earned is needed for the public to estimate the costs and benefits of tourism and to consider whether they want tourism development. It is important to note that the benefits and costs of sustainable tourism development are not easily defined in monetary terms. Measuring the success of tourism should not just be based on numbers of visitors or amount of income; rather, measurement should include the length of stay, quality of the experience and whether natural and cultural resources have been conserved (United Nations Environment Programme & World Tourism Organization [UNEP & WTO], 2005). Domestic tourism occupied only a limited place in the ministers’ statements. Yet domestic demand for tourism could be a great opportunity for Turkey to achieve more balanced regional development and to increase its bargaining power against international tour op¨ urk, 2003). Domestic tourism is estimated to be up to 10 erators (Tosun, Timothy & Ozt¨ times greater in volume and up to seven times greater in expenditure than international tourism (Gartner, 1996; Hall & Page, 2002). According to Archer (1978), domestic tourism brings about an intermingling of people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds, a redistribution of spending power and an impetus to further economic growth in the holiday regions, and it may assist in solving some of the problems facing a country’s international tourism. According to Tosun, “domestic tourism may be utilized as a marketing tactic to overcome a possible crisis due to a possible loss of mass tourism demand for Turkey from Western tourist generating countries” (1999, p. 244). Without developing domestic tourism, it may not be possible to develop international tourism in the country because of sociocultural reasons and difficulties in meeting the needs of western tourists (Tosun et al., 2003). In addition, sustainability considerations point to the need for destinations to maintain an appeal to a range of markets and to avoid overdependency on any one market that may not be consistent in the long term. In comparison with international markets, domestic markets may be more dependable and less seasonal, and may bring needed social
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benefits to participants (UNEP & WTO, 2005). In short, Turkey’s ministers should pay more attention to domestic tourism as a tool for achieving economic growth, providing balanced regional development and combining people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds, as stated in the Tourism Strategy 2023. Among the ministers’ statements analyzed, only a limited number focused on sensitive ecological issues and trends, and many of the statements were populist, promising new investments for every city visited, although in reality, there were probably no such approved projects. Protection during utilization does not seem to have been on the ministers’ agendas. The ministers should have been cognizant of such destinations as Calvi`a (Spain), Mexico and Egypt, where better planning and reduced environmental impact were proven to be essential for long-term economic as well as environmental sustainability. While the ministers sometimes complained about problems emanating from the current institutional environment, they rarely mentioned a restructuring of the local government system in order to strengthen the municipalities to facilitate local solutions to their local problems. As Pearce notes in relation to policy implementation, “when different organizations in tourism are not developed properly or motivations and skills of different management institutions conflict each other, problems occur and costs increases” (1992, p. 12). Interestingly, such subjects as service quality, R&D and education were rarely mentioned by the ministers. Yet service quality is suggested to be an important strategy for creating customer satisfaction (Haksik, Yongki, & Yoo, 2000), and hence for surviving in competitive markets (Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1996). Long-term viability needs satisfied visitors who return and who recommend others to visit the destination. Delivering an experience that meets or exceeds expectations requires an emphasis on the quality of every component of the visitor experience (UNEP & WTO, 2005). Survival of the tourism industry and increase in service quality in the industry depend on the qualifications of employees (Amoah & Baum, 1997; Ghani, 2006; Jithendran & Baum, 2000), yet the ministers again rarely touched on this subject. The development of human resources is a strategy in the SAP, with shortages of skilled staff identified as a risk to Turkish tourism (Brotherton et al., 1994; S. Kusluvan & Z. Kusluvan, 2000). An important ingredient in sustainability initiatives in Mexico City has been the development of human resources to support destination sustainability through training based on needs assessment, careful design and delivery of courses, and benchmarking (UNEP & WTO, 2005). An analysis of the ministers’ statements suggests that they deliver spontaneous comments mainly to demonstrate achievements made under their management and to enlighten the public about their priorities. Occasional comparisons which they make between their term and previous terms suggest that they use statements as an opportunity to demonstrate how they are more successful than their former counterparts. The importance which the ministers (and naturally their government) attached to tourism development priorities did not vary extensively. This is in line with Rose’s (1990) assertion that when a group of politicians enters office, there is no choice: the inherited commitments of past government must be accepted as givens. An analysis of Figure 1 suggests that the most frequently emphasized subjects are, by and large, the same among the ministers. This provides some degree of support for the concept of “policy inheritance”. Under the influence of their advisers and/or departmental objectives, ministers may not entirely follow programs their parties have championed to the electorate. Ministerial overload resulting from departmental and parliamentary tasks may encourage ministers to adopt the views and values of their particular departments and/or predecessor, and consequently, to pursue the perceived interests of their departments even if and when these may not be totally compatible with the aims
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and objectives of the government itself (Dorey, 2005). Despite the changing circumstances between 2001 and 2009 that might have suggested modifications to programs or the development of a new policy, Figure 1 suggests that objectives decided by a former government are likely to be pursued by the successor. This finding contradicts the contentions of previous researchers (e.g. Ilkin & Dincer, 1991; Var, 2001) who attributed policy failures to the rapid changing of governments. Overall, the statements indicated that Turkish tourism policy is economic growthoriented, and that there are some considerable inconsistencies between the ministers’ priorities and what is set out in the SAP. The ministers are in support of environmental protection, while also calling for new investments. This may signify that the ministers hold economic aspirations with respect to sustainably developed tourism, without being too much concerned about likely environmental issues. It is further observed that the majority of the ministers’ statements were not geared to building awareness about sustainable tourismrelated strategies. Thus, the public at large, on whose acceptance the success of such policy ultimately depends and who did not participate in the process of policymaking, could not become part of the learning process about sustainable tourism. This is expected to curtail policy implementation efforts geared to sustainable tourism. The study has a number of limitations. One issue is that the frequency of mentions is used to extrapolate that there was a greater emphasis on particular concepts. One might argue that the limited mention of a subject does not necessarily mean that the minister did not value the subject. Another issue is that the study analyzed ministers’ published statements, but editors may have amended the words and content before they appear in the electronic media. Further, the research did not take into account the specific media outlet where statements appeared or where they were delivered. It is acknowledged, however, that the statements cannot be isolated from where they appeared and from the specific events that guided their delivery. Nevertheless, if a policy is expected to be followed nationwide, then communicating with people is necessary, by delivering statements in line with the policy objectives, including policy objectives for sustainable tourism.
Notes on contributors Atila Y¨uksel, PhD, is Professor of Marketing at the School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey. He has published in the Journal of Tourism Management, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Cornell Quarterly, Annals of Tourism Research, Journal of Quality Assurance in Tourism and Hospitality and Journal of Vacation Marketing. He has co-authored four books and is editor of the Journal of Travel and Tourism Research. His research interests are in tourism planning, destination management, services marketing and customer relationships. Fisun Y¨uksel, PhD, is Assistant Professor of Marketing at the School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey. She has published in the Journal of Tourism Management, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Annals of Tourism Research and Journal of Vacation Marketing. She has co-authored one book and several book chapters. Her research interests are in tourism planning, services marketing and destination branding. Osman Culha is a PhD candidate in the Tourism Management Department at the Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey, and a research assistant in the Department of Travel Management and Tourism Guidance at Yasar University, Izmir, Turkey. He graduated from Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, and obtained an MSc in Tourism Management from Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey. His research interests include tourism management, human resource management, management and organization and tourism education.
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