Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook


L.W. Hanson, B.J. Allen, R.M. Bourke, and T.J. McCarthy

L.W. Hanson, B.J. Allen, R.M. Bourke, and T.J. McCarthy


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© Commonwealth of Australia 2001 This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Commonwealth, available from Ausinfo. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Manager, Legislative Services, Ausinfo, GPO Box 1920, Canberra ACT 2601. This work remains the property of the Commonwealth of Australia and the Government of Papua New Guinea. Hanson, L.W., Allen, B.J., Bourke, R.M. and McCarthy, T.J. (2001). Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook. The Australian National University, Canberra. First published in 2001 by: Land Management Group Department of Human Geography Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Tel: (61 2) 6125 2234 Fax: (61 2) 6125 4896 URL: http://rspas.anu.edu.au/lmp/ National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Entry: Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook. Bibliography. ISBN 0 9579381 0 1. 1. Rural development – Papua New Guinea. 2. Papua New Guinea – Rural conditions. I. Hanson, L. W. (Lucas W.). II. Australian National University. Land Management Group. 307.72 For further copies of this publication, please refer to http://www.ausaid.gov.au The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Australian Agency for International Development. Design, typesetting, map embellishment and cover by Clarus Design, Canberra, Australia Printing by Brown Prior Anderson, Melbourne, Australia

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L.W. Hanson, B.J. Allen, R.M. Bourke and T.J. McCarthy The Australian National University November 2001

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Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Acronyms

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Why this handbook? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Introduction to rural Papua New Guinea . . 10 Structure and content . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2. Data Sources, Methods and Limitations . . 19 The PNG spatial databases . . . . . . . . . 20 The parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3. Western Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 32 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 Middle Fly District . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 North Fly District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 South Fly District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4. Gulf Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37 38 39 40 41 42 43

Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 44 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Kerema District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Kikori District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5. Central Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 56 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Abau District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Goilala District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Kairuku-Hiri District . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Rigo District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6. Milne Bay Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 70 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Alotau District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Esa’ala District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Kiriwina-Goodenough District . . . . . 74 Samarai-Murua District . . . . . . . . . 75

7. Oro Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 84 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 Ijivitari District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Sohe District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Contents

Contents

8. Southern Highlands Province . . . . . . . . 89 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . . 96 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Ialibu-Pangia District . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Imbonggu District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Kagua-Erave District . . . . . . . . . . 100 Komo-Margarima District . . . . . . . 101 Koroba-Lake Kopiago District . . . . . 102 Mendi District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Nipa-Kutubu District . . . . . . . . . 104 Tari District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 9. Enga Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 3

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Contents

Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 114 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Kandep District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Kompiam-Ambum District . . . . . . 117 Lagaip-Porgera District . . . . . . . . . 118 Wabag District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Wapenamanda District . . . . . . . . . 120

Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 144 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Chuave District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Gumine District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Karimui-Nomane District . . . . . . . 148 Kerowagi District . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Kundiawa District . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Sina-Sina-Yonggamugl District . . . . 151

Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 178 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Bulolo District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Finschhafen District . . . . . . . . . . 181 Huon Gulf District . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Kabwum District . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Markham District . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Menyamya District . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Nawae District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Tewai-Siassi District . . . . . . . . . . 187

10. Western Highlands Province . . . . . . .121 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 128 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Angalimp-South Wahgi District . . . . 130 Baiyer-Mul District . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Dei District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Hagen District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Jimi District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 North Wahgi District . . . . . . . . . . 135 Tambul-Nebilyer District . . . . . . . 136

12. Eastern Highlands Province . . . . . . . .153 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 160 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Daulo District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Goroka District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Henganofi District . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Kainantu District . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Lufa District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Obura-Wonenara District . . . . . . . 167 Okapa District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Unggai-Bena District . . . . . . . . . . 169

14. Madang Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 196 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Bogia District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Madang District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Middle Ramu District . . . . . . . . . 200 Rai Coast District . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Sumkar District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Usino-Bundi District . . . . . . . . . . 203

11. Simbu Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 142

13. Morobe Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 176

15. East Sepik Province . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 210

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16. Sandaun Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 228 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Aitape-Lumi District . . . . . . . . . . 230 Nuku District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Telefomin District . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Vanimo-Green River District . . . . . 233 17. Manus Province and District . . . . . . .235 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 242 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

18. New Ireland Province . . . . . . . . . . . .245 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 252 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Kavieng District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Namatanai District . . . . . . . . . . . 255 19. East New Britain Province . . . . . . . . .257 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 264 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Gazelle District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Kokopo and Rabaul districts . . . . . . 267 Pomio District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 20. West New Britain Province . . . . . . . .269 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 276 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Kandrian-Gloucester District . . . . . 278 Talasea District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 21. Bougainville Province . . . . . . . . . . . .281 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 288 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Central Bougainville District . . . . . . 290 North Bougainville District . . . . . . 291 South Bougainville District . . . . . . 292

Contents

Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 212 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 District summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Ambunti-Dreikikir District . . . . . . 214 Angoram District . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Maprik District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Wewak District . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Wosera-Gaui District . . . . . . . . . . 218 Yangoru-Saussia District . . . . . . . . 219

22. National Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . .293 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Access to services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Subsistence agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Land potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 Agricultural pressure and potential . . . . 299 Disadvantaged people . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 23. District Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . .301 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 The method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 The input parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 The disadvantage index . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

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Acknowledgments/About the Authors

Acknowledgments This project had its beginnings with the former PNG Minister for National Planning (Honourable Moi Avei) who wanted to identify the most disadvantaged districts in PNG. He also recognised the need for a reference book that could assist the rural development activities of international donors, non-government organisations, politicians and officials from all levels of government. Staff from a number of PNG institutions have contributed to this handbook through planning workshops and consultations. They include the former Secretary of the Department of National Planning and Monitoring (Camillus Midire) and other staff ( Joe Lelang, Marianne Ellison, Mathias Lasia, Peter Memafu and Juan Gomez); the Director General of the National Agricultural Research Institute (Valentine Kambori) and other staff (Dr R. Ghodake, Bill Humphrey, Sharryl Ivahupa and Philip Vovola); and Matthew Kanua from the Department of Agriculture and Livestock. The Director of the National Mapping Bureau (Omani Rei) provided the district maps in digital format. The handbook draws on information that has been collected and collated for many years by various PNG and Australian institutions. The PNG institutions include the Department of Agriculture and Livestock, the Institute of Medical Research, the National Mapping Bureau, the National Statistics Office and the Department of Environment and Conservation. The main Australian institutions have been the Australian National University and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.

In addition to the authors, a number of people in the Department of Human Geography at the Australian National University have contributed through the compilation of data, editing and project management. Laura Vallee, Natalie Stuckings and Matthew Allen made a significant contribution to the final product. Him Chung, Karen Fisher, Elanna Lowes, Amber Pares, Michael Pretes and Gerard Ward provided valuable assistance. The authors also warmly acknowledge the support and assistance from Gael Keig, John McAlpine and Ivo Mueller. All photographs in the handbook were selected from the collections of Mike Bourke and Bryant Allen, except for three on pages 25 (right) and 281 (left and right) that were provided by AusAID. This handbook was funded by the Australian Agency for International Development and much of the analysis was funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

About the Authors Luke Hanson is a land resource scientist specialising in land resource evaluation, land-use planning, rural development and spatial information systems. His research interests include the development of methods to identify vulnerable environments and disadvantaged people. He has been working in PNG since 1996, and has conducted fieldwork in many parts of the country. Bryant Allen is a geographer with a 30 year association with PNG, including time at UPNG, the Department of Environment and Conservation and the Institute of Social and Economic Research. He specialises in rural development, health, nutrition and agriculture and has conducted fieldwork in many parts of PNG. Mike Bourke is an agricultural scientist and geographer who has been involved in development and research in PNG for over 30 years, including periods at the Keravat and Aiyura research stations with the Department of Agriculture and Livestock. He is a specialist in Melanesian agricultural systems, food crop production and village agriculture. He has conducted fieldwork in many rural locations in PNG. Tess McCarthy is a spatial analyst and physical geographer specialising in GIS and soil science. She has four years post-graduate experience in the analysis and management of urban and rural environments, and is currently a Ph.D. candidate investigating the geography of crime. Tess has been working with PNG databases for three years.

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Preface

ACIAR

It gives me great pleasure to write a preface for the Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook. The handbook is a very useful outcome resulting from cooperation and collaboration between Papua New Guinean and Australian research organisations over a long period of time. It contains information that has been collected by the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, the Papua New Guinea (PNG) Department of Agriculture and Livestock and the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the Australian National University (ANU). A number of institutions collaborated in generating the data presented here, including the University of PNG, the PNG Institute of Medical Research, the PNG National Agricultural Research Institute and the PNG National Research Institute. The handbook also uses maps prepared by the Australian Contribution to Land Mobilisation Project and the PNG National Mapping Bureau. The information on natural resources, population, agriculture, access to services, cash income, land potential, child malnutrition and disadvantaged people has been brought together by the Land Management Group at the ANU, in close collaboration with the Department of National Planning and Monitoring. The previous Minister for National Planning and Monitoring, the Honourable Moi Avei, asked for information with which to develop a Less Developed Areas policy during 1999. In 2000, the Land Management Group at the ANU ran a training exercise for staff from a number of organisations in PNG. This exposed all of us to the richness of information available for PNG and the potential that this information had for national,

AGSO AIDS ANU AusAID AVHRR CD CSIRO DAL OEC GIS MASP NNS PMV PNG PNGRIS RMU UN UPNG US

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Australian Geological Survey Organisation Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Australian National University Australian Agency for International Development Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Compact Disc Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (Papua New Guinea) Department of Agriculture and Livestock (Papua New Guinea) Office of Environment and Conservation Geographic Information System Mapping Agricultural Systems of Papua New Guinea Project National Nutrition Survey (1982–83) Public Motor Vehicle Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Resource Information System Resource Mapping Unit United Nations University of Papua New Guinea United States of America

provincial and district planning. Results soon to be received from the 2000 National Census will further enhance our ability to plan in PNG. Proposals to identify locations of health facilities and schools will give PNG the ability to further differentiate areas that are under-resourced and disadvantaged, relative to other areas, in a rational and transparent way. This handbook is not a one-off effort. Rather it is the first of what will become a regular production from the Department of National Planning and Monitoring. The Land Management Group at the ANU has coordinated the first version of the handbook. With further assistance, training, cooperation and collaboration between departments and provinces, there are no reasons why PNG itself will not be able to produce future versions. As grateful as we are for this assistance, we must stop relying on others to do this work for us. Much of the previous work done to create the information presented here has been supported financially by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research and the Australian Agency for International Development. I would like to sincerely thank the people of Australia for their continued support to the people of PNG.

Preface/Acronyms

Acronyms

Camillus Midire Secretary, PNG Department of National Planning and Monitoring

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Introduction

A woman plants peanuts in the Aiyura Basin, Eastern Highlands Province. In some parts of PNG, peanuts are grown in rotation with sweet potato to improve soil fertility and maintain crop production. Peanuts are a significant cash crop in a number of highland and lowland areas. The casuarina trees in the background shade Arabica coffee, the main cash crop in the highlands region.

Women carry bundles of bamboo for firewood. Firewood is becoming increasingly scarce in many highland areas, and in some intermediate altitude and lowland areas. There is often an inadequate supply of the preferred species and people use less desirable alternatives, such as the bamboo pictured here. There is considerable scope for community forestry in PNG to supply firewood and material to construct fences and houses.

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Introduction

Why this handbook? Living conditions in Papua New Guinea (PNG) vary greatly. Some people earn relatively high incomes and have access to a range of health, education and information services. Other people are poor, remote and marginalised, often because of where they live. At present, the most disadvantaged people have little government influence or support. One role of government is to assist people who are disadvantaged. Because there is very little information available about rural areas in PNG, national and provincial governments have struggled to identify where the most disadvantaged people live, to assess why they are in difficulty and to decide how to assist them. The PNG Department of National Planning and Monitoring recognised this problem and in the year 2000 requested assistance from the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID). Australian researchers, particularly from the Australian National University (ANU) and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), have a 50 year history of rural data collection in PNG. In response to this request, AusAID commissioned the ANU to produce this handbook, which presents comprehensive factual information and analysis for each of the 85 rural districts in the country. The 1995 Organic Law on Provincial Governments and Local-Level Governments (1995 Organic Law) implemented major changes to the administration of PNG. Through this law, districts and electorates for the National Parliament became the same, with each district being represented by a Member of Parliament. One implication of these changes is that districts are now the primary units for funding, management and administration. This handbook therefore focuses on districts as well as provinces.

The information presented here is drawn mainly from two spatial databases: the PNG Resource Information System (PNGRIS) and the Mapping Agricultural Systems of PNG Project (MASP) database. PNGRIS was completed in 1986 and provides data on environmental attributes such as altitude, landforms, geology, slope gradient, rainfall, vegetation and soils. MASP was completed in 1998 and provides data on village agriculture such as the crops grown, fallow length, cropping period, agricultural intensity, land management practices, cash earning activities and rural population. In 1998, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) funded the ANU to analyse these two databases and produce new information on land potential, agricultural pressure on land, population change, access to services, cash incomes and disadvantaged people for the entire country. The results of this analysis are an important component of the handbook and are used to compare and rank the districts. This information will better guide the allocation of government support and funding, and help those in positions of power and influence to assist those who are not.

Introduction to rural Papua New Guinea PNG includes the eastern half of New Guinea, the islands of New Britain, New Ireland and Bougainville and hundreds of smaller islands. The land area is approximately 463 000 km2, of which only 27 per cent is occupied by people. The country is usually divided into the islands, the lowlands (0–1200 m) and the highlands (1200–2800 m), although more specific regional classifications are also

used. People live from sea level to approximately 2800 m above sea level, with approximately 40 per cent of the rural population living in the highlands region. The extremely diverse range of natural environments is due to large variations in landform, rainfall and altitude. PNG is tectonically and volcanically active, with a number of large active volcanoes. Extensive mountain ranges cover many areas and there are a number of peaks over 4000 metres. A number of major rivers drain the mainland, including the Sepik River in the north and the Fly River in the south. These rivers have associated swamps and seasonally inundated floodplains that cover large areas. Average annual rainfall varies from extremely high and continuous, with more than 8000 mm in some mountainous areas, to relatively low and seasonal, with 1000–1500 mm in a number of coastal areas. Average temperatures vary mainly with altitude, resulting in tropical temperatures in the lowlands and islands and milder temperatures in the highlands. Frosts occur above 1500 m and cause severe problems for agriculture above 2200 metres. Various types of forest cover over 70 per cent of PNG’s land area. While it may appear that PNG has unlimited high potential land for future agricultural development, the opposite is actually the case. Almost 50 per cent of the total land area is mountainous and 20 per cent is seasonally or permanently flooded. High rainfall, long dry seasons and excessive cloud cover are other common constraints to agricultural development. Approximately 70 per cent of the total land area has very low to low potential for most food and cash crops, while only seven per cent has high to very high potential.

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Migration is common in PNG. As with many other countries, there is a significant flow of people from rural regions to major towns and nearby semiurban areas. There is also considerable migration to well-established rural development areas near Kimbe, Bulolo, Popondetta, Kavieng, Alotau and Kainantu. The major resource extraction locations such as Ok Tedi and Misima are also common destinations. In general, people migrate in search of wage employment and small business opportunities in the towns, more productive environments where they can grow cash crops, and better access to services and markets. Sometimes migrants return to their customary land after spending only a short amount of time away. Land tenure Most rural people live on their own land, which they own under customary title. Customary land accounts for about 97 per cent of the total land area, but governments do not formally administer this land and title documents are not issued. Some formal settlement schemes have been developed, particularly in association with cash crops such as oil palm. Here, people do have formal title on land and they are eligible for bank loans to fund housing and cash crop development. While some settlement schemes have been successful, especially in West New Britain and Oro provinces, many others have failed due to lack of infrastructure and support for the settlers. Lessons from the past have shown that large groups of disadvantaged people can not be easily relocated. Subsistence agriculture Most rural people are semi-subsistence farmers who produce food and cash crops from their own gardens. Locally grown food provides 80 per cent of

calories consumed by rural people (Gibson, 2001). Most gardens are in low intensity shifting cultivation systems, which operate on cycles of one or two years of cropping, followed by 5–15 years of fallowing. Garden sites are cleared of vegetation by hand and usually burned. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is the most important crop grown and consumed in PNG. It is a staple food for about 60 per cent of the rural population, including most people who live in the highlands. Nationwide, it contributes 30 per cent of calories consumed by rural people (Gibson, 2001). This is about the same as the combined contribution of other important crops such as banana (Musa cultivars), sago (Metroxylon sagu), taro (Colocasia esculenta), Chinese taro (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), yams (Dioscorea species), cassava (Manihot esculenta) and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum). Coconuts (Cocos nucifera) and imported rice each contribute about 10 per cent of calories consumed by rural people. Sweet potato was adopted in the PNG highlands 300–350 years ago. Over the past 130 years, a number of other crops have been introduced and adopted into the local agricultural systems. These include cassava, Chinese taro, potato (Solanum tuberosum), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) and numerous vegetables and fruit. The most important domestic animal in PNG is the pig. Lowland villagers commonly keep sows and young pigs and allow them to mate with wild boars. In the highlands, pig husbandry is more intensive and pigs are enclosed or tethered. Nationally, the pig to person ratio ranges from around 0.1 to 1, and in the highlands there are about the same number of pigs as people. About 50 per cent of all sweet potato produced in the highlands is fed to pigs, typically

Introduction

People The diversity in the natural environment is matched by diverse cultural traditions. PNG is thought to have been occupied by humans for at least 40 000 years. This long-term occupation and diverse mountainous environment has resulted in the presence of over 800 distinctive local cultures and languages. There is no particular ethnic group that dominates economic or political life. Two major lingua francae are spoken. The first is Pidgin, which is spoken by the majority of people. The second is Hiri Motu, which is spoken mainly around Port Moresby and elsewhere in Papua. English is the language of administration and international communication, but Pidgin, Hiri Motu or local languages are favoured in daily life. Preliminary census figures for the year 2000 show that the population of PNG was just over five million. Approximately 85 per cent of people live in rural areas. Population densities range from one person/km2 in the remotest inhabited areas, to over 500 people/km2 on some small islands. Land shortages are increasingly common in areas where population densities are greater than 100 persons/km2. The average population growth rate was 2.7 per cent per year from 1980 to the year 2000. The total population of PNG has doubled over the last 30 years and is expected to double again in the next 30 years. Present projections indicate a population of around eight million by 2020. As a result of this rapid growth, over 40 per cent of the population are under the age of 15 years. Population growth rates vary greatly both between and within provinces. Growth rates in the main cities and towns are higher than in rural areas due to migration, the age structure of migrants and the superior health services available in urban areas.

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Introduction

the smaller tubers considered unsuitable for human consumption. Other common domestic animals are chickens and ducks. In some areas, hunting is an important source of food. Wild pigs, cassowaries, bandicoots and bats are common prey. Meat is not common in the daily diet and pig meat is usually eaten only on special occasions. Fish is an important food in many riverine and coastal areas. In some locations, people trade fish and other marine or river produce for sago, banana and root crops, rather than grow or harvest the crops themselves. Around 20 per cent of rural people use land very intensively, to the point where land is cultivated continuously. In areas with moderate to very high agricultural intensity, production is maintained through the use of various land improvement practices such as composting, mounding, drainage, legume rotation, planted tree fallows and soil retention barriers. Most intensive agriculture occurs in productive environments and supports high population densities. Expansion of the land area used for agriculture has been limited despite significant population growth. This has resulted in agricultural intensification. Common methods of intensification include the shortening of fallow periods, the extension of cropping periods and the adoption of more efficient crops such as sweet potato, cassava, Chinese taro and triploid banana. As agricultural intensity increases, so has the tendency for sweet potato to become the most important crop. Most of this intensification has occurred over the last three decades and it is still not clear how sustainable these more intensive gardens will be in the long term.

The new crops and resultant changes in production systems have allowed people to maintain food production despite rapid population growth and the re-allocation of potential agricultural land to export tree crops. However, these large gains in productivity and particularly the gains associated with new crop introductions are unlikely to continue in the medium to long term. Likewise, if intensification is not accompanied by the adoption of suitable land management practices, agricultural pressure on land will lead to land degradation and reduced crop yields. Future increases in productivity will have to come from better management of land and crops. Cash economy Cash crop production has been skilfully integrated with food crop production. The most important cash crops are oil palm (Elaeis guieensis), Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica), fresh vegetables, cocoa (Theobroma cacao), betel nut (Areca catechu or Areca macrocalyx) and copra (Cocos nucifera). Domestically marketed food has expanded over the past 40 years from a small base, to become a major source of cash income for both women and men. There is still considerable scope for further expansion of fresh food marketing. The production of export tree crops such as coffee, cocoa, oil palm and copra is dominated by smallholders. The contribution of these crops to export income is much less than that provided by the extractive resource industries, but the agricultural sector provides incomes to about 80 per cent of the population. While income per person is generally low, the sector has been operating consistently for over five decades. Fresh vegetables, sold domestically, are an increasingly important source of cash income for many rural people. There has also been a

marked increase in small-scale secondary and tertiary business activities over the past 20 years. This is most apparent in the main towns and along major roads such as the Highlands Highway. Transport infrastructure The road network in PNG reaches the majority of rural people. The Highlands Highway is the main arterial road in the country. It runs from Lae into the five highland provinces, and connects to Wau and Bulolo in the south, and to Madang in the northwest. The road is used to transport cash crops such as fresh vegetables and coffee from the highlands to Lae. In return, fuel, building materials, imported food and betel nut are transported from Lae to the highlands. This road is also the supply line to the Porgera gold mine in Enga Province and the gas and oil fields in Southern Highlands Province. Important roads also lead inland from Wewak and from Port Moresby along the coast. No road connection exists between the national capital Port Moresby and the populated areas in the highlands and on the north coast. The oil palm areas of West New Britain and Oro are well served by roads, as is the Gazelle Peninsula in East New Britain, most of New Ireland, and Bougainville. Thousands of kilometres of minor rural roads were built between 1950 and 1970. These connect rural areas with the main road networks. Most were surfaced with local gravel and bridges were constructed from local timber. In the year 2000, many of these roads were in an advanced stage of deterioration. Most have lost their surfacing and, in some cases, the foundations and alignments have been destroyed. Many bridges have collapsed. In most areas, trips that once took a few hours can now take days and some roads are only passable in dry weather.

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Health, nutrition and information The gradual decline of roads, shipping and airlines over the past decade has reduced the delivery of services. This situation has been compounded by smaller government budgets and highly centralised funding programs, which have led to the closure of aid posts and health centres, particularly in remote areas. Those that remain open are often understocked with basic supplies, including antimalaria drugs and antibiotics. In the year 2000, the churches were one of the major providers of health services in rural areas. A recent study found infant and child mortality rates to be high and increasing, with large differences between rural and urban areas (McKay et al., 1999). The number of rural deaths was nearly twice that of urban areas. The highlands region recorded the highest number of deaths, while the southern region, which includes Port Moresby, had the lowest. A strong relationship was also found between child mortality and women’s education. Where mothers were educated to secondary level, the mortality of children under five years was 33 per cent lower than for children whose mothers had never attended school.

Malnourished children have a greater risk of suffering severe disease or death. The 1982–1983 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) found that there was serious child malnutrition in 19 of the then 86 districts. Both weight-for-age and height-for-age were significantly below national and international standards in these districts. The survey also found that children were taller where reported diets had higher fat and protein contents (Heywood et al., 1988; Smith et al., 1993). The National Food and Nutrition Policy of 1978 recognised that the high levels of malnutrition in PNG were complex in origin and were not simply a matter of inadequate food supply. The Mid-Term Review of the National Health Plan (1996–2000) found that in the period 1996–1998 there was no discernible improvement in the nutritional status of children. In fact, the study found that the percentage of moderate to severely malnourished children seen at health facilities had risen. There has been a major decline in the ability of rural people to access many types of information. Examples include cash crop extension material, market intelligence, health information and national or international news. There are only a handful of regional newspapers and radio stations that still function and very little effective information is provided by governments. For example, the last thorough rural information series, known as the Rural Development Handbook, was produced by the Department of Agriculture 20 years ago. The gap in access to information continues to grow between rural people and those based in the larger towns. One of the functions of this handbook is to make more information available about rural areas.

Food security Food security is generally good in PNG. This is because a high proportion of the population is engaged in food production, most people have access to land and they rely on a diverse range of subsistence food sources. Also, most people have access to some cash income with which they can buy food when subsistence supplies are inadequate. While the availability of food is good, there are some major problems with its quality. People generally have an inadequate intake of protein and concentrated energy sources such as oils and fats. The major urban areas of PNG depend heavily on imported food such as rice, tinned fish and meat, and increasingly flour and dairy products. Vigorous domestic fresh food markets exist in many places, but they do not satisfy overall demand and prices are high relative to imported rice. There is strong political pressure for the development of a domestic rice industry to replace imports. However, even if a domestic rice industry overcame severe environmental and pest constraints, it could not produce at or below world market prices. Significant increases in the price of such an important food would have serious political and nutritional consequences. Food security is sometimes threatened by climate extremes, including excessive rainfall, drought and frost. Global climate change and the emerging AIDS epidemic may have a negative impact on food security in the future, but the effects cannot be accurately assessed at this time. AIDS will have a major impact on the labour force as the highest death rates will be in the 15 to 40 age group for women and the 20 to 50 age group for men (Malau, 2001).

Introduction

Most major coastal towns in the lowlands and islands are serviced by regular passenger shipping. The more remote coastal areas were once serviced by government work boats, but this has ceased in most provinces. Air transport is the most efficient and reliable method of travel for people and higher value freight. There are around 450 operational airstrips in the country, many of which are serviced by thirdlevel airlines. Air travel is expensive, however, and is beyond the reach of most rural people.

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Introduction

Summary Significant and growing disparities between urban and rural populations exist with respect to living conditions, diet, housing, cash incomes, and access to health and education services. The differences are so great that average national level figures do not realistically reflect conditions in either urban or rural areas. Disparities within rural populations alone are significant and growing. The most disadvantaged people in the country earn very low incomes, have poor access to services, live in low potential environments, have little political influence, and have limited ability to attract development through the political process. They also have few opportunities to raise incomes and less food security when subsistence food is scarce. Two important consequences of the present socio-economic situation are particularly relevant to rural planning and development. First, it is most likely that only a small minority of the projected rural population will be absorbed into paid employment in the non-agricultural sector in the next 20 years. Thus, the semi-subsistence agricultural sector will be required to employ people and produce food for the majority of the predicted eight million people by 2020. Second, present mineral resource developments are projected to end before 2030. While it is likely that further discoveries will be made, there is a limit to the extent that PNG can rely upon mineral wealth to provide currency with which to import food for rapidly growing urban populations. The domestic agricultural sector will have to provide most of the food required by PNG’s growing urban population. Finally, the differences between people in the more

and less favourable environments are likely to continue to increase. The resultant frustrations may fuel existing social tension throughout the country.

Structure and content This handbook presents factual information, analysis, maps, tables, graphs and photographs for each province and rural district in PNG, as defined by the 1995 Organic Law. The choice of information was determined by data availability, quality and relevance. While there are many sources of data available for PNG, few have been collected at regional scales for the entire country in a consistent and transparent way. The data selection process required a cross-section of environment, social and economic information. The ‘Data Sources, Methods and Limitations’ chapter describes these data sources as well as classification methods and limitations. Photographs and provincial maps The handbook provides information at a number of levels. The first level is the 50 annotated photographs, which represent a range of key rural planning and development issues throughout the country. The next level is the provincial maps, graphs and text, which summarise the key parameters of population, access to services, income, subsistence agriculture, land potential, agricultural pressure and potential, and disadvantaged people for each province and district. The maps show the spatial variation of each parameter, while the corresponding graphs show the number of people involved for each class in every district. Using a ruler, readers can interpret the number of people in each class to the nearest five hundred.

District summaries The most detailed level of information is in the district summaries, where each parameter is described in detail. A district summary page also has a list of basic facts, including the total area, total area of occupied land, total length of major roads, total length of minor roads and tracks, number of operational airstrips, and the percentage of major landform types. The content of each district summary is as follows. District introduction: The introduction section describes geographic features such as towns, government stations, rivers, valleys and mountain ranges. Attributes such as landform, annual rainfall, rainfall seasonality and altitude provide some environmental context for each district. Environment types matter in rural PNG as they influence people’s daily lives in many fundamental ways, including food production, cash income generation, access to health and education services and access to markets and information. Population: The population section gives the total estimated rural population in the year 2000, followed by a description of population densities. Areas with population change, mostly through migration, are mentioned only where the rate of change is significant. Areas of in-migration generally have productive environments suitable for cashcropping, good access to service centres and markets and employment or business opportunities. The opposite is usually the case with areas of outmigration where environments are unproductive and people often have poor access to markets and services and earn very low incomes. Total population is an important consideration when deciding whether to invest resources in an area, particularly when

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and agriculture intensifies, subsistence and cash crop production must become more efficient. This requires a better understanding of how different crop varieties perform in different environmental conditions, and how different land management practices can overcome environmental constraints. Increasing household income through cash-cropping is likely to result in many positive outcomes, including reducing child malnutrition. This section also provides information on the level of child malnutrition, which can be a powerful indicator of underdevelopment. Land potential: The land potential section discusses potential for crop growth and the major environmental constraints to crop production. Examples of the latter include steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall, long dry seasons, low temperatures, frequent flooding and excessive cloud cover. The section also presents information about the land management practices used in gardens to overcome such constraints. People living in low potential environments often struggle to produce food for consumption and have even more difficulty growing cash crops. Agricultural pressure and potential: High intensity agriculture practised in low potential environments often leads to agricultural pressure on land, resulting in land degradation, reduced crop yields and food shortages. It also limits the ability of people to increase food production in the future. This section identifies these areas. This information, when combined with information on population change can help identify future problem areas. Alternatively, where there is low intensity or no agriculture in high potential environments, the areas are under-utilised. Depending on market

access, such areas may be suitable for agricultural development. The section also identifies these areas, along with established cash-cropping activities. Improved road access, transport or extension services could stimulate rapid agricultural development in high potential areas. Disadvantaged people: This section combines information on agricultural pressure, land potential, population density, access to services, incomes and child malnutrition to identify the most disadvantaged people in the district. People in the worst situation are constrained by strong agricultural pressure, very high population densities, poor access to services, very low incomes and serious levels of child malnutrition. They are vulnerable to land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and they have limited cash to purchase supplementary food when required. Future income generation through cash crop development is limited by low potential environments, poor access to markets and sometimes by land shortages. In short, they have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Most districts have various combinations of these development constraints. The section also compares levels of disadvantage between districts.

Introduction

resources are limited. Most rural development projects aim to assist as many people as possible per kina invested, an approach that can exclude small populations of seriously disadvantaged people. Access to services: This section discusses road coverage and quality, along with the most common types of transport. These are the major influence on people’s ability to access services and markets. The section provides estimates of the time taken for people to travel to the nearest service centre, which help to identify the remotest people in the district. Access to services and markets is critical for rural development: families and communities with poor access have a reduced chance of improving their living conditions. Income: The income section gives estimated incomes from agriculture, along with information about the most important cash crops. The section also makes note of other income sources, including wage employment, small business, remittances and royalties, but gives no kina estimates as such data are highly variable and often unreliable. Small cash incomes in rural PNG can have a major impact on people’s livelihoods. Money is used for basic household goods such as clothes and cooking utensils, purchased food such as rice and tinned fish, health products like medicine, school fees and cultural exchange. Most importantly, a small cash income provides some insurance against crop failures or other breaks in the subsistence food cycle. People who earn very low incomes are unable to purchase basic goods and services. Agriculture and nutrition: This section identifies the most important staple crops, as well as levels of agricultural intensity and types of land management practices. As populations grow

National overview and district comparisons The ‘National Overview’ chapter provides national maps for each parameter, supported by some key points on regional patterns and the total populations of classes within each parameter. The ‘District Comparisons’ chapter compares districts on the basis of agricultural pressure, land potential, income from agriculture, access to services and child malnutrition. The chapter then presents a disadvantage index for each district based on the 15

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Introduction

classification of the above themes. The index is used to rank districts from most to least disadvantaged. The results are compared with those from similar studies completed in 1974 and 1986 using different assumptions, data and methods. Of the 20 most disadvantaged districts identified in this handbook, 17 were identified by either the 1974 or 1986 study and 12 were identified by both studies. This correlation over a 25 year period suggests that the living conditions of people in the most disadvantaged districts are not improving, relative to people in other districts. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the chronic problems associated with underdevelopment and some key recommendations. The website at http://rspas.anu.edu.au/lmp/ contains a digital version of this handbook. It includes some additional appendices with detailed population data. Readers are encouraged to incorporate the maps, graphs, tables and text into their own publications, but should acknowledge this handbook as the source.

Further reading The publications listed below contain information used in the preparation of this handbook or have more complete information on the key themes presented here. Allen, B.J., Bourke, R.M. and Hide, R.L. (1995). The sustainability of Papua New Guinea agricultural systems: the conceptual background. Global Environmental Change 5(4): 297–312. This paper provides background on the Mapping Agricultural Systems of PNG Project, including the reasons why certain data were recorded and their importance. Bank of Papua New Guinea (n.d.). Quarterly Economic Bulletin. Bank of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. This quarterly publication contains statistics on many aspects of the PNG economy. Bellamy, J.A. and McAlpine, J.R. (1995). Papua New Guinea Inventory of Natural Resources, Population Distribution and Land Use Handbook. PNGRIS Publication No. 6. Second edition. Australian Agency for International Development, Canberra. This handbook provides detailed descriptions of the parameters used in PNGRIS. The volume contains many diagrams and photographs of environments in PNG. It also contains the attribute codes used in PNGRIS. Bourke, R.M., Allen, B.J., Hobsbawn, P. and Conway, J. (1998). Papua New Guinea: Text Summaries. Agricultural Systems of Papua New Guinea Working Paper No. 1. Two volumes. Department of Human Geography, Australian National University, Canberra.

These summary volumes give a short description of the 342 agricultural systems delineated in PNG by the MASP Project. It also contains detailed descriptions of the database codes and the rationale behind the measures used to identify agricultural systems. Bourke, R.M., Allen, M.G. and Salisbury, J.G. (eds). (2001). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, PNG University of Technology, Lae, 26–30 June 2000. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. This volume contains a number of key papers, including ones on food security in PNG by Mike Bourke (pp. 5–14) and by Mike Manning (pp. 15–22); household food production by John Gibson (pp. 37–44); land use and rural population change by John McAlpine and others (pp. 277–283); computer managed databases relevant to agriculture in PNG by Philip Vovola and Bryant Allen (pp. 467–475); and statistics on PNG village agriculture by Bryant Allen and others (pp. 529–553). It also has 17 papers on aspects of food shortages associated with the 1997 drought and frosts (pp. 153–274); recommendations for policy and programs (pp. 873–882); and a list of previous related conferences held in PNG over the period 1970–1999 (pp. 889–892). Department of Agriculture and Livestock (ed). (1992). Papua New Guinea National Nutrition Policy Workshop 1992. INA Discussion Paper No. 54. Institute of National Affairs, Port Moresby. This volume contains the most accessible reviews of human nutrition in PNG and its relationship with agriculture. Key references are the overview

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Department of Planning and Monitoring (1999). Papua New Guinea National Population Policy 2000–2010. Department of Planning and Monitoring, Port Moresby. This publication presents detailed information on the main demographic measures for PNG, including estimated birth, death and growth rates. Population growth rates are given by province. Gibson, J. and Rozelle, S. (1998). Results of the household survey component of the 1996 poverty assessment for Papua New Guinea. Population and Human Resources Division, The World Bank, Washington DC. This report contains information from the household surveys done as part of the PNG Poverty Assessment in 1996. A summary also appears in Bourke et al., 2001 (see above). Hanson, L.W., Bourke, R.M. and Allen, B.J. (2000). Priority Areas for Rural Development in Papua New Guinea. A0 poster with text and maps. Department of Human Geography, Australian National University, Canberra. This poster is a summary of the information presented in this handbook. While some of the classifications have changed slightly, it remains a useful tool for understanding regional patterns of underdevelopment in PNG.

Hanson, L.W., Bourke, R.M., Allen, B.J. and McCarthy, T.J. (2001). Mapping land resource potential and agricultural pressure in Papua New Guinea: an outline of new methods to assist rural planning. ACIAR Technical Report No. 50. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. This technical paper gives a detailed description of the methods used to derive land potential, agricultural pressure and agricultural potential, although some of the terms used are different. Heywood, P., Singleton, N. and Ross, J. (1988). Nutritional status of young children - the 1982/83 National Nutrition Survey. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 31: 91–101. This paper gives a summary of the main findings of the PNG National Nutrition Survey. Levett, M.P., Earland, J. and Heywood, P. (eds). (1992). Changes in Food and Nutrition in Papua New Guinea: Proceed-ings of the first Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition Conference. University of Papua New Guinea Press and Department of Agriculture and Livestock, Port Moresby. This volume contains a number of relevant papers, in particular a review of nutrition research in PNG over the previous 30 years by Peter Heywood and Elizabeth Morris-Hughes (pp. 306–320). McAlpine, J. and Quigley, J. (n.d). Natural Resources, Land Use and Population Distribution of Papua New Guinea: Summary Statistics from PNGRIS. PNGRIS Report No. 7. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra.

The authors have extracted data from the comprehensive PNGRIS database on many aspects of the physical environment. This report gives information at national and provincial levels, with an overall national summary. McKay, K., Lepani, K. and Wagner, T. (1999). Papua New Guinea Human Development Report 1998. Office of National Planning, Government of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby. This report contains a wealth of information about people in PNG including provincial profiles, human development data and the national economy. It is supplemented by a series of detailed tables. This publication compares PNG with other UN member countries on a number of standard social and economic indicators.

Introduction

paper by Geoff Marks (pp. 29–138); the summary of the proceedings by Geoff Marks and Nicholas Fereday (pp. 1–28); and a discussion of the relationships between agriculture and malnutrition in PNG by Robin Hide and others (pp. 139–176).

Nix, H.A., Faith, D.P., Hutchinson, M.F., Margules, C.R., West, J., Allison, A., Kesteven, J.L., Natera, G., Slater, W., Stein, J.L. and Walker, P. (2000). The BioRap toolbox: a national study of biodiversity assessment and planning for Papua New Guinea. Consultancy report to the World Bank. Centre for Resource and Environmental Management, Australian National University, Canberra. This report describes the development of a digital terrain model that uses information on geology, rainfall, slope, aspect and altitude to model environments across the island of New Guinea. The model can be used to predict where particular plant species may be found.

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Data Sources, Methods and Limitations

Inboard-powered work boat in West New Britain Province. In the past, a system of government work boats in most maritime provinces facilitated the delivery of some services to people and assisted with the transport of goods. However, this system has collapsed over the past decade. Outboard-powered boats and canoes are now the most common forms of transport. They are very expensive to operate and this cost inhibits trade and travel. Inboardpowered work boats carry a greater load and are cheaper per person and per kilogram of cargo to operate. These work boats are widely used in Milne Bay Province, but are now uncommon elsewhere in PNG.

Men extract edible kernels from galip nuts on Boisa Island, Madang Province. Significant quantities of galip (Canarium indicum) nuts are traded for sago from near the mouth of the Ramu River in Madang Province. Large numbers of people obtain much of their staple foods through trade, particularly where there are marked contrasts in environmental conditions over short distances. Increasingly, food exchanges are made using modern currency rather than barter.

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The PNG spatial databases PNG has more detailed spatial data than most other countries due to a long history of rural data collection. Over 40 years of research, mainly by the CSIRO, ANU and DAL, has led to the development of the PNGRIS and MASP spatial databases. PNGRIS The PNGRIS database provides 1:500 000 scale data on environmental attributes such as altitude, landform, bedrock, slope gradient, rainfall, vegetation and soils. Each ‘resource mapping unit’ (RMU) is defined by a unique combination of altitude, landform, bedrock and rainfall, resulting in approximately 4600 RMUs covering the entire country (Bellamy, 1986). The most accurate PNGRIS attributes are those that are relatively homogeneous over large areas. Examples include the landform and topography datasets. The reliability of other attributes declines as either the scale of the environmental process declines or the level of interpretation and extrapolation increases. For example, the slope gradient, inundation and soil type datasets are unreliable in some locations as they are highly variable at the local scale and are thus generalised or smoothed when mapped at the PNGRIS scale. The accuracy of the annual rainfall and rainfall seasonality datasets is variable because the data is extrapolated from point sources. The rainfall datasets have additional constraints as each province was mapped individually and then joined together, resulting in significant mismatches along provincial boundaries. Improved annual rainfall and rainfall seasonality datasets were derived from the PNG Office of Environment and Conservation (OEC) climate surfaces, which were completed through the World Bank funded BioRap Project. The annual

rainfall surface is based on the interpolation of meteorological station records using the ANUDEM and ANUSPLIN software packages (Margules and Redhead, 1995). The dataset was summarised into a PNGRIS RMU format, rounded to the nearest millimetre and added to the PNGRIS database as a revised annual rainfall field. The OEC rainfall seasonality surface was summarised in the same way. There are no units of measurement for this field as it represents relative variation on a monthly basis. Both datasets are considerably more reliable than the PNGRIS equivalent. PNGRIS was further enhanced by the addition of a ‘cloud cover’ field. This is a useful surrogate for sunlight, which is an important factor in determining crop growth potential. Cloud information was derived from the Australian Geological Survey Organisation (AGSO) Drought Assessment Project (Bierwirth and McVicar, 1998) that compiled and analysed Advanced Very High Radiometric Resolution (AVHRR) satellite data for PNG over a two year period. A by-product of this project was a simple and reliable index of ‘cloudiness’ based on images taken in January, April, July and October. The dataset was summarised into a PNGRIS RMU format, reduced to a five level classification and added to the PNGRIS database as a ‘cloud cover’ field. MASP The MASP database provides 1:500 000 scale data on village agricultural attributes such as staple crops, fallow length, cropping period, agricultural intensity, land management practices, cash-earning activities and rural population (Bourke et al., 1998). The information was recorded through extensive field surveys over the six year period from 1990 to 1995 inclusive. The mapping unit is an ‘agricultural

system’ (agsystem) and is defined by a unique combination of fallow type (the vegetation that is cleared from a garden site before cultivation), fallow period (the length of time a garden site is left unused between cultivations), cropping period (the number of consecutive plantings made before land is fallowed), the most important staple crops, and land management practices. A total of 343 unique ‘agsystems’ were identified using this approach. While the PNGRIS ‘RMU’ and MASP ‘agsystem’ mapping units are unrelated, they can be combined through either simple map overlay or more complex geographic information systems analysis. Many of the provincial and national maps in this handbook are based on a combined mapping unit, of which there are approximately 40 000 in the country.

