From the Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry and the Laboratory for ... Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of ...
Vol . 266, No. 31, Issue of November.5,PP. 21197-21201,1991 Printed in U.S A .
THEJOURNALOF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 0 1991 by The American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Inc.
Mitochondrial ATP Synthase QUATERNARY STRUCTURE OF THE F1 MOIETY AT 3.6 ANALYSIS*
A
DETERMINED BY X-RAY DIFFRACTION
(Received for publication, July 22, 1991)
Mario Bianchet, Xavier Ysern, Joanne Hullihen, Peter L. Pedersen, and L. Mario AmzelS From the Department of Biophysics and Biophysical Chemistry and the Laboratory for Molecular and Cellular Bioenergetics, Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
The F1 moiety of the mitochondrial ATP synthase is understanding ATP synthesis. Both the Fo and the Fl are composed of five different subunits with stoichiometrymultisubunit proteins, and the sequences of all subunits of a&&c and exhibits the capacity to synthesize ATP both have been determined in many species. In all species from ADP and Pi. We have previously crygtallized rat studied, F1 has five different subunits with stoichiometry liver F1 and described its structure at 9-A resolution as&@. The total number of residues in each subunit is: a, (Amzel, L. M., McKinney, M., Narayanan, P., and Ped- 509-513; p, 459-480; y, 272-286; 6,177-190; and t, 132-146. ersen, P. L. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.s. A. 79, Since the identification of the Fl portion as a structure 5852-5856). Here we present an x-ray map of this protruding from the inner mitochondrial membrane, numercomplex enzyme at 3.6 A, which providesa much more ous studies utilizing electron microscopy have been reported informative descriptionof its quaternary structure. (7-13). Inaddition, cryoelectron microscopy has provided The overallpimensions of the F1 molecule are 120 di excellent images of unstained molecules, as well as of comX 120 di X 74 A. The enzyme exhibits %fold symmetry plexes of F1 with monoclonal antibodies to individual subunits relating the three copies of each of the two major subunits, a and 8. As the a subunits (but not the #? (14, 29). However, detailed atomic information about the subunits) contain cysteine residues, it hasbeen possible complex structure of the ATP synthase necessary for mecht o identify the a subunits by heavy atom labeling withanistic understanding can only be obtained by x-ray crystallography. In previous studies, we have reported tbe crystalliF1 molecule mersalyl and to relate their positions in the to the #? subunits. Significantly, the a and /3 subunits zation of rat liver Fl (15) and anx-ray model at 9-A resolution each exist as trimeric arrays which are organized in (16). In this papFr we present a revised model based on the two slightly offset, interdigitated layers along the 3- extension to 3.6-A resolution of our previous work. foldaxis. In one trimeric layer the a subunits are MATERIALSANDMETHODS located close to the axis withhomologous subunits interacting with each other; in the other trimeric layer Purification and Crystallization-The F, moiety of the ATP synthe B subunits are far from the axis, and they interact thase was purified from rat liver mitochmdria asdescribed previously only with a subunits and not with one another. At one (17). Crystals were obtained by ammonium sulfate precipitation in end of the structure, part of the interfacebetween each the presence of ATP (15). Crystals approximatly 0.5 mm in size were a and #? subunit encloses a space or “pocket” that is obtained in some experiments. The crystals used in this paper were described previously (15) and belong to space group R32 with hexagaccessible to thesolvent; at the other end the interfaces onal cell dimensions of a = b = 146 A; c = 368 A. between the subunitsare more open and exposed. Data Collection-Data sets in this study were collected utilizing a The present work represents the highest resolution variety of sources and detection media. The data contain mainly F1 moiety of an ATP reflections measured with the multiwire area detector system of the map reported to date for the synthase complex. facility of the University of California at S?n Diego. This data set, however, contains few reflections past 3.9 A. Data between 3.9 and 3.6 A were measured from films recorded at CHESS (Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source). Films were digitized with an Optronics microdensitometer and processed with the package Scan 12 (18). The membranes of bacteria, chloroplasts, and mitochondria