The parameters The following parameters are described in detail in later chapters of this handbook. This section provides an overview of how they were derived, what they mean and how they should be interpreted. It is important to read this section before reviewing the provincial maps, district summaries, national overview and district comparisons. Population Population data is presented in three forms: estimated rural populations in the year 2000; estimated population densities in the year 2000; and rates of population change. The 1980 National Population Census is the most reliable available source of population data for the country. The 1990 National Population Census is less reliable and is only used to determine population change between 1980 and 1990. The PNG Human Development Report (McKay et al., 1999) released population

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here are less than the actual figures. This is due to the inclusion of urban populations in the 2000 census and the well-documented problems with some provinces in the 1990 census. Comparisons of the estimated provincial rural population in the year 2000 with the actual provincial populations from the 2000 census are presented in Appendix 1. When the final data have been released, readers should refer to the 2000 census for up-to-date figures. Access to services Access to services was defined as the time taken to travel by foot, vehicle or boat from each MASP ‘agsystem’ to the nearest service centre. The access classification is qualitative and based on extensive field experience in every district of PNG. The classification process took into consideration terrain, road coverage, road quality, the presence of public transport or shipping in the late 1990s and the size of the service centre (Allen et al., 2001). Aircraft travel, while widely available in PNG, was not included in the classification criteria as it is too expensive for most rural people. The following classification of access to services is used in the handbook. • Very poor access (> 1 day’s travel to reach a service centre) • Poor access (4–8 hours’ travel to reach a minor service centre) • Moderate access (4–8 hours’ travel to reach a major service centre) • Good access (1–4 hours’ travel to reach a major service centre) • Very good access (200 kina/person/year) Non-agricultural income sources were more difficult to estimate and are not included in the provincial maps, but are referred to in the district summaries. Such income sources include wage employment, small business activities, criminal activities, cultural exchange and royalties from extractive industries.


growth rates for each province for the 1980 to 1990 inter-census period, which are based on urban and rural areas. This handbook is concerned only with rural areas and thus uses the work of Keig (2001), which determined provincial population growth rates for rural areas through a careful comparison of the 1980 and 1990 censuses. The figures from both sources are very similar. Estimated rural populations in the year 2000 are based on 1980 figures, which have been extrapolated based on Keig’s provincial rural population growth rates between 1980 and 1990. Estimated population densities in the year 2000 are calculated in the same way. It is important to note that the district boundaries used in the 1980 and 1990 censuses were changed as a result of the 1995 Organic Law. In order to estimate populations and population densities for areas within the new districts, the 1980 census units were digitised and allocated to the new districts. Populations were then recalculated. The following classification of population density is used in the handbook. • Low density (1–20 persons/km2) • Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) • High density (61–100 persons/km2) • Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Population growth rates within provinces vary significantly, reflecting migration processes as well as birth and death rates. Most provinces have areas that are well above or below the average provincial growth rate, resulting from significant in-migration or out-migration. Such areas are identified in the district summaries. Figures from the 2000 National Population Census were being finalised when this handbook was in press. The preliminary release of the 2000 census data showed that many of the estimates presented

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Two factors make the actual kina values presented here less reliable over time. The first is the major devaluation of the PNG kina against the US dollar since 1997. The second factor is the change over time in returns on crops. Despite these reliability issues, the relative income at different locations has not altered significantly. Subsistence agriculture The provincial maps of subsistence agriculture are based on the classification of dominant staple crops and agricultural intensity. Together with information on land management practices, these two attributes provide a useful picture of the diversity of subsistence agriculture throughout the country. Dominant staple crops

A dominant staple crop occupies at least one third of the garden area. Sago and coconut are not cultivated in gardens, and their status was assessed using the estimated contribution to consumed calories rather than area of cultivation. The following classification of dominant staples is used in the handbook. • Mixed staple gardens • Sweet potato gardens • Sweet potato and taro gardens • Sweet potato and yam gardens • Banana gardens • Banana and cassava gardens • Banana and Chinese taro gardens • Banana and sweet potato gardens • Banana and yam gardens • Sago with banana gardens • Sago with mixed staple gardens • Sago with sweet potato gardens • Sago with taro gardens • Cassava gardens • Cassava and Chinese taro gardens

• • • • • • • • •

Cassava and sweet potato gardens Chinese taro gardens Chinese taro and sweet potato gardens Chinese taro and taro gardens Coconut with mixed staple gardens Coconut with swamp taro gardens Taro gardens Taro and yam gardens Yam gardens

Agricultural intensity

•

• •

crops to increase soil nitrogen and interrupt crop pest and disease cycles) Planted tree fallows (tree species such as Casuarina oligodon are planted into final year gardens to increase soil fertility) Compost (organic matter is placed in gardens to increase soil fertility) Contribution of silt from flooding (silt is deposited by floods either regularly or sporadically in gardens, which increases soil fertility) Animal manure (animal manure is placed in gardens to increase soil fertility) Inorganic fertiliser (inorganic fertiliser is placed in gardens to increase soil fertility) Soil retention barriers (planted barriers or structures such as pegged logs, fences or stone walls are used to reduce soil erosion) Soil tillage (soil is tilled before crops are planted to improve soil structure and drainage) Drains (ditches are used around and within gardens to remove excess surface-water and groundwater) Mounds (soil is formed into circular mounds of varying dimensions within gardens to improve soil structure, drainage and aeration, and remove excess surface-water) Garden beds (soil is raised into elevated beds within gardens to improve soil structure, drainage and aeration, and remove excess surface-water)

Agricultural intensity was defined for each ‘agsystem’ through the Ruthenberg R-value. This is derived from the ratio of the cropping period in years (C) to the length of cultivation cycle in years (F), the latter being the sum of the cropping and fallow periods (Ruthenberg, 1980). The formula is R = C x 100/(C+F). The cropping period is the number of years that crops are planted consecutively before the land is returned to fallow. It can vary from only one planting to more than 40 consecutive plantings. The fallow period is an estimate of the length of time land is left to revert to regrowth before it is cultivated again and can range from zero to more than 15 years. The following classification of agricultural intensity is used in the handbook. • Low intensity gardens (R-values of 1–27) • Moderate intensity gardens (R-values of 28–50) • High intensity gardens (R-values of 51–100)

•

Land management practices

Child malnutrition Information on child malnutrition is drawn from the 1982–83 PNG National Nutrition Survey (NNS) (Heywood et al., 1988). Data on weight-for-height (wasting) and height-for-age (stunting) are used here. The district summaries present the percentage of children below PNG standards for weight-forheight and height-for-age, along with a comment

The district summaries also refer to the following land management practices, which are used to improve or maintain crop production. These practices are more common in moderate to high intensity gardens in the highland provinces. • Legume rotation (leguminous crops such as peanuts are grown between plantings of staple

• •

• • •

•

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Land potential Land potential was defined by classifying updated PNGRIS environmental data based on the growth requirements for sweet potato, which is the dominant staple crop in much of PNG. The following factors were used. • Annual rainfall (affects crop growth through soil moisture availability) • Rainfall seasonality (affects crop growth through seasonal soil moisture availability) • Temperature (affects crop growth by influencing production rates and soil fertility cycles through the break down of humus; and it also sets the

altitudinal limits for each crop and occasionally causes frosts which destroy crops) • Light (affects crop growth through various triggers on plant physiological mechanisms) • Inundation (affects crop growth and management through either destructive flooding or waterlogging) • Slope gradient (affects crop growth and management through influences on soil erosion, drainage, nutrient leaching, solar radiation receipt and labour requirements) • Soil type (affects crop growth and management through influences on nutrient availability, nutrient retention, rooting conditions, soil stability and water availability) The above factors were classified based on relative degrees of limitation to plant growth. Land management practices, which improve productivity by limiting the effects of environmental constraints, were taken into account. Hanson et al. (2001) provide more detail on the classification of land potential, which is referred to as modified resource potential in that publication. The following classification of land potential is used in the handbook. • Very low land potential • Low land potential • Moderate land potential • High land potential • Very high land potential There are two limitations to the land potential data. Firstly, as land potential is based on data that was mapped at a 1:500 000 scale, micro and meso scale variation is smoothed or generalised. For example, flood-free terraces on flood plains are often narrow land units too small to be mapped at regional scales. Instead, such terrace land units would

be smoothed and classified as poorly-drained flood plains. The second limitation is related to the inherent problems associated with the hard-edged classification of continuous data. When data is divided into classes, there is always similar data on either side of the class boundaries. This problem is compounded when classes are reclassified and manipulated. It is advisable to view class boundaries in the handbook as zones of uncertainty and refer to the base PNGRIS and MASP data for clarification where necessary. Agricultural pressure and potential Agricultural pressure and potential is derived from the classification of land potential and agricultural intensity data. The agricultural pressure and potential classes identify land that is under-utilised and over-utilised. This is defined by mismatches between land potential and agricultural intensity. Adjustments are made to correct for the impact of cropping at different altitudes. Hanson et al. (2001) provide more details on the complex classification method. The following classification of agricultural pressure and potential is used in the handbook. Note that the examples for each class are only one of the possible combinations that occur. • Very strong agricultural pressure (eg. very high agricultural intensity and very low land potential) • Strong agricultural pressure (eg. very high agricultural intensity and low land potential) • Moderate agricultural pressure (eg. high agricultural intensity and low land potential) • Marginal agricultural pressure (eg. moderate agricultural intensity and low land potential) • Occupied land with no agricultural pressure (eg. low agricultural intensity and high land potential)


on whether the level of child malnutrition is very serious, serious, poor, fair or relatively low. This classification is based on the location of each district in the figure seen in Appendix 2a, which places the districts in cells that cover all combinations from shortest and lightest to tallest and heaviest. The child malnutrition statistics are presented in Appendix 2b. The NNS was a sample survey of children under the age of five living in selected families across most of PNG. Families were randomly selected from sample census units (that are in most cases villages). Selected children were weighed and measured twice by a visiting survey team. Mean weights and lengths were calculated for each district. Note that the data presented in the handbook is a re-calculation of the 1982–83 district means (Mueller, 2001). Using GIS techniques, the sample villages were located into the new districts and the district means were recalculated. While these means are not statistically reliable, in the absence of other reliable information, the recalculated means for the current districts are a close approximation of children’s nutritional status.

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• High agricultural potential (eg. low agricultural intensity and very high land potential) • Very high agricultural potential (eg. no agriculture and very high land potential) Areas with strong and very strong agricultural pressure have severe land degradation problems, while areas of moderate agricultural pressure have minor land degradation problems. Areas of marginal agricultural pressure have few land degradation problems at present, but may encounter future problems if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable land management practices. It is important to note that the agricultural pressure and potential classes are static and represent conditions in the late 1990s. As the classification parameters change, such as fallow lengths or cropping periods (which determine agricultural intensity values), the pressure classes will also change. The driving force behind such change is related to altered demographic patterns such as migration and population growth, and improved land management practices such as the adoption of soil fertility maintenance techniques. If populations increase, resulting in the intensification of agriculture, and suitable land management practices are not adopted, then agricultural pressure will increase, for example from none to marginal or from moderate to strong. However, if suitable land management practices are adopted resulting in improved land potential, without agricultural intensification, then agricultural pressure will decrease. In practice, several input parameters can change simultaneously. These sorts of combinations of conditions can be tracked through the classification process and corrected over time where necessary.

Disadvantaged people Disadvantaged people, as defined here, are constrained by one or more of the following conditions. • Strong or moderate agricultural pressure (where land degradation is occurring, crop yields are reduced and, often but not always, population densities are very high leading to land shortages) • Poor environments (where there is very low to low land potential with up to four major environmental constraints to crop production) • Poor access to services (where people require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre) • Very low incomes (where people earn less than 20 kina per person per year from agricultural sources) The level of disadvantage is determined by the number of constraining conditions. In the national map of disadvantaged people (page 300) this classification is summarised to ‘strongly disadvantaged’ (three of the above conditions), ‘moderately disadvantaged’ (two of the above conditions), ‘marginally disadvantaged’ (one of the above conditions) and ‘not disadvantaged’ (none of the above conditions). The following classification is used in the provincial maps and only reflects the combinations that occur. • Strong pressure, very low incomes and poor access to services • Moderate pressure, very low incomes and poor access to services • Poor environment, very low incomes and poor access to services • Strong pressure and very low incomes • Moderate pressure and very low incomes

• • • • • • • •

Very low incomes and poor access to services Poor environment and very low incomes Strong pressure Moderate pressure Poor environment Very low incomes Poor access to services Not disadvantaged relative to other areas

Ancillary data The ancillary data in the handbook comes from a number of sources. Roads were digitised from the 1992 1:1 000 000 PNG Road System map series, published by the PNG Department of Works. Airstrips were digitised from the Royal Australian Airforce Flight Information Publication, and were operational in 1997. District and provincial boundaries were provided by the PNG National Mapping Bureau. All geographic features including towns, stations, missions, rivers, mountain ranges and islands were digitised from the 1981 1:250 000 Joint Operations Graphic series, published by the Royal Australian Survey Corp. The locations of some geographic features mentioned in the district summaries are presented on the provincial maps. Where features are not on provincial maps, readers should refer to the 1:250 000 series for exact locations.

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Western Province

A woman carries bilums (string bags) along a poor quality road in the mountains of Western Province. The environment in much of Western Province is very poorly suited for agriculture. The mountains in the far north of the province are some of the wettest places on earth, receiving about 8000 mm of rain per year. Most people in the mountains have to walk for more than one day to reach Tabubil or Telefomin, which are the nearest service centres.

The mine site at Ok Tedi. The Ok Tedi mine at Tabubil provides income to people in North Fly District. People in the mine impact area receive income from royalties, compensation for environmental damage and wage employment. Ok speaking people who live in the mountains to the north have preferential employment rights and also receive remittances from relatives working at the mine. The impact area has now been extended and people along the Ok Tedi and Fly rivers, below the mine site, also receive compensation payments.

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Introduction

Ok

Wo k

Ningerum

East Awin Refugee Camp

Fly R iv

er

Kiunga

Strickland Valley

Feneng Valley

Hind en Ran burg ge

Te d i Valley

Tabubil

Nomad

NORTH FLY

Occupied land

Lake Murray

Unoccupied land Major roads

MIDDLE FLY

kla

nd

Ri

ve r

Lake

St

ric

Minor roads/tracks

Fly

Ri

District boundaries District boundaries

Bamu River

ve r Balimo

Kondubol Morehead

Fly River Delta

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Kilometres Daru 0

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Western Province

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Western occupies 97 000 km2 in the southwest of PNG and is the largest province in the country. The entire western border of the province forms part of the international border with Indonesia, while the Australian border lies within 10 km of the south coast on Boigu and Saibai islands. The north of the province covers the high and rugged mountains and plateaux of the Hindenburg Range and the deep valleys of the upper Strickland, Murray, Wok Feneng and Ok Tedi rivers. Approximately 40 km north of Kiunga and Nomad, the landscape flattens into the floodplains, plains and hills of the lower Fly, Ok Tedi and Strickland rivers. South of Lake Murray, the Strickland River joins the Fly to form the largest river in the country. East of Lake Murray are the plains and hills of the Aramia and Guavi rivers, which extend to the border with Gulf Province. The south of the province covers the Fly River delta and its islands. It also includes the floodplains and plains of the Mai Kussa, Kutubura, Morehead and Bensbach rivers. Average annual rainfall varies from 1500 mm on the south coast, to around 8000 mm in the Ok Tedi Valley. There is a long dry season south of Lake Murray. Rainfall increases and seasonality decreases from south to north. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3000 m on the Hindenburg Range, but most of the province is below 150 metres. The three districts in Western Province are Middle Fly, North Fly and South Fly.

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Population 40 000 Number of people

Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

Middle Fly

The estimated rural population of Western in the year 2000 is 106 000, which is three per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 2.2 per cent per annum. The highest population densities are on the south coast plains between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers where there are 26 persons/km2. The East Awin Refugee Relocation Area (EARRA), east of Kiunga, has 20 persons/km2. All other areas in the province have low densities of less than 10 persons/km2. There is significant out-migration from the Hindenburg Range, the areas around Bolovip and Olsobip, the upper Murray Valley, the Nomad area and from the Gama Valley which is on the border with Gulf Province.

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2)

MIDDLE FLY

High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Lake Unoccupied land District boundaries

Balimo

District boundaries

Kondubol Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0


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Access to services Number of people

40 000 Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Middle Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre MIDDLE FLY

1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land Lake Major roads

Balimo

In the south of the province, Morehead is connected by road to the coast near Daru, but the road is in poor condition and there are few vehicles in the area. A high quality all-weather road, built and maintained by Ok Tedi Mining Ltd., links Tabubil to Ningerum and Kiunga. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the major rivers and the south coast. People on the south coast between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers and those living close to Tabubil require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while most other people in the province require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the Hindenburg Range and upper Strickland, Murray and Wok Feneng valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

Minor roads/tracks District boundaries District boundaries

Kondubol

Airstrip

Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0

50

100


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Income 40 000 Number of people

Tabubil

Ningerum

29

20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) MIDDLE FLY

High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land Lake District boundaries

Balimo

District boundaries

Kondubol Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0


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30 000

Middle Fly

People around Lake Murray and along the Fly River earn moderate incomes from the sale of crocodile skins, fish and fresh food. Those north of Kiunga, around Morehead and along the south coast between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers have low incomes derived from the sale of betel nut, fresh food and rubber. Most other people in the province earn very low incomes from minor sales of fresh food, betel nut, animal skins, fish, crocodiles and rubber. The Ok Tedi mine provides various sources of income to people in the province. Those in the mine impact area receive income from royalties and wage employment. Many of the Ok speaking people who live in the mountains north of Tabubil receive remittances from relatives working at the mine. More recently the impact area has been extended and people along the Ok Tedi and Fly rivers below the mine site have received compensation payments for damage caused by mine tailings deposited in the river system. People in the Nomad, Balimo, Morehead, Wipim and Kondubol areas have few non-agricultural sources of income.

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Subsistence agriculture Number of people

40 000 Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Middle Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

Low intensity mixed staple gardens Moderate intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity banana gardens MIDDLE FLY

Sago is the most important food for many people in the province and it is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. In the Morehead area, people cultivate low intensity yam gardens. There is one planting after fallow periods of more than 15 years. In this area sago and coconut are important foods. Settlers in the EARRA make moderate intensity mixed staple gardens, while people in the upper Ok Tedi and Strickland valleys cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. In many of the floodplain areas in the south of the province, more food is derived from hunting and fishing than from agricultural production.

Sago with low intensity banana gardens Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens Sago with moderate intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity taro gardens

Balimo

Low intensity yam gardens Unoccupied land Lake Kondubol Morehead


Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0

50

100


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Land potential 40 000 Number of people

Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

Middle Fly

The land potential is low to moderate in the Hindenburg Range and upper Strickland, Murray, Wok Feneng and Ok Tedi valleys. Common constraints include steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover. The plains, floodplains and hills around Kiunga and Nomad have very low to moderate potential constrained by high rainfall, poor soils and frequent inundation, while the Balimo area has low to moderate potential due to poor soils, a long dry season and frequent inundation. Areas south of the Fly River around Morehead, Wipim, Kondubol, Oriomo and along the south coast have very low to moderate potential caused by poor soils, low rainfall, a long dry season and seasonal flooding.

Very high potential High potential MIDDLE FLY

Moderate potential Low potential Very low potential Unoccupied land Lake

Balimo


Kondubol Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0


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Agricultural pressure and potential Number of people

40 000 Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Middle Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

There is strong agricultural pressure in the EARRA resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There are only a few areas suitable for agricultural development. Flood-free hills and plateaux close to the Fly River or around Balimo, Morehead, Kondubol or Wipim may be suited to fibre crops such as the Acacia species that are presently grown in the north of Australia and in the Torres Strait Islands. Further research may reveal other possibilities.

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure MIDDLE FLY

Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land

Balimo

Lake District boundaries District boundaries

Kondubol Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0

50

100


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Disadvantaged people 40 000 Number of people

Tabubil

Ningerum

30 000 20 000

Nomad

NORTH FLY

South Fly

Kiunga

North Fly

10 000

Middle Fly

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Hindenburg Range and in the upper Strickland, Murray and Wok Feneng valleys where people live in low potential environments, have poor access to services and earn very low incomes. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Small numbers of people in the Nomad area and the EARRA are constrained by poor environments and very low incomes. Large numbers of people in the Ningerum, Balimo, Wipim and Kondubol areas earn very low incomes. Most other people in the province live in low potential environments. People in the Nomad, Balimo and Morehead areas receive very little assistance from the Ok Tedi mine.

Poor environment, very low income, poor access Strong pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access

MIDDLE FLY

Poor environment, very low income Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land

Balimo


Kondubol Morehead

Wipim Oriomo

SOUTH FLY

Daru

Kilometres 0


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Middle Fly District

Middle Fly District covers the extensive plains, floodplains and hills of the Fly and Strickland rivers from Nomad in the north to the Fly River delta in the south. The east of the district covers the plains and hills of the Aramia, Soari, Wamoi, Gama, Bamu and Guavi rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2100 mm in the Fly River delta, to over 4000 mm north of Lake Murray. There is a long dry season south of Lake Murray. Altitude varies from sea level to 400 m in the hills southeast of Nomad.

Income

Agricultural pressure and potential

People around Lake Murray and along the Fly River earn moderate incomes from the sale of crocodile skins, fish and fresh food. In most other areas, people earn very low to low incomes from minor sales of fresh food. The Ok Tedi mine has recently paid compensation to people along the Fly River.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district and there are few opportunities for agricultural development. Flood-free hills around Balimo may be suited to fibre crops such as the Acacia species that are presently grown in the north of Australia and in the Torres Strait Islands.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition

Disadvantaged people

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 42 000. The district has a very low population density of 5 persons/km2 and significant outmigration to other provinces. The population of the Tomu River and Gama River census divisions decreased by an average of three per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Sago is the most important food in the district and it is supported by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. South of Nomad, people cultivate low intensity banana gardens. In many parts of the district, more food is derived from hunting and fishing than from agricultural production. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 21 per cent of children were stunted and 15 per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Land potential

The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Nomad area who live in a low potential environment and earn very low incomes. Large numbers of people in the Balimo area earn very low incomes, while most other people in the district live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Middle Fly District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low.

Most people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. There are minor roads around Nomad and Balimo but these are in poor condition and there are few vehicles. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the Fly, Strickland, Aramia and Bamu rivers.

The land potential is moderate to high in the Balimo area where frequent flooding and poor soil constraints have been reduced by land improvement practices such as drainage, tillage and bedding. The Nomad area has low potential due to high rainfall, poor soils and frequent flooding, while the hills to the east of Nomad have moderate potential constrained by high rainfall and poor soils. All other areas in the district have very low to low potential caused by poor soils, a long dry season and frequent flooding.

Population

Western Province 34

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Total area (km2): 44479

Occupied area (km2): 3659

34

Airstrips: 18

Major roads (km): 0

Minor roads (km): 229

Mountains & hills (%): 0

Fans & plains (%): 77

Floodplains & swamps (%): 23

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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. The highest population density is in the EARRA, east of Kiunga, with 20 persons/km2. This camp is for refugees from Irian Jaya Province in Indonesia and was opened in 1988. It had a population of 3500 people in 1994. There are very low densities of 5 persons/km2 in the rest of the district. The northeast of the district has significant out-migration. The population of the Faiwolmin, Upper Strickland, and Murray River census divisions decreased by an average of 1.5 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


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35

Airstrips: 18

Income Incomes are low on the hills and plains between Ningerum and Kiunga and are derived from the sale of fresh food, betel nut, rubber and crocodile skins. All other people in the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of fresh food. The Ok Tedi mine provides various sources of income to people in the west of the district. Those in the immediate Tabubil area receive income from royalties and wage employment, while many of the Ok speaking people who live in the mountains north of Tabubil receive remittances from relatives working at the mine. More recently the people along the Ok Tedi and Fly rivers below the mine site have received compensation payments.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sago is the most important food in the area between Ningerum and Kiunga and is supported by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. People in the Hindenburg Range cultivate low intensity taro gardens with sweet potato, Chinese taro and cassava, while those in the upper Ok Tedi and Strickland valleys make low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the EARRA, settlers cultivate moderate intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 54 per cent of children were stunted and 14 per cent were seriously under weight.

Major roads (km): 126


Land potential The land potential is very low to low on the floodplains and plains around Ningerum, Kiunga, Debepare and in the EARRA. Common constraints are high rainfall, poor soils and frequent inundation. There is moderate land potential in the hills north of Ningerum. The Hindenburg Range and the Ok Tedi, Wok Feneng, Murray and Strickland valleys have very low to low potential constrained by steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is strong agricultural pressure in the EARRA resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There are few opportunities for agricultural development in the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Hindenburg Range and in the upper Strickland, Murray and Wok Feneng valleys who live in low potential environments, have poor access to services and earn very low incomes. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the EARRA are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes. North of Ningerum, people earn very low incomes, while those south of Ningerum live in low potential environments. Overall, people in North Fly District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




Western Province

People close to Tabubil require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those on the plains and hills around Ningerum, Kiunga, Debepare and the EARRA require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the Hindenburg Range and in the Wok Feneng, Palmer, Murray and Strickland valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach Tabubil or Telefomin. A high quality all-weather road, built and maintained by Ok

Tedi Mining Ltd., links Tabubil to Ningerum and Kiunga. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the Fly and Ok Tedi rivers.

North Fly District

North Fly District is in the north of the province and covers the mountains and limestone plateaux of the Hindenburg Range and the valleys of the Ok Tedi, Wok Feneng, Palmer, Murray and Strickland rivers. In the south of the district, the steep valleys transform into the vast plains, floodplains and hills of the Fly, Ok Tedi and Strickland rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 4600 mm at Kiunga, to around 8000 mm in the upper Ok Tedi Valley. Altitude varies from 50 m on the Fly floodplain to over 3000 m on the Hindenburg Range.

35

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South Fly District

South Fly District covers the extensive plains and floodplains south and west of the Fly River, from near Lake Ambuve to the Fly River delta. The south of the district covers the plains and floodplains of the Oriomo, Pahoturi, Mai Kussa, Kutubura, Morehead and Bensbach rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1500 mm on the south coast, to 2200 mm around Suki. There is a long dry season in the entire district. Altitude varies from sea level to 100 m northeast of Wipim.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 29 000. The highest population density is on the south coast between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers where there are 26 persons/km2. There are low densities of 10 persons/km2 in the rest of the district.

Access to services People on the south coast between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers require less than four hours’ travel to reach Daru. Most other people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. There is a road in the south of the district that connects Morehead to the coast near Daru, however most of the district’s roads are in poor condition and there are few vehicles. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the Fly River and the south coast. Western Province 36

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36

Airstrips: 17

Income


Incomes are low in the Morehead area and low to high along the south coast between the Oriomo and Pahoturi rivers, and are derived from sales of fresh food, fish and rubber. People in the Wipim and Kondubol areas earn very low incomes from minor sales of fresh food, fish, rubber, betel nut and crocodile.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district and there are few opportunities for agricultural development. Flood-free plains and hills around Wipim and Kondubol may be suited to fibre crops such as the Acacia species that are presently grown in the north of Australia and in the Torres Strait Islands.



Agriculture in the Morehead area and on the south coast is characterised by low intensity yam cultivation with some cassava and banana. There is one planting before a fallow period of more than 15 years. Sago is the most important food in the rest of the district and is supported by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. On the banks of the Fly River around Tapila, people cultivate moderate intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 17 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Wipim and Kondubol areas who earn very low incomes. Most other people in the district live in low potential environments. Overall, people in South Fly District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.

Land potential The land potential is low to moderate in the Wipim and Kondubol areas where frequent flooding and poor soil constraints have been reduced by land improvement practices such as drainage and mounding. All other areas in the district have very low to low potential constrained by poor soils, a long dry season and frequent flooding.

Major roads (km): 0





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Gulf Province

People transport fresh food to market along the Tauri River. Outboard motor powered canoes are the most common form of transport used by people in the inland valleys of Gulf Province. People sell banana, sweet potato and other garden produce and use the proceeds to purchase fish and tradestore goods. Canoes are also used to transport betel nut to the Port Moresby road. Bags of betel nut are sold to middlemen and then to vendors at various Port Moresby markets.

A woman processes sago. Sago is the most important food for many people in the lowlands of the province. It is derived from both planted and wild palms and is supplemented by varying amounts of garden produce. There are few gardens in locations which are subject to regular inundation. Fish and other river and marine produce are also important sources of food in many areas. Child malnutrition is high in the lowland part of the province where sago is the staple food.

37

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Introduction Occupied land Unoccupied land Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries District boundaries

Pur a

ri Va

Val le

KIKORI y

Kikori Baimuru

Mb we iV all ey Ivo ri V alle y

D e c e p t i on

Bay

Tauri Valley

Valley Lohiki

Kaintiba

KEREMA kamu V alle

ori

lley

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

y

L a ke

Tur am aV alle y

Kik

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Gulf Province

38

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Gulf occupies roughly 13 500 km2 on the south coast of the mainland of PNG. The province is located on the Gulf of Papua, where the estuaries of six major rivers converge into one large delta of islands, swamps and channels. The west of the province is dominated by the limestone country of the Great Papuan Plateau and the valleys of the Turama and Kikori rivers. The Purari River divides the limestone plateau country in the west from the mountains of the Albert and Staniforth ranges in the east. Towards the border with Central Province are the large plains and swamps of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers. Inland, the valleys of the Mbwei, Ivori, Lohiki, Tauri and Werr rivers are densely settled, particularly in the Kaintiba area. Average annual rainfall varies from 1300 mm on the south coast near Kerema, to over 5000 mm in the upper Kikori Valley. Most of the areas west of Ihu receive over 4000 mm of rain per year. There are long dry seasons on the coast east of Kerema. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2700 m on the Morton Peaks north of Kaintiba. The highest place where agriculture is practised is in the upper Tauri Valley, at approximately 2000 metres. There are only two districts, Kerema and Kikori.

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Population Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land

30 000 20 000 10 000

Kerema


Kikori

Number of people

The estimated rural population of Gulf in the year 2000 is 64 000, which is two per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 0.6 per cent per annum. The highest population density of 36 persons/km2 is on the coast between Iokea and the border with Central Province. The upper Tauri and Werr valleys, north of Kaintiba, have a density of 30 persons/km2, while the Murua re-settlement area, north of Kerema, has 25 persons/km2. All other areas in the province have low densities of less then 10 persons/km2. Most of the province west of Kerema is unoccupied, with only small settled areas along the coast and major rivers. Areas around Kaintiba, Ihu, Baimuru and much of the Purari, Kikori and Turama valleys have significant out-migration, particularly to Central Province.

KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


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39

39

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> 1 day’s travel to service centre

Major roads

4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre

Minor roads/tracks

4–8 hrs travel to major service centre

District boundaries


District boundaries

< 1 hrs travel to major regional centre

Airstrip

Number of people

Access to services

30 000 20 000 10 000

Kikori

Kerema

Unoccupied land

KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu

A road from runs from Kerema to Port Moresby. There is a network of minor roads and foot tracks in the Kanitiba area, but the road from Kaintiba to Kerema is not completed and is impassable to vehicles. A new road has been built from Lake Kutubu in Southern Highlands Province to Kikori, to service an oil pipeline. However, the condition of this road is unknown. Outboard motor boat and canoe are the main forms of transport along the major rivers and the coast. People on the coast between Iokea and Kerema require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the Kaintiba area and most other coastal areas require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the Vailala, Purari, Kikori and Turama valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


40

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Income Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land

30 000 20 000 10 000

Kerema


Kikori

Number of people

Gulf is one of the poorer provinces in PNG. People on the coast between Iokea and the Central Province border have high incomes derived from the sale of betel nut and fresh food, mainly in the Port Moresby markets. People around Kikori, Baimuru, Ihu, Kerema and the Lakekamu Valley earn low to moderate incomes from the sale of fresh food, betel nut and fish. All other people in the province have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fish, fresh food or coffee in the Kaintiba area. Other than small business activities and wage employment around Kerema, there are few non-agricultural sources of income in the province. Foresty operations in various locations provide limited wage employment and royalties for villagers, as does the Kutubu to Kikori oil pipeline.

KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


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41

41

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Subsistence agriculture

Low intensity sweet potato gardens

Moderate intensity banana gardens

Unoccupied land

Low intensity banana/sweet potato gardens

District boundaries

Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens

District boundaries

30 000 20 000

Kerema

10 000

Kikori

Sago with low intensity sweet potato gardens

Low intensity banana gardens

Number of people

Low intensity mixed staple gardens

KIKORI

Agriculture on the coast between Iokea and the border with Central Province is dominated by moderate intensity banana cultivation. People in the upper Lakekamu and Ivori valleys cultivate low intensity banana and sweet potato gardens, while those in the Kaintiba area make low intensity sweet potato gardens. There are 1–2 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Sago is the most important food in the Kerema, Ihu, Baimuru and Kikori areas, and in the Purari, Kikori and Turama valleys and is supported by low intensity sweet potato or mixed staple cultivation.

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


42

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Land potential Very high potential High potential

Number of people

Moderate potential Low potential Very low potential Unoccupied land

30 000 20 000 10 000

District boundaries

Kikori

District boundaries Kerema

The land potential is high to very high on the plains of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers north of Malalaua. Rainfall, slope, soils, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. The coast around Ihu and Kerema has moderate to very high land potential constrained by seasonal inundation in floodplain areas. The valleys of the Igham Hills, inland of Kerema, have moderate to very high land potential constrained by steep slopes, while the hills in the east of the Vailala Valley have moderate land potential due to steep slopes. The floodplains and plains south of Malalaua have very low to low potential caused by low rainfall, long dry seasons, poor soils and seasonal flooding. Most other areas in the province have very low to low potential due to high rainfall, poor soils, steep slopes or frequent flooding.

KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


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43

43

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Occupied land

Moderate agricultural pressure

Unoccupied land

Marginal agricultural pressure

District boundaries

High agricultural potential

District boundaries

30 000 20 000 10 000

Kikori

Very high agricultural potential

Strong agricultural pressure

Kerema

Very strong agricultural pressure

Number of people


KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

There is little agricultural pressure in the province. Around Kanabea and Kaintiba, fallow vegetation is degraded and villagers in the area report that agricultural production is poor. There is potential for agricultural development on the plains of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers north of Malalaua, where there is very high potential land and reasonable access to markets. Betel nut and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. Produce can be transported by canoe or outboard motor boat to the Port Moresby road on the coast at Terapo. Coastal areas around Ihu and Kerema and the valleys of the Igham Hills, inland of Kerema, have moderate to very high land potential and good access to markets in Port Moresby.

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


44

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Disadvantaged people Very low income

Strong pressure

Unoccupied land

Moderate pressure

District boundaries

Poor environment

District boundaries

30 000 20 000 10 000

Kerema

Poor environment, very low income

Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas)

Kikori

Poor environment, very low income, poor access Very low income, poor access

Number of people

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Lohiki, Ivori, Ankevi and Mbwei valleys, west of Kaintiba, and in the upper Purari Valley, who are constrained by poor environments, poor access to services and very low incomes. Population densities are low and the number of people affected is small. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Large numbers of people in the Kaintiba area are constrained by poor environments and very low incomes. Most other people in the province live in low potential environments.

KIKORI

Kikori Baimuru

Kaintiba

KEREMA

Ihu Kerema Malalaua

Kilometres Iokea 0

25

50

100


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45

45

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Kerema District

Kerema District is in the east of the province and covers the Albert and Staniforth ranges and the large inland plains and swamps of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1300 mm near Kerema, to over 3600 mm in the Ivori Valley. There are long dry seasons on the coast east of Kerema. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2700 m on the Morton Peaks north of Kaintiba.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 39 000. The highest population density of 36 persons/km2 is found on the coast between Iokea and the border with Central Province. The upper Tauri and Werr valleys north of Kaintiba, and the Murua Settlement area north of Kerema, have 30 persons/km2. All other areas in the district have low densities of less than 10 persons/km2. The Anga people in the Kaintiba area have language and cultural links to other Anga speakers in Eastern Highlands and Morobe provinces. The Kaintiba area has significant out-migration. The population of the Hangoia, Mienta and Kaberope census divisions decreased by an average of two per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

Gulf Province 46

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People on the coast around Iokea, and close to Kerema, require less than four hours’ travel to reach Kerema, while those in the Kaintiba area and Lakekamu Valley require 4–8 hours travel. People in the Ivori, Ankevi and Mbwei valleys, west of Kaintiba, are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. There is a road from Kerema to Port Moresby. Minor roads and foot tracks link villages in the Kanitiba area, but there is no road from Kaintiba to the coast, or north into Morobe Province.



46

Airstrips: 8

Income People on the coast around Iokea have high incomes derived from the sale of betel nut and fresh food in the Port Moresby market. People around Kerema and in the Lakekamu Valley earn low to moderate incomes from the sale of fresh food, betel nut and fish. All other people in the district have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fish, fresh food, and in the Kaintiba area, coffee. Forestry operations in various locations provide limited wage employment and royalties.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the coast around Iokea is dominated by moderate intensity banana cultivation. Coconut and sago are also important foods. People in the upper Lakekamu, Ivori, Ankevi, Lohiki and Mbwei valleys cultivate low intensity banana and sweet potato gardens, while those in the Kaintiba area make low intensity sweet potato gardens. There are 1–2 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Sago is the most important food in the Kerema area and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 52 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is high to very high on the plains of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers, north of Malalaua. The coast around Kerema has moderate to very high land potential constrained by seasonal inundation in floodplain areas, while the valleys of the Igham Hills inland of Kerema, have moderate to very high land potential limited by steep slopes. The Major roads (km): 45


floodplains and plains south of Malalaua have very low to low potential constrained by low rainfall, long dry seasons, poor soils and seasonal flooding, while the Kaintiba area has very low to low potential due to high rainfall, poor soils and steep slopes.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is some agricultural pressure in the Kaintiba area, where moderate population densities occur on very poor land. Fallow vegetation is degraded and people in this area say that food production is difficult. There is potential for agricultural development on the plains of the Tauri and Lakekamu rivers north of Malalaua, where there is very high potential land and reasonable access to the road to Port Moresby. Coastal areas around Kerema and the valleys of the Igham Hills inland of Kerema, have moderate to very high land potential and good access to markets in Port Moresby. Betel nut and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Lohiki, Ivori, Ankevi and Mbwei valleys west of Kaintiba, who are constrained by low potential environments, poor access to services and very low incomes. Population densities are low and the number of people affected is small. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Large numbers of people in the Kaintiba area are constrained by poor environments and very low incomes. Overall, people in Kerema District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 25 000. The entire district has low population densities of less than 10 persons/km2. There is significant out-migration. The population of the Kauri, Iare, Lower Turama, Ikobi-Kairi, Upper Purari and Kaimari census divisions decreased by an average of 1.6 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services Most people in the Turama, Kikori and Vailala valleys, and along the coast from Kikori to Ihu, require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. People in the upper Purari Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. There is a new road from Lake Kutubu in Southern Highlands Province to Kikori, however the condition of this road is unknown. Outboard motor boat and canoe are the most common forms of travel along the major rivers and the coast.

Income


Incomes are moderate around Kikori, Baimuru and Ihu and are derived from the sale of fresh food, betel nut and fish. All other people in the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of fish, betel nut and fresh food. Forestry operations in various locations provide limited wage employment and royalties, as does the Kutubu to Kikori oil pipeline.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is some potential for agricultural development on the coast around Ihu and in the Vailala Valley, where there is moderate land potential and reasonable access to markets in Port Moresby. Betel nut and fresh food production are minor smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.


The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the upper Purari Valley, where there are poor environments, poor access to services and very low incomes. Population densities are low and the number of people affected is small. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Small numbers of people in the Kikori Valley are constrained by poor environments and very low incomes. Most other people in the district live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Kikori District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate.

Sago is the most important food in the district and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. People make one planting before a fallow period of more than 15 years. In some places along the coast and major rivers, agriculture is not widely practised and people depend upon fishing and trade. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 33 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential Land potential is moderate on the coast around Ihu and is constrained by seasonal flooding. The Vailala Valley has moderate land potential constrained by steep slopes and high rainfall. The Turama, Kikori and Purari valleys and delta areas have very low to low potential caused by high rainfall, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and frequent inundation on the floodplains.


Kikori District

Kikori District is in the west of the province and covers the limestone country of the Great Papuan Plateau and the valleys of the Turama, Kikori and Purari rivers. The estuaries of these rivers converge into one large delta at the coast. Average annual rainfall ranges from 3300 mm near Ihu, to over 5000 mm in the upper Kikori Valley. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1600 m on Mt Faveng.

Gulf Province


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47

Airstrips: 10

Major roads (km): 0





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Central Province

A man makes terraced gardens on the Sogeri Plateau. Land improvement practices that support agricultural intensification and reduce pressure on land have been widely adopted in the highlands, but are not commonly used in the lowlands and islands. Some practices, which have been developed in particular regions of PNG, are now spreading as people migrate to live in other parts of the country. In this case, people from the Sarawaget Range in Morobe Province are creating small terraces for gardens near Sogeri. Local people have adopted the introduced technique.

A sweet potato garden and steep degraded hills. The environment of Goilala District has very low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils, excessive cloud cover, low temperatures and a long dry season. People are vulnerable to drought, frost and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Child malnutrition in the district is serious. The poor environment limits opportunities for people to improve their livelihoods through cash crop development.

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Introduction

GOILALA Guari

Tapini

gab An an g

Kosipe Woitape

a Valley

Bereina

Occupied land Unoccupied land KAIRUKU-HIRI

Major roads yR nle Sta en Ow

Minor roads/tracks

Efogi


ge an

Sogeri Port Moresby

RIGO Ormond Valley

ey elch Vall Kemp-W

Kwikila

Ow

en

Sta n l e y R a n

Kupiano

0

25

Cape Rodney 100

50

Abau Baxter Bay

Magarida

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Central Province

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ABAU

Hood Bay

Kilometres

ge

Central Province occupies 29 900 km2 along the south coast of the PNG mainland. The rugged Owen Stanley Range forms the border with Oro Province. In the northwest are the Guari, Tapini, Woitape and Iongai areas at the headwaters of the Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa and Mambare rivers. In the southeast are the Efogi, Dorobisoro, Mari and Keria areas at the headwaters of the Brown, Kemp-Welch, Ulamanu and Kutu rivers. Coastal hills, plains and swamps cover the lowlands of the province. Average annual rainfall varies from 1200 mm north of Bereina, to 3000 mm in the Owen Stanley Range, but most of the province receives less than 2000 mm per year with a long dry season. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m on Mt Victoria in the Owen Stanley Range. Port Moresby has a powerful influence on the economy and the movement of people in this province. Good roads allow people to commute for long distances to work in Port Moresby from coastal villages that have among the highest housing standards in the country, and also have electricity supplies and running water. The peri-urban areas around the city are densely settled with people from all over the country. The four districts in Central are Abau, Goilala, Kairuku-Hiri and Rigo. The city of Port Moresby and the nearby surrounds are part of the National Capital District (NCD) and are not described here.

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Population 60 000 50 000 Number of people

GOILALA Guari

Tapini

40 000 30 000 20 000

Kosipe 10 000

Woitape

Rigo

Low density (1–20 persons/km2)

Efogi

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land

Sogeri Port Moresby

District boundaries

RIGO

District boundaries Kwikila

Kupiano

0

25

50

ABAU Cape Rodney

100


51

Kairuku-Hiri

KAIRUKU-HIRI

Kilometres

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Goilala

Bereina Abau

The estimated rural population of Central in the year 2000 is 167 000, which is four per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is two per cent per annum. The highest population density is on the plains west of Bereina with 225 persons/km2, while the coastal areas around Cape Hood, Kupiano and Baxter Bay have 120 persons/km2. The Cape Rodney land settlement scheme has an average density of 60 persons/km2. The Bereina area, Kwikila area and northern inland valleys around Tapini have moderate densities of 30 persons/km2, while all other areas in the province have low densities of 10 persons/km2. Over half of the province is unoccupied. Areas around Port Moresby, Bereina and Kwikila have significant in-migration of people, while the Tapini, Sogeri and Efogi areas have significant outmigration.