Post-refinement was carried out with the program POSTREF (19). contain ATP synthases that utilize the electrochemical H’ Structure factors from the two sources were scaled using reflections gradients generated across their membranes for the formation of intermediate resolution. In the final set, the reflections from the of ATP (for reviews see Refs. 1-6). ATP synthases from all area detector set were used unmerged to 3.9-A Tesolution, and the such systems are composed of two main sectors: the integral synchrotron data were used between 3.9 and 3.6 A. Heauy Atoms-Heavy atoms were prepared as described previously, membrane portion Fo and the membrane-associated portion by soaking preformed F, crystals in solutions of mother liquor conF1; the Fl portion contains all the catalytic and nucleotide- taining from 0.1 to 1 mMof the selected compounds. Screening of binding sites. The lack of atomic structuralinformation about promising compounds was done using precession photographs. Data the ATP synthase hasbecome one of the major roadblocks in for the heavy atoms were collected and processed by one of the methods described above, then carefully scaled to thenative data; the * This work wassupported by National Institutes of Health Grants average values of 1 A F I = I FHp- F p I were analyzed as a function GM 25432 (to L. M.A.) and CA 10951 (to P. L. P.). The costs of of their position in reciprocal space, and, when necessary, local scaling publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of (20) was performed either by the methods suggested by Hendrickson page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked “aduer- and Teeter (21) or by algorithms developed by us.’ The AF Patterson tisement” in accordance with 18U.S.C. Section 1734 solelyto indicate functions were analyzed manually or using automatic procedures. this fact. The heavy atom parameters were refined by least-squares procedures $ TOwhom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Biophys- first using centric data and thenusing all the observed reflections. ics and Biophysical Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205-2185. L. M. Amzel, unpublished data.
21197
Structure of the ATP Synthase Fl Moiety ut 3.6 A
21198
Location of Additional HeavyAtom Sites-To locate additional heavy atom sites when less than 50% of the heavy atom scattering power was known, we implemented a method based on a suggestion.’ The structure factor of a structure for which only some of the atoms are known can be considered as the contribution of the known (k) and theunknown (u)atoms. That is,
Fh =
Nk
f, exp2nihxj
u + NCf, exp2nihq j=l
J= 1
where N k is the number of known and Nuthe number of unknown atoms. For reflections with very small observed F,
Fh
2
0
and, therefore, for these reflections with small observed Fs ( U s for heavy atoms), Nu J=1
f, exp2nihxj P -
Nk
f, exp2nihxj.
j=1
A Fourier map computed with the negative of the calculated phased Fs of those reflections having small observed F should have as the main peaks the positions of the unknown atoms. These maps can be analyzed directly, or they can be combined with the map of the known part to give the known and theunknown portion of the structure. Phase Calculation and Phase Improvement-Initial phases were calculated by the method of Blow and Crick (22) using three heavy atom derivatives: mersalyl, platinum, and gold. The phases were improved using alternate cycles of heavy atom parameter refinement and phase calculation. Further phase improvement was achieved by solvent flattening/negative truncation using the procedure described by B. C. Wang (BCW procedure (23)). For the first cycle, the mask calculated as part of the BCW procedure was replaced by a mask based on packing considerations (see below). Generation of the Packing Mask-In these hexagonal crystals, two F, molecules can be inscribed in a 146-A diameter sphere located at the intersection of the 3-fold and the 2-fold axes. This information was used in two ways: to confirm the heavy atom solutions and to introduce the initial solvent regions in the BCW procedure (23). A mask was generated containing “protein” inside 146-A spheres centered at all the lattice points of the hexagonal cell, (O,O,O),(1/3, 2/3, 1/3), and (2/3, 1/3, 2/3), and “solvent” outside the spheres. The Fourier transform of the packing mask was calculated using a modification of the BCW package. Model Building and Phase Improvement-Atomicmodelswere built using the program FRODO ((24) Rice version) on an Evans & Sutherland PS390. Initial fitting was performed using main chain atoms and only the Cp of the side chains so that the regions built