Abau Magarida

51

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Access to services 60 000

Number of people

50 000

GOILALA Guari

40 000 30 000 20 000

Tapini


Kosipe

10 000

1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre

Rigo

Kairuku-Hiri


Goilala

Bereina

Abau


Woitape

KAIRUKU-HIRI Unoccupied land Efogi

Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries

Sogeri Port Moresby

District boundaries RIGO

Airstrip

Kwikila

Kupiano Kilometres 0

25

Cape Rodney 100

50

Magarida


52

ANUA001 layout new

ABAU Abau

52

The coastal areas of the province have a network of good roads, although some are in poor condition. The Hiritano Highway runs from Port Moresby to Bereina and on to Kerema in Gulf Province. A sealed road runs southeast from Port Moresby to Kwikila, and continues unsealed to Kupiano. Roads northwest and southeast from Port Moresby are plagued by criminal activity and serious assaults on travellers. A sealed road runs inland from Port Moresby to the Sogeri Plateau, while a partly surfaced road runs into the mountains from Kubuna to Tapini. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the coast. People within a 40 km radius of Port Moresby require less than one hour’s travel to reach the city, while most others on the coastal plains and hills require less than four hours’ travel. People in the inland valleys around Tapini and Efogi and in the far southeast of the province, near the border with Milne Bay Province, require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. Those in the Owen Stanley Range, inland of Kwikila, are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

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Income 60 000 50 000 Number of people

GOILALA Guari

20 000 10 000

Kosipe

Rigo

Kairuku-Hiri

Goilala

Woitape Bereina

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) KAIRUKU-HIRI

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year)

Efogi

High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land

Sogeri Port Moresby


District boundaries

Kwikila

Kupiano

0

25

50

ABAU Cape Rodney

100


53

30 000

Tapini

Kilometres

ANUA001 layout new

40 000

Abau

People in the Bereina area have very high incomes derived from the sale of betel nut and fresh food, while people in parts of the Sogeri Plateau and Cape Rodney land settlement schemes earn high incomes from the sale of fresh food and rubber. People in the mid Angabanga Valley, southwest of Tapini, earn moderate incomes from the sale of betel nut, coffee, fresh food and rubber, while those within a 40 km radius of Port Moresby markets earn moderate incomes from the sale of fresh food. People in most other areas of the province have very low to low incomes derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food in the mountains, and betel nut, coconut, fish and fresh food in the coastal areas. There are many sources of non-agricultural income around Port Moresby including wage employment and small business activities such as the running of PMVs and trade stores.

Abau Magarida

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Subsistence agriculture Low intensity mixed staple gardens

60 000

Low intensity banana gardens High intensity banana gardens GOILALA

Low intensity bananna/cassava gardens Low intensity bananna/sweet potato gardens

Guari

Moderate intensity bananna/sweet potato gardens

Tapini Kosipe


50 000 Number of people


40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Unoccupied land District boundaries

Rigo

Kairuku-Hiri

Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens

Goilala

Abau

High intensity sweet potato gardens

Woitape Bereina

District boundaries KAIRUKU-HIRI Efogi

Sogeri Port Moresby

Sweet potato and banana are the two most important staple crops in the province. On the coast around Port Moresby, from Redscar Head in the west, to Gabagaba in the east, people cultivate high intensity banana gardens. Those in the area along the Hiritano Highway, north of Port Moresby, and in the Bereina and Kwikila areas cultivate moderate intensity banana gardens. In most other areas of the coastal plains and hills, people make low intensity banana gardens. Coconut is an important food in lowland areas. Agriculture in the inland valleys of the Owen Stanley Range is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. Here people make two consecutive plantings after fallow periods of 5–15 years.

RIGO

Kwikila


25

Cape Rodney 100

50

Magarida


54

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ABAU Abau

54

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Land potential 60 000 50 000 Number of people

GOILALA Guari

Kosipe

10 000

Woitape

High potential KAIRUKU-HIRI

Rigo

Kairuku-Hiri

Very high potential

Goilala

Bereina

Moderate potential Low potential

Efogi

Very low potential Unoccupied land District boundaries

Sogeri Port Moresby


Kwikila

Kupiano

0

25

50

ABAU Cape Rodney

100


55

30 000 20 000

Tapini

Kilometres

ANUA001 layout new

40 000

Abau

The land potential is very high on the Sogeri Plateau, the plains and hills inland of Kupiano and in the tributary valleys of the Vanapa River. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. There is high land potential on the plains east of Kupiano, around Baxter Bay, and in the valleys between Galley Reach and Sogeri. There is moderate to high land potential in the Ormond, Aieme, Uma and Welch valleys, inland of Kwikila, constrained by steep slopes. Most of the occupied areas between Kupiano and the border with Milne Bay Province have moderate potential constrained by poor soils and steep slopes. Most areas northwest of Port Moresby have very low to low potential due to combinations of poor soils, low rainfall, seasonal inundation, a long dry season, steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. Low temperatures and frost are also constraints at higher altitudes.

Abau Magarida

55

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Agricultural pressure and potential 60 000

Number of people

50 000

GOILALA Guari

40 000 30 000 20 000

Tapini 10 000

Kosipe


Rigo

Kairuku-Hiri


Goilala


Abau

Woitape Bereina


KAIRUKU-HIRI

High agricultural potential Efogi

Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land

Sogeri Port Moresby


District boundaries

Kwikila


25

Cape Rodney 100

50

Magarida


56

ANUA001 layout new

ABAU Abau

There is strong agricultural pressure on the floodplains around Bereina and in the peri-urban areas of Port Moresby around the Laloki and Goldie rivers, resulting from high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation and declining crop yields. There is moderate agricultural pressure on the coastal plains and valleys around Kwikila and Kupiano and there is marginal pressure inland of Kwikila. There is potential for agricultural development on the Sogeri Plateau and in the areas inland of Kupiano around the Cape Rodney land settlement schemes, where there is high to very high land potential and good access to markets. Fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. There is potential for development in the tributary valleys of the Vanapa River where there is high to very high land potential. However much of the area is unoccupied and has no roads.

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Disadvantaged people 60 000

Strong pressure, very low income Moderate pressure, very low income Poor environment, very low income Poor environment, poor access GOILALA

Strong pressure Guari

Moderate pressure Poor environment

30 000 20 000 10 000

Poor access

Kosipe

District boundaries

Rigo

District boundaries

Kairuku-Hiri

Abau

Unoccupied land

Bereina

Goilala


Woitape

KAIRUKU-HIRI Efogi

Sogeri Port Moresby

RIGO

Kwikila

Kupiano

0

25

50

ABAU Cape Rodney

100


57

40 000

Very low income

Tapini

Kilometres

ANUA001 layout new


The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the inland valleys around Efogi, Tapini, Woitape and Iongai who live in very low potential environments. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of drought, frost damage and food shortages, and because they have low incomes there is limited opportunity to purchase supplementary food. People around Kwikila earn very low incomes and, in some places, are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Small numbers of people southeast of Bereina earn very low incomes and live in a low potential environment. Large numbers of people around Bereina are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and are vulnerable to declining crop yields and food shortages. However, they have high incomes from the sale of betel nut and can purchase supplementary food.

Abau Magarida

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Abau District

Abau District is in the southeast of Central Province and covers the coastal swamps, plains and hills from Hood Lagoon to the border with Milne Bay Province, and the mountains and valleys of the Owen Stanley Range. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1600 mm west of Kupiano, to 2700 mm in the Owen Stanley Range. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2900 m on Mt Dayman.

Income

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 34 000. The highest population densities of 120 persons/km2 are in small areas along the coast near Kupiano and Abau. The Cape Rodney land settlement scheme has a density of 60 persons/km2, while the coastal plains west of Kupiano support 27 persons/km2. All other areas in the district have densities of 20 persons/km2 except in the Owen Stanley Range where there are 8 persons/km2.

Agriculture on the coastal plains, west of Kupiano, is dominated by moderate intensity banana and sweet potato cultivation. There are two consecutive plantings before a 5–15 year fallow period. In most other areas in the east of the district, people cultivate low intensity banana gardens, while those in the west of the district make low intensity mixed staple gardens. People on the Baxter Bay coast and in the Owen Stanley Range make low intensity sweet potato gardens. Tillage is used at Baxter Bay and soil retention barriers and mounding are used in the mountains. Coconut is an important food in lowland areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 33 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Central Province 58

ANUA001 layout new

People in the coastal areas and inland valleys, west of Abau, require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the east of the district require 4–8 hours’ travel. A sealed road runs from Port Moresby to Kwikila. From Kwikila to Kupiano the road is unsurfaced and is often impassable after extended periods of wet weather. There are minor roads between Kupiano and Abau but the coast east of Mori River has no road connection to main centres. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the coast, both to Alotau and Port Moresby.



58

Airstrips: 4

Incomes are high in the Cape Rodney land settlement area and are derived from the sale of fresh food and, to a lesser extent, rubber. People in most other areas of the district earn low incomes. In the coastal areas, people sell fish, betel nut, fresh food and coconut, while those in the inland mountains and valleys sell fresh food and coffee.

Land potential The land potential is very high on the plains and hills inland of Kupiano. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. There is high land potential on the plains east of Kupiano, around the Bomguino and Mori rivers, and on the coast of Baxter Bay. Most of the coastal plains and inland valleys east of



Kupiano have moderate potential due to poor soils and seasonal inundation. The coastal plains west of Kupiano have low potential constrained by poor soils and low rainfall, while the Owen Stanley Range has low potential caused by steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate agricultural pressure on the coastal plains west of Kupiano. The plains and hills around Kupiano have strong potential for agricultural development given the high to very high land potential and good access to markets. Fresh food and rubber are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the Cape Rodney land settlement area. The production of betel nut is another potential cash-earning activity. Areas to the west of Abau, around Magarida and Baibara, have moderate land potential but poor access to markets. A road connection to the oil palm developments across the border in Milne Bay Province would create development opportunities in the east of the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers on the coastal plains west of Kupiano who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Small numbers of people in the Owen Stanley Range are isolated and live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Abau District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. The highest population densities occur in the upper Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa and Mambare valleys with 30 persons/km2; while the mid Angabanga Valley, southwest of Tapini, and the Dilava Valley have low densities of 8 persons/km2. There is significant out-migration from the district. The population of the Chirima, Dilava and Ivane census divisions decreased by an average of 1.5 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


ANUA001 layout new


59

Airstrips: 10


Incomes are moderate in the in the mid Angabanga Valley, southwest of Tapini, and in the Dilava Valley, and are derived from the sale of fresh food and betel nut. Coffee and rubber are also grown in the Bakoiudu resettlement area. People in the upper Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa and Mambare valleys earn low incomes from minor sales of fresh food, cattle, potato and tobacco. The gold mining operation at Tolukuma, north of Woitape, has little influence on the local economy as most supplies are flown in.

There are isolated areas of agricultural pressure in the district. The lower Kunimaipa Valley is the only area in the district with potential for significant agricultural development. While there is no road access, produce such as fresh food or betel nut can be transported by canoe or speed boat to the Hiritano Highway. People inland of Bereina use similar means to market their produce.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the upper Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa and Mambare valleys is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. There are two plantings before a 5–15 year fallow period. Crop diversity is higher and intensity is lower in the mid Angabanga Valley, southwest of Tapini, and in the Dilava Valley. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 57 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa, Dilava and Mambare valleys who are constrained by very low potential environments. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of drought, frost damage and food shortages, and because they have low incomes they are unable to purchase supplementary food. Such poor environments limit the potential for cash crop development to increase incomes. Overall, people in Goilala District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.

The land potential is high in the lower Kunimaipa Valley where there are no constraints. The upper Kunimaipa Valley, around Guari, has moderate land potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The upper Angabanga, Vanapa, Dilava and Mambare valleys have very low to low potential due to steep slopes, a long dry season and frequent cloud cover. Higher altitude areas are further constrained by low temperatures and frost. Major roads (km): 24



Central Province

People in the mid Angabanga Valley, southwest of Tapini, and in the Dilava Valley require less than four hours’ travel to reach Port Moresby. Those in the upper Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Vanapa and Mambare valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel. The only road in the district runs from the Hiritano Highway through the Angabanga Valley to Tapini. Many wellgraded tracks, some able to be negotiated by tractors and motorcycles, continue on from Tapini to Guari, Erume, Kerau, Woitape and Iongai.

Income

Goilala District

Goilala District is located in the north of the province. It covers the mountains and valleys of the Owen Stanley Range around the headwaters of the Kunimaipa, Angabanga, Dilava, Vanapa and Mambare rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 mm near Tapini, to 3200 mm in the upper Mambare Valley. There is a moderate dry season. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3900 m on Mt Albert Edward. Most people live between 1000 and 2200 metres.



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Kairuku-Hiri District

Kairuku-Hiri District is located on the northwest coast of Central Province and covers the coastal swamps, plains and hills from the border with Gulf Province in the north, to Gaire village southeast of Port Moresby. The inland part of the district covers the Sogeri Plateau and Owen Stanley Range around the Kokoda Track. Port Moresby is within the district, but is not administratively part of it. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1200 mm north of Bereina, to 3000 mm in the Owen Stanley Range, with a long dry season. Altitude varies from sea level to 4000 m on Mt Victoria.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 63 000. The highest population density is on the coast west of Bereina with 225 persons/km2, while the lower Angabanga Valley and all other coastal areas have 40 persons/km2. The Sogeri Plateau, Owen Stanley Range and inland plains and hills have low densities that average 10 perons/km2. Coastal areas around Port Moresby and the Angabanga Valley north of Bereina have significant in-migration of people. The population of the East Coast Hiri, West Coast Hiri and Mekeo census divisions increased by an average of five per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990. There is significant out-migration from areas along the Kokoda Track.

Access to services

Central Province 60

ANUA001 layout new

People within a 40 km radius of Port Moresby require less than one hour’s travel to reach the city. Most other people in the district require less than four hours’ travel, except for those along the Kokoda Track who require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Port Moresby. The Hiritano Highway runs from Port Moresby to Bereina and on to Kerema in Gulf Province. A sealed



60

Airstrips: 11

road runs southeast from Port Moresby to Kwikila. Another sealed road extends onto the Sogeri Plateau. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas and along the major rivers.

slopes. Most areas north and northwest of Port Moresby have very low to low potential due to combinations of poor soils, low rainfall, seasonal inundation, a long dry season and steep slopes.

Income


The Port Moresby fresh food and betel nut markets provide income earning opportunities for people in the district who have good access to them. Incomes are very high in the Bereina area and are derived from the sale of betel nut and fresh food. Most other people in the district earn moderate incomes from the sale of fresh food, except those southeast of Bereina who earn very low incomes. There are many other sources of non-agricultural income around Port Moresby including wage employment and small business activities. Good roads allow people to commute over long distances to Port Moresby.

There is strong agricultural pressure on the floodplains around Bereina and in the settlement areas north of Port Moresby, resulting from high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. The Sogeri Plateau and tributary valleys of the Vanapa River have potential for agricultural development given the high to very high land potential. Access to Sogeri is good, but much of the Vanapa River area has no roads and is very sparsely occupied by squatters and settlers. Fresh food and betel nut have potential for development in this area.



Agriculture on the coast around Port Moresby is characterised by high intensity banana production, while in most other areas on the coastal plains and hills people cultivate moderate to low intensity banana gardens. Coconut is an important food in lowland areas. People in the Kokoka Track area cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 30 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were under weight.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are those along the Kokoda Track who live in very low potential environments and have no road access to Port Moresby. Elsewhere, even where incomes earned from agriculture are low, access to Port Moresby creates income earning opportunities. Small numbers of people in the Angabanga Valley and north of Port Moresby are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and are vulnerable to declining crop yields and food shortages. However, they earn high incomes from the sale of betel nut and can purchase supplementary food. Overall, people in Kairuku-Hiri District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.

Land potential Land potential is very high on the Sogeri Plateau and in the tributary valleys of the Vanapa River. There is high land potential in the valleys between the Vanapa River and Sogeri, constrained by steep Major roads (km): 273





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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. The highest population density is around Hood Point with 120 persons/km2, while the coastal plains, hills and inland valleys around Kwikila have an average of 30 persons/km2. The MacGillivray Range supports 20 persons/km2, while the Owen Stanley Range supports 14 persons/km2. The coastal areas and inland valleys around Kwikila have significant in-migration. The population of the Rigo census division increased by 3.7 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


ANUA001 layout new


61

Airstrips: 2

Income Incomes from agriculture are low on the coastal plains and are derived from the sale of fish, betel nut and fresh food. However, many people commute daily to Port Moresby and this provides them with a source of non-agricultural income. People in the MacGillivray and Owen Stanley ranges earn low incomes from sales of fresh food and firewood, while those in the coastal hills and valleys, inland of Kwikila, earn very low incomes from minor sales of fresh food, cattle and betel nut.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the coast from Gaire to Gabagaba is dominated by high intensity banana cultivation. On the coastal plains and valleys inland of Kwikila, people cultivate moderate intensity banana and sweet potato gardens; while those in the MacGillivray and Owen Stanley ranges also cultivate banana and sweet potato, but at low intensity. Coconut is an important food in lowland areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 28 per cent of children were stunted and nine per cent were seriously under weight.



Land potential The land potential is moderate to high in the valleys inland of Kwikila, but is constrained by steep slopes. The coastal plains have low potential due to low rainfall, poor soils, a long dry season and seasonal flooding, while the MacGillivray Range has low potential constrained by a long dry season, steep slopes and poor soils. The Owen Stanley Range has low potential caused by steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate and marginal agricultural pressure in the coastal plains and hills, resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. The valleys inland of Kwikila have some potential for agricultural development given the moderate to high land potential and reasonable access to markets. The production of fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the area.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations in the Owen Stanley Range who live in a low potential environment and have poor access to services. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People on the coastal plains around Kwikila are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes, while people in the inland valleys earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Rigo District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very low, access to services is good and cash incomes are very low.




Central Province

People in the coastal areas and inland valleys around Kwikila and the MacGillivray Range require less than four hours’ travel to reach Port Moresby. People in the Owen Stanley Range are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. A sealed road runs from Port Moresby to Kwikila. Between Kwikila and Kupiano, the road is not surfaced and is often impassable after extended periods of

wet weather. This road is also subject to frequent criminal activity. There is a good network of minor roads in the coastal areas and inland valleys. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas and along the Kemp-Welch River.

Rigo District

Rigo District is in the southeast of Central Province and covers the coastal swamps, plains and hills from Gaire to Hood Lagoon, the MacGillivray and Owen Stanley ranges and the inland hills and valleys of the Aieme, Uma, Iara, Ormond, KempWelch and Goada rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1300 mm near Hood Point, to 3000 mm in the Owen Stanley Range. There is a long dry season on the coast. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3200 m on Mt Nisbet.

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62

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Milne Bay Province

Parched land along the coast near Wedau. The area between Cape Vogel and Wedau experiences a long dry season and occasional droughts, as illustrated by this parched landscape near Wedau during the major 1997 drought. Periods of drought often result in food shortages. The green patches are taro plots that are irrigated with water from the stream above the village. Irrigation is very uncommon in PNG. Coconuts, seen in this image along the coastline, are an important food source in most of the province, especially on the very small islands.

People trade marine produce for fresh food on Goodenough Island. Canoes and motor boats are the main form of transport in Milne Bay Province. The maritime people of the province travel between the islands to trade fresh produce and other goods. On many of the small islands, very high population densities have caused land shortages and environmental degradation, and people must depend on trade to survive. They exchange fish with garden produce that is grown on the larger islands. In this case, people from Wagifa Island are trading fish and other marine produce for bananas, root crops and vegetables on Goodenough Island. 63

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13/11/01, 12:25 PM

Introduction

Luscany Islands

Kiriwina Is. Kitava Is. Marshall Bennett Islands

KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

Woodlark Is.

Goodenough Is. Fergusson Is.

SAMARAI-MURUA Alcester Is.

Cape Vogel

R Va uab lle a y

Agaun

Budibudi Islands

Yanaba Is.

ESA’ALA Normanby Is.

Rabaraba Wedau

ALOTAU Naura

East Cape

Bonvouloir Islands

Alotau Sagarai

Engineer Group

Samarai

Deboyne Islands

Conflict G

Misima Is. Renard Islands

roup

SAMARAI-MURUA Calvad os Cha in

Rossell Is. Sudest Is.

Kilometres 0

50

100

Occupied land

Major roads

District boundaries

Unoccupied land

Minor roads/tracks

District boundaries

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Milne Bay Province

64

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25

64

Milne Bay occupies 14 100 km2 in the southeast of PNG. The province covers the eastern part of the New Guinea mainland and a number of large and smaller island groups. The furthest islands are over 300 km from Alotau. The eastern extent of the Owen Stanley Range dominates the New Guinea mainland. Narrow coastal plains extend from Cape Vogel near the Oro Province border to Orangerie Bay near the Central Province border. The D’Entrecasteaux Islands are dominated by coastal plains, floodplains and mountains, including two dormant volcanoes in the southeast of Fergusson Island. The Trobriand and Woodlark islands are flat raised coral limestone plains, while the Louisiade Islands are a combination of larger mountainous islands and small coral atolls. Average annual rainfall varies from 1800 mm around Cape Vogel, to over 4000 mm in the Trobriand and Woodlark islands. There are long dry seasons on Goodenough Island, the northeast coast of Fergusson Island and in the Cape Vogel area between Wedau and the Oro Province border. Most of the small atolls and larger raised coral islands are prone to drought when dry seasons become unusually long, as occurs during El Niño years. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2900 m on Mt Dayman in the Owen Stanley Range. The four districts in Milne Bay are Alotau, Esa’ala, Kiriwina-Goodenough and Samarai-Murua.

13/11/01, 12:25 PM


KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

SAMARAI-MURUA 10 000

ALOTAU Naura Alotau Sagarai Samarai

Samarai-Murua

Rabaraba Wedau

Kiriwina-Goodenough

Agaun

Esa’ala

ESA’ALA Alotau

The estimated rural population of Milne Bay in the year 2000 is 194 000, which is five per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 2.4 per cent per annum. The highest population densities of over 300 persons/km2 are on two small islands, Iwa Island in the Marshall Bennet Group and Wari Island southeast of Samarai. The Agaun area in the Owen Stanley Range, the east coast of Normanby Island, the southeast coast of Fergusson Island and most of the Trobriand Islands have densities of 130 persons/km2. There are population densities of 75 persons/km2 in the Wedau area on the north coast of the mainland, and on the east coast of Goodenough Island. The atolls west of the Trobriand Islands, the Marshall Bennett Islands and Misima Island have similar densities. Other areas have low to moderate population densities. There is significant in-migration of people to Misima Island, Kiriwina Island and the Alotau area.

SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Low density (1–20 persons/km2)

Unoccupied land

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2)

District boundaries

High density (61–100 persons/km2)

District boundaries

Very high density (101–600 persons/km2)


ANUA001 layout new

65

65

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Access to services

Number of people

60 000

KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000


Samarai

Samarai-Murua

Alotau Sagarai

Kiriwina-Goodenough

ALOTAU Naura

Esa’ala

Agaun

Alotau

ESA’ALA Rabaraba Wedau

SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

50

100



District boundaries


Unoccupied land

District boundaries


Major roads

Airstrip


Minor roads/tracks


66

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25

There is a good network of roads on the mainland around Alotau and a road to the oil palm developments near Sagarai. The larger islands have some roads but they are in poor condition and there are few vehicles. Most transport in the province is by trawler sized passenger boats, cargo work boats, outboard motor boats and canoes. Organised shipping services are irregular and expensive, particularly to the smaller islands. People on Misima Island and in the coastal areas of the mainland around Alotau, Waga Waga and Sagarai require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. People in most other areas of the province require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, except those on Yanaba Island, Alcester Island and the Budibudi Islands who are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

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KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

67

40 000 30 000 20 000


Alotau Sagarai Samarai

Samarai-Murua

ALOTAU Naura

Kiriwina-Goodenough

Agaun

Esa’ala


SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year)

Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year)

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year)

Unoccupied land

Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year)

District boundaries

High income (101–200 kina/person/year)

District boundaries


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50 000

Alotau

People in the coastal areas of the mainland around Alotau, Waga Waga and Sagarai earn moderate incomes from the sale of copra, fresh food, betel nut, oil palm and fish. People in the Trobriand Islands have moderate incomes from the sale of fresh food, betel nut and fish. All other people in the province have very low to low incomes. There are minor sales of coffee and potato in the Owen Stanley Ranges, while people on most islands derive some income from sales of fresh food, fish, copra and betel nut. Copra was a large industry in the province but has almost collapsed through the combination of high shipping costs and low prices. Non-agricultural income around Alotau is derived from business activities and wage employment from the Sagarai oil palm plantations. The mining operations on Misima Island provide significant incomes to those involved, but mine activities are planned to cease around 2003. There is also a small boat building industry centred around a number of different locations.

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Number of people

60 000

KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000


Alotau Sagarai Samarai

Samarai-Murua

ALOTAU Naura

Kiriwina-Goodenough

Esa’ala

Agaun

Alotau


SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

50

100


Moderate intensity coconut gardens

Low intensity yam gardens

Moderate intensity mixed staple gardens


Unoccupied land

Low intensity banana gardens

Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens

District boundaries



District boundaries

Low intensity cassava/sweet potato gardens

Low intensity sweet potato/yam gardens


68

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People on the small atolls near the Trobriand Group and on Woodlark Island depend on coconut and fish as their main sources of food. They also practice some agriculture in the form of moderate intensity mixed staple cultivation. On all other islands and most of the mainland, low intensity mixed staple gardens are dominant. People on some of the smaller islands are not self-sufficient in food and livelihoods are maintained by trading. In the Owen Stanley Range and in the Pumani and Wedau areas, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Small mounds and terraces are used. In a few restricted locations near Rabaraba, irrigation is used for taro production. People in the coastal valleys of Cape Vogel cultivate low and moderate intensity banana gardens, with coconut as an important supplement.

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KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

69

40 000 30 000 20 000



Samarai-Murua

Rabaraba Wedau

Kiriwina-Goodenough

Agaun

Esa’ala

ESA’ALA

SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Very high potential

Very low potential

High potential

Unoccupied land

Moderate potential

District boundaries

Low potential

District boundaries


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50 000

Alotau

Land potential is very high in scattered areas of the mainland, the Asapoi Valley on Fergusson Island and on the east coast of Goodenough Island. Land in the Asapoi Valley is among the most productive in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, cloud cover and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. There is high land potential on most of the mainland south of Gurney and on Normanby, Fergusson, Sideia and Basilaki islands. Steep slopes and frequent flooding are common limitations in these areas. Most of the Louisiade Islands have moderate potential limited by steep slopes and poor soils, while Cape Vogel and the Ruaba Valley have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes and long dry seasons. The Trobriand and Woodlark islands have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and high rainfall.

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Number of people

60 000

KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000


Samarai

Samarai-Murua

Alotau Sagarai

Kiriwina-Goodenough

ALOTAU Naura

Esa’ala

Agaun

Alotau


SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

50

100




Occupied land


Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries


70

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25

Strong and moderate agricultural pressure occurs on Cape Vogel, in the Budibudi Islands and on some islands in the Calvados Chain. This is caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is marginal pressure in the Trobriand and Marshall Bennett islands, and in isolated areas along the north coast of the mainland. There is potential for agricultural development on the mainland where the land has high to very high potential and road access to markets in Alotau is good. Oil palm, cocoa, copra, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities. There are opportunities for agricultural development in the D’Entrecasteaux Islands given the moderate to very high potential land and relatively short sea distance to Alotau. A regular coastal barge service could encourage production of crops like cocoa and copra, which are well suited to the area. Copra production on the outer islands is limited by the cost of shipping.

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KIRIWINA-GOODENOUGH

71

40 000 30 000 20 000



Samarai-Murua

Rabaraba Wedau

Kiriwina-Goodenough

Agaun

Esa’ala

ESA’ALA

SAMARAI-MURUA

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Strong pressure, very low income, poor access

Very low income, poor access

Moderate pressure, very low income, poor access



Poor environment, very low income, poor access

Moderate pressure

Unoccupied land

Strong pressure, very low income

Poor environment

District boundaries

Moderate pressure, very low income

Very low income

District boundaries


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50 000

Alotau

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those on the atolls west of Kiriwina Island and on Yanaba, Alcester and the Budibudi islands, where there are high population densities, very low incomes, poor access to services and, on the Budibudi Islands, moderate agricultural pressure. These people are vulnerable to the effects of declining crop yields, drought and food shortages, and have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Small numbers of people in the Ruaba Valley, inland of Cape Vogel, face similar constraints. On the south coast of Goodenough Island and in the valleys of Cape Vogel, people are constrained by poor environments and very low incomes. Others on Cape Vogel are constrained by strong to moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Many other people in the province have very low incomes.

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Alotau District

Alotau District covers the eastern end of the New Guinea mainland. The coastal areas are dominated by narrow plains and inland hills, while the interior of the district is mountainous. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1800 mm around Cape Vogel, to 3000 mm near East Cape. There is a long dry season in the northwest of the district from the Oro Province border to Wedau. Altitude varies from sea level to 2900 m on Mt Dayman. Most people live near sea level, but there is agriculture up to 1200 m in the Agaun area.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 60 000. The highest population densities are around Agaun with 120 persons/km2, while the coastal plains between Rabaraba and Wedau have 85 persons/km2. The valleys of Cape Vogel, most coastal areas east of Wedau and the plains of the Maiwara and Sagarai rivers have densities of 30 persons/km2. Other areas in the district have low densities of 10 persons/km2. There is significant in-migration of people to the coastal plains around Alotau. The population of the Tavara census division increased by four per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

Milne Bay Province 72

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There is a good network of roads in a small area around Milne Bay and on the oil palm developments near Sagarai. Elsewhere there are foot tracks along the coast and into the mountains. Travel along the coast is by motor boat. People on the coast of Milne Bay, south coast around Suau and the Sagarai Valley require less than four hours’ travel to reach Alotau. People in most other areas of the district



72

Airstrips: 11

require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, except for those around Pumani who are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Income Incomes on the coast of Milne Bay and in the Sagarai Valley are moderate and are derived from the sale of oil palm, coconut, fresh food, betel nut, cocoa and fish. People in the inland valleys earn low incomes from the sale of coffee, fresh food and potatoes; while all other people in the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of fresh food and coconut. There is some non-agricultural income around Alotau and Sagarai from business activities, wage employment and tourism.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition In the Ruaba, Kutu and Mase valleys, and along the coast from Rabaraba to Wedau, agriculture is dominated by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. Some irrigation is used on taro gardens in the Rabaraba area. In the coastal valleys of Cape Vogel, people cultivate moderate intensity banana gardens. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 15 years. People in all other areas in the district make low intensity mixed staple gardens. Coconut is an important food in all areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 44 per cent of children were stunted and 12 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is high to very high in the Maiwara, Gumini, Sagarai and Dawa Dawa valleys and in coastal areas of Milne Bay. Most of the north coast has low to moderate potential caused by poor soils, long dry seasons and occasional drought, while Major roads (km): 49


the coastal plains of Orangerie Bay have moderate potential due to frequent flooding. Cape Vogel and the Ruaba Valley have very low to moderate potential limited by poor soils, steep slopes, long dry seasons and occasional drought.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate and strong agricultural pressure on Cape Vogel caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There is marginal pressure in isolated areas along the coast west of Cape Vogel. There is potential for agricultural development in the Maiwara, Gumini, Sagarai and Dawa Dawa valleys and along the coast of Milne Bay, where there is high to very high potential land and good access to markets. Oil palm, cocoa, fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations around Pumani where the environment has very low potential, incomes are very low and access to services is poor. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in nearby areas of the Ruaba Valley have similar constraints but the land potential is moderate. On most of Cape Vogel, people are constrained by moderate to strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes. People on the north coast from Wabara Point to East Cape have very low incomes. Overall, people in Alotau District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is poor and incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 45 000. The highest population densities of 130 persons/km2 are around the Deidei Peninsula in the southeast of Fergusson Island, the Guleguleu area in the southeast of Normanby Island, and on Dobu, Waiope and Neumara islands. All other areas in the district have moderate densities of 30 persons/km2.

Access to services There are minor roads on Fergusson and Normanby islands, but there are few vehicles in use. Most transport in the district is by outboard motor boats, diesel work boats and canoes. Organised shipping services are irregular and expensive. People in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre.

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73

Airstrips: 5

Incomes in most of the district are low and are derived from the sale of cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. People living around Ialamele and Kalo in the northwest of Fergusson Island, on the Deidei Peninsula, in the Guleguleu area, and on Dobu, Waiope and Neumara islands, earn very low incomes from minor sales of betel nut and fresh food. There are few sources of non-agricultural income in the district.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the Deidei Peninsula, the southeast coast of Normanby Island, and Dobu, Waiope and Neumara islands is dominated by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. Coconut is an important food. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 4–10 years. People in the northwest of Fergusson Island make low intensity cassava and sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 56 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is very high in the Asapoi Valley, on the south and east coasts of Fergusson Island, on the northwest coast of Normanby Island, on Sanaroa Island and on Wawiwa and Yabwaia islands in the Amphlett Group. The land in the Asapoi Valley is among the most productive in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many tropical crops. There is

Major roads (km): 0


a large area of high potential land in the district, but much of it is limited by steep slopes or poor soils. The mountains on Fergusson and Normanby islands have low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is good potential for agricultural development given the moderate to very high potential land and the relatively short shipping distance to Alotau. A reliable and regular coastal barge service between Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby islands, supported by extension activities, could encourage production of crops such as cocoa and coconut, which are well suited to the area and are already established smallholder cash-earning activities.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Deidei Peninsula, the Guleguleu area, and on Dobu, Waiope and Neumara islands, where there are very high population densities and very low incomes. Possible land shortages limit opportunities to improve incomes through cash-cropping. People in the Ialamele and Kalo areas, in the northwest of Fergusson Island, earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Esa’ala District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




Milne Bay Province


Income

Esa’ala District

Esa’ala District covers the Amphlett Group, Fergusson Island, Sanaroa Island, Normanby Island, Waiope Island, Neumara Island and Dobu Island. Fergusson and Normanby islands are dominated by mountains and are surrounded by narrow coastal plains. The Asapoi, Salamo and Bunai valleys on Fergusson Island have larger inland areas of plains and hills. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2000 mm near Iamalele, to 3300 mm near Darubia. There are long dry seasons in the northwest of Fergusson Island. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1600 m on Mt Maybole.

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Kiriwina-Goodenough District

Kiriwina-Goodenough District covers Goodenough Island and the Trobriand and Luscany islands. Goodenough Island has a mountainous interior surrounded by coastal plains and floodplains. The Trobriand and Luscany islands are raised coral plains and small coral atolls. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2000 mm near Bolubolu on Goodenough Island, to 4000 mm on Kiriwina Island. There are long dry seasons on the coastal plains of Goodenough Island. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2500 m on Mt Oiautukekea on Goodenough Island.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 48 000. The highest population densities are on Kiriwina and Kitava islands with 120 persons/km2, while the northeast coastal plains of Goodenough Island have 80 persons/km2. On the small islands in the Trobriand and Luscany groups, the population density is 70 persons/km2; while in the south of Kiriwina Island, on Kaileuna Island and on the west coast of Goodenough Island, the density is 48 persons/km2. Kiriwina Island has significant in-migration of people. The population of the Kuboma census division increased by 3.7 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services Milne Bay Province 74

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There are minor roads on Goodenough Island, but there are few vehicles in use. There is a good network of roads and numerous vehicles are used on Kiriwina Island. Most transport in the district is by outboard motor boat, diesel work boat and canoe. Organised shipping services are irregular and expensive. People on Kiriwina Island can reach



74

Airstrips: 3

Losuia by vehicle within two hours, while most others in the Trobriand Group travel by boat to Losuia within four hours. People on Goodenough Island require up to eight hours’ travel to reach Bolubolu.

Income Moderate incomes are earned on Kiriwina, Kitava and Kaileuna islands from sales of fresh food, betel nut and fish. Many families also receive remittances from relatives working in other parts of the country. All other people in the district have very low incomes derived from minor sales of betel nut, fish and fresh food.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition People on the small atolls in the Trobriand and Luscany groups depend on coconut and fish as their main sources of food. They also practice some agriculture in the form of moderate intensity mixed crop cultivation. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. People in the rest of the district make low intensity sweet potato gardens. Cassava is also a dominant staple on the west coast of Goodenough Island. Some of the smaller islands are not self-sufficient in food and livelihoods are maintained through trade. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 66 per cent of children were stunted and five per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is moderate to very high on the coastal plains of Goodenough Island, and is limited by long dry seasons. The mountainous areas on the island have low potential due to steep slopes and Major roads (km): 0


frequent cloud cover. The islands of the Trobriand and Luscany groups have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and high rainfall.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate and marginal agricultural pressure in the Trobriand Islands as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is potential for agricultural development on the coastal plains of Goodenough Island given the moderate to very high potential land and relatively short shipping distance to Alotau. A reliable and regular coastal barge service between Goodenough, Fergusson and Normanby islands, supported by extension activities, could facilitate production of crops such as cocoa and coconut, which are well suited to the area and are already established smallholder cash-earning activities.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the small islands in the Trobriand and Luscany groups who are constrained by poor access to services, very low cash incomes, and very high population densities which lead to land shortages. People on Goodenough Island earn very low incomes and, on the south coast, live in low potential environments. Overall, people in KiriwinaGoodenough District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Population


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75

Airstrips: 5

Land potential

Transport in the district is by outboard motor boat, diesel work boat and canoe. Organised shipping services are irregular and expensive. People on Misima Island are less than four hours’ travel from the nearest service centre. People in most other parts of the district require 4–8 hours’ sea travel to reach the nearest service centre, except those on Yanaba, Alcester and the Budibudi islands who are very remote and require more than one day’s sea travel.

The land potential is high to very high on Basilika, Sideia and Sariba islands, and on some of the small islands in the Calvados Chain. Common limitations are steep slopes and poor soils on the coastal plains. Most of the Louisiade Islands have moderate potential due to poor soils and steep slopes, while most other islands have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and high rainfall.

Income

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Budibudi Islands and parts of the Calvados Chain, caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is marginal pressure in the Marshall Bennett Islands, which will be of more concern if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is limited potential for agricultural development in the district.

Incomes on Basilika, Sideia, Sariba and Samarai islands and in the Louisiade Islands are low and are derived from the sale of copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. All other people in the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of betel nut, fish and fresh food. There are few sources of non-agricultural income in the district, except on Misima Island where mining operations provide some income through wages and royalties.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition People on Yanaba, Alcester and the Budibudi islands depend on coconut and fish as their main sources of food. They also practice some agriculture in the form of moderate intensity mixed staple cultivation. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–2 years. People on all other islands in the district make low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 60 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Major roads (km): 0



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on Yanaba, Alcester and the Budibudi islands who are constrained by very low incomes, poor access to services, and very high population densities which lead to land shortages. Large numbers of people in the Marshall Bennett Islands and on Iwa, Wari, Lebrun, Hanuapae and Woodlark islands earn very low incomes. Overall, people in SamaraiMurua District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate, and cash incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




Milne Bay Province

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 41 000. The highest population densities occur on Iwa Island, in the Marshall Bennett Group, and on Wari, Lebrun and Hanuapae islands, southeast of Samarai, with an average of 300 persons/km2. There are high population densities of 75 persons/km2 in the Marshall Bennett, Budibudi, Yanaba, Alcester, Misima, Deboyne and Conflict islands. The Engineer Islands have densities of 50 persons/km2, while Basilika, Sideia, Sariba and Samarai islands and the Calvados Chain have densities of 30 persons/km2. Woodlark, Sudest and Rossel islands have low densities of 13 persons/km2. Misima Island, the site of a goldmine, has significant in-migration. The population of the Misima Island census division increased by 3.7 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

Samarai-Murua District

Samarai-Murua District covers a very large area of the Solomon Sea, encompassing the Woodlark, Marshall Bennett, Budibudi, Louisiade and Engineer islands and a cluster of smaller islands around Samarai Island. The Woodlark Islands and most of the small atolls are raised coral limestone plains, while most of the islands around Samarai Island and in the Louisiade Group are mountainous with narrow coastal plains. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2200 mm on Samarai Island, to 4000 mm on Woodlark Island. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1000 m on Mt Diatau on Misima Island.

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76

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Oro Province

A child with sweet potato tubers. This child lives on a land settlement block near Popondetta. Title on settlement land has formal recognition and settlers are eligible for bank loans and other support to assist with cash crop development (especially oil palm) and housing. Income from oil palm is supplemented with sales of fresh food, such as sweet potato, and betel nut. Settlement schemes are areas of high population growth due to the in-migration of extended families seeking better access to services and higher cash incomes.

Oil palm is loaded onto a truck to be transported to the mill. Oil palm producers in PNG have a higher income per person than people growing other cash crops. On the volcanic plains around Popondetta, development of oil palm has led to a substantial increase in smallholder cash incomes. Most people living outside of the Buna-Popondetta-Kokoda corridor do not have the same range of cash-cropping opportunities. A recent development in West New Britain Province provides income to women through the sale of loose oil palm fruit. This initiative, which has led to greater financial autonomy for women, may be extended to Oro Province. 77

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Introduction Wa

r i a va

ll e y

SOHE co nl

ey R

dplain s tal floo as

Ow en Sta

Ioma a

Ma m

a ll

ey

e ng

ba

V re

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

sa

Riv er

Tufi

Unoccupied land

IJIVITARI

n lso Ne

Wanigela

gw

ood B

ay

Occupied land

Mu

w

e ng Ra

n Co l l i

ey ge all y Ran si V nle mu Sta Ku en O

s ala ag au n e Afore Ma Plat

Mo Safia ni V alle y

Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries Kilometres

District boundaries 0

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Oro Province

78

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25

78

Oro Province occupies 43 700 km2 on the north coast of the mainland of PNG. The high and rugged Owen Stanley Range forms the southern border with Central Province. Extensive coastal floodplains of the Gira, Mambare and Kumusi rivers cover the northwest of the province from the border with Morobe Province to Oro Bay. The inland mountains of the Otava and Ajule Kajale ranges separate the coastal floodplains from the upper Mambare Valley around Kokoda. The centre of the province is dominated by the volcanic plains and fans that surround Mt Lamington. This active volcano last erupted in 1951 and killed more than 3000 people. The volcanic plains and fans have moderate population densities and are used extensively for plantation and smallholder oil palm production. The southeast of the province covers the coastal floodplains of the Yupuru, Musa, Wakioka and Rakua rivers and the Nelson Range, including Mt Victory, which is thought to have last erupted violently in the 1800s. Inland are the mountains of the Sibium, Didana and Goropu ranges and the inland valleys of the Moni River and its tributaries around Safia. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m on Mt Victoria in the Owen Stanley Range. Average annual rainfall varies from 1900 mm near Safia, to 3800 mm near Kokoda. There is a long dry season in the southeast of the province. There are two districts in the province, Ijivitari and Sohe.

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Population 60 000

SOHE Number of people

Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Ijivitari

The estimated rural population of Oro in the year 2000 is 110 000, which is 2.7 per cent of the national rural population. The average population growth rate is 2.5 per cent per year. The highest population densities of 36 persons/km2 are on the volcanic plains and fans, inland of Popondetta, and in the upper Mambare Valley around Kokoda. The northern coastal floodplains, the Managalas Plateau and the coastal areas of Collingwood Bay have an average of 25 persons/km2. The coastal floodplains, east of Popondetta, and the Waria Valley have 20 persons/km2, while the floodplains of the Musa River and the inland valleys around Safia have low densities of 10 persons/km2. The floodplains and swamps to the northwest and southeast, and the Owen Stanley Range, are largely unoccupied. Areas around Popondetta have significant in-migration.

Tufi Afore

Wanigela

IJIVITARI Low density (1–20 persons/km2)

Safia

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Kilometres



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25

50

100

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Access to services

A good road runs from Kokoda to the coast at Oro Bay via Popondetta, and on to Afore on the Managalas Plateau. Some of this road is sealed. There are few roads elsewhere in the province. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in the coastal areas and on the northern floodplains. People on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta, in the upper Mambare Valley and in coastal areas around Oro Bay live within four hours’ travel of Popondetta. People on the coastal floodplains, the Managalas Plateau and in coastal areas of Collingwood Bay require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Popondetta, while those in the Waria and Moni valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. In the Moni Valley, people gain access to services and markets by walking across the Owen Stanley Range to the road at Cape Rodney, which connects to Port Moresby.


SOHE

Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Ijivitari

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Tufi Afore


Wanigela

4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre

IJIVITARI


Safia

Unoccupied land Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries Kilometres

District boundaries Airstrip

0

50

100


80

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25

80

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Income 60 000


Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Ijivitari

People inland of Popondetta and in the Kokoda Valley earn high incomes from the sale of oil palm, cocoa, fresh food and minor quantities of betel nut. On the coast around Oro Bay, people earn low to moderate incomes from oil palm. On the Managalas Plateau, low incomes are derived from minor sales of coffee, betel nut and fresh food, while people on the northern floodplains earn low incomes from oil palm, fish, fresh food and betel nut. Those on the coast of Collingwood Bay and in the Waria and Moni valleys earn very low incomes. A disused cattle ranch is located at Safia. There are many sources of non-agricultural income around Popondetta including small business activities such as PMVs and trade stores, and wage employment from businesses and plantations. The Managalas Plateau has a small butterfly farming industry.

Tufi Afore

Wanigela

IJIVITARI Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year)

Safia

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land Kilometres



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81

0

25

50

100

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Agriculture on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta, and in the upper Mambare Valley is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production, supplemented by Chinese taro and taro. People make two plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. In most other areas in the province, people cultivate very low intensity sweet potato gardens. People on the coastal floodplains of Collingwood Bay and in the upper Kumusi Valley make moderate intensity sweet potato gardens. Sago is the most important food in the floodplain areas of the Bariji and Musa rivers and is supported by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. Coconut is an important food in all floodplain and coastal areas.


SOHE

Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Ijivitari

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Tufi Afore

Wanigela

IJIVITARI Moderate intensity Chinese taro/sweet potato gardens

Safia

Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens Unoccupied land Kilometres


0

50

100


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Land potential 60 000


Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Ijivitari

Land potential is very high on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta and Wanigela. The land is among the most productive in PNG, although rainfall is high inland of Popondetta. Soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. There are other isolated areas of very high land potential around Kokoda, Safia, Afore and in the lower Pongani and Kwagira valleys. There is high land potential in the upper Mambare Valley, the Bariji Valley, on the lower slopes of Mt Victory and in the Goropu Mountains. There is moderate land potential in the Waria Valley, Moni Valley, upper Musa Valley and on the Managalas Plateau. Common constraints include steep slopes and high rainfall. The coastal floodplains and Owen Stanley Range have very low to low potential constrained by combinations of poor soils, steep slopes, high rainfall, frequent flooding and excessive cloud cover.

Tufi Afore

Wanigela

Very high potential High potential

IJIVITARI

Moderate potential Low potential

Safia

Very low potential Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries Kilometres 0


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There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Kumusi Valley, Tufi area and on the coast at Collingwood Bay resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is potential for agricultural development in the upper Mambare Valley, on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta and in the coastal areas around Oro Bay, where there is moderate to very high potential land and good access to markets. Oil palm, cocoa and fresh food are established smallholder cashearning activities, but much of the better land is already planted with oil palm. The Managalas Plateau, lower Pongani Valley and Bariji Valley have moderate to very high potential land and good access to markets. The sparsely populated areas inland of Wanigela and in the Moni and Kwagira valleys have high to very high land potential, but have poor access to markets. A volcanic hazard exists around Mt Lamington.


SOHE

Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Ijivitari

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda

Sohe

10 000

Tufi Afore


Wanigela

Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure

IJIVITARI

Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential

Safia

Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries

Kilometres 0

50

100


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Ioma

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Popondetta Oro Bay

Kokoda


Sohe

10 000

Ijivitari

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Kumusi Valley and coastal areas of Collingwood Bay who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Small numbers of people in the Waria Valley around Kira, and in the Moni Valley around Safia, Obea, Oroubi, Awala and Namudi earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. The land potential, however, is moderate to high so people would have opportunities to improve their livelihoods if there was better access to markets. People on the floodplains of the Musa River and in the lower Pongani and Bariji valleys earn very low incomes, while those on the northern floodplains live in a low potential environment.

Tufi Afore

Strong pressure, very low income Moderate pressure, very low income Wanigela

Very low income, poor access Poor environment, very low income

IJIVITARI

Poor environment, poor access Moderate pressure

Safia

Poor environment Very low income Poor access Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land Kilometres



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Ijivitari District

Ijivitari District covers the coastal floodplains from Ambasi to Oro Bay, Mt Lamington, the Managalas Plateau and the Pongani and Bariji valleys. The south of the district covers the coastal floodplains of the Yupuru, Musa and Rakua rivers, the volcanic peaks of the Nelson Range south of Tufi, the Owen Stanley Range and the valleys of the Moni River and its tributaries. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1900 mm in the Moni Valley, to 3000 mm on the Managalas Plateau. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3500 m in the Owen Stanley Range.

Income

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 47 000. The highest population densities occur on the northern coastal floodplains, on the Managalas Plateau and in the coastal areas of Collingwood Bay, which have an average of 25 persons/km2. The Moni Valley and floodplains of the Musa River have low densities of 10 persons/km2. Over half of the district consists of unoccupied swamps and mountains.

Agriculture in the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. In small areas of alluvial plains along Collingwood Bay, people cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens, with 6–14 consecutive plantings before fallow periods of 15 years. Sago is the most important food in the floodplain areas of the Bariji and Musa rivers and is supported by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. Coconut is an important food in all floodplain and coastal areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 35 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services People in the coastal areas around Oro Bay have access to services by good roads that are mostly sealed. People on the coastal floodplains, the Managalas Plateau and on the coast of Collingwood Bay are within 4–8 hours’ travel of Popondetta by gravel surfaced roads. Elsewhere there are no roads and most people require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. Oro Province 86

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86

Airstrips: 14

People growing oil palm earn high incomes. In the coastal areas around Oro Bay incomes are low to moderate and are derived from the sale of cocoa, betel nut and fresh food. On the Managalas Plateau, people earn low incomes from minor sales of coffee, betel nut and fresh food. People in the Moni Valley and along the coast of Collingwood Bay have very low incomes. There is a small butterfly farming industry on the Managalas Plateau and a disused cattle ranch at Safia.

Land potential The district has considerable areas of high potential land. In the Wanigela area and east along Collingwood Bay much of this land is presently unoccupied. There are isolated areas of very high land potential around Safia, Afore and in the lower Pongani and Kwagira valleys. There is high land potential in the upper Bariji Valley and on the lower western slopes of Mt Victory. The Moni Valley Major roads (km): 74


and Managalas Plateau have moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, while the coastal areas around Oro Bay have moderate potential constrained by frequent flooding.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate agricultural pressure around Tufi and along the coast of Collingwood Bay resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is potential for agricultural development on the Managalas Plateau and in the lower Pongani and Bariji valleys where there is moderate to very high potential land and good access to markets. The development of presently unoccupied land on the lower slopes of Mt Lamington is restricted by a volcanic hazard. In 1951, villages in these areas were destroyed and many lives were lost. Areas inland of Wanigela and in the Moni and Kwagira valleys have high to very high land potential, but access to markets is poor.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations around Tufi and in the coastal areas of Collingwood Bay who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Small numbers of people in the Moni Valley around Safia, Obea, Oroubi, Awala and Namudi earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. People on the floodplains of the Musa River and in the lower Pongani and Bariji valleys earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Ijivitari District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 64 000. The highest population densities of 36 persons/km2 are found on the volcanic plains and fans, inland of Popondetta, and in the upper Mambare Valley around Kokoda. The northern coastal floodplains and Kumusi Valley have 30 persons/km2. The Waria Valley and isolated valleys in the Owen Stanley Range have 18 persons/km2. Areas around Popondetta have significant in-migration with settlers moving to oil palm blocks. The population of the Sohe census division increased by 5.5 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


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87

Airstrips: 9

Income People around Popondetta and in the upper Mambare Valley around Kokoda earn high incomes from the sale of oil palm. Those who do not grow oil palm sell cocoa, betel nut and fresh food. People on the northern floodplains earn low incomes from sales of fish, fresh food and betel nut, while those in the Waria Valley have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fresh food. There are many sources of non-agricultural income around Popondetta including small businesses such as PMVs and trade stores, and wage employment provided by businesses and the oil palm industry. There is small-scale alluvial gold mining in the Waria and upper Mambare valleys, but the amount of income this generates is unknown.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. In the upper Kumusi Valley, people cultivate moderate intensity Chinese taro and sweet potato gardens, with 6–14 plantings before fallow periods of 15 years. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 35 per cent of children were stunted and 11 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential Land potential is very high on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta. The development of unoccupied land on the lower slopes of Mt Lamington is restricted by volcanic hazard. The Major roads (km): 68


upper Mambare Valley has moderate to very high land potential, but is constrained by poor soils and high rainfall. The Waria Valley has moderate land potential limited by steep slopes. The northern floodplains have low land potential constrained by high rainfall, poor soils and frequent flooding, while the Kumusi Valley has low potential due to steep slopes and excessive cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Kumusi Valley resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There is potential for agricultural development around Kokoda and on the volcanic plains and fans inland of Popondetta, where there is moderate to very high potential land and good access to markets. Oil palm, cocoa and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas, but much of the better land is already planted with oil palm.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small populations in the isolated Waria Valley who earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. Small numbers of people in the Kumusi Valley earn very low incomes and are affected by moderate agricultural pressure, while those on the northern floodplains live in a low potential environment. Overall, people in Sohe District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.




Oro Province

The area between Popondetta and the Kokoda Valley has good roads and people are within four hours’ travel of Popondetta. Oil palm development around Popondetta has resulted in a network of sealed roads. Outside of this area, there are no roads and access is poor. On the coastal floodplains and along the Mambare and Kumusi rivers, people must travel by canoe or motor boat to the coast, and then

by road to Popondetta. The Waria Valley, in the mountains, is isolated and people require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

Sohe District

Sohe District covers the Owen Stanley Range, the Waria Valley, the coastal floodplains of the Gira, Mambare and Kumusi rivers and the upper Mambare Valley around Kokoda. The volcanic plains and fans of Mt Lamington occupy the south of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2900 mm in the Waria Valley, to 3800 mm in the upper Mambare Valley. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m on Mt Victoria. Most people live in the valleys below 1000 metres.

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Southern Highlands Province

Children with distended stomachs in a mounded sweet potato garden. Child malnutrition is serious in some parts of Southern Highlands Province. The combination of poor environments, high population densities and intensive agriculture makes large numbers of people vulnerable to declining crop yields and food shortages. Incomes are generally very low throughout the province and people are unable to purchase supplementary food. Cash crop development is hindered by major environmental constraints, and in some areas, by unreliable access to markets.

People, gardens and steep slopes on the Nembi Plateau. Intensive sweet potato gardening on the Nembi Plateau has created strong agricultural pressure on land. The environment is poorly suited to agriculture, with impediments such as steep slopes, poor soils and excessive cloud cover. Soil constraints are overcome to some extent through the use of land improvement practices such as composting, tillage, drainage and bedding. Child malnutrition in the area is poor and cash incomes are very low.

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Introduction

Southern Highlands occupies 25 700 km2 in the central west of PNG. It is one of the larger provinces in the country and covers a diverse range of environments. The northwest is dominated by the Central Range, Lagaip Valley and the extensive volcanic hills, plains and swamps of the Tagari Valley. The central north covers the Wage, Nembi, Lai, Erave and Mendi valleys and the extinct volcano, Mt Giluwe. The northeast covers the plains and swamps of the Iaro and Poru valleys, Mt Ialibu and the Tua Valley. The south of the province covers vast limestone plateaux, the Hegigio, Mubi and Digimu valleys and Lake Kutubu. Mt Bosavi, a dormant volcano, dominates the southwest. Altitude varies from 100 m in the lower Hegigio Valley, to over 4300 m on Mt Giluwe. Most people live within an altitudinal range of 1200–2400 metres. The upper altitudinal limit of agriculture is around 2500 metres. Average annual rainfall varies from 2200 mm in the central northern valleys, to over 4500 mm in the south. The eight districts in Southern Highlands are Ialibu-Pangia, Imbonggu, Kagua-Erave, Komo-Margarima, Koroba-Lake Kopiago, Mendi, Nipa-Kutubu and Tari.

Lag aip V alley

Kopiago

an

ge

y

rR

e Vall

lle

y lle Va du bu

Mu

i Por

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO Tum

Koroba

TARI Tari

MENDI ndi M e asin

y

Occupied land

Nipa

Nembi Plateau

Lake Bosavi Area

Minor roads/tracks District boundaries

NIPA-KUTUBU

Ialibu

Kagua

Ka Va uge lle l y Po ru V

Pangia

Era ve Val ley Erave

Mt Bosavi

KAGUA-ERAVE

al l

Lake Kutubu

Anggura Valley

y

Major roads

IMBONGGU o Vall e

Unoccupied land

Mt Giluwe

Mendi

Ia r

KOMOMARGARIMA

B

ey

IALIBUPANGIA

ley Val

Tua

le Val

Komo

ey Vall Lai

ari

Valley Wage

Tag

Tari Basin

Erave Vall ey

Kilometres 0

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Southern Highlands Province

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50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

TARI Tari


Mendi

KOMOMARGARIMA

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

Mendi

MENDI

Komo

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Nipa

IMBONGGU Ialibu

High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land

Kagua

IALIBUPANGIA

Pangia

Lake District boundaries

Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

KAGUA-ERAVE

Kilometres


91

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Koroba

0

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Komo-Margarima

Imbonggu

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Kagua-Erave

Kopiago Ialibu-Pangia

The estimated rural population of Southern Highlands in the year 2000 is 451 000, which is 11 per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is 3.5 per cent per year. Population densities are highest in the Tari Basin and on the Nembi Plateau at 190 persons/km2. The upper Mendi and Lai valleys have a density of 120 persons/km2, while the Wage, Nembi, Erave, Tagari, Iaro and Poru valleys have an average density of 80 persons/km2. Areas around Kopiago, Lake Kutubu and the lower Erave Valley support 40 persons/km2, while the Lagaip Valley, in the north, has 10 persons/km2. More than half of the province is unoccupied. The Tari area, Mendi Valley and Wage Valley have significant in-migration. The province divides politically into the Koroba-Tari-Margarima area in the west, the Nipa-Mendi area in the centre and the Ialibu-Kagua area in the east. Recent armed conflict between the west and the centre has been an impediment to effective administration and governance.

25

50

100

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60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari


KOMOMARGARIMA

Nipa

Mendi

Tari

IMBONGGU Ialibu


Kagua

Pangia

< 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land

IALIBUPANGIA

Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

Lake

Nipa-Kutubu

MENDI

Komo

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre

Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Kagua-Erave

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Imbonggu

Ialibu-Pangia

Kopiago

KAGUA-ERAVE

Major roads

Southern Highlands is at the southwestern end of the Highlands Highway, which runs through Mendi, Nipa, Tari and ends at Koroba. Good roads connect Tari with Kopiago in the north, and the Hides gas field in the south. There is also a good road connecting the highway, via Poroma, to the Lake Kutubu oil and gas fields in the south. Most roads are of reasonable quality due to an abundance of limestone road building materials. Criminal activity and ethnic conflicts restrict travel along the highway, especially between Mendi and Tari. People in the central northern valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mendi or Mt Hagen. People in the Tagari, Wage, Lai and Poru valleys require between 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the Lagaip and lower Erave valleys and on the northern slopes of Mt Bosavi require more than one day’s travel.

Minor roads/tracks District boundaries Airstrip Kilometres 0

50

100


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50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year)

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

MENDI

Komo

KOMOMARGARIMA

Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Imbonggu

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Kagua-Erave


Incomes in the province are very low to low, although some people receive relatively large amounts of money from oil and gas projects. Agriculture provides the main source of cash income through sales of coffee, fresh food and firewood. Most of the coffee is grown east of Nipa. People in the high altitude areas of the upper Wage and Lai valleys sell minor amounts of potato, fresh food and firewood. Royalties and wage employment from the Kutubu, Erave and Hides oil and gas operations are the only sources of non-agricultural income. This income is very high, but only benefits people living close to the operations. Present estimates suggest that this income will decline by 2010, and unless it is invested wisely now, people will return to being very poor. A major electricity supply line runs across the Tari Basin, from the Hides gas field near Komo, to the Porgera goldmine in Enga province. Small amounts of money are earned from land rent and maintenance work along the line.

Nipa

IMBONGGU

Mendi

Ialibu

High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Kagua


Pangia

IALIBUPANGIA

Unoccupied land Lake

Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

District boundaries KAGUA-ERAVE

Kilometres 0


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Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Kagua-Erave

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Imbonggu

Ialibu-Pangia

Kopiago

Low intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity banana gardens Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens Sago with low intensity sweet potato gardens

MENDI

Komo

KOMOMARGARIMA

Nipa

IMBONGGU

Mendi

Ialibu

Low intensity sweet potato gardens Kagua


Pangia

IALIBUPANGIA

High intensity sweet potato gardens Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU


Agriculture in the Tagari Valley around Tari and the Wage, Nembi, Mendi, Kagua and Erave valleys is characterised by high intensity sweet potato production. Supplementary crops include banana and taro at lower altitudes, and potato at higher altitudes. Cultivation is continuous around Tari, while in other valleys people make more than 20 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of drainage, composting, mounding and bedding. People in the Tagari, Lai and Iaro valleys use similar practices to cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens. In the far south and southwest, people rely on sago production which is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple gardens. Agriculture in the remaining areas of the province is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation.

KAGUA-ERAVE

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

50

100


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50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari

Very high potential High potential Moderate potential

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

MENDI

Komo

KOMOMARGARIMA

Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Imbonggu

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Kagua-Erave


Intensive land improvement practices such as drainage, composting and mounding have improved much of the flatter land around Tari, Ialibu, Kagua and Pangia such that it now has high to very high land potential. There is moderate land potential in the Lagaip, Tagari, Mendi and Iaro valleys due to frequent cloud cover, steep slopes and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The remaining areas of the province have very low to low potential because of combinations of steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall, flooding, low temperatures, frost and frequent cloud cover. Land potential is reduced in areas where practices such as mounding and composting are used on steep slopes, resulting in increased soil erosion.

Nipa

IMBONGGU

Mendi

Ialibu

Low potential Kagua

Very low potential

Pangia

IALIBUPANGIA


Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

District boundaries KAGUA-ERAVE

Kilometres 0


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Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Kagua-Erave

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Imbonggu

Ialibu-Pangia

Kopiago

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure

MENDI

Komo

KOMOMARGARIMA

Nipa

IMBONGGU

Mendi

Ialibu

High agricultural potential Kagua


Pangia

IALIBUPANGIA

Occupied land Unoccupied land

Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

Lake

KAGUA-ERAVE

District boundaries

Significant areas of strong agricultural pressure occur in the upper Wage, Imilhama and Lai valleys, and on the Nembi Plateau, as a result of very intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to various forms of land degradation, declining crop production, frost and food shortages. There are also significant areas of marginal and moderate agricultural pressure in the fringe areas of the Tari Basin, in the Mendi Basin and in the Nembi, Sugu and upper Erave valleys. The best potential for agricultural development is around Ialibu, Kagua and Pangia, where there is moderate to very high land potential, little agricultural pressure and good access to markets in Mt Hagen via Mendi. Small areas north of Mendi and the Tari Basin have high to very high potential land, but population densities are very high and access from Tari is constrained by distance and ethnic conflicts along the highway.

Kilometres 0

50

100


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97

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Koroba

TARI Tari


KOMOMARGARIMA

Tari

Nipa-Kutubu

MENDI

Komo


Mendi

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Komo-Margarima

Imbonggu

Kagua-Erave

Kopiago

KOROBALAKE KOPIAGO

Nipa

IMBONGGU

Mendi

Ialibu

Moderate pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access

Kagua

Pangia

IALIBUPANGIA

Poor environment, very low income Strong pressure

Erave

NIPA-KUTUBU

Moderate pressure KAGUA-ERAVE

Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land

Kilometres



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Ialibu-Pangia

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those on the Nembi Plateau and in the fringe areas of the Mendi Basin where agricultural pressure is strong, incomes are very low, and population densities are very high. People in these areas are vulnerable to land shortages, subsistence food shortages and have little cash to buy supplementary food. Large numbers of people in the upper Wage, Imilhama and Lai valleys face similar constraints, but have low to moderate incomes. People in the fringe areas of the Tari Basin, in the Mendi Basin and in the Nembi, Sugu and upper Erave valleys experience moderate agricultural pressure and earn very low incomes. Smaller numbers of people in the Lagaip Valley, lower Erave Valley and Bosavi area have poor access to services, very low incomes and live in low potential environments. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People between Koroba and Kopiago live in low potential environments and have low incomes, while most other people in the province have very low incomes.

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Ialibu-Pangia District

Ialibu-Pangia District covers the Iaro, Poru, upper Kagua, Kaugel and Tua valleys. The Poru Basin, Poru Plateau and Mt Ialibu dominate the centre of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 3200 and 4000 millimetres. Altitude varies from 400 m at the junction of the Tua and Iaro rivers, to over 3700 m on Mt Ialibu. Most people live between 1200 and 2400 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 66 000. The population density in the district is relatively even. The upper Kagua Valley has the highest density of 80 persons/km2, while the upper Iaro Valley, Kaugel Valley, Poru Plateau and Poru Basin have 60 persons/km2. The slopes of Mt Ialibu and the lower Iaro and Poru valleys are unoccupied.

Access to services People in the upper Iaro, Kagua and Kaugel valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mendi or Mt Hagen, while those in the Poru Plateau and Poru Basin require 4–8 hours’ travel. There is a good road from the Highlands Highway to Ialibu that extends down the Iaro Valley to Kagua and Erave. There is also a network of minor roads in the Poru Plateau and Poru Basin. Southern Highlands Province 98

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Income Incomes are moderate in the Poru Plateau and Poru Basin and are derived from minor sales of coffee, fresh food and cattle. People in the rest of the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of coffee and fresh food.



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Airstrips: 2



Agriculture in the upper Kagua Valley is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. People make 2–4 plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage, drainage and bedding. People in the upper Iaro and Kaugel valleys cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens and use composting and mounding. Those on the Poru Plateau and in Poru Basin make low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 38 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on the upper slopes of the Iaro and Kagua valleys, near Taguanda and Andari, caused by high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation. There is marginal agricultural pressure in the Iaro Valley, near Muli, and in the upper Kagua Valley. There is potential for agricultural development south of Ialibu and in the Poru Basin where there is high to very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and reasonable access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cashearning activities in these areas.

Land potential


The land potential in the Iaro, Andawe and Kaugel valleys is very high. Soils, slope and rainfall are ideal for the production of many crops, however low temperatures slow plant growth. The Poru Basin has high potential with high rainfall and frequent cloud cover. The flatter parts of the Iaro and upper Kagua valleys have moderate potential and have frequent cloud cover and high rainfall, while the fringe areas have low potential due to the additional constraints of steep slopes and low temperatures. Most of the Poru Plateau has very low potential due to steep slopes, high rainfall, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are in the Kagua Valley where agricultural pressure is moderate and incomes are very low. Large numbers of people on the Poru Plateau are constrained by very low potential environments, while those in the Iaro Valley have very low incomes. Overall, people in Ialibu-Pangia District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate.






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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 45 000. The population density in the district is relatively even. The lower Lai, Mendi, Anggura and Iaro valleys have the highest densities of 80 persons/km2, while the upper Anggura Valley and Iaro Basin have 60 persons/km2. The upper slopes of Mt Giluwe and Mt Ialibu are unoccupied. The lower Mendi Valley has significant in-migration, particularly in the Kambiri census division.

Access to services All people in the district require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mt Hagen or Mendi. The southern branch of the Highlands Highway runs through the district and connects Ialibu to Mendi in the northwest, and to Mt Hagen in the northeast.

Income


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Agriculture in the lower Lai, Mendi and Anggura valleys is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. There are 2–4 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage, drainage and bedding. People in the upper Anggura Valley, Iaro Basin and Kaugel Valley cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens, and use composting and mounding. Those in the upper Iaro Valley, north of Ialibu, make low intensity sweet potato gardens, and also use composting and mounding. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 42 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the lower Lai Valley resulting from high intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation. There is marginal agricultural pressure in the Anggura Valley, near Katepa, and in the fringe areas of the Iaro Basin. These areas will be of more concern in the future if agricultural intensification continues without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the lower Mendi, Anggura, Iaro and Kaugel valleys, where there is high to very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. The moderate potential land in the Iaro Basin also has potential for agricultural development. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Land potential The land potential in the Anggura, Iaro and Kaugel valleys is very high. In the upper Anggura and Iaro valleys, low temperatures are a constraint. The lower Mendi Valley has high potential constrained by frequent cloud cover. The flatter areas of the Iaro Basin have moderate potential caused by frequent cloud cover and low temperatures, while the fringe areas have low potential due to the additional constraint of steep slopes. The lower Lai Valley has low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and poor soils.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the lower Lai Valley who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. All other people in the district are very poor. Overall, people in Imbonggu District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is good, access to services is good, and cash incomes are very low.





Incomes are very low throughout the district and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food.


Imbonggu District

Imbonggu District covers the lower slopes of Mt Giluwe, the Iaro Basin, and the lower Lai, lower Mendi, Anggura, upper Iaro and Kaugel valleys. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 3200 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1300 m at the junction of the Lai and Erave rivers, to over 4300 m on Mt Giluwe. Most people live between 1300 and 2400 metres.

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Kagua-Erave District Southern Highlands Province 100

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Kagua-Erave District covers the Valkaru Range and the Kagua, Sugu and Erave valleys. The southern half of the district is dominated by limestone plateaux and valleys, and is largely unoccupied. Average annual rainfall ranges from 3000 mm to over 4000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 400 m at the junction of the Erave and Purari rivers, to over 2000 m on the Valkaru Range. Most people live between 1100 and 1800 metres.

Income


Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food. Some communities near Erave receive high incomes from oil royalties.

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the upper Erave and Sugu valleys as a result of high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation. Marginal agricultural pressure exists on the lower slopes of the Valkaru Range and around Erave Station. There is potential for agricultural development in the flatter parts of the Kagua and upper Erave valleys, where there is very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and reasonable access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 56 000. The population density in the district is relatively even. The upper Erave, Kagua and Sugu valleys have the highest densities of 80 persons/km2, while the lower Erave Valley has 40 persons/km2. The area around Erave Station has a density of 24 persons/km2. About 70 per cent of the district is unoccupied.

Agriculture in the upper Erave, Kagua and Sugu valleys is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. There are 2–4 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage, drainage and bedding. People in the lower Erave Valley cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the far south of the district, people rely on sago as their main food source. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 30 per cent of children were stunted and 12 per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Land potential

People in the upper Erave, Kagua and Sugu valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mendi, while those around Erave Station require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the lower Erave Valley are very remote and require over one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. There is a road from Erave through the Kagua Valley that connects to Ialibu and the Highlands Highway.

The land potential in the flatter parts of the Kagua, Sugu and upper Erave valleys is very high. Soils, slope and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops, but there are minor constraints of high rainfall and frequent cloud cover. Intensive land improvement practices maintain production. On the lower northern slopes of the Valkaru Range, land potential is moderate caused by frequent cloud cover and low temperatures. The steeper land in the Kagua, Erave and Sugu valleys has low potential due to high rainfall, frequent cloud cover, poor soils and steep slopes.

Population



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Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the lower Erave Valley who have poor access to services, very low incomes and live in low potential environments. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. In the Sugu and upper Erave valleys, large numbers of people are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. All other people in the district have very low incomes. Overall, people in Kagua-Erave District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good, and cash incomes are very low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 44 000. There is a small, heavily settled area south of Komo with a population density of 190 persons/km2. The upper Wage Valley has 100 persons/km2, while the areas around Benaria and the lower Tagari Valley have 70 persons/km2. The upper Hegigio Valley and the smaller valleys in the Humphries Range have 30 persons/km2, while the southern slopes of Mt Sisa have a low population density of 20 persons/km2. The Wage Valley has significant in-migration.

Access to services


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Incomes are very low to low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of fresh food. People in the upper Wage Valley earn small amounts of money from sales of potato and firewood, and have better access to markets in Mendi.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the upper Wage Valley is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. Potato is an important supplementary crop. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. South of Komo, people cultivate high intensity sweet potato gardens. People in the lower Tagari Valley and Benaria area cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens, while those on the southern slopes of Mt Sisi, in the upper Hegigio Valley and Humphries Range make low intensity sweet potato gardens. Sago is an important staple in the lower altitude Mt Sisi area. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 51 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight. However, the unusual shape of the district makes this data unreliable.

Land potential The land potential in the flatter areas of the lower Tagari Valley is very high, but is limited by frequent cloud cover and high rainfall. There is evidence to suggest that agriculture in this area was more intensive in the past and the reasons for its partial abandonment are not known. The flatter land west of Margarima has high potential constrained by low temperatures and frequent frost. The lower Tagari Major roads (km): 41


Valley, Hegigio Valley, Humphries Range, southern slopes of Mt Sisi and the area between Benaria and Dauli have low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, high rainfall and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The Wage Valley has low potential constrained by steep slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is strong agricultural pressure in the upper Wage Valley caused by high intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation, declining crop production and food shortages. There is moderate and marginal agricultural pressure in the lower Tagari Valley and Benaria area. There is limited potential for agricultural development in the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Mt Sisi area who are constrained by poor access to services, low cash incomes and low potential environments. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Large numbers of people in the Wage Valley live in areas of strong agricultural pressure. They are vulnerable to interruptions in subsistence food supply and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. Most other people in the district are very poor. Overall, people in KomoMargarima District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate, and cash incomes are very low.





People in the upper Wage Valley, lower Tagari Valley, upper Hegigio Valley, Humphries Range and Benaria area require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Tari or Mendi, while people near Mt Sisa are very remote and require over one day’s travel. The district is split by a rugged mountain range and the Tagari River gorge. Travel from Margarima to Komo is via Tari, a distance of over 100 kilometres.

Income

Komo-Margarima District

Komo-Margarima District covers the upper Wage, Andabare, lower Tagari and Hegigio valleys. Rugged mountains extend through the centre of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 4000 mm, and increases from northeast to southwest. Altitude varies from 600 m in the Hegigio Valley, to over 3500 m on the Doma Peaks. Most people live between 700 and 2500 metres.

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Koroba-Lake Kopiago District Southern Highlands Province 102

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Koroba-Lake Kopiago District covers the Tagari, Tumbudu, Lagaip and Strickland valleys, west of Tari. The Central Range is in the north and the Muller Range is in the southwest. Average annual rainfall ranges between 3000 and 4500 mm, and increases from southeast to northwest. Altitude varies from 600 m in the Strickland Valley, to over 3500 m on Mt Karoma. Most people live between 800 and 2000 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 53 000. The highest population density is in the Tagari Valley between Koroba and Pureni with 72 persons/km2. The Tumbudu and upper Pori valleys have a density of 40 persons/km2, while the Lagaip and Strickland valleys have 10 persons/km2.

Access to services The southern branch of the Highlands Highway runs through the district to Koroba via Tari. Gravel surfaced roads link to Lake Kopiago in the northwest, but road maintenance has been very poor in recent years. People in the Tagari, Tumbudu and upper Pori valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Tari. People in the Lagaip and Strickland valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

Income Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food.



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Agriculture in the Tagari and Levani valleys is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato cultivation. There are more than 20 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 10–15 years. Production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. People in the Tumbudu, Pori, Lagaip and Strickland valleys cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, supplemented by banana and taro. Composting and mounding are used in the Tumbudu and upper Pori valleys. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 62 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

There are isolated areas of strong agricultural pressure around Pureni as a result of high intensity agriculture being practised in a very low potential environment. There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Tagari Valley and marginal pressure around Koroba and in the Levani Valley. These marginal pressure areas will be of more concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. There is very little potential for agricultural development in the district, given the low to moderate potential land and poor access to markets.

Land potential The land potential in the upper Tumbudu Valley is high with few constraints. A large swamp near Koroba has been partially drained. There is moderate potential in the Levani Valley, where swamp drainage is used to improve land potential. Land potential is also moderate around Koroba, where poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes are common constraints. The lower Tumbudu and Pori valleys have low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The Lagaip and Strickland valleys also have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Major roads (km): 4


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Lagaip and Strickland valleys where small numbers of people have poor access to services, low cash incomes and live in low potential environments. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the Tumbudu and Pori valleys are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes, while those in the Tagari Valley are constrained by moderate to strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes. The people in this area are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and interruptions to subsistence food supply, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. All other people in the district are very poor. Overall, people in Koroba-Lake Kopiago District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 62 000. The Mendi Valley has the highest population density at 120 persons/km2. The Lai and Imilhama valleys have densities of 100 persons/km2, while the upper Nembi Valley has 80 persons/km2. The upper slopes of Mt Giluwe are unoccupied. The Mendi area has significant in-migration as people look for better access to services, wage employment in Mendi and more productive environments.

Access to services People in the upper Nembi and Mendi valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mendi, while those in the Lai and Imilhama valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel. The Highlands Highway runs through the district connecting Mendi to Mt Hagen in the east, and Nipa in the west. There are also roads through the upper Mendi and Lai valleys to Kandep in Enga Province. Incomes are very low to low in the entire district. People in the Imilhama, upper Lai and Mendi valleys sell potato, fresh food and firewood. Those in the upper Nembi and lower Lai valleys sell coffee and fresh food.


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Agriculture in the Imilhama, upper Lai, upper Nembi and Mendi valleys is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. Potato is an important crop in higher altitude areas. Cultivation is continuous in the Imilhama and upper Lai valleys and production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. People in the Mendi Valley make more than 20 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Production is maintained through the use of drainage, composting and mounding. People in the Lai Valley cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens. There are 2–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 60 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential North of Mendi, the land potential is very high, but is limited by frequent cloud cover. The flatter areas of the Mendi Valley have moderate potential constrained by low temperatures and frequent cloud cover, while the fringe areas have low potential due to steep slopes, low temperatures and frequent cloud cover. The upper Nembi, Imilhama and Lai valleys have very low to low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, poor soils, low temperatures and frost.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is strong agricultural pressure in the upper Nembi, Imilhama and upper Lai valleys and in the fringe areas of the Mendi Valley, caused by high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable Major roads (km): 29


to various forms of land degradation and declining crop production. There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Mendi Valley and on the western slopes of the Lai Valley, and marginal agricultural pressure in the rest of the Lai Valley. There is potential for agricultural development on the high potential land north of Mendi, but population densities are very high.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the fringe areas of the Mendi Valley where agricultural pressure is strong, incomes are very low, and there are land shortages caused by very high population densities. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of frost and interruptions to subsistence food supply, and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. Large numbers of people in the Mendi Basin and on the western slopes of the lower Lai Valley are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. People in the upper Nembi, Imilhama and upper Lai valleys are constrained by strong agricultural pressure on land that is vulnerable to degradation, declining crop yields and frost. People in the lower Lai Valley earn very low incomes and live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Mendi District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is significant agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good, and cash incomes are very low.





Income


Mendi District

Mendi District covers the upper Mendi, Lai, Imilhama, and Nembi valleys. Mt Giluwe dominates the east of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 2800 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1700 m in the Mendi Valley, to over 4300 m on Mt Giluwe. Most people live between 1700 and 2500 metres.

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Nipa-Kutubu District Southern Highlands Province 104

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Nipa-Kutubu District covers the Wage, Nembi, Mubi, Digimu and Hegigio valleys. Lake Kutubu is in the northeast and Mt Bosavi is in the southwest. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2700 mm to over 4500 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 100 m in the lower Hegigio Valley, to over 2500 m on Mt Bosavi. Most people live between 600 and 2200 metres.



The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 59 000. The highest population density is on the Nembi Plateau with 200 persons/km2. The Nembi Valley has 80 persons/km2. The Mubi, Digimu and Hegigio valleys and the Kutubu area have densities of 50 persons/km2, while the Wage Valley and Bosavi area have 20 persons/km2.

Agriculture in the Nembi Valley and on the Nembi Plateau is dominated by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. There are 4–10 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–3 years. Production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage, drainage and bedding. People in the Wage Valley cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the Kutubu area, Bosavi area, and the Hegigio, Mubi and Digimu valleys, sago is the most important food and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 61 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

There is strong agricultural pressure on the Nembi Plateau caused by high intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. People in this area are vulnerable to land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. Moderate agricultural pressure exists in the Nembi Valley, and there is marginal pressure in the Wage Valley. There are limited opportunities for agricultural development in the district.

Access to services

Land potential

Population

People in the Nembi Valley require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mendi, while those on the Nembi Plateau and in the Wage, Hegigio, Mubi and Digimu valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the Bosavi area are very remote and require over one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. The Highlands Highway passes through the Nembi Valley to Nipa in the north of the district, and a loop road runs across the Nembi Plateau. An all-weather road connects Lake Kutubu to the highway.

Income Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from sales of coffee and fresh food. A minority of people receive high incomes from the Kutubu oil development, but this income is expected to decline after 2010.



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Land potential is very high in the flatter areas of the Nembi Valley near Kar, and around the junction of the Nembi and Erave rivers. Soils, slope and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops and high rainfall and frequent cloud cover are the only minor constraints. The Nembi Valley and Nembi Plateau have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The Bosavi area and the Wage, Hegigio, Digimu and Mubi valleys have low potential due to high rainfall, frequent cloud cover, poor soils and steep slopes.


Minor roads (km): 6

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are on the Nembi Plateau where agricultural pressure is strong, incomes are very low, and population densities are very high which leads to land shortages. People are vulnerable to subsistence food shortages and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. In the Nembi Valley, large numbers of people are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Small numbers of people in the Bosavi area have poor access to services, very low incomes and live in low potential environments. People in the Wage Valley are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes. Overall, people in Nipa-Kutubu District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good, and cash incomes are very low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 66 000. Most people live on the plains around Tari where there is an average population density of 180 persons/km2. The Tagari Valley and fringe areas of the Tari plains have 70 persons/km2, while the areas around Kaijagari and Tadei have 40 persons/km2. The Tari area has significant in-migration, particularly in the North Basin census division.

Access to services

Income Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of coffee, pigs and fresh food.


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Agriculture on the Tari plains is dominated by high intensity sweet potato production. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained by the use of drains, composting and mounding. People in the Tagari Valley, on the Paijaka Plateau and in the fringe areas of the Tari Basin cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens, maintained by composting and mounding. Those in the northwest of the district make low intensity sweet potato gardens and use composting and mounding. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 70 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the lower Tagari Valley and in the Kaijagari area, caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is marginal agricultural pressure on the Paijaka Plateau and on the eastern upper slopes of the Tari Basin. These areas will be of concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. Very high land potential gives scope for agricultural development on the Tari plains, but population densities in this area are already very high. Market access is also difficult due to the long distances to Mendi or Mt Hagen, and the present ethnic conflict along the highway.

Land potential


The land potential on the Tari plains is very high and has few constraints. Extensive swamp land in the Tagari Valley near Hiwanda, and at Piwa east of Tari, has been transformed into high potential land through drainage and the use of composting and mounding. The upper slopes of the Tari Basin and Paijaka Plateau have moderate potential constrained by frequent cloud cover and low temperatures. The areas around Kaijagari and Tadei, in the northwest, have low potential due to frequent cloud cover, steep slopes, poor soils and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The lower Tagari Valley has low potential constrained by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and high rainfall.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the lower Tagari Valley and Kaijagari area, north and south of Tari, who are constrained by very low incomes and moderate agricultural pressure. People in the Tadei area, in the northwest of the district, earn very low incomes and live in low potential environments. All other people in the district are very poor. Overall, people in Tari District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is moderate, and cash incomes are very low.







People in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Mendi. The Highlands Highway runs through the district and connects to Mendi and Mt Hagen in the east, and Koroba in the northwest. During the last five years, the highway has been frequently blocked between Tari and Mendi by criminal activities and ethnic fighting. There are good minor roads in the district, but many bridges are damaged or missing.


Tari District

Tari District is dominated by the plains and swamps of the Tagari, Dagia and Huria valleys. Mountains extend along the northern and western borders of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3500 mm, and increases from east to west. Altitude varies from 1200 m in the lower Tagari Valley, to over 3500 m on the Doma Peaks. Most people live between 1500 and 2000 metres.

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Enga Province

Frost damage in the Kandep Basin in 1997. This image shows damage to sweet potato gardens, pandanus nut trees and other vegetation caused by the severe frosts of 1997. Frost damage is common above an altitude of 2200 m and causes interruptions to subsistence food supply. Agricultural development potential is constrained in the Kandep Basin by low incomes, land degradation, high population densities and low potential environments.

People sell pyrethrum on the Sirunki Plateau. Pyrethrum was once a widespread cash crop above 2400 m, however production had ceased by the late 1990s due to poor market infrastructure. Incomes are now very low in high altitude areas, and could be raised by increasing the production and marketing of temperate climate vegetables, such as English potato.

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Introduction

Enga occupies 11 800 km2 of the PNG highlands. The Central Range, in the north of the province, is part of the main divide of PNG. The Lagaip River drains into the Fly River and Coral Sea, while the Lai River drains into the Sepik River and Bismark Sea. The upper valleys of both rivers support very high population densities and intensive agriculture with continuous cultivation in some places. These areas are some of the most densely settled in the country. There are large swamp areas and intensive agriculture around Kandep in the south of the province. Altitude varies from 400 m at the Yuat River in the northeast of the province, to over 3700 m along the Central Range. More people in Enga live above 2000 m than in any other province. These environments are prone to frost and disruptions to subsistence food supply. The upper altitudinal limit of agriculture is around 2800 metres. Average annual rainfall varies between 2300 and 3800 mm, increasing from south to north. The five districts in Enga are Kandep, Kompiam-Ambum, Lagaip-Porgera, Wabag and Wapenamanda.

Occupied land Unoccupied land Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries

y lle Va

Ra ng e

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Am bu m Sirunki Valle y Plateau Wabag lley Laiagam a V a Ker

KANDEP

y le al iV La

WABAG

Valley Sau Kompiam ey

Lai V all

aip

y lle Va era rg Po

ley Val iea ub Pag

Porgera

Ce nt ral

Lag

Taru a

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Yenkis

Valle y

Maramuni

Laga Central Ran lp Va ge lley

Wapenamanda

K an dep

WAPENAMANDA

Bas

lley e Va Wag

Tsak Valley

in

Kandep

Kilometres 0

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Enga Province

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25

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Population Low density (1–20 persons/km2)

90 000

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) 80 000

High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land


District boundaries

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Wabag

Kompiam

Lagaip-Porgera

10 000

Kompiam-Ambum

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Kandep

The estimated rural population of Enga in the year 2000 is 405 000, which is 10 per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is the highest in the country at 4.6 per cent per year, however there are some doubts over the accuracy of the 1990 census data. Population densities are highest in the Lai, Ambum and Tsak valleys with 360 persons/km2. The upper Lagaip Valley has 210 persons/km2, while the swamp fringes near Kandep have around 170 persons/km2. Areas near Kompiam and Porgera have densities of 60 persons/km2, while the rest of the province has 24 persons/km2. More than half of the area of the province is unoccupied mountains. The Porgera area, upper Lagaip Valley, Ambum Valley and Lai Valley have significant in-migration of people looking for better access to services, more productive environments and wage employment.