had a polyalanine sequence. Many helices (distinctly visible in the electron density) were built first, followed by some regions of less defined secondary structure. After more than 400 alanine residues had been built, the coordinates were refined using PROLSQ (28), and the calculated phases were combined with those from the BCW procedure using the program SIGMAA (25). SIGMAA was explicitly designed to give the appropriate weights to calculated phases even in cases where less than 50% of the atoms are included in the structure factor calculations. Maps calculated with the new phases were then used for model building, and theprocess was repeated through several cycles of model building, positional refinement, structure factor calculation, and phase combination. Refinement of AtomicCoordinates-All intermediate coordinate sets aswell as thatof the final model were refined using the program PROLSQ. The weights of the geometrical constraints were similar to those we used previously (26). The weights for the structure factors were derived from the adjustment of ( ( F o- FJ’) versus sin(O)/A to the expression provided by the program. No constraints were applied to maintain the geometry of secondary structure elements.
that allowed us to find all the heavy atom sites starting with the major site of the low resolution solutions. The procedure indicated the presence of several additionalsites in each derivative that significantly improved the heavy atom statistics. Although this procedure worked remarkably well, heavy atom positions were accepted only after thorough leastsquares refinement minimizing the differences between 1 ( F H p - FP)I and IfH I, the calculated heavy atom structure factor. The final solutions of all the heavy atoms used are presented in Table I. The phases calculated with these positions had an average figure of merit of 0.57. The electron density map calculated with these phases hadmany features that could be readily interpreted as helices, but it had very poorly defined boundaries between protein and solvent. In addition, we found it difficult to obtain an acceptable mask from this map using the BCW procedure and programs. These difficulties were overcome using packing considerations. The lattice of the F1 crystalsis very nearly a close packed face-centered cubic lattice ( X ) , such that ateach lattice point(at theintersection of three 2-fold axes with a 3-fold axis) two F1 molecules can be circumscribed in a sphereof 146 A in diameter. We decided to use such a sphere as the initial definition of protein and solvent areas. Before the mask based on the packing of spheres was used, its compatibility with the heavy atom solutions was tested. The Fourier transform of the mask was computed, and the phases were used to calculate a heavy atom difference map with coefficients (FHp- Fp).The difference maps calculated for the mersalyl derivative showed several peaks of high electron density that could be interpreted as the positions of the major heavy atom sites and their enantiomorph. (The presence of the enantiomorph is a consequence of the centrosymmetric nature of the phases calculated with a sphere at the origin of the cell.) After this test themask was used only in real space, as the initial filter of the electron density map calculated with the heavy atom phases. The procedure of BCW (23) was used with the following modifications for the initial phase improvement. 1) The first electron density map was calculated with phases obtained with multiple heavy atom derivatives; 2) the first mask used was obtained from packing considerations; and 3) the phases obtained by transforming the initial masked map were combined with the single isomorphous replacement phases of the mersalyl derivative and theprocedure continued in the usual way. This protocol was judged to give the best results following extensive experimentation. Before using the packing mask, TABLE I Heavy atom parameters Occupancies in arbitrary units for Hg (78 electrons), P t (74 electrons), Au (79 electrons). ( f ~ is) the root mean square (rms) value of the calculated contribution of the heavy atom; rms(E) is ( ( I Fp + FH I - FHp)’)“. X, Y, Z, fractional coordinates of heavy atom positions; B, isotopic temperature factor.
Mersalyl
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The heavy atom solutions obtainet at low resolution gave poor statistics when extended to 3.6 A. Even if the extension was performed gradually, it was verydifficult to find satisfying solutions when all the data were included. Following a suggestion of J. Karle,’ we utilized a procedure (described above) J. Karle, personal communication.
PtC16Kz AuCllK
Heavy atom no.
OC
X
Y
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
0.273 0.168 0.133 0.357 0.212 0.141 0.544 0.293 0.217 0.099 0.121
0.513 0.125 0.208 0.513 0.121 0.209 0.514 0.125 0.210 0.122 0.384
0.273 0.059 0.088 0.272 0.057 0.089 0.273 0.057 0.090 0.415 0.249
(fH)/
rms(E)
0.019 0.042 0.106 0.019 0.043 0.105 0.019 0.043 0.103 0.146 0.164
40.0
1.28
40.0
40.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 74.0 60.0 62.0 37.0 75.0
1.27 1.41
Structure of the ATP Synthase Fl Moiety at3.6 A we attempted to generate masks using the standardprocedure proposed and implemented by Wang (23); the minimum value of the density, the solvent content, the radius of averaging, and thenumber of passes were tested in several combinations. In all cases, the masks were too “choppy,” containing islands of solvent inside regions that were clearly protein; the use of the packing mask for only one cycle solved this problem. We tested thepacking mask with SIR mapsbased on the mersalyl derivative as well as with multiple isomorphous replacement maps based on all the heavy atom derivatives; the results using the multiple isomorphous replacement map were clearly superior. The distribution of density values inside and outside the mask indicated that the multiple isomorphous replacement map had better discrimination between protein and solvent. However, for further cycles of phase improvement and mask calculation, the single isomorphous replacement phases appeared to converge faster, as suggested by Wang (23). For these cycles we paid special attention to the parameter that establishes the ratio between the average solvent density and the maximum protein density. This parameter determines the value of Fooo/Vand, more importantly, determines which density points within the protein have negative density and so are setto zero bythe program. Having too few points inthis class lessens the improvement that results from the density modification, while having too many points in this class renders the procedure unstable. For the F1 crystals, values that modify between 12 and 18%of the points in the protein region give the best results. After the parameters for density modification were optimized, five cyclesof phase improvement were carried out for each of 15 successive masks. The final phases used for the calculation of the electron density map have an average figure of merit of 0.77. It should be emphasized that these phases are (as is the case in the straightforward application of the BCW procedure) strongly dominated by the bimodal probability distributions of the heavy atom phases. Wang(23) suggests that the density modification procedure has mainly the effect of choosing between the two phases in the heavy atomdistribution. The procedure we utilized in no way changes this characteristicof the algorithm; it simply utilized a modified mask for the first density modification cycle. The final map contains all the interpretable portions of the original heavy atom map, but it iscleaner and easier to interpret. A rhombohedral cell with hexagonal cell dimensions such that c/a = J 6 corresponds to a face-center cubic lattice with acubic = J 2 ahex. Such a lattice isfound in theface-center cubic close packed arrangement of spheres of diameter equal to ahex (15,16, 27). The ratiobetween the hexagonal cell dimensions c and a in theF1 crystals is 2.52, very close to 2.45, the value of J6. The packing in the Fl crystals can then be approximated by spheres of 146 A in diameter located at the lattice points of a face-center cubic cell with & h i c = 207 A. Each approximate sphere is centeredat theintersection of a 3-fold with three 2-fold axes and contains two F1 molecules related by the %fold axes of symmetry. Both molecules sit on the3fold, one above and one below the plane formed by the 2-fold axes; since Fl has stoichiometry a3P3y6t the asymmetric unit of the crystal must contain one a, one 8, and one-third of each of the minor subunits y, 6 , and t. The sequences of the minor subunits do not show triplicate internal repeatsleaving only one possible explanation: these subunits must be disordered in the Fl crystals. Packing and other considerations suggest that these subunits are located at the center of the spheres, close to theintersection of the 3- and the 2-fold axes. In this location, once two F1 molecules interact to form one of the packing spheres (a dimer of F1 molecules) the disordered
21199