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres 0


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109

25

50

100

109

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Access to services > 1 day’s travel to service centre

Unoccupied land


Major roads


Minor roads/tracks


District boundaries


Airstrip

90 000 80 000

Number of people

70 000 60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG Wapenamanda

KANDEP

Wabag

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Lagaip-Porgera

Kompiam

Kompiam-Ambum

10 000

Kandep

LAGAIP-PORGERA

A branch of the Highlands Highway runs through Wapenamanda and Wabag and ends at Porgera. The road is sealed to Wabag and well maintained through to Porgera. A good quality road runs from Laiagam to Kandep and from there into Southern Highlands Province. Another road runs from Wabag to Kompiam. People in the Lai, Ambum, Tsak and Lagaip valleys have good access to services, requiring less than four hours’ travel to reach Wabag. Most people around Kandep, Kompiam and Porgera require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Wabag, while those in the north of the province are very remote and need more than one day’s travel.

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres 0

50

100


110

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25

110

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Income Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) 90 000


80 000


70 000


Number of people


60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Wabag

Kompiam

Lagaip-Porgera

10 000

Kompiam-Ambum

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Kandep

Enga is a poor province. Incomes range between very low and moderate. Agriculture provides the main source of cash income through sales of coffee, fresh food and firewood. Most of the coffee is grown around Wabag, Wapenamanda and Kompiam in areas below 2100 m, which is the upper altitudinal limit of Arabica coffee. People in the higher areas around Kandep and Laiagam sell small amounts of potato and firewood. People in the north of the province are very poor and have few cash-earning opportunities. Royalties and wage employment are provided by the Porgera gold mine and are the only major sources of non-agricultural income in the province. This income is very high but only benefits people living close to the mine.

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres 0


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111

25

50

100

111

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90 000

Low intensity sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens

80 000




60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wabag

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Lagaip-Porgera

Kompiam

Kompiam-Ambum

10 000

Kandep

LAGAIP-PORGERA

High intensity sweet potato production dominates the central valleys, plateaux and mountains. Potato is also grown at higher altitudes. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as drainage, composting and mounding. People on the upper slopes of the Lai, Ambum and Tsak valleys and in areas west of Kompiam make moderate intensity sweet potato gardens, supported by composting and mounding. Those in the northeast and northwest of the province have low intensity sweet potato gardens. Banana and taro also feature in gardens in these areas.

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres 0

50

100


112

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25

112

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Land potential Very high potential

90 000

High potential

80 000

Moderate potential 70 000

Low potential Number of people


60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Wabag

Kompiam

Lagaip-Porgera

10 000

Kompiam-Ambum

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Kandep

The only areas in the province that have high or very high land potential under natural conditions are the isolated areas around Kandep, Porgera and Kompiam. Most of the province has low potential land caused by combinations of steep slopes, poor soils, flooding, low temperatures, frost and frequent cloud cover. However, drainage, composting and mounding have improved much of the flatter land in the Lai and Tsak valleys so that it is of very high potential. Land potential has decreased where mounding is used on steep slopes, resulting in increased soil erosion.

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres 0


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113

25

50

100

113

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Occupied land


Unoccupied land


District boundaries

90 000 80 000

Number of people

70 000


60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wabag

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Lagaip-Porgera

Kompiam

Kompiam-Ambum

10 000

Kandep

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA

There are significant areas of strong agricultural pressure near Wabag, Laiagam and Kandep, caused by very intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to various forms of land degradation, declining crop production, frost and food shortages. There are also significant areas of moderate and marginal agricultural pressure caused by moderate and high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. The marginal pressure areas will be of concern in the future if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. The best potential for agricultural development is in the upper Porgera Valley, lower Sau Valley and lower Lai Valley, where there is moderate to high land potential, no agricultural pressure and reasonable access to markets.

Kandep

Kilometres 0

50

100


114

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25

114

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Disadvantaged people Poor environment, very low income, poor access

Moderate pressure


Very low income

Moderate pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access



Unoccupied land

Strong pressure

District boundaries

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Maramuni

Yenkis 20 000

KOMPIAM-AMBUM

Laiagam

Wabag

WABAG KANDEP

Wabag

Wapenamanda

Porgera

Lagaip-Porgera

Kompiam

Kompiam-Ambum

10 000

Kandep

LAGAIP-PORGERA

Wapenamanda

WAPENAMANDA Kandep

Kilometres


115

80 000 70 000

0

ANUA001 layout new

90 000

Number of people

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the upper Lagaip Valley where large numbers of people are constrained by strong agricultural pressure, very low cash incomes and very high population densities. These people are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. Very large numbers of people in the Kandep Basin and upper Lai, upper Lagaip, Ambum, Kera and Wage valleys face similar constraints, but have low to moderate cash incomes. People in the Yenkis and Maramuni areas are constrained by low potential environments, very low incomes and poor access to services. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the areas northwest of Porgera and in the mid Lagaip Valley are constrained by very low cash incomes and low potential environments, while those in the lower Lai, Sau, Tarua and Wale valleys earn very low incomes.

25

50

100

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Kandep District

Kandep District is in the south of the province and covers the Wage Valley, high altitude swamps and plains of the Kandep Basin and surrounding mountains. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 2800 millimetres. Altitude varies from 2000 m near Winja in the south of the district, to over 3500 m on the mountain peaks. This is the only district in the country where all areas are over 2000 m in altitude.


Agricultural pressure and potential Most areas in the district have strong agricultural pressure resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Land degradation of various forms and reduced crop yields are common problems. Some fringe areas in the Kandep Basin have moderate agricultural pressure. There is little potential for agricultural development in the district.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 66 000. The fringe areas of the Kandep Basin have the highest population density with 175 persons/km2. Areas in the Wage Valley have 85 persons/km2. Much of the western half of the district is covered by unoccupied mountains.

Agriculture in the Kandep Basin and Wage Valley is characterised by high intensity sweet potato production. Potato is also an important crop. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as drainage, composting and mounding. Small amounts of inorganic fertiliser are used on some commercial potato gardens. The high altitude and low temperatures limit crop diversity and slow plant growth and rates of production. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 46 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Land potential

Population

All people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to Wabag. There is a good road network in the Kandep Basin, connecting to Laiagam in the north and Margarima and Mendi in Southern Highlands Province.

Income Incomes are low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of fresh food, particularly potato.

The land potential is very low to low in the entire district because of long term inundation in swamp areas, poor soils, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and frost. In some agricultural areas north of Kandep and in the Wage Valley, the land potential increases to very high where swamps have been drained, making fertile organic soils usable. However in most agricultural areas, production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as drainage, composting and mounding.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the fringe areas of the Kandep Basin and Wage Valley, where population densities are high to very high, agricultural pressure is strong and incomes are low. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, reduced crop yields, frost and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. The impact of the drought and frosts of 1997 was severe in the district. Possible solutions could focus on improving subsistence production and resilience through the extension of frost-tolerant crop varieties, and raising cash incomes. Potato is an established smallholder cash-earning activity and pyrethrum has been important in the past. Overall, people in Kandep District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is strong agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.

Enga Province 116

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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 77 000. The Ambum Valley is among the most densely populated areas in the country with 360 persons/km2, while the upper slopes of the valley have 80 persons/km2. The area around Kompiam has a density of 90 persons/km2, and nearby areas in the upper Tarua, upper Wale, lower Sau and lower Lai valleys support population densities of 50 persons/km2. The Yenkis area has 30 persons/km2.

Access to services People in the Ambum Valley require less than four hours’ travel to reach Wabag, while those in the Tarua, Wale, Sau and Lai valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Wapenamanda or Wabag. The Yenkis area is very remote and is over one day’s travel from the nearest service centre. A road connects Wabag to Kompiam and continues towards the lower Lai Valley. There is a road through the Ambum Valley and another along the lower Lai Valley from Wapenamanda to Paware.

ANUA001 layout new


117

Airstrips: 5


Incomes are low in the Ambum Valley and around Kompiam and are derived from sales of coffee and fresh food. Incomes are very low in the Tarua, Wale, Yenkis and lower Lai valleys.

There is strong agricultural pressure on land in the Ambum Valley resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. Various forms of land degradation and declining crop yields are common problems. The upper slopes of the Ambum Valley and areas around Kompiam have marginal to moderate pressure. There is some potential for agricultural development in the lower Lai and lower Sau valleys, where there is moderate to high land potential, no agricultural pressure and reasonable access to markets. The area around the junction of the Yuat and Lai rivers has high land potential but is unoccupied, possibly because of malaria.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Ambum Valley is characterised by very high intensity sweet potato production. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. Sweet potato gardens on the upper slopes of the Ambum Valley and around Kompiam are maintained by similar practices, but are of moderate intensity. People in the Tarua, Wale, lower Sau and lower Lai valleys cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens on land improved by drainage. Those in the Yenkis area also cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, but do not employ any land improvement practices. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 57 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The Yuat, Sau, upper Wale and lower Lai valleys have moderate to high land potential constrained by steep slopes. The Ambum Valley and mountains around Kompiam have low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and occasional frosts. The Yenkis Valley has low potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The land around the junction of the Lai and Yuat rivers has high potential.

Major roads (km): 5


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Ambum Valley where population densities are very high and there is strong agricultural pressure. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. Smaller numbers of people in the Yenkis Valley are constrained by poor access to services, low cash incomes and low potential environments. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the Tarua, Wale, lower Sau and lower Lai valleys are very poor. Overall, people in Kompiam-Ambum District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is considerable agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.




Enga Province


Income

Kompiam-Ambum District

Kompiam-Ambum District is in the northeast of the province and covers the Central Range and valleys of the Tarua, Yenkis, Sapun, Sau and Ambum rivers. The lower Lai and Yuat rivers extend along the eastern border of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2500 and 3600 mm, increasing from west to east. Altitude varies from 400 m in the lower Yuat Valley, to over 3000 m along the Central Range.

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Lagaip-Porgera District

Lagaip-Porgera District is the largest in the province and is dominated by the Lagaip Valley. The Central Range extends along the northern border of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3800 mm, and increases from east to west. Altitude varies from 1000 m in the lower Lagaip Valley, to over 3000 m along the Central Range, with most people living between 2200 and 2600 metres. The Porgera gold mine is located in the middle of the district.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 99 000. Most people live in the upper Lagaip Valley where the population density is 212 persons/km2. The Kera Valley to the west of Laiagam supports 85 persons/km2. Areas around Porgera, Paiela and the mid Lagaip Valley have average densities of 58 persons/km2, while the lower Lagaip Valley has 5 persons/km2. The Porgera area and upper Lagaip Valley have significant in-migration of people looking for better access to services, wage employment and more productive environments.

Access to services

Enga Province 118

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People close to Porgera and in the upper Lagaip Valley are less than four hours’ travel to the nearest service centre, while those in the Kera, Pagubiea, Porgera and mid Lagaip valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the remote lower Lagaip Valley require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. An extension of the Highlands Highway connects Porgera to Wabag and Mt Hagen.



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Income


Incomes from agriculture are very low in most of the district and are derived from minor sales of coffee, fresh food and firewood. People in the higher altitude areas of the Kera Valley derive low incomes from the sale of fresh food, particularly potato. The Porgera gold mine provides money through wages and royalties to people near the mine.

The upper Lagaip and Kera valleys have moderate to strong agricultural pressure resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Various forms of land degradation and declining crop yields are common problems. There is potential for agricultural development in the upper Porgera and mid Lagaip valleys where there is moderate to high land potential and no agricultural pressure. Short roads off the highway into these areas would improve access to markets.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the upper Lagaip and Kera valleys is dominated by high intensity sweet potato production, with some banana and taro also being produced. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of drainage, composting and mounding. Agriculture in the area north of Porgera is similar to that in the above valleys, but less intensive. People in the Pagubiea, Porgera and mid Lagaip valleys make low intensity sweet potato gardens, and use composting and mounding. Those in the lower Lagaip Valley cultivate very low intensity sweet potato gardens and do not employ land improvement practices. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 61 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the upper Porgera Valley is moderate to very high constrained by frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The mid Lagaip Valley has moderate potential due to steep slopes and high rainfall. The rest of the district has very low to low potential caused by steep slopes, low temperatures, frost in places, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. Major roads (km): 80


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the upper Lagaip Valley where large numbers of people are constrained by strong agricultural pressure, very low incomes and very high population densities. These people are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields, frost and food shortages, and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. Smaller numbers of people in the Kera Valley face similar constraints but have higher incomes. In the Pagubiea, Porgera and mid Lagaip valleys, large numbers of people are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. In the lower Lagaip Valley, very small numbers of people are constrained by poor access to services, very low incomes and poor environments. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Lagaip-Porgera District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is considerable agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 77 000. The upper Lai Valley is one of the most densely populated areas in the country with 360 persons/km2. The Sirunki Plateau and upper slopes of the Lai Valley have 85 persons/km2, while the Maramuni area supports 30 persons/km2.

Access to services People in the upper Lai Valley and Sirunki Plateau require less than four hours’ travel to reach Wabag. The Maramuni area is very remote and people require over one day’s travel to reach Wabag. An extension of the Highlands Highway runs through the Lai Valley and Sirunki Plateau and connects Wabag to other highland provincial capitals.

Income Incomes are moderate in the Lai Valley and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food. People in the higher altitude areas of the Sirunki Plateau have low incomes derived from sales of potato and pyrethrum. In the Maramuni area people are very poor because of limited economic activity.



Agriculture in the upper Lai Valley and on the Sirunki Plateau is dominated by high intensity sweet potato production. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. Gardens on the upper slopes of the Lai Valley are maintained by similar practices, but are only of moderate intensity, with 6–14 consecutive plantings followed by fallow periods of 15 years. People in the Maramuni area cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 51 per cent of children were stunted and one per cent were seriously under weight.

The southwestern side of the Lai Valley has strong agricultural pressure resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. Land degradation and declining crop yields are common problems. The Sirunki Plateau and upper slopes of the Lai Valley have moderate pressure from intensive agriculture being practised in moderate potential environments. There are few areas with potential for agricultural development.

Land potential The land potential in the flatter areas of the Lai Valley is very high as a result of improvements to soil fertility and drainage from composting and mounding. The Sirunki Plateau has moderate land potential caused by frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and frost. The upper slopes of the Lai Valley have low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and frost, while the Maramuni Valley has low potential due to high rainfall, steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Wabag District

Wabag District covers the upper Maramuni Valley, Central Range, Sirunki Plateau and upper Lai Valley. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2300 and 3700 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1400 m in the lower Maramuni Valley, to over 3000 m along the Central Range, with most people living between 2000 and 2600 metres.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the upper slopes of the Lai Valley and Sirunki Plateau where population densities are very high and agricultural pressure is moderate to strong. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and subsistence food shortages. Smaller numbers of people in the Maramuni Valley are constrained by poor access to services, low cash incomes and low potential environments. People in this area have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Wabag District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.

Enga Province


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Wapenamanda District

Wapenamanda District is in the southeast of the province and covers the Tsak and Lai valleys. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 3300 mm, and is highest in the Lai Valley. Altitude varies from 1000 m in the lower Lai Valley, to over 3800 m on the summit of Mt Hagen. The Lumusa area, which is also occupied by Enga speakers, was once part of this district but is now part of BaiyerMul District in Western Highlands Province.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 86 000. The flatter areas of the Lai and Tsak valleys have the highest population densities of 360 persons/km2, while the upper slopes of these valleys have 80 persons/km2. The lower Lai Valley has an average density of 60 persons/km2. The Lai Valley has significant in-migration of people looking for better access to services and more productive environments, particularly in the Middle Lai and Minamb census divisions.

Access to services People in the Lai and Tsak valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Wapenamanda or Wabag. An extension of the Highlands Highway runs through the district connecting Wapenamanda to Wabag and Mt Hagen. There is a good road into the Tsak Valley and another through the lower Lai Valley from Wapenamanda to Paware.

Income


Incomes are moderate in the Lai and Tsak valleys and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food. Incomes are very low in the lower Lai Valley.

There are areas of moderate and strong agricultural pressure in the Lai and Tsak valleys caused by intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is potential for agricultural development in the lower Lai Valley where there is moderate to high land potential, no agricultural pressure and reasonable access to markets. Coffee and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in this area.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Lai and Tsak valleys is dominated by high intensity sweet potato production. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of composting and mounding. Gardens on the upper slopes of these valleys are maintained by similar practices, but are of moderate intensity. People in the lower Lai Valley make low intensity sweet potato gardens which are improved by drainage and mounding. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively good; 43 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the flatter areas of the Lai and Tsak valleys is very high as a result of land improvement practices such as mounding and composting. The upper slopes of these valleys have low potential because of frequent cloud cover, steep slopes, low temperatures and occasional frosts. The lower Lai Valley has moderate potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The unoccupied mountains in the district have very low to low land potential.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Lai and Tsak valleys who are constrained by moderate to strong agricultural pressure and very high population densities. These people are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. Overall, people in Wapenamanda District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.

Enga Province 120

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Western Highlands Province

Potato garden and eucalyptus trees with Mount Giluwe in the distance. English potato is well adapted to low temperatures and is one of the main cash crops in areas above 2100 m, where Arabica coffee cannot be grown. In the Kaugel Valley around Tambul, potato is grown in large monocropped gardens where tractors and inorganic fertilisers are used. Such capitalintensive agriculture is not common in PNG. The peak in the background is Mt Giluwe, the second highest mountain in the country.

People remove beans from coffee cherries. Coffee production is the most important smallholder cash-earning activity in Western Highlands Province, as it is throughout the highlands region. There is a strong link between the quality of road access and smallholder coffee sales. Deteriorating roads, high transport costs and low returns on labour inhibit coffee production in remote areas such as the Jimi Valley.

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Introduction

lo we rJ im iV all ey

ley Val Lai

JIMI

Bis m ar ck Tabibuga R

Lumusa

Ra

HAGEN

NORTH WAHGI

Wahg Banz i Valle y

Kerowil

Mt Hagen

Tambul

an ge

upper Jimi Valley Sep Ambulua ik W ahg i Div Kol ide

DEI

Bai yer Va

nge

en H ag

ll e y

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL

el ug y Ka alle V

r Valley Nebilye

Minj

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI Minj Valley


Kubor Range

Major roads

TAMBULNEBILYER Mera


Ka ug el Va lle y Unani

Western Highlands occupies 8900 km2 in the PNG highlands. The province includes the Jimi Valley in the north, Wahgi Valley in the centre, Baiyer and Lai valleys in the northwest, Kaugel and Nebilyer valleys in the southwest and the Kubor Range in the southeast. The Wahgi Valley is densely settled and is one of the most productive smallholder and plantation coffee growing regions in the country. The mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide form a major constraint to development in the Jimi Valley. They extend across the entire province from the upper slopes of Mt Wilhelm in the east, to the Baiyer Valley in the west. Altitude in the province varies from 600 m in the lower Kaugel and Jimi valleys, to over 4000 m on Mt Wilhelm, Mt Kabangama and Mt Kegeraga. Most people live within an altitudinal range of 1400–2200 metres. Average annual rainfall varies between 2200 and 4000 millimetres. The Wahgi Valley has lower rainfall and a moderate dry season in the west. The lower Kaugel and Jimi valleys have much higher rainfall. The seven districts in Western Highlands are Angalimp-South Wahgi, Baiyer-Mul, Dei, Hagen, Jimi, North Wahgi and TambulNebilyer.

Kilometres 0

25

50

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Western Highlands Province

122

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100

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Population 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI

HAGEN Tambul

Banz Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Jimi

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Hagen

BAIYERMUL

Dei

Tabibuga

Baiyer

Baiyer-Mul

Lumusa Angalimp-South Wahgi

The estimated rural population of Western Highlands in the year 2000 is 358 000, which is nine per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is 2.5 per cent per year. Population densities are highest in the Wahgi Valley with 163 persons/km2. The upper Kaugel, Nebilyer and Baiyer valleys average 106 persons/km2, while the upper Jimi Valley has 49 persons/km2. The lower Jimi Valley has low densities of 8 persons/km2. The Kubor Range and lower Kaugel Valley are mostly unoccupied. The upper Wahgi and Kaugel valleys have significant in-migration as people move to areas near Mt Hagen seeking better access to services, more productive environments and wage employment.

Minj

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) TAMBULNEBILYER

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) Mera

High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Unani Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

HAGEN Tambul

Banz Kerowil

Mt Hagen

NORTH WAHGI

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Jimi

BAIYERMUL

Hagen

Tabibuga

Dei

Baiyer

Baiyer-Mul

Lumusa

Angalimp-South Wahgi

10 000

JIMI

Minj

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre

TAMBULNEBILYER Mera

1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land

The Highlands Highway runs through the Wahgi and Nebilyer valleys linking Mt Hagen to Goroka and Lae in the east, and to Mendi in the west. The Wahgi, upper Kaugel, Nebilyer and Baiyer valleys have a good network of roads. There is a good surfaced road from Banz across the SepikWahgi Divide to Kol and Tabibuga. Within the Jimi Valley, roads are poor and bridges are often broken. A gravel surfaced road runs from the Baiyer Valley to Lumusa. People in the upper Wahgi Valley require less than one hour’s travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the lower Wahgi, Baiyer, Kaugel and Nebilyer valleys require less than four hours’ travel. People in the upper Jimi Valley, Mera area and Lumusa area require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the lower Jimi Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Major roads Minor roads/tracks Unani

Airstrip

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


124

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District boundaries

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Income 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI

HAGEN Tambul

Banz Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Jimi

Hagen

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Dei

Tabibuga

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL

Baiyer-Mul


Agriculture is the main source of cash income in Western Highlands. People in the Wahgi, Baiyer and Nebilyer valleys have high incomes derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Those in areas on either side of the Hagen Range and in the upper Jimi Valley earn low incomes from the sale of coffee and fresh food. In the high altitude areas of the Kaugel Valley, people earn moderate incomes from the sale of potato and other vegetables. Those in the lower Jimi Valley and Mera area earn very low incomes. Small business activities and wage employment around Mt Hagen and along the highway are important non-agricultural sources of income. A small number of people have wage employment on coffee plantations in the Wahgi Valley.

Minj

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) TAMBULNEBILYER

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Mera

Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Unani Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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125

125

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Subsistence agriculture 70 000

Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI Banz

HAGEN Tambul

Jimi

Hagen

Dei

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Baiyer-Mul

Tabibuga

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL


Lumusa

Moderate intensity sweet potato cultivation dominates the Wahgi, Nebilyer and Baiyer valleys. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop productivity is maintained by the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage, mounding and bedding. People in the Kaugel Valley cultivate high intensity sweet potato gardens with continuous cropping, supported by composting, tillage and mounding. The rest of the province is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. Drains and soil retention barriers are common in the Lumusa area.

Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Minj

Low intensity sweet potato gardens TAMBULNEBILYER

Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens Mera

High intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens Unoccupied land District boundaries

Unani Kilometres 0

25

50


126

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100

126

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Land potential 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI

HAGEN Tambul

Banz Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Jimi

Hagen

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Dei

Tabibuga

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL

Baiyer-Mul


Land potential is very high in parts of the Wahgi, Nebilyer, Kaugel, Baiyer and lower Jimi valleys. The province has approximately 1100 km2 of very high potential land, which is the largest area in any province in the country. Soils, slope, rainfall and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Here, crop production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, composting, tillage, drainage, mounding and bedding. The lower Jimi Valley and Lumusa area have moderate to high land potential. The upper Jimi Valley and the Kubor Range have low potential because of steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. Land potential has decreased in areas where practices such as mounding, tillage and bedding are used on steep slopes, resulting in increased soil erosion. Frosts are common in the upper Kaugel Valley.

Minj

Very high potential TAMBULNEBILYER

High potential Mera


Unani

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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127

127

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Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI

HAGEN Tambul

Banz Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Jimi

Hagen

Dei

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Baiyer-Mul

Tabibuga

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL


Lumusa

Minj

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure

TAMBULNEBILYER Mera

Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land

Unani


Kilometres 0

25

50

100


128

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There is strong agricultural pressure in the high altitude areas of the Kaugel Valley, south of Tambul, due to very intensive agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. Land degradation, declining crop yields and frost damage occasionally disrupt subsistence food supply in this area. There is marginal and moderate agricultural pressure in fringe areas of the Kaugel and Wahgi valleys where intensive agriculture has moved onto steeper sloping land. The potential for agricultural development in the province is very high. The Wahgi, Nebilyer and Baiyer valleys have very high land potential, little agricultural pressure and good access to markets. The Lumusa area has high potential land and reasonable access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. The lower Jimi Valley has high potential land but is mostly unoccupied, perhaps because of malaria. It covers an altitude zone where highland and lowland cash crops overlap.

128

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Disadvantaged people 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

JIMI

NORTH WAHGI Banz

HAGEN Tambul

Jimi

Hagen

Tambul-Nebilyer

Kol

North Wahgi

Ambulua

DEI

Dei

Tabibuga

Baiyer

BAIYERMUL

Baiyer-Mul


The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the upper Kaugel Valley, south of Tambul, where there are very high population densities and strong agricultural pressure. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields, frost damage and food shortages. Other fringe areas of the Kaugel and Wahgi valleys have high to very high population densities and moderate agricultural pressure. Small numbers of people in the Mera area live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes, while those in the lower Jimi Valley have poor access to services and earn very low incomes. People in these areas have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People living north of Tabibuga earn very low incomes, while those in the upper Jimi Valley live in a low potential environment.

Kerowil

Mt Hagen

ANGALIMPSOUTH WAHGI

Minj

Poor environment, very low income, poor access Moderate pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access

TAMBULNEBILYER

Poor environment, very low income Mera

Strong pressure Moderate pressure Poor environment Very low income

Unani

Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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129

129

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Angalimp-South Wahgi District

Angalimp-South Wahgi District is in the southeast of the province and covers the plains and swamps of the Wahgi Valley south of the Wahgi River, and the mountains and valleys of the Kubor Range. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2300 and 4000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 600 m in the lower Kaugel Valley, to over 4000 m on Mt Kabangama and Mt Kegeraga. Most people live between 1400 and 2000 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 61 000. The highest population density is in the northeast of the district, in the Wahgi and Minj valleys, with 155 persons/km2. The Wahgi Valley west of Minj, has 90 persons/km2. The Mera area in the southeast of the district has a low density of 16 persons/km2. Much of the district is unoccupied.

Access to services People in the Wahgi and Minj valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mt Hagen or Kundiawa, while those in the Mera area require 4–8 hours’ travel. The Highlands Highway runs through the Wahgi Valley in the north of the district. There are no roads in the Mera area.

Income Western Highlands Province 130

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Incomes are high in the Wahgi and Minj valleys and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Coffee plantations provide some wage employment. People in the Mera area earn very low incomes from minor sales of coffee and fresh food.



130

Airstrips: 1



Agriculture in the Wahgi and Minj valleys is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage, mounding and bedding. In the Mera area, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Land is improved through tillage and mounding. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 42 per cent of children were stunted and one per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Minj Valley as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. Soil erosion and reduced soil fertility may lead to declining crop yields. There is marginal agricultural pressure on the upper slopes of the Wahgi Valley. There is potential for agricultural development in the Wahgi Valley given the very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to high population densities and competition for arable land from plantation agriculture may be a constraint.

Land potential

The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Mera area who earn very low incomes and live in a low potential environment. They have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods. In the Minj Valley, people are constrained by very high population densities and moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Angalimp-South Wahgi District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.

Land potential in the flood-free areas of the Wahgi Valley is very high and this land is among the most productive in PNG. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Land improvement practices such as drainage, bedding and legume rotations maintain production. The floodplains and swamps of the Wahgi Valley have moderate potential constrained by poor soils and frequent inundation. The Minj Valley has low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The Mera area has low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and high rainfall.







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The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 38 000. The highest population density is in the upper Baiyer Valley with an average of 106 persons/km2. The lower Baiyer Valley and Lumusa area have 50 persons/km2. The Hagen Range, Lai Valley and lower Jimi Valley are largely unoccupied.

Agriculture in the Baiyer Valley is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. In the upper Baiyer Valley, there are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage and mounding. Agriculture in the mid Baiyer Valley is less intensive and land improvement practices include peanut rotations, drainage and bedding. People in the Lumusa area and the lower Baiyer Valley cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens that are maintained by practices such as drainage, mounding and soil retention barriers. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively good; 28 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Land potential

There is marginal agricultural pressure in the upper Baiyer Valley resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in moderate potential environments. These areas will be of concern in the future if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the mid to lower Baiyer Valley given the high to very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. The Lumusa area has high land potential and reasonable access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cashearning activities in these areas. The lower Jimi Valley has high land potential and is presently unoccupied with no road access. The area is in an altitude zone where both highland and lowland cash crops can be grown satisfactorily, but in which malaria is probably a serious problem, particularly for people with no naturally acquired immunity.

Population

Income

Land potential in the mid to lower Baiyer Valley is moderate to very high. North of Baiyer River Station, the soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Constraints in the moderate potential areas include steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The Lumusa area and the lower Baiyer Valley have high land potential constrained by steep slopes. The lower Jimi Valley has high land potential with no constraints.

Disadvantaged people There are few disadvantaged people in the district as defined by the criteria used in this handbook. Overall, people in Baiyer-Mul District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.

Incomes are high in the mid Baiyer Valley and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the upper Baiyer Valley, lower Baiyer Valley and Lumusa area earn low incomes from minor sales of coffee, firewood and fresh food. Total area (km2): 1376

ANUA001 layout new


131

Airstrips: 3







People in the upper Baiyer Valley require less than four hours’ travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the lower Baiyer and Lumusa area require 4–8 hours’ travel. There is a road through the Baiyer Valley to Kumbwareta that continues west to Lumusa. In the mid 1990s, criminal activity on these roads was so frequent that the airstrips at Kumbwareta and Lumusa were re-opened by local communities to allow the export of coffee from these areas.

Baiyer-Mul District

Baiyer-Mul District is in the west of the province and covers the Hagen Range and the Baiyer, Lai and lower Jimi valleys. The Lumusa area, on the lower northern slopes of the Hagen Range, was previously part of Wapenamanda District in Enga Province, but is now part of this district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3300 mm, increasing from south to north. Altitude varies from 600 m in the lower Jimi Valley, to over 3800 m on Mt Hagen. Most people live between 1200 and 2000 metres.

131

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Dei District

Dei District is in the centre of the province and covers the plains and swamps of the Wahgi Valley, the hills of the Wahgi-Baiyer Divide and the mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide around Tsenga. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3400 mm, and is higher around the SepikWahgi Divide. Altitude varies from 1000 m in the upper Tsau Valley near Tsenga, to over 2900 m on Mt Jaka. Most people live between 1400 and 2000 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 41 000. The highest population density is in the Wahgi Valley with 170 persons/km2. The hills of the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide have a density of 90 persons/km2, while the mountains of the SepikWahgi Divide have 40 persons/km2. The district has significant in-migration. The population on the Dei census division increased by 4.1 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

Western Highlands Province 132

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People in the Wahgi Valley require less than one hour’s travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide require less than four hours’ travel. People in the Sepik-Wahgi Divide require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Mt Hagen. The old Highlands Highway runs through the district along the Wahgi Valley and connects to a road that runs through the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide into the Baiyer Valley.



132

Airstrips: 1

Income


Incomes are high in the Wahgi Valley and BaiyerWahgi Divide and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Coffee plantations provide some wage employment in the area. People in the SepikWahgi Divide earn low incomes from minor sales of coffee, cardamom and fresh food.

There is marginal and moderate agricultural pressure in the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. These areas will be of concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the Wahgi Valley given the very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to high population densities and competition for arable land from plantation agriculture may be a constraint.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Wahgi Valley is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop productivity is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage and bedding. Agriculture in the BaiyerWahgi Divide is similar but is less intensive. In the mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 30 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential Land potential in the Wahgi Valley is very high. North of Wahgi Swamp, the soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Land improvement practices such as drainage, bedding and legume rotations maintain crop production. The floodplain and swamp areas of the Wahgi River have low potential constrained by poor soils and frequent flooding. The hills of the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide and mountains of the SepikWahgi Divide have low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. Major roads (km): 0



Disadvantaged people As defined by the criteria used in this handbook, there are few disadvantaged people in the district other than very small numbers in the Baiyer-Wahgi Divide, who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Dei District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is very good and cash incomes are high.



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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 70 000. The highest population density is in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys with 170 persons/km2. The lower southeastern slopes of the Hagen Range and the northern slopes of the Kubor Range have 122 persons/km2. The district has significant in-migration of people looking for better access to services, more productive environments and wage employment in Mt Hagen. The population of the Angalimp census division increased by 5.5 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


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133

Airstrips: 1


Incomes are high in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Coffee plantations provide some wage employment. People in the higher altitude areas of the Hagen Range earn low incomes from sales of potato, fresh food, firewood and coffee.

There is marginal agricultural pressure in the Hagen and Kubor ranges as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas will be of concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land improvement practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys given the very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to high population densities and competition for arable land from plantation agriculture may be a constraint.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys and Kubor Range area is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage and bedding. Agriculture in the Hagen Range is similar, but people use composting, tillage and mounding as land management practices. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively good; 29 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential

Disadvantaged people There are few disadvantaged people in the district as defined by the criteria used in this handbook. Overall, people in Hagen District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is very good and cash incomes are high.

Land potential in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys is very high and the land in these areas is some of the most productive in PNG. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Land improvement practices such as drainage, bedding and legume rotations maintain production. The Hagen and Kubor ranges have low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes.





People in the Wahgi, Kuna and Komun valleys require less than one hour’s travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the Hagen and Kubor range areas require up to four hours’ travel. The Highlands Highway runs through the district and connects to roads that service most occupied areas of the district.

Income

Hagen District

Hagen District is in the central west of the province and covers the plains and swamps of the upper Wahgi Valley, the northern valleys and mountains of the Kubor Range, and the southeastern slopes of the Hagen Range. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2500 and 2800 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1500 m in the Wahgi Valley, to over 2600 m on Oga Mountain. Most people live between 1500 and 2000 metres.



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Jimi District

Jimi District is in the north of the province and covers the Jimi Valley, the northern side of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide and the southern side of the Bismark Range. Most of the district is mountainous. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2600 and 3500 millimetres. Altitude varies from 600 m on the plains of the lower Jimi Valley, to over 4500 m on Mt Wilhelm. Most people live between 1400 and 2000 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 45 000. The population density is relatively even throughout the mountainous parts of the district. The Malne, Kon, upper Jimi and upper Tsau valleys have an average density of 41 persons/km2. The southern side of the Bismark Range has 35 persons/km2, while the plains of the lower Jimi Valley are sparsely populated with 8 persons/km2. Over half of the district is unoccupied.

Access to services

Western Highlands Province 134

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People in the upper Jimi Valley require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the lower Jimi Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. There is a surfaced road from Banz in the Wahgi Valley, that extends across the SepikWahgi Divide and connects to Karap, Tabibuga and Kol. Within the Jimi Valley, roads are poorly maintained and bridges are often broken.



134

Airstrips: 4

Income


Incomes are very low to low in the entire district. People in the upper Jimi Valley sell small amounts of coffee and fresh food, while those in the lower Jimi Valley have few cash-earning activities.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the lower Jimi Valley given the high to very high land potential. However, there are few people and no roads in this area.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. In the upper Jimi Valley, there are 1–2 plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Land is improved through practices such as mounding and planted casuarina tree fallows. Gardens in the lower Jimi Valley are less intensive and people use few land improvement practices. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 53 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the lower Jimi Valley who have poor access to services and earn very low incomes. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. North of Tabibuga, people earn very low incomes, while larger numbers of people in the upper Jimi Valley are constrained by a low potential environment. Overall, people in Jimi District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are low.

Land potential in the lower Jimi Valley is high to very high. There are few constraints to the production of most crops. However, it is likely that malaria is a problem in the lower Jimi Valley. The upper Jimi Valley has very low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes.

Major roads (km): 0





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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 44 000. The highest population density is in the Wahgi Valley, east of Kerowil, with 146 persons/km2. The Wahgi Valley, west of Kerowil, and valleys in the Sepik-Wahgi Divide support 90 persons/km2. The mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide are unoccupied.

Access to services Access to services in the entire district is good with most people living within four hours’ travel of Mt Hagen or Kundiawa. The old Highlands Highway runs through the district and connects to numerous surfaced roads which run into the Sepik-Wahgi Divide, such as the road from Banz into the Jimi Valley.

Income


ANUA001 layout new


135

Airstrips: 2


Agriculture in the district is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production. In the Wahgi Valley east of Kerowil, there are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Crop production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage, mounding and bedding. West of Kerowil, agriculture is less intensive but people use similar land improvement practices. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 39 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

There are areas of moderate agricultural pressure in the valleys north of Nondugl and Banz, caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There is potential for agricultural development in the Wahgi Valley given the very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to high population densities and competition for arable land from plantation agriculture may be a constraint.

Land potential Land potential in the Wahgi Valley is very high and the land in this area is among the most productive in PNG. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Land improvement practices such as drainage, bedding, legume rotations, tillage and composting maintain crop production. The floodplain of the Wahgi River has moderate potential limited by poor soils and frequent inundation. The valleys and mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide have low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the areas north of Nondugl and Banz who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in North Wahgi District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.



Incomes are high in the district and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Plantations provide some wage employment.


North Wahgi District

North Wahgi District is in the central east of the province and covers the plains and swamps north of the Wahgi River, and the southern valleys and mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2300 and 2600 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1400 m in the Wahgi Valley, to over 3000 m on the peaks of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide. Most people live between 1400 and 1800 metres.



135

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Tambul-Nebilyer District Western Highlands Province 136

ANUA001 layout new

Tambul-Nebilyer District is in the southwest of the province and covers the Kaugel and Nebilyer valleys, the northern slopes of Mt Giluwe and the southern extent of the Kubor Range. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2300 and 4000 mm, increasing from northwest to southeast. Altitude varies from 800 m in the lower Kaugel Valley, to over 4000 m on the upper slopes of Mt Giluwe. Most people live between 1200 and 2800 metres.

Income


Incomes are high in the Nebilyer Valley and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Coffee plantations provide some wage employment. People in the high altitude areas of the Kaugel Valley earn moderate incomes from sales of potato, other fresh food and firewood.

There is strong agricultural pressure on the upper slopes of the Kaugel Valley, south of Tambul, as a result of very high intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. Soil erosion and soil fertility decline result in declining crop yields. Severe frost damage also disrupts food supply. There is moderate agricultural pressure in other upper slope areas of the Kaugel Valley and marginal pressure near Siapangi. There is potential for further agricultural development in the Nebilyer Valley given the very high land potential, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in this area.


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 59 000. The highest population density is in the upper Nebilyer Valley with 170 persons/km2. The upper Kaugel Valley around Tambul has a density of 115 persons/km2, while the lower Nebilyer Valley has 90 persons/km2. Most of the Kubor Range is unoccupied. The Kaugel Valley has significant in-migration as people seek better access to services and more productive environments. The population of the Tambul census division increased by 4.2 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Agriculture in the Kaugel Valley is characterised by high intensity sweet potato cultivation. Crop production is maintained through the use of composting, tillage and mounding. In the Nebilyer Valley, people cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens with 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Land improvement practices consist of peanut rotations, drainage and bedding. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 35 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services

Land potential

People in the upper Nebilyer Valley require less than one hour’s travel to reach Mt Hagen, while those in the lower Nebilyer and Kaugel valleys require up to four hours’ travel. A branch road of the Highlands Highway runs from Togoba to Wabag. Other roads extend to Tambul and south into Southern Highlands Province.

Land potential in the Nebilyer Valley is very high and the land in this area is among the most productive in PNG. Land improvement practices such as drainage, bedding and peanut rotations maintain production. The flatter land of the Kaugel Valley has very high potential constrained by low temperatures, while the upper slopes have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and frost. The Kubor Range has low potential because of steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and high rainfall.

Population



136

Airstrips: 0



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the upper slopes of the Kaugel Valley, south of Tambul, where there are very high population densities and strong agricultural pressure. People are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields, frost damage and food shortages. All other upper slope areas of the Kaugel Valley have very high population densities and moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Tambul-Nebilyer District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.




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Simbu Province

A high mountain road and landslide in the Gumine area. The lack of road construction and maintenance in rugged mountain terrain is a major barrier to rural development in remote areas, in this case in the Gumine area south of Kundiawa. Road conditions are generally poor and at times dangerous in this terrain. Inadequate road maintenance means that many people have worse access to markets and services than they did a decade ago.

A woman sells firewood and cane grass beside the Highlands Highway. Road-side sales of casuarina timber are common along the Highlands Highway, and are a useful source of cash income for people in Simbu Province. Casuarina trees are planted in gardens to help restore soil fertility during the fallow period and to reduce soil erosion. The timber is used for fencing, household construction and firewood. The cane grass for sale in the background is used to build walls for houses.

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Introduction

KEROWAGI

Chim

y

elm Ran ge Wilh l Koronig Gembogl y e ll Va e Kerowagi bu Va l l

KUNDIAWA

Kundiawa Wa hg iV all ey

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Mo nV alle y

El

Gumine

Oim aGUMINE DividMaril e

Chuave Move im

ba

ri

CHUAVE

Kilau

Ra

ng

e

Nomane

Occupied land

Tua Valley


K

i mu ari

u tea Pla

Karimui


Simbu occupies roughly 6000 km2 of the PNG highlands. The province extends from Mt Wilhelm (the highest mountain in PNG) in the north, to the lowlands south of Karimui. The Chimbu and Koronigl rivers flow south from the slopes of Mt Wilhelm into the Wahgi Valley. The plains and hills of the Wahgi Valley are densely settled, and this is one of the major smallholder coffee growing regions in the country. The relatively unoccupied southern part of the province is dominated by the Tua Valley and isolated peaks of the extinct volcano, Mt Karimui. Altitude ranges from 300 m in the Purari Valley in the south of the province, to over 4500 m on the summit of Mt Wilhelm. Most people live within an altitude range of 1400–2000 metres. Average annual rainfall varies from 2200 to 4000 mm, and increases from north to south. The six districts in Simbu are Chuave, Gumine, KarimuiNomane, Kerowagi, Kundiawa and SinaSina-Yonggamugl.

KARIMUI-NOMANE Crater Mountain Pur ari V alle

y

Pio Va

lley

Kilometres 0

25

50

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Simbu Province

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Population Number of people

Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi

Sina-Sina-Yonggamugl

Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Kundiawa Chuave

The estimated rural population of Simbu in the year 2000 is 182 000, which is five per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is less than one per cent per annum and is the lowest in the country, partly as a result of out-migration. Population densities are highest in the mid Wahgi Valley with 116 persons/km2. The Chimbu Valley has 91 persons/km2, while the lower Wahgi Valley has 69 persons/km2. Areas near Karimui and Bomai have moderate densities of 23 persons/km2, while the rest of the province has low densities of 11 persons/km2. More than half of the province is unoccupied. The Gumine area, in particular, has significant out-migration.

CHUAVE Nomane

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Karimui

Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries

KARIMUI-NOMANE

Kilometres 0

25

50


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100

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Number of people

Access to services Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Chuave

Kundiawa

CHUAVE Nomane

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre Karimui

1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land

KARIMUI-NOMANE

Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries Airstrip

Kilometres 0

25

50


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100

The Highlands Highway runs across the north of the province, linking Kundiawa to Mt Hagen in the west and to Goroka in the east. A good road network connects most areas in the north of the province with the highway. However, the condition of these roads deteriorated during the 1990s. South of Kundiawa, the province is divided by the deep and rugged Wahgi River gorge. A road which is only accessible to four-wheel drive vehicles and is frequently closed by landslides, runs from the upper Chimbu Valley down to Bundi in Madang Province. This road continues to the Ramu Highway, via Usino. There is a local network of poor quality roads around Karimui that are not connected to any other centre. People in the north of the province have good access to services, requiring less than four hours’ travel to reach Kundiawa. People around Nomane, Kilau and Karimui require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. People on the southern border of the province are very remote and need more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

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Income Number of people

Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Kundiawa Chuave

Simbu is a relatively poor province. Agriculture provides the main source of cash income through sales of smallholder coffee, fresh food and firewood. People in the mid Wahgi Valley northwest of Kundiawa and in areas along the highway southeast of Kundiawa have high incomes, while those in the Chuave, Gumine and Sina-Sina areas have low incomes. People in the rest of the province have very low incomes. The main non-agricultural sources of income in the province are PMVs and trade stores along the highway. In contrast to Western Highlands and Eastern Highlands provinces, there are no large coffee plantations in Simbu Province.

CHUAVE Nomane

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year)

Karimui

Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land KARIMUI-NOMANE

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50


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Number of people

Subsistence agriculture Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Chuave

Kundiawa

CHUAVE Nomane

Sago with low intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens Karimui

Unoccupied land

Moderate intensity sweet potato production characterises agriculture in the northwestern part of the province. Typically, people make 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Production is maintained on the flatter lands of the Wahgi Valley through the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage and mounding. On the steep slopes of the Chimbu Valley, tillage, soil retention barriers and small mounds are used extensively. People in the rest of the province cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In some places casuarina trees are planted in fallows. Sago is an important food in the Pio Valley in the far south of the province and it is supported by low intensity sweet potato gardens.

District boundaries KARIMUI-NOMANE

Kilometres 0

25

50


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Land potential Number of people

Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Kundiawa Chuave

The mid Wahgi Valley has very high land potential and is one of the most productive areas in PNG. Rainfall, slope and soils are ideal for the production of many crops. Land improvement practices such as peanut rotations, drainage, tillage and small mounds maintain productivity. There is an area of very high land potential east of Mt Elimbari. The lower Wahgi and Chimbu valleys have low to moderate land potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The south of the province has low to moderate land potential caused by high rainfall, frequent cloud cover and steep slopes. In some places land management practises such as mounding, tillage and bedding are used on steep slopes, causing increased soil erosion.

CHUAVE Nomane

Very high potential High potential Karimui

Moderate potential Low potential Very low potential

KARIMUI-NOMANE


Kilometres 0

25

50


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100

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Number of people

Agricultural pressure and potential Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Chuave

Kundiawa

CHUAVE Nomane

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure

Karimui

Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential KARIMUI-NOMANE

Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land District boundaries

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the Chimbu, upper Koronigl and Sinaga valleys and around Moaina. This is due to moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation, especially soil erosion and soil fertility decline. There are large areas of land with marginal pressure near Gumine and Chuave that will be of concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. Potential for agricultural development exists in the mid Wahgi Valley where there is very high land potential, no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to high population densities may be a constraint. Areas south of Chuave and north of Gumine also have potential for development, as there is moderate to high potential land, marginal agricultural pressure and good access to markets.

Kilometres 0

25

50


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Disadvantaged people Number of people

Gembogl Kerowagi

KEROWAGI

KUNDIAWA

30 000 20 000 10 000

Move

Gumine

Kilau

GUMINE

Kundiawa

Kerowagi


Chuave

Karimui-Nomane

Moaina

SINA-SINAYONGGAMUGL

Gumine

Kundiawa Chuave

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Chimbu, upper Koronigl and Sinaga valleys where agricultural pressure is moderate and incomes are very low. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. Small numbers of people in the Pio Valley have poor access to services, very low incomes and live in low potential environments. People in the Oima-Maril Divide live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes, while those around Karimui, Kalabai, Sora, Talabakul, Unani and in the Monulo Valley have very low incomes. Large numbers of people around Nomane live in low potential environments.

CHUAVE Nomane

Poor environment, very low income, poor access Strong pressure, very low income Moderate pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access

Karimui

Poor environment, very low income Strong pressure Moderate pressure

KARIMUI-NOMANE

Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50


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100

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Chuave District

Chuave District is in the east of the province and covers the tributary valleys of the Wahgi River and the Elimbari Range. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2300 and 3100 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 1000 m at the junction of the Wahgi and Tua rivers, to over 3000 m on Mt Elimbari. Most people live between 1500 and 2200 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 32 000. The highest population density is in the Mairi Valley, southeast of Chuave, where there are 117 persons/km2. The Nambaiyufa area in the east of the district has a density of 74 persons/km2, while the areas south and west of Mt Elimbari in the Mam, Oboi and Ona valleys have densities of 69 persons/km2. The Boiku area in the north of the district has 35 persons/km2.

Access to services All people in the district require less than four hours’ travel to reach Chuave or Kundiawa. The Highlands Highway runs through the north of the district, while a loop road around Mt Elimbari connects to the highway.

Income Incomes are low to moderate in the entire district and are derived from sales of coffee, fresh food, firewood and cattle.



Agriculture in the Mairi Valley is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. Between 3–5 consecutive plantings are made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Casuarina trees are planted in fallows and small mounds are used in gardens. People in the remainder of the district cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens which are supported by improved fallows and small mounds. Gardens in the Boiku area are also supported by soil retention barriers. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 44 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

There is marginal agricultural pressure in the Mairi Valley that will be of concern if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development along the eastern border of the district, in the Nambaiyufa area, where there is high to very high land potential and good access to markets. The northern side of the Tua Valley has moderate to high land potential and is unoccupied, but there is no road access across the river. There is also potential for agricultural development around Boiku, Chuave, Keu, Aurabori and Magoma where there is moderate land potential supported by good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Land potential The land potential along the eastern border of the district, in the Nambaiyufa area, is very high. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Casuarina tree plantings, tillage and mounding maintain production. The Mairi Valley and areas around Boiku, Keu, Aurabori and Magoma have moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The Ona, Oboi and Mam valleys have low potential caused by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Ona, Oboi and Mam valleys who are constrained by low potential environments. Overall, people in Chuave District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.

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Incomes are low in the Wahgi, Mon and Maril valleys and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the Oima-Maril Divide have very low incomes.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on the upper slopes of the Maril Valley south of Gumine, as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. In other parts of the Maril Valley, there is marginal pressure, but this will only be of concern if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in most parts of the Wahgi, Mon and Maril valleys where there is moderate to very high land potential, little agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas, but land shortages caused by high population densities may limit further development.


Access to services

Land potential

People in the Wahgi, Mon and Maril valleys require less than four hours’ travel to reach Gumine or Kundiawa. People in the Oima-Maril Divide require 4–8 hours’ travel to the nearest service centre. An all-weather road links Gumine to Kundiawa. There is a poor quality road that runs up the Mon Valley and another that runs southeast towards Kilau and Nomane.

The land potential in the Mon and Maril valleys is high, but some areas are constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. There are some isolated areas of very high potential land in the Wahgi Valley on the northern border of the district. Otherwise, most of the Wahgi Valley has moderate potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The Oima-Maril Divide has very low to low potential because of steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes.



147

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Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Oima-Maril Divide, where people live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes. However, population densities are low and the number of people affected is small. The area of moderate agricultural pressure south of Gumine also has very high population densities and people there are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation and declining crop yields. Overall, people in Gumine District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.




Simbu Province

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 31 000. The highest population densities are in the Wahgi, Mon and Maril valleys with 111 persons/km2. The mountains of the Oima-Maril Divide have a low population density of 14 persons/km2. The mountains in the northwest and southwest of the district are unoccupied. There are areas of significant out-migration such as the Wikauma census division where the population decreased by 3.6 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Agriculture in the Waghi, Mon and Maril valleys is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 10–15 years. Production is maintained through the planting of casuarina trees in fallows, and the use of soil retention barriers and small mounds in gardens. People in the Oima-Maril Divide cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens with only one planting before a fallow period of 15 years. Small mounds are widely used. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 44 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

Population

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Income

Gumine District

Gumine District is in the central west of the province and covers the Wahgi, Maril and Mon valleys in the north and the mountains of the OimaMaril Divide in the south. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3700 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude ranges from 700 m in the lower Oima Valley, to over 4000 m on Mt Kubor. Most people live between 1400 and 2000 metres.

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Karimui-Nomane District

Karimui-Nomane District is in the south of the province and covers the lower Wahgi, Tua, Oima, Purari, Koma and Pio valleys, the Karimui Plateau and extensive mountain ranges. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2700 and 4000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 300 m in the Purari Valley, to over 2800 m on Mt Karimui, which is an extinct volcano. Most people live between 800 and 1200 m in the Karimui area, and at higher altitudes of 1500 to 2200 m in the Nomane area.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 26 000. The highest population density is in the lower Wahgi Valley around Nomane, Yobai and Doliba where there are 74 persons/km2. The areas around Karimui in the middle of the district, and Unani in the west, have densities of 23 persons/km2. The Monulo Valley west of Kilau has 14 persons/km2, while the Pio Valley in the very south of the district has 5 persons/km2. The district has some areas of significant out-migration. The population of the Salt census division decreased by 1.1 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990. However, for some decades, ethnically different Simbu speakers from the north of the province have been moving into the areas around Mt Karimui and opening up forest for the cultivation of low intensity sweet potato gardens.

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Access to services

Land potential

Most people around Nomane, Yobai, Doliba, Karimui and Unani require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. However, the level of services available in Karimui is low and people require more than one day’s travel to reach service centres in the north of the province. People in the Pio Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. The main road in the district runs through the lower Wahgi Valley, from Gumine to Nomane. There are some local roads in the Karimui area, but these do not connect to other service centres.

The land potential in the lower Wahgi Valley is low because of steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The areas around Karimui and Unani have moderate potential constrained by frequent cloud cover and high rainfall. Free-draining volcanic soils overcome the high rainfall constraint to some extent. The Pio Valley has low potential due to steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Income Incomes are low in the Kilau and Nomane areas in the northeast of the district, and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the remainder of the district have very low incomes.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. In the lower Wahgi Valley, two consecutive plantings are made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Soil retention barriers are used and sweet potato is planted in small mounds. Around Karimui and Unani, tillage and small mounds are used. Sago is an important food in the Pio Valley and is supplemented by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 38 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight. However, the high level of malnutrition in the Karimui area is disguised by the low levels elsewhere in the district. Major roads (km): 0


Agricultural pressure and potential There is no agricultural pressure in the district and few opportunities for agricultural development. Although the areas around Karimui and Unani have moderate land potential, access to markets is poor.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Pio Valley, where environments are poor, incomes are very low and access to services is poor. However, population densities are low and there are few people affected. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People around Karimui, Kalabai, Sora, Bomai and Unani have very low incomes. Small numbers of people in the Monulo Valley, west of Kilau, have very low incomes and live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Karimui-Nomane District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 34 000. Most people live in the Wahgi and lower Koronigl valleys where the population density is 117 persons/km2. The Sinaga and Omge valleys have similar population densities. The upper Koronigl Valley has 91 persons/km2.

Access to services All people in the district require less than four hours to travel to Kerowagi or Kundiawa. The Highlands Highway runs through the Wahgi Valley and links to a good road network that covers most of the occupied parts of the district.

Income


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Agriculture in the district is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. People make 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. On the flatter lands of the Wahgi and Koronigl valleys, production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage and mounding. On the steep slopes of the upper Koronigl and Sinaga valleys, tillage, soil retention barriers and small mounds are used. Agriculture on the lower slopes of the Kubor Range is less intensive with 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Planted casuarina fallows, soil retention barriers and small mounds are important land improvement practices in this area. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 49 per cent of children were stunted and less than two per cent were seriously under weight.

Moderate agricultural pressure exists in the upper Koronigl, Sinaga and Omge valleys as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to soil erosion and soil fertility decline. The lower slopes of the Kubor Range have areas of marginal pressure. There is potential for agricultural development in the Wahgi and lower Koronigl valleys given the high potential land, absence of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas, but land shortages and high population densities may constrain development.

Land potential The land potential in the Wahgi and lower Koronigl valleys is very high. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. The Maril Valley and lower slopes of the Kubor Range have moderate potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The upper Koronigl, Sinaga and Omge valleys have low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the upper Koronigl and Sinaga valleys who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Small numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. People in the Omge Valley face similar conditions but earn higher incomes. Overall, people in Kerowagi District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are high. Simbu Province

Incomes from agriculture are high in the Wahgi, lower Koronigl and Omge valleys and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People on the lower slopes of the Kubor Range have low incomes, while those in the upper Koronigl and Sinaga valleys have very low incomes. There are minor sales of coffee, fresh food and firewood in higher altitude areas.


Kerowagi District

Kerowagi District is in the northwest of the province and covers the Wahgi, Koronigl, Sinaga and Omge valleys, the mountains of the SepikWahgi Divide in the north and the Kubor Range in the south. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2100 and 2700 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1300 m in the Wahgi Valley, to over 4000 m on Mt Wilhelm. Most people live between 1300 and 2000 metres.






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Kundiawa District

Kundiawa District is in the northeast of the province and covers the Wahgi Valley south of Kundiawa, the Chimbu Valley and the mountains of the Sepik-Wahgi Divide, including Mt Wilhelm. The high altitude areas of the Mt Wilhelm Range are in the northwest of the district. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2100 and 2700 millimetres. Altitude varies from 1300 m in the Wahgi Valley, to over 4500 m on the upper slopes of Mt Wilhelm. Most people live between 1400 and 2500 metres. Note that the district is sometimes called Kundiawa-Gembogl District.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 27 000. The highest population density is in the Wahgi and Chimbu valleys with 117 persons/km2. The upper Chimbu Valley has 91 persons/km2.

Access to services All people in the district require less than four hours’ travel to reach Gembogl or Kundiawa. The Highlands Highway runs through the southernmost part of the district and connects to a road that runs up the Chimbu Valley. There is a very rough road that extends from the upper Chimbu Valley at Gembogl through the Iwam Pass and down to Bundi in Madang Province. This road is frequently impassable to vehicles, because of landslides, but it is used by people travelling on foot.

Income


Incomes are high in the Wahgi and lower Chimbu valleys and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the upper Chimbu Valley earn very low incomes from minor sales of coffee and fresh food.

Isolated areas of strong agricultural pressure exist at the top of the Chimbu Valley around Keglsugl. Most other areas in the upper Chimbu Valley have moderate agricultural pressure due to moderate intensity agriculture being practised in very low to low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to soil erosion and soil fertility decline. Potential for agricultural development exists in the Wahgi and lower Chimbu valleys given the very high land potential, absence of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. However, land shortages due to high population densities may be a constraint to development.

Agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the district is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. People typically make 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 10–15 years. On the flatter lands of the Wahgi and lower Chimbu valleys, management practices such as peanut rotations, drainage, tillage and small mounds are used to maintain production. Management practices on the steep slopes of the upper Chimbu Valley include tillage, soil retention barriers and small mounds. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 52 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential In the Wahgi and lower Chimbu valleys, land potential is very high. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. The upper Chimbu Valley has very low to low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and frost at higher altitudes.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the upper Chimbu Valley, where agricultural pressure is moderate to strong and incomes are very low. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and they have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Overall, people in Kundiawa District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is significant agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good and cash incomes are very low.

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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 32 000. The highest population densities occur around Moaina where there are 116 persons/km2. The tributary valleys of the Chimbu River, north of the Porol Scarp, have 91 persons/km2. The district has areas of significant out-migration. The population of the Gunanggi census division decreased by 2.3 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services All people in the district require less than four hours to travel to Kundiawa. The Highlands Highway runs through the middle of the district and connects to a loop road around Mt Waune.

Income Incomes are high along the highway and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the south of the district earn low incomes from sales of coffee and fresh food, while those living north of the Porol Scarp have very low incomes.



Agriculture in the district is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. People make 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–10 years. On the flatter lands of the Wahgi Valley and its tributary valleys, production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, drainage, tillage and small mounds. Management practices on the steep slopes of the northern valleys include tillage, soil retention barriers and small mounds. In the south of the district, casuarina trees are planted in fallows. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 41 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

Moderate agricultural pressure exists north of the Porol Scarp, and south of Moaina, as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. These areas are vulnerable to soil erosion and soil fertility decline. There is potential for agricultural development on the very high potential land northwest of Moaina. This area has no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages caused by high population densities may be a constraint to development.

Land potential The land potential is very high in the area northwest of Moaina. Soils, slope, rainfall, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Management practices such as peanut rotations, drainage and tillage are used to maintain production. The areas north of the Porol Scarp and around Moaina and Gunangi have low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those north of the Porol Scarp, where agricultural pressure is moderate and incomes are very low. People are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and they have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Large numbers of people south of Moaina are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Sina-SinaYonggamugl District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is significant agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good and cash incomes are very low.

Sina-Sina-Yonggamugl District

Sina-Sina-Yonggamugl District is located in the eastern tributary valleys of the Chimbu River and northeastern tributary valleys of the Wahgi River around Moaina. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2500 and 3000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 1300 m in the Wahgi Valley, to over 2900 m on Mt Waune. Most people live between 1400 and 2200 metres.

Simbu Province


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Eastern Highlands Province

Fresh food ready for transport from Kainantu to Lae. The sale of fresh food, including sweet potato, is a major source of cash income for people in the northern valleys of Eastern Highlands Province. Strong demand for fresh food in the Goroka, Lae and Port Moresby markets has created opportunities to diversify cash income away from coffee, which is the main source of income throughout the highlands. The growers shown here are waiting for transport to move sweet potato and other produce from Kainantu to Lae. Some of it will be shipped to Port Moresby.

Newly planted sweet potato and winged bean garden, with casuarina, banana and coffee behind. The Asaro Valley is one of the most productive environments in PNG with fertile soils, low slope gradients, mild temperatures, optimum rainfall and ample sunlight. Land is further improved through the use of management practices such as mounding, legume rotations, tillage and drainage. However, high population densities and continuing in-migration may lead to land shortages in the near future. Here, sweet potato is being grown in a rotation with winged bean. The coffee plants in the background are shaded by banana and casuarina trees. 153

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Introduction

DAULO y

Bismarc

Be

en na b

a aV

UNGGAI-BENA

Dun a

Ram uV alle y

nti

KAINANTU

HENGANOFI Henganofi

atu ng Fe

Tua Lufa

ey Vall

Lihona k R ange

na V alley

Goroka

Watabung

lle

ley Val ro Asa

GOROKA

Kainantu Valley Ramu Aiyura

y lle Va

Gid a

a hu V lley Okapa

LUFA Ko Val ma ley

Obura

OKAPA Amusa

Lama

ri Vall

ey

Occupied land Unoccupied land Major roads

Lam

alley ari V

Wonenara

OBURA-WONENARA Simbari


Marawaka

Kilometres 0

25

50

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Eastern Highlands Province

154

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100

Eastern Highlands is located in the central highlands and covers 11 000 km2. The rugged Bismarck Range, in the north of the province, reaches elevations of around 3500 m on Mt Otto, while other peaks in the south of the province, such as Mt Michael, exceed 3500 metres. Agriculture is conducted over an altitudinal range of 300–2400 m, but most people live and farm within a narrow range of 1500–2000 metres. The floodplains, plains and fans of the Asaro, Benabena, Karmanuntina, Gafutina and upper Ramu valleys have productive soils that support high intensity agriculture and large numbers of people. Note that the upper Ramu Valley is defined here as the headwaters of the valley lying upstream of Yonki Dam. In general, the province divides into two on the basis of the physical environment and level of development. The northern valleys are economically vibrant with intensive smallholder coffee production and good road access to markets in Goroka and Lae. The south of the province is mountainous, remote and poor. Average annual rainfall is relatively low and varies between 1800 and 2800 mm, with a moderate to long dry season in the eastern half of the province. The eight districts in Eastern Highlands are Daulo, Goroka, Henganofi, Kainantu, Lufa, OburaWonenara, Okapa and Unggai-Bena.

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Population

DAULO GOROKA

Lihona

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Goroka

Watabung

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2)

UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi

Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land

KAINANTU Kainantu

District boundaries Aiyura

Lufa

Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa 50 000

20 000

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

155

Okapa

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

The estimated rural population of Eastern Highlands in the year 2000 is 293 000, which is 7.3 per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is one per cent per year. The highest population densities are in the Asaro, Gafutina and Karmanuntina valleys with 190 persons/km2. The Dunantina, Ramu and Benabena valleys have densities of 65 persons/km2, while the southern areas of the province have moderate to low densities. Areas around Goroka and Kaintantu have significant in-migration, while the Dunantina Valley and areas around Watabung, Okapa and Lufa have significant out-migration.

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Access to services

DAULO


GOROKA

Lihona


Goroka

Watabung

The Highlands Highway runs through the five northern districts and gives very good access to services in Goroka, Kainantu and Lae. A once good, but now seriously deteriorated road network, connects most people in Lufa and Okapa districts to the highway. There is only limited road development in Obura-Wonenara District. Most rural roads are in poor condition and are not regularly maintained. People in the Asaro Valley require less than one hour’s travel to reach Goroka. Most people in the northern half of the province can reach Goroka or Kainantu within four hours, while those on the northern side of the Bismarck Range require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the south of the province are very remote and most require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre

UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi


KAINANTU

Unoccupied land

Kainantu

Major roads Aiyura

Lufa

Minor roads/tracks District boundaries Airstrip

Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa

25

50

Okapa


156

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100

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

20 000

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

50 000

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Income

DAULO GOROKA

Lihona


Goroka

Watabung


UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi

KAINANTU


Kainantu

Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land

Aiyura

Lufa

District boundaries

Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa 50 000

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

157

Okapa

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

20 000

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

Agriculture provides the main source of cash income in the province. South of Henganofi, people have very high incomes from the sale coffee, betel nut, cattle, firewood, fresh food, potato and tobacco. People in the Asaro Valley and on the floodplains around Henganofi have very high incomes from the sale of coffee, fresh food and tobacco. Sweet potato is exported to Port Moresby and Lae from both of these areas. People in the centre of the province have moderate incomes from similar activities. In the south, incomes are very low. There are some non-agricultural sources of income in the northern valleys, especially around the urban centres, including wage employment, retail and transport. There are few cashearning activities in the rest of the province.

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DAULO GOROKA

Lihona

Low intensity mixed staple gardens Goroka

Watabung

Moderate intensity banana/sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens

UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi


KAINANTU


Kainantu

Unoccupied land Aiyura

Lufa

District boundaries

Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa

20 000

25

50

Okapa


158

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100

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

50 000

High intensity sweet potato gardens dominate the northern valleys. There are 3–5 plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Long drained beds planted with sweet potato, often grown in a rotation with peanuts or winged bean, are characteristic of gardens in the northern valleys. Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens occur in the centre of the province. People plant similar crops in these gardens but use longer fallow periods and shorter cropping periods. Agriculture in the southern part of the province is dominated by low intensity sweet potato production. People maintain large pig herds in the province, but management practices differ significantly from those in the western part of the highlands region.

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Land potential

DAULO GOROKA

Lihona

Very high potential Goroka

Watabung

High potential Moderate potential

UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi

Low potential

KAINANTU

Very low potential

Kainantu

Unoccupied land Aiyura

Lufa

District boundaries

Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa 50 000

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

159

Okapa

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

20 000

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

The highest potential land is in the Asaro, Benabena and Fengatu valleys. These areas are among the most productive in the country. Rainfall, slope, temperature, soil and light are ideal for the production of many crops. Management practices such as the use of peanut rotations, tillage, drainage and small mounds, increase land potential and support long periods of crop production. The floodplains near Henganofi and Kainantu have high potential. The remainder of the province falls evenly into the very low, low and moderate potential classes. Common constraints include steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, a long dry season, high rainfall, poor soils and low temperatures.

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DAULO GOROKA


Lihona


Goroka

Watabung

Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure

UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi


KAINANTU


Kainantu

Occupied land Aiyura

Lufa


Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa

25

50

Okapa


160

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100

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

20 000

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

50 000

There is strong agricultural pressure on the slopes of the Asaro, Benabena, Karmanuntina and Dunantina valleys caused by high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields are common problems. Large areas of moderate pressure dominate the upper Ramu Valley where there is moderate to high intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Areas of marginal pressure are present, but will be of concern only if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development northeast of Lufa and in the Fengatu Valley where there is high to very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cashearning activities in these areas. The Asaro Valley has very high land potential but population densities are very high and land shortages may be a constraint to further development.

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Poor environment, very low income, poor access DAULO

Strong pressure, very low income GOROKA


Lihona


Goroka

Watabung

Poor environment, very low income Strong pressure UNGGAI-BENA

HENGANOFI Henganofi

KAINANTU

Moderate pressure

Kainantu

Poor environment Very low income

Aiyura

Lufa

Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries Okapa

LUFA

Obura

OKAPA Amusa 50 000

25

50

100


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161

Okapa

Unggai-Bena

0

Obura-Wonenara

Kilometres

Lufa

10 000

Kainantu

Marawaka

20 000

Daulo

Simbari

30 000

Henganofi

OBURA-WONENARA

40 000

Goroka

Wonenara

Number of people

The most disadvantaged people in the province are the small numbers in the lower Lamari Valley, Koma Valley and Simbari area, where environments have low potential, incomes are very low and access to services is poor. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People around Marawaka occupy low potential environments and earn very low incomes. Similar conditions exist on the northern side of the Bismarck Range but fewer people are affected. In the Asaro, Dunantina, Karmanuntina and upper Ramu valleys, large numbers of people live in areas of moderate to strong agricultural pressure and are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields, drought and food shortages. People in the Lamari Valley, Gidahu Valley, Amusa area, Wonenara area and Oraratu area are very poor.

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Daulo District

Daulo District is located in the northwest of the province. The floodplains and plains of the Asaro Valley dominate the centre of the district and there are mountains in the north, west and south. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2800 mm, with a moderate dry season in the east. Most of the Asaro Valley is at an altitude of around 1600 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 30 000. The majority of people live in the Asaro Valley where population densities are as high as 186 persons/km2, making it one of the more intensively settled areas in PNG. The mountainous areas of the district are either unoccupied or have moderate population densities of 45 persons/km2. The Asaro Valley is an area of in-migration, while the Watabung area has significant out-migration.

Access to services The Highlands Highway runs through the southern part of the district. A good road network covers most of the occupied areas of the district. People in the Asaro Valley can drive to Goroka in less than one hour, while those in the mountainous areas require 1–4 hours’ travel time to reach Goroka.

Income Eastern Highlands Province 162

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Incomes are high to very high in the Asaro Valley and are derived from sales of coffee and fresh food. People in the mountainous areas have very low to low incomes from minor sales of coffee, firewood, fresh food and tobacco.



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Agriculture in the Asaro Valley is very intensive and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. Grassland is cleared and 6–14 consecutive plantings are made before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Longer cultivation periods occur on the most productive land. Production is maintained through the use of management practices such as peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and drains. People living on the slopes of the Asaro Valley employ a similar agricultural system to those in the rest of the valley, but land use is less intensive. Those in the more remote mountainous areas cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 44 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

There are isolated areas of strong agricultural pressure on the slopes of the Asaro Valley as a result of intensive agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields are common problems. There is some marginal pressure in the north of the Asaro Valley that will be of concern if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the flatter areas of the Asaro Valley given the very high potential land, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to very high population densities may be a restriction.

Land potential The land potential in the Asaro Valley is very high because of optimum rainfall, productive soils, low slopes, mild temperatures, ample sunlight and minimal flooding. Soil and water management practices maintain production. Land in the rest of the district ranges from very low to moderate potential, with constraints such as steep slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the steep slopes of the Asaro Valley where there are very high population densities and strong agricultural pressure. The small number of people living in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, reduced crop yields and food shortages. However, incomes are high and people have cash to purchase supplementary food. People in the Watabung area live in a low potential environment. Overall, people in Daulo District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is very good and cash incomes are very high.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 18 000. Most people live in the Asaro Valley where population densities range between 130 and 187 persons/km2. The mountainous areas in the north of the district are either unoccupied or have moderate densities of 45 persons/km2. The Asaro Valley is an area of in-migration, especially into the peri-urban area of Goroka. The population of the Lowa census division increased by nine per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

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Incomes are high to very high in the district and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Local people and settlers have very good access to informal economic activity in and near Goroka, including retailing, transport and paid employment.

There are isolated areas of strong agricultural pressure on slopes in the Asaro Valley where intensive agriculture has been extended into low potential environments. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields are common. There is potential for agricultural development in the Asaro Valley given the very high potential land, lack of agricultural pressure and good access to markets. However, land shortages due to very high population densities may restrict development.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Asaro Valley is very intensive and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and drains. In the south of the district, people cultivate low to moderate intensity sweet potato gardens. Small mounds, tillage and drains are used. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 32 per cent of children were stunted and less than one per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the majority of the district is very high as a result of optimum rainfall, productive soils, gentle slopes, mild temperatures, ample sunlight and minimal flooding. Rigorous soil and water management practices maintain production. The remaining land in the district has very low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the steep slopes of the Asaro Valley where there are very high population densities and strong agricultural pressure. The small number of people living in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, reduced crop yields and subsistence food shortages. However, incomes are high and people have cash to purchase supplementary food. Overall, people in Goroka District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is limited agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is very good and cash incomes are high.



The town of Goroka is in the middle of the district and is connected by the Highlands Highway to Mt Hagen in the west and Lae in the east. Most people in the district are less than one hour’s drive from Goroka, while those in the northern mountains require 1–4 hours’ travel to reach Goroka. There is a good road network covering most of the occupied areas of the district.

Income

Goroka District

Goroka District is small and densely settled. The floodplains, plains and hills of the Asaro Valley dominate the district and there are mountains in the north. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2800 mm and there is a moderate dry season. The Asaro Valley lies within an altitudinal range of 1400–1600 m, with mountains rising above 2500 m on the northern border of the district.



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Henganofi District

Henganofi District is mountainous in the north with a number of narrow densely populated valleys, which run south from the mountains. The district lies within altitudes of 1200–2400 metres. Small areas of floodplain occur in the Gafutina, Karmanuntina and Dunantina valleys. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2800 mm, with a moderate to long dry season. Periods of drought are more common in this district than elsewhere in Eastern Highlands, resulting in occasional food and water shortages.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 41 000. The population is evenly distributed throughout the district, with an average density of 70 persons/km2.The highest population densities of 187 persons/km2 are found on the Gafutina and Karmanuntina floodplains, while the lowest of 13 persons/km2 is found around Lihona on the northern border. Most of the mountains in the north are unoccupied. The Dunantina Valley is an area of significant out-migration, with the population of the Dunantina census division decreasing by 2.1 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

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The Highlands Highways runs through the district. A reasonable quality road network connects the highway with the southern half of the district and a poorer quality road runs through the Dunantina Valley. Other than in the Lihona area where people require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, most people are within four hours’ travel of Goroka or Kainantu.



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Income Incomes are very high on the Gafutina and Karmanuntina floodplains and in the hills south of Henganofi, and are derived from sales of coffee, fresh food, firewood, potato and cattle. People in the Dunantina Valley have moderate incomes, while those in the remainder of the district are very poor, particularly in the Lihona area.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the Gafutina and Karmanuntina floodplains is very intensive and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. Cultivation is continuous and production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and drains. People in the Dunantina Valley employ a similar system, but it is less intensive, with 6–14 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens dominate the middle of the district, while people in the northern and southern areas cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Management techniques include tillage, small mounds and drains. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 45 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential on the Gafutina and Karmanuntina floodplains is high, but is limited by seasonal flooding and a long dry season. Soil and water management practices maintain production in these areas. Land in the remainder of the district ranges from very low to moderate potential. Common limitations in the mountains are steep Major roads (km): 25


slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures, while common limitations in the valleys are poor soils, a long dry season and seasonal flooding.

Agricultural pressure and potential There are significant areas of strong agricultural pressure on the slopes of the Dunantina and Karmanuntina valleys caused by intensive agriculture being practised in very low potential environments. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields are common problems. There are also areas of marginal and moderate agricultural pressure in the Karmanuntina Valley. There are few opportunities for agricultural development in the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Dunantina and Karmanuntina valleys where there is strong agricultural pressure. Large numbers of people are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, reduced crop yields, drought and food shortages. However, incomes are moderate to high so people can afford to purchase supplementary food. In the Lihona area, very small numbers of people are restricted by very low potential environments and low cash incomes, and have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Henganofi District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is significant agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.




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Income


Incomes are very high in the southwest of the district around Tibunofi and are derived from sales of coffee, fresh food, firewood and tobacco. In the remainder of the district, incomes are moderate to high, except in the Bismarck Range area where they are very low.

Population

Around Kainantu, in the centre of the upper Ramu Valley, agriculture is very intensive and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and long beds. Agriculture in the southwest and east of the district is similar to that around Kainantu, but less intensive. In the Bismarck Range area, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens supported by small mounds, tillage and long beds. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 45 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on the slopes of the upper Ramu Valley caused by intensive agriculture being practised in a very low potential environment. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields may become a problem. There are large areas of marginal agricultural pressure in the district that will be of concern if people continue to intensify agriculture without the adoption of suitable management practices. There are few opportunities for agricultural development in the district.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. People are spread evenly throughout the upper Ramu Valley with an average density of 60 persons/km2. Lower densities of 18 persons/km2 are located around Aiyura and on the northern side of the Bismarck Range. Kainantu and Aiyura are important markets for fresh food and also offer wage employment. They are areas of significant in-migration, with the population of the Agarabi census division increasing by 5.2 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


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Land potential

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the upper slopes of the Ramu Valley where there is moderate agricultural pressure on land. Small numbers of people in the Bismarck Range area live in low potential environments and earn very low cash incomes. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Kainantu District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.

The floodplains around Kainantu have high land potential, limited by poor soils and a long dry season. The hills around Kainantu and the unoccupied Pumasi Valley, in the north of the district, have moderate potential. Land in the remainder of the district has very low to low potential. Limitations are steep slopes, poor soils, a long dry season and seasonal flooding.





In the Bismarck Range area, people require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. Elsewhere, most people are within four hours’ travel of Kainantu. The Highlands Highway runs through the district. As well as Kainantu, there are some services in the townships of Ukarumpa (the Summer Institute of Linguistics headquarters) and Yonki (the PNG Electricity Commission settlement at the Yonki hydro-electric dam on the upper Ramu River).


Kainantu District

Kainantu District is centred around Kainantu town on the Highlands Highway. Most of the district is in the upper Ramu Valley, with the Bismarck Range in the north. The altitude of the mid Ramu floodplain, on the northern border of the district, is 400 metres. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2800 mm, with a moderate to long dry season.



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Lufa District

Lufa District is in the southwest of the Eastern Highlands province. It extends from the upper Tua Valley in the north to the Crater Mountain Range and upper Koma Valley in the south. Most people live within an altitudinal range of 1400–2200 metres. Average annual rainfall in the district varies between 1800 and 2800 mm, with a moderate dry season in the Fengatu Valley.

Income


Cash incomes in most of the district are low. There is a small area in the Fengatu Valley where people earn very high incomes from sales of coffee, fresh food, firewood and tobacco. People in the area from Lufa to Agotu have low incomes derived from minor sales of coffee. Those in the Gidahu and Koma valleys have very low incomes.

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 39 000. People are spread evenly throughout the north of the district with an average population density of 65 persons/km2. In the middle of the district, the Gidahu Valley has 24 persons/km2, while in the south the Koma Valley has a low density of 10 persons/km2. There is some outmigration from the district. The population of the Labogai census division decreased by 1.3 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Agriculture in the north of the district is of moderate intensity and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. There are 3–5 plantings before a fallow of over 15 years. Here, production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as peanut rotations, tillage, long beds and small mounds. Elsewhere, agriculture is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 48 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

There are small isolated areas of marginal agricultural pressure on the lower slopes of Mt Michael that will be of concern if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development northeast of Lufa and on the western side of the Fengatu Valley, where there is high to very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. Coffee and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. The Koma Valley has very high potential land, but there is no road access.

Access to services

Eastern Highlands Province 166

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People in the Gidahu Valley require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Lufa, while those in the north of the district can reach Goroka in less than four hours. People in the Koma Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. A road from the Highlands Highway extends south, through Lufa, to Agotu.



166

Airstrips: 4

Land potential There is some high potential land northeast of Lufa and on the western side of the Fengatu Valley. Much of this land has very high natural potential and is further improved through the use of peanut rotations and bedding. Land in the Koma Valley has very high potential. The remaining areas in the north of the district have moderate to high potential and are limited by steep slopes. The areas south of Lufa have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, poor soils and low temperatures at higher altitudes.

Major roads (km): 1


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations in the Koma Valley where cash incomes are very low and access to services is poor. People in the Gidahu Valley earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Lufa District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 45 000. The highest population density is in the upper Ramu hills with 60 persons/km2. Moderate densities of 32 persons/km2 are located around Wonenara, Marawaka and the upper slopes of the Lamari Valley. There is no permanent population on the lower slopes and on the narrow river terraces of the Lamari Valley. Much of the southwest of the district is unoccupied except for small isolated populations around Simbari. The Aiyura area has significant in-migration with the population of the Tairora census division increasing by six per cent per year between 1980 and 1990. The upper Lamari Valley has significant out-migration with the population of the Iturua census division decreasing by 3.4 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990. The Highlands Highway runs through the north of the district and feeder roads give people good access to Kainantu, Goroka and Lae. The south of the district is not connected to the highway and


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167

Airstrips: 6

Income Incomes are high in the upper Ramu hills area and are derived from sales of coffee and fresh food. There is also some wage employment. Incomes are very low to moderate in the remainder of the district.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the upper Ramu Valley is characterised by intensive sweet potato production. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and long beds. People in the Lamari Valley cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens on long beds. In the south of the district low intensity sweet potato gardens and some taro gardens are cultivated. Here, no land improvement practices are employed. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 62 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.



Land potential The slopes of the Lamari and Aziana valleys have moderate potential limited by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The slopes of the upper Ramu Valley have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes and a long dry season. The south of the district has very low to moderate potential caused by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There are large areas of marginal and moderate agricultural pressure in the upper Ramu Valley as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. There is limited potential for further agricultural development in the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the lower Lamari Valley and Simbari area who live in low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Around Marawaka, environments have low potential and people earn very low incomes. In the upper Ramu Valley, there is moderate agricultural pressure on land. People in the upper Lamari Valley and around Wonenara earn very low incomes. Overall, people in OburaWonenara District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.





Access to services

has few internal roads. Roads around Wonenara and Marawaka are in poor condition. It is possible in good weather to drive from Marawaka to Menyamya (and from there to Lae) in Morobe Province, but the road is very difficult and is not regularly used. People in the Lamari Valley require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Kainantu, while those in the upper Ramu Valley can get to Kainantu in less than two hours. People in the Simbari area and lower Lamari Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach Kainantu or Goroka.

Obura-Wonenara District

Obura-Wonenara District runs the full length of the eastern boundary of the province, from the Bismarck Range, across the upper Ramu Valley to the Lamari Valley, and then to the Kratke and Kuwarabi Ranges in the south. Most people live within altitudes of 1400–1800 metres. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1800 mm in the Ramu hills, to over 4000 mm in the lower Lamari Valley. There is a moderate to long dry season in the north of the district.

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Okapa District

Okapa District is in the central south of the province. It extends from the Kratke Range in the north to the lower Lamari Valley in the south and is dominated by hills and mountains. Most people live within an altitudinal range of 1400–2000 metres. Average annual rainfall varies from 2200 mm near Okapa, to over 4000 mm in the lower Lamari Valley.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 54 000. People are spread evenly throughout the north of the district at an average density of 77 persons/km2. Moderate densities of 46 persons/km2 occur in the hills around Oraratu and Amusa. The upper Puburamba Valley has 32 persons/km2, while the lower Lamari Valley has scattered populations with densities of 10 persons/km2. There is significant out-migration from the district. The populations of the Gimi, Keiagana-Kanite and Auyana census divisions decreased by an average of 2.2 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

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168

Airstrips: 3

Access to services

Land potential

Roads from the district link to the Highlands Highway at Kainantu and south of Goroka. There is a loop road from Okapa to Amusa. Most roads have deteriorated severely in the last decade, increasing the cost and difficulty of seeking services or marketing produce. People in the lower Lamari Valley are isolated and require more than one day’s travel to reach Kainantu or Goroka. People in the hills around Oraratu and Amusa require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Okapa, while those in the north of the district can get to Kainantu or Goroka in less than four hours.

There is an area of high potential land in the upper Puburamba Valley. The hills around Oraratu have moderate potential limited by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The lower Lamari Valley has low potential because of poor soils, steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and high rainfall.

Income Cash incomes in the north of the district are moderate and are derived from minor sales of coffee and fresh food. Cash incomes in the south are very low.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture throughout the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. People typically make 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of more than 15 years. There is some use of tillage and beds. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 55 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Major roads (km): 0


Agricultural pressure and potential There is an isolated area of strong agricultural pressure in the north of the district on the slopes of the Kratke Range, caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a very low potential environment. There is limited potential for agricultural development in the district.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small numbers in the lower Lamari Valley who live in low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People around Oraratu and Amusa earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Okapa District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Income


Incomes are high in the Benabena Valley and are derived from the sale of coffee and fresh food. People in the Unggai Range area have moderate incomes, while people in the remainder of the district earn very low incomes, particularly those in the Mt Helwig area.

Population

Agriculture in the Benabena Valley is intensive and is dominated by the production of sweet potato. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Production is maintained through the use of peanut rotations, tillage, small mounds and drainage. People in the Unggai and Bismarck ranges cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, supported by small mounds, tillage and drains. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 35 per cent of children were stunted and less than two per cent were seriously under weight.

There are minor areas of strong agricultural pressure on the steep slopes of the Benabena Valley where moderate intensity agriculture is practised in a very low potential environment. Various forms of land degradation and reduced crop yields are common. There are significant areas of marginal agricultural pressure on the lower slopes of the Benabena Valley, however these areas will be of concern only if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in parts of the Benabena Valley where there is very high potential land, no agricultural pressure and good access to markets.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 31 000. The highest population densities of 62 persons/km2 are found in the Benabena Valley, while the lowest of 13 persons/km2 are found on the slopes of Mt Helwig. The Unggai Range has a population density of 52 person/km2.

Access to services The Highlands Highway runs through the centre of the district and roads run from the highway to most of the occupied areas of the district. Other than the remote northern villages near Mt Helwig where people require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, most people are within four hours’ travel of Goroka.

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169

Airstrips: 0

Land potential The land potential on the plains and hills of the Benabena and lower Asaro valleys is very high. There are also isolated pockets of very high potential land west of Mt Unggai. Land in the remainder of the district ranges from very low to moderate potential. Common limitations in the mountains are steep slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures. Common limitations in the valleys are poor soils and seasonal flooding.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the slopes of Mt Helwig where a very small number of people live in a low potential environment and earn very low incomes. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the strong agricultural pressure areas of the Benabena Valley are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, reduced crop yields and food shortages. However, incomes are high enough for people to purchase supplementary food. People in the Unggai Range live in a low potential environment. Overall, people in UnggaiBena District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is limited agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.







Unggai-Bena District

Unggai-Bena District is centred on the Benabena Valley with the Bismarck Range in the north and the Unggai Range in the southwest. Average annual rainfall varies between 1800 and 2800 mm, with moderate dry seasons. The Benabena Valley lies within an altitudinal range of 1400–1600 m, with Mt Unggai rising to 2400 m in the southwest and Mt Helwig rising to 2700 m in the north.

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Morobe Province

Tinned fish and rice are unloaded from a small aircraft at Ogeranang. There are many remote communities living in the mountainous regions of Morobe Province where road access is limited. In such circumstances, aircraft are the only form of transport for basic household goods, cash crops and people, particularly the elderly and the sick. The high cost of transport keeps prices in trade stores high and returns on cash crops low. It also restricts people’s ability to access information and exert political influence in the urban centres.

Steep grassland terrain in the Leron Valley. A long dry season and frequent burning have created large areas of grassland in the province, particularly in the Markham, Watut and Snake valleys. The steep grassland terrain is often unoccupied, while the fans and plains are used by people for low to moderate intensity banana cultivation. These dry seasonal environments are well suited to certain cash crops such as mango. There is a large unsatisfied demand in both the highlands and urban locations for good quality mangoes and other sweet fruit. 171

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Introduction

TEWAISIASSI Wasu Sar KABWUM aw ag et Ra ng e

Wantoat Kaiapit

Ma

am

Yasuru

Val ley

Pindiu Ra

rk h

w

NAWAE

li n

MENYAMYA Menyamya

Snake Valley

Lae

Bulolo Valley

Engati

Wa tu tV all ey

HUON GULF Imane

Tuam Is.