minor subunits would be on the inside and would not participate in any furtherpacking contacts. About 400 residues belonging to a-helical structures were easily identified in the electron density and were built using main chain atomsplus the @carbons (polyalanine sequences). Although the map contained many additional interpretable regions, the building was interrupted, andcoordinates of these 400 residues were refined using PROLSQ (28); phases calculated with the resulting coordinates were combined with the heavy atom phases using the program SIGMAA (25). The new, improved map was used to build additional chain. After approximately 100 additional residues were built, all the coordinates were refined and the procedure repeated until the backbone of 900 amino acids had been built. The crystallographic R factor for these residues was 37%. The sequences of the rat F1 subunits show that only a and y contain cysteine residues: two in each a and one in the y. Therefore, in the asymmetric unit of the crystal (which contains one a, one /3, andone-third of each of the minor subunits) there are 2 and 1/3cysteine residues. The mercurial mersalyl has threebinding sites inthe asymmetric unit of the crystals (Table I); these binding sites are occupied even at very low mersalyl concentration (0.1 mM) suggesting very tight binding. (Most of the mercurial sites in protein crystals occupied at heavy atom concentrations below 0.3 mM are in cysteine residues; see Ref. 39.) Two of the mersalyl sites are in regions of the map with distinctive side chain density that could be unambiguously correlated with the sequences of the two cysteines in the a subunit (Fig. 1,B, C, E, and F ) . In the crystal the enzyme sits on a crystallographic %fold axis (parallel to the c axis of the hexagonal cell) that relates the three copies of each major subunit. The minor subunits do not conform to thecrystal symmetry and are notexpected to have significant density. The a and the /3 subunits have similar ellipsoidal shapes and :izes, a of dimensions 48 X 48 X 50 A and /3 of 40 x 48 x 50 A (Fig. 1, A X ) . The major axis of the /3 subunits is almost parallel to the 3-fold axis, while that of the a is tilted by about 30”. Starting at the plane defined by the three %fold axes ( z = 0, “bottom”; Fig. 13’) one finds density corresponding to the threea subunits; they are elongated in the plane in such a way that they interact with each other at the position of the %fold axis. They continue in a very similar arrangement for about 50 8, along the z direction (Fig. 1E).The ,8 subunits start atabout 10-15 8, from the z = 0 plane with their major axes running parallel to thez direction and with the center of the subunits approximately 30 A from the %fold axis (Fig. 1F).They continue forO! A until, at the topof the molecule, they protrude about 15 A higher than thea subunits (Fig. 1D). In this arrangement the /3 subunits interact strongly with the a subunits but little or not at all with each other. At the bottom of the molecule the a and /3 subunits lefve three spaces or “pockets” that extend approximately 15 A into the molecule (Fig. 1F).Since the a subunits are tilted, the relative arrangement of the as and the /3s varies from plane to plane, but on average the center of the a subunits is 40-50” from t$e center of the ps. At the “top” of the molecule, about 75 A from the bottom, only the a subunits are present, leaving the region surrounding the 3-fold axis quite devoid of density (Fig. 1, A and D). (This description otthe enzyme corrects many of the features presented in our9-A resolution publication (16).) As stated above, the minor subunits do not conform to the crystallographic %fold symmetry and, therefore, are expected to have average electron densities of about one-third the average density of the major subunits. (The density would be higher in the regions where more than one of the symmetry-
2 1200
Structure of the ATP Synthase Fl Moiety at3.6 A
I
FIG. 1. Overall views of the quaternary structureof the rat liver FaATPase. C a atoms are representeg by the dotsurfaceofasphere 3.5 A in radius; the moleculesare viewed with the /3 subunits at the “top.”A and C, p and a subunits,respectively, as presentin the complex. B, the completecomplex combining the fl subunits on to of the a subunits;D-F, three slices (30 thick) through the F1 molecule.On the top (D), mostly the fi subunits are present. In the middle ( E ) , the a and subunits completely fill a region with a 60 A radius. At the “bottom” (F),the a subunits radiate from the center while the 0s are only present at the top of the slice and occupy the spaces betweenthe as. Three “pockets” are formed between the a and /3 subunits. The positions of the sites occupied by the mercurials are indicated by smaller spheres of a different color.