Sialum

Kabwum

Busu Valley Erap Valley

MARKHAM

Malai Is.

so n

Finschhafen

Range

FINSCHHAFEN

Bukaua

Inset 1 Salamaua

Tolokiwa Is. Sakar Is.

Wau

Aseki

Ra

iR

utu

BULOLO

ut

Bow

Ek

Umboi Is.

an

ng

ge

e

Morobe

ria Wa lley Va

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Occupied land

Major roads

District boundaries

Unoccupied land

Minor roads/tracks

District boundaries

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Morobe Province

172

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Garaina

172

Morobe occupies 33 525 km2 in the central north of PNG. It extends from the Owen Stanley Range northeast across two major fault valleys to the coastal ranges and offshore islands. The northwest is dominated by the Sarawaget Range, while the northeast includes the mountains, valleys and coastal plains of the Huon Peninsula and Umboi Island. The Markham Valley runs through the middle of the province from the Madang border, in the west, to the Huon Gulf south of Lae. The Watut Valley runs from the southwest to the Markham Valley and is joined by the Snake and Bulolo valleys. The southwest includes the Menyamya area and the Ekuti Range. The southeast of the province includes the Garaina area in the Waria Valley, rugged coastal ranges, and the narrow coastal plains and islands extending from the border with Oro Province to Salamaua. Note that these coastal plains are referred to here as the Morobe Coast. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m on the Sarawaget Range. The highest gardens in the province are found near Teptep at an altitude of 2600 metres. Average annual rainfall varies from 1600 mm in the Snake Valley, to over 4000 mm around Lae. Most of the province has a long dry season. The nine districts in Morobe are Bulolo, Finschhafen, Huon Gulf, Kabwum, Lae, Markham, Menyamya, Nawae and Tewai-Siassi. Lae District is mostly urban and is not described here.

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Population Low density (1–20 persons/km2)

Unoccupied land

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2)



TEWAISIASSI

20 000 10 000

Nawae

Tewai-Siassi

Kabwum

Menyamya

MARKHAM

Markham

Kabwum

Huon Gulf

Sialum

Kaiapit

Pindiu NAWAE

Yasuru

Finschhafen

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1

Engati Salamaua MENYAMYA Menyamya Wau

Aseki

BULOLO

Morobe

0

Garaina

25

50

100


173

30 000

Bulolo

KABWUM

Wantoat

40 000

Finschhafen

Wasu

Kilometres

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The estimated rural population of Morobe in the year 2000 is 307 000, which is 7.6 per cent of the national rural population. The average provincial rural population growth rate is 1.5 per cent per annum. Population densities are highest on Malai and Tuam islands, near Umboi Island, with 400 persons/km2. The Sialum coastal plains, the south coast of Umboi Island and the Kabwum area have densities of 105 persons/km2. Areas around Teptep, Wasu and the upper Snake Valley have high densities that average 70 persons/km2. The remainder of the province has low to moderate population densities. The periurban areas around Lae and the upper Watut Valley near Wau have significant in-migration of people seeking better access to services, more productive environments and wage employment. The Menyamya area, the southeastern end of the Huon Peninsula and the area inland of Salamaua have significant out-migration.

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Access to services 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre




Unoccupied land

30 000 20 000

Tewai-Siassi

Nawae

Menyamya

Markham

Kabwum

Kaiapit

Huon Gulf

Kabwum

Finschhafen

Sialum

Bulolo

Wasu KABWUM

40 000

10 000

TEWAISIASSI Wantoat



MARKHAM Pindiu NAWAE

Yasuru

Finschhafen

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1

Engati Salamaua

Major roads Minor roads/tracks

MENYAMYA Menyamya

District boundaries District boundaries Wau

Aseki

Airstrip

BULOLO

Morobe Garaina

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


174

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Despite its large size and mountainous terrain, there is a good road network in Morobe Province and access to services is generally good. The Highlands Highway runs from Lae to the Madang and Eastern Highlands borders through the Markham Valley. An excellent sealed road runs from Lae to Wau, while a gravel road connects Bulolo to Menyamya and Aseki. There are roads from Wasu to Kabwum and from Finschhafen to Sialum and Pindiu, although they do not connect to Lae. Small boat transport is common in all coastal areas, while Umboi Island is reached through passenger shipping services. Sea travel is dangerous between December and March. The majority of people in the province are within four hours’ travel of the nearest service centre. The least accessible areas in the province are in the northwest of the Sarawaget Range, from Menyamya north to the Markham Valley, and in the Waria Valley around Garaina.

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Income

High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) TEWAISIASSI

20 000 10 000

Sialum

Kabwum Kaiapit

Tewai-Siassi

Wantoat

30 000

Bulolo

Wasu KABWUM

40 000

Nawae

District boundaries

Menyamya

Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year)

50 000

Markham

District boundaries

Kabwum

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year)

Huon Gulf

Unoccupied land

Finschhafen


Number of people

Morobe has diverse sources of rural cash income. Highest incomes occur close to the major roads. People in the Markham and Watut valleys have very high incomes from the sale of betel nut and fresh food. Those living in the upper Watut Valley have moderate incomes from the sale of coffee, betel nut and fresh food, while those on the coast either side of Lae have moderate incomes from the sale of cocoa, coconut, fish, betel nut and fresh food. People in the Kabwum area have moderate incomes from the sale of coffee and fresh food. Those in the remainder of the province have very low incomes. Mining near Wau, forestry near Bulolo and cattle ranches in the Markham Valley provide some wage employment and royalties. A tea plantation was in operation near Garaina, but is now disused. The demand for labour and food in the urban areas of Lae is an important influence in the province and beyond.


Yasuru

Finschhafen

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1


Aseki

BULOLO

Morobe Garaina

Kilometres

0

25

50

100


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175

175

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Subsistence agriculture Low intensity mixed staple gardens Moderate intensity banana gardens


Low intensity banana/sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity banana/sweet potato gardens High intensity cassava/sweet potato gardens Low intensity Chinese taro gardens Low intensity Chinese taro/sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity Chinese taro/sweet potato gardens

20 000

Tewai-Siassi

Nawae

Menyamya

Markham

Kabwum

Kabwum Kaiapit

Huon Gulf

Sialum

Finschhafen

Bulolo

Wasu KABWUM

30 000

10 000 TEWAISIASSI

Wantoat

40 000


Yasuru HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Finschhafen Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Sago with moderate intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens

Inset 1

Engati Salamaua

Agriculture in the Markham and Watut valleys is dominated by moderate intensity banana cultivation, supplemented by sweet potato in the Watut Valley. On the Sarawaget Range and Huon Peninsula, Chinese taro and sweet potato are grown in low to moderate intensity gardens. People in the Menyamya area, in the Waria Valley, on the Morobe and Bukaua Coasts and in the higher altitude areas of the Huon Peninsula, plant low intensity sweet potato gardens with other minor staples. In the Teptep area, people cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens and employ composting and mounding as land management practices. This is the only place outside of the highlands where people practice composting.

Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens

MENYAMYA Menyamya

Low intensity yam gardens Moderate intensity yam gardens

Wau

Aseki

Unoccupied land BULOLO

District boundaries District boundaries Morobe Garaina

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


176

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Very high potential

Very low potential

High potential

Unoccupied land

Moderate potential

District boundaries

Low potential

District boundaries

Number of people

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Tewai-Siassi

Nawae

Menyamya

Kabwum Kaiapit

Markham

Sialum

Kabwum

Wantoat

Huon Gulf

Wasu KABWUM

Finschhafen

TEWAISIASSI Bulolo

There is little high potential land in Morobe Province. Most land has very low to moderate potential. Few land improvement practices are used. The largest area of very high potential land occurs in the upper Waria Valley and on the east coast of Umboi Island. Small areas of high potential land also occur near Lae, Kaiapit, Garaina and on the west coast of Umboi Island. Most of the inhabited coastal areas have moderate potential due to a long dry season and shallow soils. The Menyamya area, Sarawaget Range and Huon Peninsula have very low to moderate potential land due to steep slopes, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The inhabited areas of the Markham and Watut valleys have low to moderate land potential caused by poor soils, a long dry season and frequent inundation in floodplain areas.


Yasuru

Finschhafen

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1


Aseki

BULOLO

Morobe Kilometres 0

25

50

Garaina 100


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177

177

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Agricultural pressure and potential Very high agricultural potential


Occupied land


Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries



40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Nawae

Menyamya

Tewai-Siassi

Kaiapit

Markham

Kabwum

Kabwum

Sialum

Huon Gulf

Wantoat

Finschhafen

Wasu KABWUM

Bulolo

TEWAISIASSI


Yasuru

Finschhafen

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1


Aseki

BULOLO

There is strong agricultural pressure on land around Teptep and Wantoat, and on Malai and Tuam islands, caused by moderate to high intensity agriculture being practised in poor environments. There is moderate pressure in the Markham, Urawa, Erap and Watut valleys, and also in smaller areas around Yasuru, Imane, Wasu and Finschhafen. Much of Umboi Island and the upper Waria Valley near Garaina, have potential for agricultural development, given the high to very high potential land and lack of agricultural pressure. However, access to markets in both places is difficult and shipping costs are high. The moderate to high potential areas in the Markham, Watut and Bulolo valleys and along the Morobe Coast are well suited to agricultural development given the good access to markets in Lae. Betel nut, fresh food, cocoa and copra are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Morobe Garaina

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


178

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Strong pressure

TEWAISIASSI

30 000 20 000

Nawae

Tewai-Siassi

Menyamya

Kabwum

Kabwum Kaiapit

Markham

Sialum

Huon Gulf

10 000

Finschhafen

Wantoat

40 000

Bulolo

Wasu KABWUM

Number of people

The most disadvantaged people in the province are the small number of people living in the Sarawaget Range who earn very low incomes, have poor access to services and live in a low potential environment. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. In the Menyamya area and on the Huon Peninsula, large numbers of people are adversely affected by poor environments and very low incomes. Areas around Imane, Engati, Yasuru and east of Menyamya have similar problems but fewer people are affected. People living in the Garaina and Finschhafen areas and on Umboi Island have very low incomes. Small numbers of people south of Teptep and on the coastal plains around Finschhafen are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes, while those in the Watut and Snake valleys live in low potential environments.


Yasuru

Finschhafen

Moderate pressure Poor environment

HUON GULF Imane

Lae

Bukaua

FINSCHHAFEN

Inset 1

Engati Salamaua

Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries

MENYAMYA Menyamya

District boundaries Wau

Aseki

BULOLO

Morobe Garaina

Kilometres

0

25

50

100


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179

179

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Bulolo District

Bulolo District covers the Watut, Snake and Bulolo valleys in the north, and the Waria Valley, Kuper Range and Kodama Range in the south. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1600 mm in the Snake Valley, to over 2700 mm in the Kuper Range. The dry season is long in the entire district. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2800 m in the Kuper Range.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 40 000. Much of the district is made up of rugged, uninhabited mountains. The highest population densities are in the Snake Valley with 80 persons/km2. The Mainyanda area in the upper Watut Valley has a density of 46 persons/km2, while the Wau area has 24 persons/km2. All other areas in the district have low densities with an average of 15 persons/km2. The upper Watut and Bulolo valleys have significant in-migration with settlers renting land along the Wau Road where they have access to markets on the Highlands Highway and in Lae. The population of the Upper Watut census division increased by 4.6 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

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There are clear contrasts in access to services between the north and south of the district. The road from Wau and Bulolo to Lae is sealed. A gravel surfaced road runs west from near Bulolo to Menyamya and another goes northeast from Mumeng to Wagau in the upper Snake Valley. A road in the Waria Valley north and south of Garaina has no external connections. People in the Watut, Snake and Bulolo valleys are within four hours of a service centre, and have good access to Lae and the Highlands Highway. In contrast, people in the upper



180

Airstrips: 9

Watut Valley, Waria Valley and the mountains to the north and south, require up to eight hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre.

Income Incomes are high in the Snake Valley from the sale of fresh food, particularly green vegetables, and from coffee. In the Watut and Bulolo valleys, people earn low to moderate incomes from the sale of betel nut, fresh food and coffee. In the upper and lower Watut Valley, upper Bulolo Valley, Kuper Range, Kodama Range and Waria Valley, incomes are very low. Wage employment and royalties are provided by mining and forestry operations near Wau and Bulolo respectively; and, to a lessor extent, from a disused tea plantation at Garaina.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Bulolo and Watut valleys is dominated by moderate intensity banana production, extending south from the Markham Valley. Triploid bananas produce for up to 20 years from one planting. People in the Snake Valley, upper Watut Valley, Kuper Range, Kodama Range and Waria Valley cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Soil retention barriers and mounds are used in these areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 63 per cent of children were stunted and five per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the Waria Valley around Garaina is high to very high. The Snake, Bulolo and upper Watut valleys have low to moderate potential constrained by low rainfall and a long dry season. The lower Watut Valley has low potential caused by Major roads (km): 91


steep slopes, poor soils and a long dry season. The southern mountains have low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate agricultural pressure on land in the lower Watut Valley, resulting from moderate intensity agriculture being practised in poor environments. There is potential for agricultural development in the Waria Valley where the land potential is high to very high, and parts of the valley are unoccupied. However, access to markets is very poor. Moderate land potential occurs in the Bulolo Valley. Here, there is potential for development given the good access to markets. The dry, seasonal climate is well suited to various fruit crops such as mango.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations of the upper Bulolo Valley, Kuper Range and Kodama Range, where incomes are very low and the environment is poor. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. The very small number of people living in the Waria Valley have very low incomes. However, the environment offers some potential for development. Overall, people in Bulolo District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 36 000. The highest population densities of 35 persons/km2 occur in the mountain valleys of the Mongi, Kua and Bulum rivers. The coastal plains and valleys around Finschhafen have densities of 21 persons/km2.

Access to services Accessibility is moderate over the whole district with most people living within eight hours of Finschhafen. A road runs along the coast from Finschhafen to Sialum. Another runs inland from Finschhafen to Pindiu, but there is no road connection to Lae. Small boat travel is common along the coast, but is dangerous between December and March. There is a daily passenger shipping service from Finschhafen to Lae.

Income


Incomes are uniformly very low across the district. Cash is earned from minor sales of fresh food and betel nut in coastal areas, and coffee in the mountains.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on the narrow coastal plains around Finschhafen and large areas of marginal pressure in the Busiga, Go, Mape and Song valleys. These valleys have some potential for agricultural development given the moderate land potential and nearby roads to Finschhafen. However, transport beyond Finschhafen is by sea, and shipping costs are high. The inland Mongi and Kua valleys also have moderate land potential and reasonable access to Finschhafen.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the inland mountains is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. People on the coastal hills and plains cultivate low intensity Chinese taro gardens. In the mountains, one planting is made before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Soil retention barriers are used to combat erosion. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 36 per cent of children were stunted and 11 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the coastal valleys is moderate due to poor soils and high rainfall. The inland Mongi and Kua valleys have moderate potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The Mindik, Ogeranang and Lengbati areas have low potential caused by steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The coastal plains have low potential constrained by high rainfall and a long dry season.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Bulum Valley around Lengbati, Ogeranang and Mindik, where environments are unproductive and incomes are very low. Small numbers of people on the coastal plains around Finschhafen are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure and very low incomes. All other people in the district have very low incomes. Overall, people in Finschhafen District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.

Finschhafen District

Finschhafen District is located at the eastern end of the Huon Peninsula and includes the Cromwell Mountains and valleys of the Song, Mape, Mongi, Kua and Bulum rivers. A narrow limestone plain interspersed with narrow floodplains extends along the coast from Cape Sibida in the north, to Mange Point in the south. This gives way to rugged inland mountains. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3700 mm, increasing from west to east. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3000 m in the Cromwell Mountains.

Morobe Province


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181

Airstrips: 7

Major roads (km): 0





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Huon Gulf District

Huon Gulf is the largest district in the province. It includes the lower Markham, Watut and Rumu valleys (near Chivasing) in the north, and the Morobe coastal plains and mountains which extend from Lae to the Oro Province border. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1700 mm in the Markham Valley, to over 3700 mm south of Lae. Rainfall increases towards the southeast and there is a long dry season. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2500 m in the Bowutu Mountains.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 32 000. The highest population density is northwest of the Chivasing area with 33 persons/km2. The Morobe Coast has a density of 24 persons/km2, while the Markham and Watut valleys have 13 persons/km2. The Engati area, west of the Watut Valley, has a very low population density of 5 persons/km2. The Markham Valley has significant in-migration of people looking for better access to services and wage employment around Lae. The population of the Lei Wompa census division increased by 4.7 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990. The upper Francisco Valley, inland of Salamaua, has significant out-migration of people.

Access to services

Morobe Province 182

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The Highlands Highway runs through the lower Markam Valley in the north of the district, but there are no roads that serve the Watut Valley and the Morobe Coast. Nevertheless, most people in the district are within a day’s travel of a service centre.



182

Airstrips: 3

Small boat travel is common along the Morobe Coast, but is dangerous between December and March. People in the Watut Valley use rafts to transport produce to markets which are located on the highway north of the Markham River.

Income People in the northern part of the district, in the Markham and Watut Valleys, earn very high incomes from the sale of fresh food and betel nut. Along the Morobe Coast, incomes are moderate to low from the sale of betel nut, coconut, fish and fresh food, much of which is transported by boat to markets in Lae. People in the Engati area and north of Chivasing have very low incomes derived from minor sales of coffee and betel nut.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition People in the Markham and Watut valleys cultivate moderate intensity banana gardens. Coconut is also an important food. Triploid bananas will produce for up to 20 years under optimal management. Food production in the rest of the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation, though taro is also an important food on the Morobe Coast. Only in the very upper Rumu and Irumu valleys is Chinese taro the most important crop. Soil retention barriers are used in these areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 12 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.


Minor roads (km): 0

Land potential Moderate to high potential land is restricted to small and scattered areas in the district. The Markham and Watut valleys are limited by poor soils, frequent flooding and a long dry season. There are steep slopes and frequent cloud cover in the Engati area. The Morobe Coast has moderate potential and is limited in places by frequent flooding or steep slopes. The upper Francisco Valley has low potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There are large areas of moderate and marginal agricultural pressure in the Markham and Watut valleys. Marginal pressure areas will be of concern only if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in small areas of the Markham Valley that have moderate potential land and good access to markets. The Morobe Coast has some potential for agricultural development but sea transport to markets is expensive.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small number of people living in the Engati area, where incomes are very low and the environment is poor. There is moderate agricultural pressure in parts of the Markham Valley and with steady in-migration to these areas, people may become vulnerable to the effects of land degradation and declining crop yields. Overall, people in Huon Gulf District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 43 000. High population densities occur in this district, especially at higher altitudes. The highest densities are around Kabwum, Konge, Derim and Yalumet with 100 persons/km2. The upper Yupna Valley, near Teptep, has a density of 67 persons/km2, while the lower Kwama and Kari valleys have 21 persons/km2. The upper Urawa and Som valleys, around Denanget, Yawan and Sapmanga, have low densities of 17 persons/km2.

Access to services


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183

Airstrips: 10


Isolation from main centres means incomes are very low to moderate throughout the district. Incomes are derived from minor sales of fresh food and coffee in the upper valleys around Kabwum, and cocoa, coconut and fresh food on the coast around Wasu.

Strong agricultural pressure exists around Teptep because moderate intensity agriculture is practised in a low potential environment. There is a small area of moderate pressure in the lower Urawa Valley. There is limited potential for agricultural development in the district given the low to moderate potential environments and poor access to markets.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the upper Yupna, Urawa, Som, Timbe and Kwama valleys is characterised by low intensity sweet potato production. Soil is tilled and soil retention barriers are used. People in the lower valleys cultivate low intensity Chinese taro gardens. Agricultural intensity is relatively high around Teptep, where people cultivate moderate intensity sweet potato gardens. There are 6–14 consecutive plantings after fallow periods of 5–15 years. Sweet potato is grown on composted ridges. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 73 per cent of children were stunted but only one per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential There is no high or very high potential land in the district. In the upper Kwama Valley, steep slopes and frequent cloud cover limit potential. On the coast, poor soils and a long dry season constrain potential. The lower Yupna, Urawa, Som, Timbe and Kwama valleys have low potential due to steep slopes, a long dry season and frequent cloud cover. The upper valleys, apart from very limited areas of deeper volcanic soils around Teptep, have very low to low potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures.

Major roads (km): 0


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers southeast of Teptep who are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes. People here are vulnerable to the effects of declining crop yields, frosts and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Small numbers of people in the Denanget, Yawan and Sapmanga areas are constrained by poor access to services, low cash incomes and low potential environments. People in the upper Yupna Valley and lower Urawa, Som, Timbe and Kwama valleys have low potential environments and very low incomes. Most people in the district have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Kabwum District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.




Morobe Province

A road from the coast at Wasu (in Tewai-Siassi District) to Kabwum means that the majority of people in the district have access to a service centre within eight hours’ travel. However, people around Denanget, Yawan and Sapmanga require more than one day’s travel. Small boats are used to travel beyond the district to Sialum, Finschhafen and Lae, but sea travel is dangerous, especially during the wet season from around December to March.

Income

Kabwum District

Kabwum District is located on the northern side of the rugged Sarawaget Range and includes the valleys of the Yupna, Urawa, Som, Timbe and Kwama rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 2600 mm, increasing from west to east. There is a long dry season. Altitude varies from sea level at Sareuak Bay, to over 4000 m on the Sarawaget Range. Most people live between altitudes of 800 and 2000 metres.

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Markham District

Markham District is dominated by the plains and floodplains of the upper Ramu and Markham valleys. The north of the district includes the Sarawaget Range and valleys of the Leron, Mami, Ufim, Ikwap and Wontoap rivers. The south of the district includes the Wafu and Wanton valleys. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1600 and 2300 mm, with a long dry season. Altitude varies from 150 m in the Markham Valley, to over 3500 m on the Sarawaget Range.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 41 000. The highest population densities are around Wantoat, Yasuru and Imane with an average of 80 persons/km2. The Markham and Ramu valleys have densities of 47 persons/km2, while the Leron, Wontoap and Ikwap valleys have 33 persons/km2. The Ufim and Mami valleys have low densities of 13 persons/km2, while the Mafu Valley has 5 persons/km2. Over half of the district is unoccupied.

Access to services

Morobe Province 184

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The Highlands Highway runs through the centre of the district. As a result, people in the Markham, Ramu and lower Leron valleys are within four hours’ travel of Lae. People in the mountain valleys to the north are within eight hours’ travel of Lae. There is a good, but steep and narrow road through the Leron Valley to Wantoat. Accessibility is worst in the south of the district, around Imane and Yasuru.



184

Airstrips: 7

Income


People in the Markham and Ramu valleys have excellent access to markets in Lae and the highlands, and consequently earn very high incomes from the sale of betel nut and fresh food. People in the remainder of the district have very low to low incomes derived from minor sales of betel nut, fresh food and, at higher altitudes, coffee.

Strong agricultural pressure occurs around Wantoat as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. This area is vulnerable to various forms of land degradation. There are minor areas of moderate pressure around Yasuru and Imane and more significant areas of marginal and moderate pressure in the Markham Valley. Marginal pressure areas will be of more concern in the future if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in some areas of the Markham and Ramu valleys given the moderate to high land potential and good access to markets. Betel nut and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Markham and Ramu valleys is dominated by moderate intensity banana production. Coconut is also an important crop. Land improvement practices such as peanut rotations, tillage and mounding are used. People in the lower Leron Valley cultivate low intensity banana gardens, but employ few land improvement practices. North of the highway, in the upper Leron, Wontoap and Ikwap valleys, low intensity gardens of Chinese taro dominate. Soil retention barriers and mounding are common. Low intensity sweet potato gardens dominate south of the highway. Agricultural intensity is higher around Imane and Yasuru. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 36 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the Markham and Ramu valleys is moderate to high, limited by a long dry season. The valleys in the Sarawaget Range have low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, a long dry season and frequent cloud cover. The Wafu and Wanton valleys have very low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, a long dry season, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. Major roads (km): 101


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those north of the highway in the mountain valleys of the Sarawaget Range. People in these areas are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. The very small number of people who live around Yasuru and Imane are constrained by very low incomes and moderate agricultural pressure. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People living in parts of the Markham Valley are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Markham District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are high. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Incomes are uniformly very low across the district, and are earned from minor sales of coffee and fresh food. Poor access and low potential environments are major constraints to improving incomes.

Langimar Valley has moderate potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The Kariba, Kabu and Kapau valleys, and the area to the north, have low potential land constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.



The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 55 000. The highest population densities are in the Tauri, Yakwoi and Langimar valleys with 46 persons/km2. The Kabu and Kapua valleys have a density of 39 persons/km2, while the Kariba Valley has 24 persons/km2. The area north of Menyamya, towards Engati, has a very low density of 5 persons/km2. The upper Tauri Valley and the area to the north of Menyamya have significant outmigration. The population of the North Menyamya census division decreased by 1.3 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

People in most areas of the district cultivate very low intensity sweet potato gardens. Agriculture on the narrow plains of the Yakwoi Valley, between Kwapalim and Menyamya, is more intensive and is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato production. Here, there are 15–40 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of around 15 years. Production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as legume rotations, composting, drainage, tillage and bedding. In contrast, people in the Tauri and Langimar valleys cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Tillage and mounding are used in these areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 72 per cent of children were stunted and five per cent were seriously under weight.

The measures used in this book indicate that there is little agricultural pressure on land in this district. However, child malnutrition and the conversion of large areas of forest to grassland suggest that there is some pressure on land. There is some potential for agricultural development in the Tauri and Yawoki valleys around Menyamya, where there is moderate to very high potential land and reasonable access to markets via the road to Bulolo and Lae. Coffee is a recently established smallholder cash-earning activity in these areas, but the area under cultivation is very small.

Access to services

Land potential

Most people in the district travel for up to eight hours to reach the nearest service centre. The Wau Road is surfaced, as is the road over the high watershed from Menyamya and Aseki to Bulolo. A very rough road continues from Menyamya west to Marawaka in Eastern Highlands Province.

The land potential on the narrow plains of the Yakwoi and Tauri valleys, near Menyamya, is high to very high, but this is only a small section of the district. Intensive land improvement practices overcome constraints caused by poor soil. Other parts of the Tauri and Yawoki valleys have moderate potential due to poor soils and steep slopes. The

Population

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185

Airstrips: 9

Major roads (km): 0


Disadvantaged people The majority of people in the district are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Overall, people in Menyamya District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.


Morobe Province


Income

Menyamya District

Menyamya District is located across the main mountain divide of Papua New Guinea. The district includes the headwaters of the Tauri River, which flows south to the Gulf of Papua, and the Watut River, which flows north to the Bismarck Sea. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 2800 mm, with a moderate dry season. Altitude varies from 600 m in the Banir Valley, to over 3200 m on Marble Peak. Most people live between altitudes of 600 and 2000 metres.



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Nawae District

Nawae District covers the Bukaua coastal plains and valleys of the Bunga, Busu, Buhem, Sankwep, Nimba, Tuembi, Yanem, Bunbok, Nambuk, Gusap and Erap rivers, in the Rawlinson and Sarawaget ranges. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2000 mm in the lower Erap Valley, to over 4200 mm on the Bukaua Coast. There is a long dry season in most areas. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m on the Sarawaget Range.

Income


Incomes along the Bukaua Coast are moderate and are derived from sales of betel nut, cocoa, coconut, fish and fresh food. In the Boana area and the Erap, Nambuk and Gusap valleys, people earn low incomes from sales of fresh food, coffee, betel nut and tobacco. In the more distant inland valleys, very low incomes are derived from minor sales of coffee, fresh food and potato.

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 30 000. Population densities are highest in the Bunbok and Gusap valleys with 40 persons/km2, while in the Erap and Nambuk valleys densities are 31 persons/km2. The Bukaua Coast and Busu, Sankwep, Nimba, Tuembi and Yanem valleys have densities of 24 persons/km2. Significant outmigration is occurring from the upper Busu Valley.

On the Bukaua Coast, agriculture is dominated by low intensity sweet potato and taro cultivation. In the Erap and Nambuk valleys, moderate intensity Chinese taro and sweet potato gardens dominate. In these valleys people make two consecutive plantings after fallow periods of 5–15 years. Gardens in the Busu Valley are similar but less intensive, with only one planting after fallow periods of 15 years. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 67 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Moderate and marginal agricultural pressure exists in the upper Erap Valley due to moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. Marginal pressure areas will be of more concern in the future if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the lower Busu Valley, where moderate to high potential land occurs with little to no agricultural pressure and good access to markets. There is some limited potential for agricultural development in the Erap, Gusap and Nambuk valleys given the moderate land potential and reasonable access to markets.

Access to services Access to services in the district is reasonable and all villages are within eight hours’ travel of Lae. There is a road from Lae running along the Bukaua Coast, but it is frequently closed due to flooded river crossings. Another road runs from Lae to Kwapsenek Village and Hobu School in the Busu Valley. The Boana area is linked to a road from the Highlands Highway in the Markham Valley. Small boat travel is common along the coast. Morobe Province 186

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186

Airstrips: 5

Land potential Land potential in the district is mostly low to moderate. In the Erap Valley, potential is limited by steep slopes, a long dry season, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The upper Busu Valley has steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The lower Busu Valley has moderate to high potential constrained mainly by steep slopes. The Bukaua coastal plains have low potential due to high rainfall and frequent flooding.

Major roads (km): 3


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district live in the upper valleys of the Busu River, where environments are unproductive and incomes are very low. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the upper Erap Valley are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure, while those on the Bukaua coastal plains live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Nawae District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 30 000. The highest population densities are on Malai and Tuam islands with 430 persons/km2. These are some of the highest densities in PNG. The south coast of Umboi Island also has very high densities of 118 persons/km2. On the mainland, along a narrow strip of land on the Sialum coastal plains, densities are 102 persons/km2. The area around Wasu has a density of 68 persons/km2. The inland valleys of the Huon Peninsula, the west coast of Umboi Island and Sakar Island have lower densities of 25 persons/km2, while Tolokiwa Island and the plains around Singorokai have an average of 15 persons/km2.

Access to services


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187

Airstrips: 6

Cash incomes are very low throughout the district and are derived from sales of fresh food, fish, betel nut, cocoa and coconut. Forestry operations on Umboi Island provide minor and transitory wage employment and royalties.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the inland valleys of the Huon Peninsula is characterised by low intensity Chinese taro production. Low intensity yam gardens are cultivated by people on the coastal plains between Wasu and the border with Finschhafen District, and also on Tolokiwa Island and the northwest coast of Umboi Island. Agriculture on Sakar Island, and on the northwest coast and inland areas of Umboi Island, is characterised by low to moderate intensity sweet potato production. On the southwest coast of Umboi island, sago is the most important food. People on Malai and Tuam islands cultivate very high intensity gardens, dominated by cassava and sweet potato. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 37 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The only high potential land in the district is found along the coast of Umboi Island, where rainfall, soils, slope, temperature and light are ideal for the production of many crops. The south coast of Umboi Island has high potential land that is limited by either high rainfall or steep slopes. Tolokiwa, Sakar, Malai and Tuam islands have low potential land due to steep slopes and a long dry season. Major roads (km): 0


On the mainland, the coastal plains have moderate potential constrained by poor soils and a long dry season, while the inland valleys have steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential Strong agricultural pressure exists on Tuam and Malai islands where high intensity agriculture occurs in moderate potential environments. There is moderate pressure in the lower altitude hills above Wasu and areas of marginal pressure inland of Sialum. There is potential for agricultural development on Umboi Island given the high to very high potential environments and lack of agricultural pressure. However, access to markets is by ship and is expensive. The coastal plains around Sialum have some potential for development that is constrained by poor access to markets. A number of fruit crops, including mango, are well suited to the seasonally dry climate.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small number on Malai and Tuam islands, where very high population densities occur together with strong agricultural pressure and very low incomes. Development in the inland valleys of the Huon Peninsula and on Sakar Island is constrained by poor environments, very low incomes and, in some places, moderate agricultural pressure. All other people in the district have very low incomes. Overall, people in Tewai-Siassi District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low.




Morobe Province

People everywhere in the district are within eight hours’ travel of a service centre. There is a road from Finschhafen to Sialum and Kelanoa, but it is sometimes blocked by flooded rivers during the wet season. Small boat travel is used along the coast, but the Vitiaz Strait is subject to rough seas that make small boat travel between the islands and mainland dangerous, especially during the wet season. In the late 1990s there was a regular passenger shipping service between Umboi Island and Finschhafen.

Income

Tewai-Siassi District

Tewai-Siassi District includes both the mainland along the north coast of the Huon Peninsula, and the off-shore islands of Umboi, Tolokiwa, Sakar, Malai and Tuam. The north coast consists of mountain valleys, floodplains and raised coral terraces. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2200 mm around Wasu, to over 3500 mm on Umboi Island. There is a long dry season in most areas. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m on Mt Bulebe.

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Madang Province

Children and houses near Madang. The peri-urban areas around Madang town have significant in-migration of settlers from Madang, East Sepik, Eastern Highlands and Simbu provinces. These people seek better access to services and wage employment. Over time the settlement areas have become more formalised with permanent buildings and connections to town water and electricity. There has been, and continues to be, significant migration to rural areas adjacent to the major towns in the country. Smaller urban areas associated with mines also have high in-migration.

Intensive sweet potato gardens in the Teptep area. Intensive agriculture in an environment characterised by low temperatures, excessive cloud cover and poor soils has resulted in strong agricultural pressure in the high altitude Teptep area. People are vulnerable to declining crop yields, frost and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Poor access to markets limits opportunities for people to improve their livelihoods. Sweet potato yields are maintained by composting, one of the few locations where this is practised outside of the western part of the highlands. 189

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Introduction

Occupied land Unoccupied land Lake Major roads Manam Is.


Ru bo n

District boundaries

Bogia iR

Cape Gourdon

an

ge

BOGIA

Miak

t er

lley u Va Ram

50

100

e

25

SUMKAR

y

MADANG

Bis

0

Val le

Inset 1

Aiome

m

Go

Ra m uV all ey

Simbai

Kilometres

ng

Sogeram

MIDDLE RAMU ange

Bagabag Is.

Ra

Schr ader R

Karkar Is.

Ad el Josephstaal b

ar ck

Ra

ng

USINO-BUNDI

go l Va lley

Crown Is.

Madang

Long Is.

Rai C oast

Usino

e

Saidor

RAI COAST Bundi

Fini s

Brahman Dumpu

Madang occupies 28 000 km2 in the central north of the PNG mainland. The province has a diverse range of environments, from the top of Mt Wilhelm, the highest peak in PNG, to the coast. Areas include the mountains of the Adelbert, Finisterre and Bismarck ranges, the extensive floodplains of the Ramu Valley, the coastal limestone plains from Bogia to Saidor, the dry seasonal hills inland of Bogia and the volcanic offshore islands. Manam, Karkar and Long islands are active volcanoes that present a serious hazard to people living on them. Altitude ranges from sea level to over 4000 m on the slopes of Mt Wilhelm. The Bismarck Fall has a vertical drop of 4300 m, from the summit of Mt Wilhelm to the Ramu Valley, over a distance of only 45 kilometres. This relief is similar to the Himalaya Mountains. Average annual rainfall varies from 2000 mm around Bogia, to more than 4000 mm in the Ramu Valley and Bismarck Fall, with a moderate to long dry season in the northwest and southeast of the province. The six districts in the province are Bogia, Madang, Middle Ramu, Rai Coast, Sumkar and Usino-Bundi.

terr e

R an

ge

Teptep

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Madang Province

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Population

Number of people


40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Bogia

District boundaries

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi

Unoccupied land

Rai Coast

Lake

Middle Ramu


Madang

High density (61–100 persons/km2) Bogia

The estimated rural population of Madang in the year 2000 is 251 000, which is six per cent of the national rural population. The provincial population growth rate is 1.6 per cent per year. Population densities are highest on Karkar, Boisa, Manam and Bagabag islands with an average of 110 persons/km2. The Gogol Valley and coastal plains around Madang have 68 persons/km2. Areas around Bundi, Simbai and Teptep have an average of 34 persons/km2, while the rest of the province has low densities of 14 persons/km2. More than half of the province is unoccupied. The Aiome area and coastal plains from Cape Gourdon to Madang have significant in-migration. The Simbai area and the upper Ramu Valley around Bundi, Brahman and Walium have significant out-migration.

District boundaries BOGIA

Miak

Josephstaal

SUMKAR MIDDLE RAMU MADANG

Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

Kilometres

USINO-BUNDI

Usino

RAI COAST 0

25

50

100

Bundi

Saidor

Brahman Dumpu Teptep


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191

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Number of people

Access to services

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi

Bogia

Minor roads/tracks

Rai Coast

Major roads

Middle Ramu

Lake

Madang

Bogia

Unoccupied land


District boundaries

Miak

Airstrip Josephstaal


Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

USINO-BUNDI

Kilometres

Usino

RAI COAST 0

25

50

100

Bundi

Saidor



192

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Madang is connected to Lae, Goroka and Mt Hagen by the Ramu and Highlands highways. The road from Madang to Lae is mostly sealed. A partly sealed road runs north along the coast from Madang town to Bogia and the Ramu River. A road of lesser quality extends inland from Bogia to Josephstaal. A good quality road runs from the Ramu Highway at Bogadjim to Saidor along the Rai Coast, but the numerous rivers are not bridged and are dangerous to cross during the wet season. There is a bridge over the Ramu River at Brahman, linking Bundi to Madang. People travel from the islands to the mainland by sea and air. Boat travel is common between the islands and along the coast. People on the coastal plains around Madang require less than one hour’s travel to reach Madang town, while people in the coastal hills and in the Gogol Valley require less than four hours’ travel. People in all other areas require between 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, except those west of Simbai who are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

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Income

Number of people

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year)

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

BOGIA

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi

Bogia

District boundaries

Rai Coast

District boundaries

Middle Ramu

Lake

Madang

Unoccupied land Bogia

Agriculture provides the main source of cash income in the province. Cocoa, betel nut, copra and fresh food are the most important smallholder cash crops. Other sources of income include fish, firewood, coffee and tobacco. Incomes are high on Karkar Island and along the coastal plains, while people in the rest of the province have very low to moderate incomes. There is a clear relationship between cash income and access to markets. There are numerous non-agricultural sources of income in the province, including wage employment at the Ramu Sugar estates, the site for the new Ramu nickel mine and the Gogol and Josephstaal forestry operations. Wage employment and business activities around Madang town are also important sources of income.

Miak

Josephstaal


Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

USINO-BUNDI

Kilometres

Usino

RAI COAST 0

25

50

100

Bundi

Saidor



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193

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Subsistence agriculture Low intensity mixed staple gardens Number of people

Low intensity banana gardens Low intensity banana/Chinese taro gardens Low intensity banana/sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity banana/sweet potato gardens Low intensity Chinese taro/taro gardens

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Bogia

Moderate intensity sweet potato/yam gardens Low intensity taro/yam gardens Moderate intensity taro/yam gardens

BOGIA

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi


Rai Coast


Middle Ramu

Bogia


Madang


Miak

Unoccupied land Josephstaal


SUMKAR

District boundaries

MIDDLE RAMU MADANG

Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

USINO-BUNDI

Kilometres 0

25

Usino

RAI COAST

50

100

Bundi

Saidor

Agriculture in the province is diverse. On the Rai Coast and on Karkar Island, people cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. Common crops include taro, Chinese taro, yam, banana, sweet potato and coconut. Here, there are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the Ruboni Range and in coastal areas of Bogia District cultivate low intensity taro and yam gardens. Near Bogia, people use very small pockets of alluvial soils for moderate intensity sweet potato and yam production. Sago is the most important food in the middle and lower Ramu Valley, and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. In the Gogol and upper Ramu valleys, people make low intensity banana gardens, with either Chinese taro or sweet potato as co-dominant staple crops. The remainder of the province is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation.



194

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Land potential

Number of people

Very high potential High potential Moderate potential Low potential

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi

Bogia

District boundaries

Rai Coast

Lake

Middle Ramu

Unoccupied land

Madang

Very low potential Bogia

The highest potential land is found on Karkar Island. This land has no environmental constraints and is among the most productive in PNG. Rainfall, slope, temperature, soils and light are ideal for the production of many crops. However, Karkar Island is an active volcano. The coastal hills, inland of Madang, have high potential with no constraints. The coastal plains have moderate potential limited by poor soils. The Sogeram Valley, Ruboni Range, and upper Ramu Valley have moderate land potential, while the rest of the province has either very low or low potential. Common constraints are steep slopes, high rainfall, frequent cloud cover, seasonal flooding, low temperatures and a long dry season.


Miak

Josephstaal


Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

Kilometres

USINO-BUNDI

Usino

RAI COAST 0

25

50

100

Bundi

Saidor



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195

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Number of people


Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Usino-Bundi

Bogia

Lake

Sumkar

Unoccupied land

Rai Coast

Occupied land

Middle Ramu

Bogia


Madang



District boundaries

Miak

Josephstaal


Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

USINO-BUNDI

Kilometres

Usino

RAI COAST 0

25

50

100

Bundi

Saidor

There is a small area of strong agricultural pressure around Teptep as a result of the intensive production of sweet potato in a very low potential environment. The Gogol Valley and coastal plains, north of Madang, have some areas of moderate agricultural pressure and there is marginal pressure inland of Bogia, on Manam Island and in the upper Gogol Valley. The highest potential land in the province is on Karkar Island and is already intensively used for smallholder and plantation cocoa and coconut production. Other high and moderate potential areas offer opportunities for development. Examples include the coastal plains, hills and valleys where road access to markets is very good, and the Bogia and Sogeram areas where road access is improving. Cocoa, betel nut and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.



196

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Disadvantaged people Poor environment, very low income, poor access Strong pressure, very low income

Number of people

Moderate pressure, very low income Very low income, poor access Poor environment, very low income Strong pressure

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Bogia

Unoccupied land

Sumkar

Usino-Bundi


Rai Coast

Very low income

Middle Ramu

Poor environment

Madang

Moderate pressure Bogia

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Schrader Range west of Simbai, where small numbers of people live in low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. Smaller numbers of people around Teptep experience strong agricultural pressure and earn very low incomes. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. People in the Bismarck Range, in the Ramu and lower Simbai valleys, in the Bundi area, and on the Adelbert and Finisterre ranges earn very low incomes and live in low potential environments. People in the Sogeram Valley and along the Rai Coast have very low incomes.

Lake BOGIA

District boundaries

Miak

District boundaries Josephstaal


Inset 1

Aiome Madang Simbai

Kilometres 0

25

50

USINO-BUNDI

Usino

RAI COAST

100 Bundi

Saidor



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197

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Bogia District

Bogia District is dominated by the floodplains of the lower Ramu River, the hills of the Ruboni Range and the mountains of the Adelbert Range. Raised coral limestone plains extend from Hansa Bay along the coast to the eastern border of the district. Manam Island, an active volcano, is 15 km off the coast, as is the smaller Boisa Island. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 3000 mm and decreases from north to south. There is a long dry season. Altitude in most of the district is below 300 m with a few peaks such as Mt Uvo exceeding 800 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 46 000. Boisa Island has the highest population density with 230 persons/km2. Manam Island also has a very high density of 120 persons/km2. The remainder of the district averages 20 persons/km2. The Ramu floodplain and Adelbert Range are largely unoccupied. The coastal plains east of Cape Gourdon have significant in-migration. The population of the Ulingan census division increased by four per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services Most people in the district are within 4–8 hours’ travel of Madang town. A good road links Bogia to Madang, while a more recent road runs south from Bogia to Josephstaal.