generated images overlap.) We analyzed very carefully the regions of the map wherethe subunits are most likelyto occur (close to the intersection of the %fold and the 2-fold axis) looking for indications of low or discontinuous density. This region (assignedpresently as partof the a subunit) contains very significant density that can be interpreted with portions of chain that are contiguous with other partsof the molecule. It appears unlikely, although possible, that thisportion of the a subunit (the regions containing heavy atom site 2 and at the center of the molecule in Fig. IF) is actually a part of the minor subunits. Comparison of the amino acid sequences of the a and the /3 subunits shows weak but significant homology (3, 30). In addition, the sequences of both the a and 0 subunits show similarities with adenylate kinase, including the two consensus regions A and B thought to be involved in nucleotide binding (3, 30, 31). Many of the previous proposals for the quaternary structure of the Flemphasizea hexagonal arrangement of the a and j3 subunits (7-14). The implied6-fold symmetry in these proposals is such that equivalent regions (ie. consensusmotifs) of a and 0 subunits can onlybe
I
spatially close at thecenter of the molecule. Therefore, in this type of hexagonalmodel direct interaction of nucleotidebinding domains of a and the/3 subunits, assumingthey occur, could only exist close to the %fold axis. In contrast, in the model we report here the F, molecule is formed bythe $fold repetition of one a//3 pair. The relation between the a and the 0 subunits in each pair is such that equivalent regions of the two subunits (perhaps the nucleotide-binding sites of a and 0) can be close to each other in the structure. Such an interaction could result in the formation of a combined catalytic site (32) or may involve cooperation of a regulatory site in the a subunit with a catalytic site in (33). One of the cysteine residues identified (corresponding to mercurial site 1in Table I and inFig. 2) is close, both spatially and in sequence, to theglycine-rich loopthat is thought to be involved inbinding one or more of the ATP phosphates. That cysteine is on the surface of the a subunit andis closeto the interface with a 0 subunit (Fig. 2). Titration of this cysteine with mercurials may be responsible forthe inhibitory effects of mercurials on the bicarbonate-stimulated catalytic activity of the liver enzyme (34).
Structure of the ATP Synthase Fl Moiety ut 3.6 A
2. Simp1ified representation Of the F1 ATPase. The importantfeatures of the present model are schematically represented; the correct overall shape, the arrangement of as and Os, and the positions of the heavy atoms (I, 2, and 3 refer to the numbers of the heavy atom positions in Table I).
Finally, it should be noted that many other important
ATPases Or ATP-dependent enzymeshave two ATPbinding domains in different regions Of their primary struttures. These includeallother F-type ATPases, all V-type ATPases, the multidrug-resistant protein, many mukidrugresistant-like bacterial transporters, the UvrA ATPase invalved in DNA repair, and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance (see 35-38)* It is particularly important to establish whether a direct interaction between the two ATP domains in these proteins is required for optimal function. The results reported here for the FI moiety of the ATP synthase and more detailed futurestudies on thissystem may have relevance to the mechanism of action of numerous enzymes involvedin energy coupling. Acknowledgments-We thank the Cornell High Energy Synchrotron Source (CHESS) for beam time andthe X-ray Diffraction Facility at UC San Diego for data collection. The computing facilities of the National Cancer Institute (Frederick, MD) were used for part of the computations. Major x-ray and computing equipment were funded by the National Science Foundation and theKeck Foundation. We are grateful to Starlene Murray for her help in processing this manuscript for publication.
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