Income Madang Province 198

ANUA001 layout new

Incomes are very low to low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of fresh food, cocoa and copra.



198

Airstrips: 3



Agriculture in the Ruboni Range and in the valleys of the Adelbert Range is characterised by low intensity taro and yam cultivation. People on the Ramu floodplain depend on sago production which is supplemented by coconut and low intensity mixed staple gardens on higher ground. Much of this land is flooded every year by the seasonal rise of the Ramu River. On Manam Island, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato and taro gardens. Agriculture on the coastal plains of the mainland is dominated by moderate intensity sweet potato and yam gardens. Here, there are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. Drainage, tillage and small mounds are used to improve land productivity. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 27 per cent of children were stunted and nine per cent were seriously under weight.

There is marginal agricultural pressure inland of Bogia and on Manam Island. These areas will be of more concern if agriculture continues to intensify in the absence of suitable management practices. The best opportunities for agricultural development are in the Ruboni Range and coastal plains, where there is moderate land potential and relatively good access to markets. The development of smallholder cocoa production is a strong possibility given that the cocoa industry is already established in the province and is supported by research and extension activities. Fresh food and betel nut are also established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Land potential The land potential on Manam Island and in the Ruboni Range is moderate due to steep slopes and a long dry season. However, Manam is an active volcano and in the last 40 years people have twice been evacuated from the island during eruptions. The coastal plains have low to moderate potential which could be significantly improved if drainage and soil fertility constraints are overcome. The Ramu floodplain has very low to low potential because of annual flooding and poor soils. However, isolated flood-free levees and terraces have good soils and high potential. The Adelbert Range has low potential due to steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and poor soils.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the Ramu floodplain who are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. Overall, people in Bogia District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.




13/11/01, 12:30 PM

Income


Incomes are high on the coastal plains and are derived from the sale of cocoa, copra, betel nut and fresh food. In the Gogol Valley and on the coastal hills, people earn moderate incomes from sales of fresh food and cocoa. Those in the Adelbert Range and upper Sogeram Valley earn very low incomes from minor sales of betel nut and fresh food.

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 34 000. The coastal plains and Gogol Valley have high population densities of 68 persons/km2. The coastal hills have an average density of 14 persons/km2, while the Adelbert Range and upper Sogeram Valley are sparsely populated with 7 persons/km2. The coastal plains have significant in-migration, particularly the peri-urban area around Madang. The population in the North Ambenob census division increased by 4.3 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Agriculture on the coastal plains is dominated by moderate intensity taro and yam cultivation. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. People in the Adelbert Range and upper Sogeram Valley cultivate low intensity sweet potato and taro gardens, while those in the Gogol Valley make low intensity banana and Chinese taro gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 47 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on land in the lower Gogol Valley and on the coastal plains around Madang. There is marginal pressure in the upper Gogol Valley, however, this will only be of concern in the future if agriculture intensifies without the adoption of suitable management practices. The best opportunities for agricultural development are in the coastal hills and plains where there is moderate to high land potential and good access to markets. The upper Sogeram Valley has moderate potential but is presently restricted by poor access to markets. There are plans for road development which will improve this situation. Smallholder cocoa production is a good option for development given that the cocoa industry is already established in the province and is supported by research and extension activities. Fresh food and betel nut production are also established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Access to services


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199

Airstrips: 1

Land potential The land potential in the coastal hills is high, but is restricted by steep slopes. The coastal plains have moderate land potential that could be improved through better management of drainage and soil fertility. The Gogol and upper Sogeram valleys have low to moderate land potential due to poor soils, high rainfall and annual flooding along the floodplains. The Adelbert Range has low to moderate potential caused by steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and poor soils.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small number in the Adelbert Range who have very low incomes and live in low potential environments. People in the upper Sogeram Valley earn very low incomes, while those in the lower Gogol Valley are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in Madang District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.




Madang Province

People on the coastal plains require less than one hour’s travel to reach Madang town, while those in the coastal hills and Gogol Valley are within four hours’ travel. People in the Adelbert Range and upper Sogeram Valley require up to eight hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. The north coast road runs from Madang to Bogia and connects to numerous branch roads which run into the coastal hills. The road to Lae passes through the low saddle between the Adelbert and Finisterre ranges into the Ramu Valley.

Madang District

Madang District surrounds Madang town and covers the mountains and hills of the Adelbert Range, the Gogol Valley, the upper Sogeram Valley and the coastal limestone plains. Average annual rainfall ranges between 3200 and 3600 millimetres. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1200 m at the top of the Adelbert Range. People live as high as 800 metres.

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Middle Ramu District

Middle Ramu District covers the upper Yuat Valley, the Schrader Range, the extensive floodplains of the lower Ramu Valley, the hills and floodplains of the Sogeram Valley and part of the Adelbert Range. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 4500 mm, with most of the district receiving over 3000 millimetres. Altitude varies from 40 m on the Ramu floodplain, to over 2800 m on Mt Aiome.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 41 000. Areas around Dusin, on the southern side of the Schrader Range, have moderate population densities of 38 persons/km2. The northern side of the Schrader Range and lower Sogeram Valley have scattered populations with average densities of 14 persons/km2. The middle Ramu and Sogeram valleys are very sparsely populated with 7 persons/km2. The area around Aiome has significant in-migration of people from the surrounding mountains. The population in the Aiome-Angaua-Anor census division increased by 8.3 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990. Areas west of Simbai, in the Schrader Range, have significant out-migration. The population in the Kaironk and Western Schraders census divisions decreased by an average of three per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services Madang Province 200

ANUA001 layout new

People on the southern side of the Schrader Range are very remote and require over one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the remainder of the district require up to eight hours’ travel. Outboard motor powered canoes are used to travel along the Ramu River. There is a road from



200

Airstrips: 15

Bogia to Josephstaal and there are plans to link this road back towards Madang through the Sogeram Valley, where there are logging roads at present. A road to the Ramu nickel mine near Aiome is under construction.

rainfall, steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The valleys of the Yuat River and its tributaries have moderate potential but are very isolated.

Income Incomes in the district are very low to low, with minor sales of fresh food, betel nut and cocoa around Josephstaal, and coffee at higher altitudes around Dusin. Some people receive moderate incomes from wages and royalties associated with the Ramu nickel mine and logging operations in the Sogeram Valley.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. The Sogeram Valley has potential for agricultural development, but has poor access to markets at present. There are plans for road development which will improve this situation. Fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities. Cocoa is a good option for development in the lower rainfall and lower altitude areas.



Agriculture in the Schrader and Adelbert ranges is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. Sago is the most important food in the Ramu and lower Sogeram valleys, supplemented by low intensity mixed staple gardens. Around Josephstaal, people cultivate low intensity taro and yam gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as very serious; 55 per cent of children were stunted and 16 per cent were seriously under weight.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Schrader Range where small numbers of people occupy low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. Large numbers of people in the Ramu Valley and Adelbert Range live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes. People in the Sogeram Valley earn very low incomes, while those around Josephstaal live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Middle Ramu District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of serious concern.

Land potential The land potential in parts of the Sogeram and Ramu valleys is moderate, but soils are poor and rainfall is high. The hills around Josephstaal have low potential due to poor soils, steep slopes and high rainfall. Much of the Ramu Valley has very low to low potential because of high rainfall, poor soils and frequent flooding. The Schrader Range has very low to low potential caused by high

Major roads (km): 0






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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 44 000. The high valleys on the northern side of the Finisterre Range around Teptep, Gwarawon and Tariknam have population densities that average 50 persons/km2. The Rai Coast and Long Island have average densities of 25 persons/km2, while the valleys on the southern side of the Finisterre Range have 18 persons/km2.

Access to services


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201

Airstrips: 4


Incomes are very low in most of the district and are derived from from minor sales of betel nut, cocoa and copra. Incomes are low on Long Island. Some coffee and tobacco is sold in the Teptep and Gwarawon areas.

The area around Teptep has strong agricultural pressure as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a very low potential environment. There are some opportunities for agricultural development along the Rai Coast.



Agriculture on the Rai Coast is dominated by low intensity mixed crop cultivation. Chinese taro, banana, coconut, taro and yam are important crops. One planting is made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the northern valleys of the Finisterre Range cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens; while those around Teptep make moderate intensity sweet potato gardens in which composting, tillage and ridging are used to maintain production. People in the southern valleys of the Finisterre Range cultivate low intensity banana and sweet potato gardens; while those living on Long Island make low intensity taro and yam gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 62 per cent of children were stunted and five per cent were seriously under weight.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are those around Teptep where small numbers of people experience strong agricultural pressure and earn very low incomes. People are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields, frost and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Large numbers of people in the northern valleys of the Finisterre Range are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes. People in the southern valleys of the Finisterre Range occupy very low potential environments. Overall, people in Rai Coast District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.

Land potential The land potential on the coastal plains of Long Island is high in many areas, but is restricted by a long dry season and an active volcano. The Rai Coast has low to moderate potential due to poor soils, a long dry season and seasonal flooding. The lower valleys of the Finisterre Range, on both the northern and southern sides of the range, have low potential, while the upper valleys and slopes have very low potential. Common constraints are steep slopes, frequent cloud cover, low temperatures and poor soils. Major roads (km): 141



Madang Province

People on the Rai Coast require around four hours’ travel to reach Madang town, while those in the Finisterre Range require up to eight hours’ travel. During the wet season, travel times from the Rai Coast to Madang rise significantly because of flooded unbridged rivers. Long Island is 70 km from Saidor and 130 km from Madang. It is the most remote part of the district as small boat travel is expensive and dangerous from December to March. People in the Finisterre Range are very remote and must walk to roads on the Rai Coast and in the Ramu Valley.

Income

Rai Coast District

Rai Coast District covers Long Island, the Rai Coast, and the Finisterre Range. Long Island is an active volcano which is thought to have erupted catastrophically about 350 years ago. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 3400 mm, and increases from east to west. There is a long dry season in the east of the district. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3800 m at the top of the Finisterre Range. Agriculture is practised up to 2600 m near Teptep.



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Sumkar District

Sumkar District covers Karkar Island, Bagabag Island, the mountains and hills of the Adelbert Range, the limestone plains along the coast and the floodplains of the Malas, Gilagil and Surumarang rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges between 3000 and 3500 millimetres. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1200 m at the top of the Adelbert Range. People live as high as 800 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 38 000. Most people live on Karkar Island where the population density is 110 persons/km2. The coastal plains have high densities of 68 persons/km2. The coastal hills have an average density of 14 persons/km2, while the higher mountains are sparsely populated with 4 persons/km2. The coastal plains have significant in-migration. The population in the Megiar census division increased by 5.4 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

Madang Province 202

ANUA001 layout new

People on the coastal plains require less than one hour’s travel to Madang, while those in the coastal hills are within four hours’ travel. People on Karkar Island require around half a day’s travel to reach Madang by boat, while those in the Adelbert Range require up to eight hours’ travel. The north coast road runs through the district and connects with numerous branch roads which run into the coastal hills. Karkar Island has a good internal road network and is linked to the mainland by regular passenger boats.



202

Airstrips: 2

Income


Incomes are high on Karkar Island and the coastal plains, and are derived from the sale of cocoa, copra, betel nut and fresh food. Incomes are moderate in the coastal hills and very low in the Adelbert Range.

There is moderate agricultural pressure on parts of the coastal plains as a result of intensive agriculture being practised in moderate potential environments. The future development of Karkar Island may be limited given that most land is already used for smallholder and plantation cocoa and copra production. The best opportunities for agricultural development are in the coastal hills and plains, where there is moderate to high land potential and good access to markets. Smallholder cocoa production has potential for development given that the cocoa industry is already established in the province and is supported by research and extension activities. Fresh food and betel nut production are also established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the coastal plains is dominated by moderate intensity taro and yam cultivation. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. People in the coastal hills make low intensity Chinese taro and taro gardens. Those in the Adelbert Range cultivate low intensity sweet potato and taro gardens. On Karkar Island, people make low intensity mixed staple gardens, but smallholder plantings of coconut and cocoa are extensive. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 53 per cent of children were stunted and eight per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential on Karkar Island is very high. Rainfall, slope, temperature, soils and light are ideal for the production of many crops, but the island is an active volcano. The coastal hills have high potential, but slopes are steep. The coastal plains have moderate potential that could be improved through better management of drainage and soil fertility. The Adelbert Range has low to moderate potential as a result of steep slopes, frequent cloud cover and poor soils.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Adelbert Range where small numbers of people are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. People on the coastal plains are affected by moderate agricultural pressure, while those in the coastal hills earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Sumkar District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are high. Child malnutrition is of concern.




13/11/01, 12:32 PM

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 48 000. Areas around Simbai and Bundi have moderate population densities of 38 persons/km2. Much of the Bismarck Fall is unoccupied apart from isolated villages, with densities of 7 persons/km2. The Ramu and Sogeram valleys are also sparsely populated with 7 persons/km2. The upper Simbai Valley and upper Ramu Valley around Bundi, Brahman and Walium have significant out-migration. Populations in the Mareng, Bundi and Uringa-Kesawai census divisions decreased by an average of five per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


ANUA001 layout new


203

Airstrips: 8

Income A small number of people in the villages associated with the Ramu Sugar estates have very high incomes derived from wage employment on the estates. Those living near the Ramu Highway earn moderate incomes from sales of betel nut, fresh food and other products. People in the remainder of the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of betel nut and fresh food. The Sogeram forestry operations and the Ramu nickel mine provide wage employment and royalties to a small number of people.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in most of the district is characterised by low intensity sweet potato and taro cultivation. Casuarina trees are planted in fallows in the Simbai Valley to maintain soil fertility. On the Ramu floodplain, sago is the most important food, supplemented by low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 73 per cent of children were stunted and five per cent were seriously under weight.



Land potential The land potential in the Sogeram and upper Ramu valleys is moderate and is constrained by high rainfall and frequent flooding. Areas around Dumpu have less rainfall and a longer dry season. The Bismarck Fall has very low to low potential because of steep slopes, high rainfall, poor soils, frequent cloud cover and low temperatures at higher altitudes. The middle Ramu Valley has low potential due to high rainfall and frequent flooding.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is no agricultural pressure in the district. The Sogeram Valley has potential for agricultural development but is constrained by poor access to markets. There are plans for road development which will improve this situation. Fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in this area.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those to the east of Simbai and around Bundi who are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. There are similar constraints in the middle Ramu Valley, but fewer people are affected. People in the Sogeram Valley earn very low incomes. Overall, people in UsinoBundi District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




Madang Province

Most people in the Bismarck Fall, the middle Ramu Valley and the Sogeram Valley require up to eight hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. Outboard motor powered canoes are used to travel along the Ramu River to the Brahmin Bridge. This

bridge links the Ramu Highway to Bundi. Areas in the southeast around Usino and Dumpu are up to four hours’ travel from Madang town along the Ramu Highway. Present road developments to the Ramu nickel mine near Aiome and the Sogeram forestry operations may improve access to areas on the northern side of the Ramu River.

Usino-Bundi District

Usino-Bundi District is one of the more diverse districts in PNG. It covers the rugged mountains of the Bismarck Fall including the remote Simbai Valley, the extensive floodplains of the Ramu Valley and the hills and floodplains of the Sogeram Valley. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 4500 mm, with most of the district receiving over 3500 millimetres. Altitude varies from 100 m on the Ramu floodplain, to over 4000 m on the upper slopes of Mt Wilhelm. Agriculture is practised as high as 2200 metres.

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204

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204

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East Sepik Province

Betel nut and fresh food are transported to markets at Angoram along the Yuat River. Rafts, canoes and outboard motor boats are common forms of transport along the Sepik River and its tributaries. Produce such as betel nut, fresh food and fish is transported along the river system from remote villages to road heads at Pagwi and Angoram. People return to their villages with cash, purchased food and household goods.

Women sell fish and fresh food at the Maprik market. A diverse range of goods and produce, including fish from the Sepik River, are sold at markets in the inland hills around Maprik. Many people along the river trade fish and sago in return for garden produce and trade store goods. The Maprik market is an important economic centre for people in the inland hills, including those from nearby Sandaun Province.

205

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Introduction

Occupied land Unoccupied land Lake Major roads Minor roads/tracks

Vakeo Is.

Walis Is.

District boundaries

Kairiru Is.

District boundaries

Rive r MAPRIK rew

Princ e Yangoru Alexa nd er YANGORUM

SAUSSIA

Pagwi

ou nt

ain

Murik Lakes

s Gavien Angoram

AMBUNTI-DREIKIKIR Ambunti

May River

ANGORAM Karawari River

r

Frieda River

Rive

Maposi WOSERA-GAUI

am Ker

lley Sepik Va

Iteri

Hotmin

Kadovar Is. Bam Is.

Yu a t River

Ama

er Nagan Riv

100

50

Blup Blup Is. Wewak

Pasik River

tains Maprik Torricelli foothills

Sc

25

Wei Is.

WEWAK

Torr i c e ll i M ou Dreikikir n

Kilometres 0

Koil Is.

Muschu Is.

April River

Central Range

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — East Sepik Province

206

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East Sepik occupies 43 700 km2 in the northwest of PNG. The northern part of the province is dominated by the Wewak coastal plains and islands, the Torricelli Range and the Prince Alexander Range. South of these mountains is a large area of hill country that stretches from Dreikikir in the west, to Angoram in the east. The middle of the province covers the plains, floodplains, swamps and lakes of the Sepik River and its tributaries. The Sepik Valley is around 80 km wide and 320 km long. The level of the Sepik River rises and falls by up to five meters every wet season. South of the Sepik Valley are the rugged mountains of the Central Range, which extend into Enga Province. The east of the province consists of the mouth of the Sepik River and large areas of coastal swamp around the Murik Lakes. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3000 m on the Central Range. The highest place where agriculture is practised is near Dreikikir, at 800 metres. Average annual rainfall varies from 1800 mm near Maprik, to over 4000 mm near April River. There is a moderate to long dry season in the east of the province with the driest area being in the lower Sepik Valley around Angoram. The six districts in East Sepik are Ambunti-Dreikikir, Angoram, Maprik, Wewak, Wosera-Gaui, and Yangoru-Saussia.

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207

30 000 20 000

YangoruSaussia

Wewak

WoseraGaui

Lake

Maprik


Angoram

10 000


District boundaries District boundaries WEWAK Wewak

Dreikikir Kilometres 0

25

Maprik 100

50

Yangoru

YANGORUMAPRIK SAUSSIA Gavien Angoram

Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River

ANGORAM Maposi WOSERA-GAUI Hotmin

Frieda River April River


ANUA001 layout new

40 000

AmbuntiDreikikir

The estimated rural population of East Sepik in the year 2000 is 270 000, which is seven per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 1.6 per cent per annum. Large East Sepik migrant communities are found at Rabaul, Madang, Lae and in the West New Britain oil palm settlements. The highest out-migration is from the Sepik Valley around Ambunti. The highest population densities are south of Maprik, in the Amogu Valley, with 175 persons/km2. The Maprik area has densities that average 80 persons/km2, while the Yangoru area and the islands off the Wewak Coast have 60 persons/km2. The area around Dreikikir and remote villages in the east of the province have densities of 30 persons/km2, while the Wewak Coast and Sepik Valley have 15 persons/km2. The northern fall of the Central Range has very low densities of one person/km2.

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50 000


40 000 30 000 20 000

YangoruSaussia

WoseraGaui

Unoccupied land

Wewak


Maprik

AmbuntiDreikikir


Angoram

10 000


Lake Major roads Minor roads/tracks

WEWAK Wewak

Dreikikir

District boundaries

Maprik


MAPRIK

Yangoru

YANGORUSAUSSIA Gavien Angoram

Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River

ANGORAM Maposi WOSERA-GAUI Frieda River

Hotmin

April River

Kilometres 0

25

100

50


208

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The Sepik Highway runs from Wewak to Maprik and is a well designed road, but is poorly maintained. It runs through the areas which have the highest population densities in the province. Traffic from inland Sandaun Province also traverses this road en route to Wewak. Roads from Pagwi and Angoram connect the Sepik River to the highway. There is a good road along the coast from Wewak to Aitape in Sandaun Province, but many river crossings are not bridged and flash floods are common. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the Sepik River and between the coast and islands. People in the hills, between Dreikikir and Yangoru, and on the coast and islands around Wewak, live within four hours’ travel of Maprik or Wewak. Most other people in the province require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, except for those in the northern fall of the Central Range and in remote parts of the Sepik Valley, who must travel for more than one day.

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Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year)

209

30 000 20 000 10 000 YangoruSaussia

WoseraGaui

Wewak

Unoccupied land

Maprik


Angoram



WEWAK Wewak

Dreikikir Maprik

Yangoru


Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River



Kilometres 0

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

40 000

AmbuntiDreikikir

Average incomes in East Sepik are relatively low. People in the Gavien Resettlement Scheme, north of Angoram, earn high incomes from the sale of rubber, cocoa, betel nut and fresh food. People around Dreikikir, Maprik and Yangoru earn moderate incomes from the sale of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. Those in the Sepik Valley and on the Wewak Coast earn low incomes from minor sales of fresh food, cocoa, fish and betel nut. People in the northern fall of the Central Range and in remote areas of the Sepik Valley have very low incomes. Cocoa is an expanding smallholder cashearning activity in the province, particularly west of Maprik where most villages have at least one fermentary. However, the marketing of cocoa is constrained by poor road maintenance. There are large fresh food and fish markets at Pagwi, Angoram, Maprik and Wewak. Despite a large migrant population outside the province, little money is remitted back to rural villages. There are no large-scale resource extraction industries in the province.

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50 000

Low intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity banana gardens Low intensity banana/yam gardens Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 YangoruSaussia

WoseraGaui

Wewak

Low intensity taro/yam gardens

Maprik

Sago with low intensity taro gardens

Angoram

AmbuntiDreikikir

Sago with low intensity taro gardens

Low intensity yam gardens High intensity yam gardens Unoccupied land

WEWAK

Lake

Wewak

Dreikikir

District boundaries

Maprik

District boundaries MAPRIK

Yangoru


Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River


Agriculture in the inland hills, between Dreikikir and Yangoru, is characterised by low intensity mixed staple production of yam, taro and banana. Sago and coconut are also important foods. In general, there are two consecutive plantings before fallow periods of around 15 years, but a third planting of sweet potato is becoming increasingly common. Soil retention barriers are used on slopes, and drains are used on flatter land. There are small areas of high intensity yam cultivation on the floodplains of the Amogu, Parchi and Nanu rivers. Production is maintained through the use of land improvement practices such as drainage and mounding. Sago is the most important food in the rest of the province, supported by low intensity mixed staple production of taro, yam, banana, sweet potato and Chinese taro.


Kilometres 0

25

100

50


210

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210

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Very high potential High potential

40 000 30 000 20 000

YangoruSaussia

WoseraGaui

Unoccupied land

Wewak

Very low potential

Maprik

Low potential

Angoram

10 000

Moderate potential

AmbuntiDreikikir

The land potential is high to very high in the inland hills, from Dreikikir to Angoram, but is constrained in places by steep slopes and poor soils. Management practices such as soil retention barriers, drainage and mounding are used to improve land potential. The Wewak Coast, Kairiru Island, Muschu Island and the Prince Alexander Range have moderate potential limited by steep slopes. The northern tributaries of the Sepik River have low to moderate potential caused by frequent flooding, while the Sepik Valley has low potential constrained by seasonal inundation, poor soils and high rainfall in the west. The northern fall of the Central Range has very low to low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Lake District boundaries WEWAK

District boundaries

Wewak

Dreikikir Maprik

Yangoru


Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River



Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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211

211

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50 000

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 WoseraGaui

YangoruSaussia

Occupied land

Wewak


Maprik


Angoram

AmbuntiDreikikir



WEWAK

District boundaries

Wewak

Dreikikir

District boundaries

Maprik

Yangoru


Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River



There are small areas of marginal agricultural pressure in the foothills around Nangumaru and on the floodplain of the Atilem River. There is potential for agricultural development in the foothills, from Dreikikir to Angoram, due to the high to very high land potential and good access to markets. Poor maintenance of the Sepik Highway and branch roads is a major constraint to development in the area. There is potential for expansion of the smallholder cocoa industry in the inland hills, given the active research and extension activities in the province and the suitability of the recently developed solar dryers to the local climate. The production of Robusta coffee is generally constrained by poor prices. Vanilla production is in an early stage of development and further expansion will depend on adequate marketing arrangements and price. Fresh food and betel nut are also established smallholder cash-earning activities.

Kilometres 0

25

100

50


212

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212

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Poor environment, very low income, poor access Very low income, poor access Poor environment, very low income Strong pressure

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000 WoseraGaui

YangoruSaussia

Unoccupied land

Wewak


Maprik

Very low income

Angoram

Poor environment AmbuntiDreikikir

The most disadvantaged people in the province are the small populations in the northern fall of the Central Range and the fringe areas of the Sepik Valley around April River, Maposi, Frieda River, Hotmin, May River, Ama and Iteri. People in these areas earn very low incomes, have poor access to services and live in low potential environments. They have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People around Bunam and Muruken, on the plains of the Keram River, earn very low incomes and live in low potential environments. Large numbers of people living on the Kairiru, Muschu, Walis, Yuo, Keresau and Tarawai islands and in the lower Torricelli foothills earn very low incomes. Large numbers of people in the Sepik Valley live in a low potential environment.

Lake District boundaries WEWAK

District boundaries

Wewak

Dreikikir Maprik

MAPRIK

Yangoru


Pagwi Ama


Iteri May River



Kilometres 0

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

213

213

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Ambunti-Dreikikir District

Ambunti-Dreikikir District is in the west of the province. It extends from the foothills of the Torricelli Range, around Dreikikir, to Ambunti on the Sepik River. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1900 mm in the inland hills, to over 4000 mm in the upper Sepik Valley. Altitude varies from 30 m in the Sepik Valley, to over 1000 m on the Torricelli Range.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 48 000. Most people in the district live around Dreikikir and southwest of Maprik where there are average population densities of 50 persons/km2. The Ambunti area and the southern tributaries of the Sepik River have densities of 14 persons/km2. The Sepik Valley itself has very low densities of 4 persons/km2.

Access to services

East Sepik Province 214

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There is no road connection between the district headquarters at Ambunti and the most populous parts of the district around Dreikikir. It is faster and easier for people in the foothills to reach the provincial capital at Wewak than to travel to Ambunti. People along the Sepik River require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Wewak. Those living along the southern Sepik tributaries are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. The Sepik Highway runs through the north of the district from Maprik to Dreikikir and on to Lumi, but it is poorly maintained and often impassable after extended periods of wet weather. Outboard motor boats and canoes are used along the Sepik River.



214

Airstrips: 12

Income Incomes are moderate in the foothills around Dreikikir and are derived from the sale of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. People in the remainder of the district have very low to low incomes. Minor sales of cocoa and Robusta coffee provide income to people in the lower hills, while fresh and smoked fish, betel nut and cocoa are the main sources of income in the Sepik Valley.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Torricelli foothills is characterised by low intensity yam cultivation, with taro and banana as other important staple crops. Coconut and sago are also important foods. There are two consecutive plantings before fallow periods of 15–25 years, but a third planting of sweet potato is becoming common. Land improvement practices include composting with Pometia leaves and the use of soil retention barriers. Sago is the most important food in the Torricelli Range, on the lower hills and in the Sepik Valley. It is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation of banana, taro and sweet potato. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 73 per cent of children were stunted and eight per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the foothills around Dreikikir is high to very high, but is constrained in places by steep slopes. Soil retention barriers and mounding improve the land potential. The Torricelli Range and its lower hills have high potential limited by poor soils. Isolated areas on flood-free land around Major roads (km): 28


Ambunti have high potential constrained by poor soils. The plains of the Yimmi and Amogu rivers have moderate potential caused by poor soils and frequent flooding, while the Sepik Valley has low potential due to poor soils, frequent flooding and high rainfall in the west.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is little agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the Torricelli foothills given the high to very high land potential and reasonable access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities. Robusta coffee has also been produced for a long time, but prices are low compared to other cash crops.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small populations in the fringe areas of the Sepik Valley, upstream of Ambunti, in places such as Maposi, Ama , Hotmin, Iteri and Frieda River. These people have poor access to services, earn very low incomes and live in low potential environments. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. People in the lower hills south of Dreikikir, around Masalaga, Bongoimasi and Nungwaia, earn very low incomes, while those along the Sepik River live in a low potential environment. Overall, people in Ambunti-Drekikir District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is approximately 51 000. The highest population density is in the Gavien Resettlement Scheme, north of Angoram, with 53 persons/km2. The plains of the Keram River, in the east of the district, have 25 persons/km2. The lower Sepik Valley has 14 persons/km2, while the northern fall of the Central Range and the Sepik Coast have very low densities of one person/km2. The Sepik Valley and the northern fall of the Central Range are largely unoccupied.

Access to services


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215

Airstrips: 12


Incomes are high in the Gavien Resettlement Scheme and are derived from the sale of cocoa, betel nut, rubber and fresh food. People along the Sepik and Keram rivers earn moderate incomes from the sale of betel nut, fish and cocoa. Those on the Sepik Coast earn low incomes from the sale of fish. In the Marienberg Hills and on the plains of the Sepik Valley, people earn low incomes from minor sales of fresh food and cocoa, while those on the plains of the Keram River and on the northern fall of the Central Range have very low incomes.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the Marienberg Hills given the high potential land and reasonable access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities. Robusta coffee is also well established, but prices are low compared to other cash crops.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sago is the most important food in the district and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation of banana, taro and Chinese taro. There is one planting before fallow periods of 5–15 years. Coconut is also an important food. People along the Sepik and Keram rivers and on the Sepik Coast have only small gardens and exchange fish for sago and coconut, while those around the Murik Lakes live by fishing and trading alone. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 41 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the plains of the Keram River who are constrained by very low cash incomes and low potential environments. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Large numbers of people in the Sepik Valley live in a low potential environment. Overall, people in Angoram District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are low.

Land potential The land potential in the Marienberg Hills is high with no constraints. The Sepik Valley, Sepik Coast and plains of the Keram River have low potential constrained by poor soils and long-term inundation. The northern fall of the Central Range has very low to low potential caused by steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover. Major roads (km): 36



East Sepik Province

People in the Gavien Resettlement Scheme and around Angoram are within four hours’ travel of the nearest service centre, but those in the Sepik Valley and on the Sepik Coast require 4–8 hours’ travel. The northern fall of the Central Range is very remote and people require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. There is a good road from Wewak to Angoram, which is partly sealed. Outboard motor boats and canoes are used on the Sepik and Keram rivers.

Income

Angoram District

Angoram District covers the Marienberg Hills, the Murik Lakes, the plains and swamps of the lower Sepik Valley, the Sepik Coast and the mountainous northern fall of the Central Range. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1800 mm in the Marienberg Hills, to over 4000 mm in the Central Range. The eastern half of the district has a moderate to long dry season. Altitude varies from sea level to over 3000 m on the Central Range.



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Maprik District

Maprik District is located on the southern side of the Torricelli Range and covers the foothills around Maprik, the valleys of the Ambuk and upper Amogu rivers, and the floodplains and plains of the Parchee River and its tributaries. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1800 mm on the inland hills, to 2100 mm in the Parchee Valley. Altitude varies from 50 m in the lower Parchee Valley, to over 1000 m on the Torricelli Range.

Income


In the Torricelli foothills around Maprik, moderate incomes are derived from the sale of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. People on the floodplains of the Parchee River earn very low incomes from minor sales of cocoa, fresh food and Robusta coffee. Smallscale alluvial gold mining occurs north of Maprik and provides some income to a small number of people.

Population

Agriculture in most parts of the district is characterised by low intensity yam cultivation. There are 2–3 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of around 15 years, and production is maintained by management practices such as soil retention barriers and mulching. South of Maprik, people cultivate low intensity banana and yam gardens, while those in the Parchee Valley make high intensity yam gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 60 per cent of children were stunted and eight per cent were seriously under weight.

According to the measures used in this handbook, there is little agricultural pressure in the district. However, tall woody fallow vegetation is giving way to tall grass and scrub in the area around Maprik, which suggests that land degradation is occurring. There is potential for agricultural development in the hills north and west of Maprik, and in the upper Amogu Valley, given the high to very high land potential and reasonable access to markets. However, land shortages caused by very high population densities around Maprik may be a constraint. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. Robusta coffee is also well established, but prices are low compared to other cash crops.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 53 000. The district is characterised by high population densities. Highest densities occur in the narrow Parchee Valley, south of Maprik, where there are 175 persons/km2. The foothills around Maprik town have 92 persons/km2, while the southern part of the district supports 60 persons/km2. The Torricelli Range has low densities of 14 persons/km2.

Access to services Most people are within four hours’ travel of Maprik, a small but important market and service centre. People in the Torricelli Range require more than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. The Sepik Highway runs through the north of the district. A highway standard road connects Maprik with Pagwi on the Sepik River. A well-developed network of rural roads link villages in the Maprik area. East Sepik Province 216

ANUA001 layout new



216

Airstrips: 1


Land potential The land potential in the Torricelli foothills around Maprik, and in the upper Amogu Valley is high to very high with no constraints. Here, soil retention barriers and mulching are used to improve potential. The floodplains of the Parchee River and its tributaries have high potential constrained by seasonal flooding, while the surrounding plains have low to moderate potential limited by poor soils and seasonal flooding. The Torricelli Range has low to moderate potential caused by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.



Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the floodplains of the Parchee River and along its tributaries. Here, incomes are very low, population densities are very high and land is scarce, which restricts the planting of cocoa and coffee. Overall, people in Maprik District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure on land, but this is being off-set to some extent by continuing out-migration. Land potential is high, access to services is good and incomes are moderate. Child malnutrition is of concern.




13/11/01, 12:33 PM

Access to services

Land potential

People around Wewak and on the inshore islands are within four hours’ travel of Wewak. Those in the Prince Alexander Range, on the coastal plains and on the Schouten Islands require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Wewak. There is a reasonable quality road along the coast to Aitape, but rivers are unbridged and the crossings are subject to flooding. Another road runs east from Wewak to Terebu. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in the coastal areas.

The land potential in the hills inland of Kaup is high with no constraints. The coastal plains and hills have moderate potential constrained by seasonal flooding or steep slopes, while the Prince Alexander Range has low to moderate potential limited by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The inshore islands have moderate potential caused by steep slopes and poor soils, while the Schouten Islands have moderate to high potential with similar constraints.

Income


Population

On the Schouten Islands, moderate incomes are derived from the sale of copra, fish and fresh food. People in the rest of the district earn very low to low incomes from minor sales of cocoa, fresh food and Robusta coffee on the Prince Alexander Range; and cocoa, fish and fresh food on the coastal plains and inshore islands. There is wage employment in Wewak and remittances are sent back to families in rural areas. Wewak has a large and important market which is used by sellers from all parts of the province.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the hills inland of Kaup given the high land potential and reasonable access to markets. The coastal plains and hills also have potential for agricultural development given the moderate land potential and good access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cashearning activities in these areas.


The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on Kairiru, Muschu, Walis, Yuo, Keresau and Tarawai islands who earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Wewak District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts in PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 30 000. The highest population densities are on the Schouten Islands with 60 persons/km2, while the inshore islands have 38 persons/km2. The Prince Alexander Range and the coastal plains have densities of 14 persons/km2. People from both East Sepik and Sandaun provinces migrate to the periurban areas of Wewak in search of better access to services and wage employment.


ANUA001 layout new


217

Airstrips: 2







East Sepik Province

Sago is the most important food in the district and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation of taro, banana and Chinese taro. People on the Schouten Islands cultivate low intensity banana gardens with cassava, sweet potato, taro and yam as other important crops. Sago and coconut are also important foods. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 32 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

Wewak District

Wewak District is located in the north of the province and covers the northern side of the Prince Alexander Range, the coastal plains and hills between the Sandaun border and Kaup, and the coastal islands. The inshore islands of Kairiru, Muschu, Walis, Yuo, Keresau and Tarawai are close to Wewak, while the Schouten Islands (Vakeo, Koil, Wei, Blup Blup, Kadova and Bam) are between 60 and 130 km from Wewak. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2100 mm, with a moderate to long dry season in the east. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1200 m on the Prince Alexander Range.

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Wosera-Gaui District

Wosera-Gaui District covers the Torricelli foothills around the Amogu and Nanu rivers south of Maprik, the plains and swamps of the Sepik Valley, the Hunstein Range, and the northern fall of the Central Range. Average annual rainfall ranges from 1900 mm in the inland hills, to over 4000 mm in the Central Range. Altitude varies from 20 m in the Sepik Valley, to over 3000 m on the Central Range.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 46 000. The highest population density is on the floodplain of the Amogu River with 175 persons/km2. In the foothills to the west of the Amogu River, densities are 127 persons/km2. The Sepik Valley has 14 persons/km2, while the northern fall of the Central Range has very low densities of one person/km2. The Sepik Valley and northern fall of the Central Range are largely unoccupied. There is significant out-migration from the Sepik Valley to Lae and Madang, and from the Wosera area to Lae and Hoskins. If the Hoskins settlers return, serious land problems will occur.

Access to services

East Sepik Province 218

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People in the Torricelli foothills live within four hours’ travel of the nearest service centre. Those in the Sepik Valley require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while people in the northern fall of the Central Range are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. The Sepik Highway runs north of the district border, from Maprik to Dreikikir, and connects to a network of rural roads that cover most areas in the inland hills. There is a good road from



218

Airstrips: 8

Maprik to Pagwi, on the Sepik River. The river communities travel to Pagwi by canoe and boat, and on to Maprik and Wewak by road.

Central Range has very low to low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Income


On the floodplain of the Amogu River, moderate incomes are derived from the sale of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. People in the remainder of the district earn very low to low incomes from minor sales of cocoa and Robusta coffee in the hills, and betel nut, fish and cocoa in the Sepik Valley.

According to the measures used in this handbook, there is little agricultural pressure in the district. However, the presence of degraded fallow vegetation in the Wosera hills indicates that there may some land degradation in the area. This, together with land shortages and very high population densities, are constraints to development. However, some potential exists for agricultural development in the Amogu Valley and nearby hills, given the high to very high land potential and reasonable access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities in this area. Robusta coffee is also well established, but prices are low compared to other cash crops.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the Amogu River floodplain is characterised by high intensity yam cultivation. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before fallow periods of 1–4 years. Production is maintained though the use of drainage and mounding. People in the hills west of the Amogu River cultivate low intensity yam gardens. Sago is the most important food in the Sepik Valley and on the northern fall of the Central Range, supplemented by low intensity mixed staple or taro gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 52 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the Amogu Valley and nearby hills is high to very high with no constraints. The lower Amogu Valley has moderate potential constrained by poor soils and seasonal flooding, while the Sepik Valley has low potential limited by poor soils, long-term seasonal inundation and high rainfall in the south. The northern fall of the

Major roads (km): 0


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small populations in the Korosameri, Salumei and April valleys, on the fringe of the Central Range, who have poor access to services, earn very low incomes and live in a low potential environment. These people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Large numbers of people in the hills, west of the Amogu River, earn very low incomes. Overall, people in WoseraGaui District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure on land, but this is being off-set by continuing high out-migration. Land potential is high, access to services is good and cash incomes are low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 42 000. The highest population densities occur around Yangoru and on the floodplains of the Atilem River with 60 persons/km2. In the hills around Nangumaru, densities are 45 persons/km2, while the Nangam Valley and floodplains of the Hambili, Pasik, Mindjim, Nagam and Yemogu rivers have 14 persons/km2. Much of the southern half of the district is unoccupied.

Access to services


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Land potential

In the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range, around Yangoru, moderate incomes are derived from the sale of cocoa and fresh food. People in the rest of the district earn very low to low incomes from minor sales of cocoa, fresh food and Robusta coffee.

The land potential in the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range, around Yangoru, is high to very high with no constraints. The remaining foothill areas and the Prince Alexander Range have moderate to high potential constrained by steep slopes. Soil retention barriers reduce soil erosion and increase land potential. The Nangam Valley and floodplains of the Hambili, Pasik, Mindjim, Nagam and Yemogu rivers have moderate to high potential limited by poor soils, while the surrounding plains have low potential caused by poor soils.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range and on the floodplains of the Atilem River is characterised by low intensity taro and yam cultivation. People typically make two consecutive plantings before fallow periods of 5–15 years. Production is supported by land improvement practices such as soil retention barriers. West of Yangoru, people cultivate low intensity banana and yam gardens. Sago is the main food in the Nangam Valley and on the floodplains of the Hambili, Pasik, Mindjim, Nagam and Yemogu rivers and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 40 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were seriously under weight.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is marginal agricultural pressure in the foothills around Nangumaru and on the floodplain of the Atilem River. There is potential for agricultural development in the Prince Alexander foothills, between Yangoru and Muniwara, given the high to very high land potential and good access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the area. Robusta coffee is also well established, but prices are low compared to other cash crops.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range, around Yarabung and Nangumaru, who earn very low incomes. Overall, people in YangoruSaussia District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is good and cash incomes are low.






East Sepik Province

People in the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range, between Yangoru and Nangumaru, and those on the floodplains of the Atilem River are within four hours’ travel of Wewak. People in the Nangam Valley and on the floodplains of the Hambili, Pasik, Mindjim, Nagam and Yemogu rivers require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Wewak. The Sepik Highway runs through the north of the district and connects to a network of roads that cover most inhabited areas. The highway is sealed from Wewak to near the eastern border of the district.

Income

Yangoru-Saussia District

Yangoru-Saussia District is located in the central north of the province, on the southern side of the Prince Alexander Range. It covers the foothills of the Prince Alexander Range, the Nagam Valley, and the floodplains and plains of the Atilem, Hambili, Pasik, Mindjim, Nagam and Yemogu rivers, all of which flow into the Sepik River. Average annual rainfall ranges between 1800 and 2000 mm, with a moderate to long dry season in the east. Altitude varies from 30 m in the lower Atilem Valley, to over 1000 m on the Prince Alexander Range.

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Sandaun Province

Landscape in the Tekin Basin with planted casuarina fallows. This image shows planted casuarina fallows, which maintain soil fertility, in the Tekin Basin near Oksapmin. People in Telefomin District are amongst the most disadvantaged in the country. Environments have low potential for agriculture with numerous constraints, child malnutrition is serious, people earn very low incomes and many must travel for long distances to reach service centres. Other than some potential to sell fresh food to the Ok Tedi mining community in nearby Western Province, people have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods.

A four-wheel drive vehicle bogged on a poor quality road. While the coastal areas and inland hills of Sandaun Province have a good network of roads, poor road quality is a major constraint to development in other areas of the province. There are often limited funds for maintenance and some roads become impassable after extended periods of wet weather. Some roads in the province are constructed and maintained by logging companies and deteriorate once logging activities finish.

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Introduction Vanimo

Border Mountains

Nem ay e r V

a ll

ll Hi e rra Bewa S ni Mo untain s AITAPE-

s

Bewani

nge

ey

Oena ke R a

LUMI To r r i ce lli M

Imonda

VANIMOGREEN RIVER Amanab

Green River

Aitape

Lumi

Guraiso

Yellow River

o u ntain s

Torric elli fo othil ls

Nuku

NUKU

Sepik Valley

Occupied land Unoccupied land Major roads Minor roads/tracks Yapsiei uppe r Sep ik Va lley Tumolbil

District boundaries District boundaries TELEFOMIN Mianmin

Star Mou ntain s

Kilometres 0

Telefomin

25

50

100

Oksapmin

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Sandaun Province

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Sandaun occupies 36 000 km2 in the northwest of PNG. The province runs from the northwest coast to the main divide of PNG and covers a diverse range of environments. Plains, floodplains, swamps and hills dominate the north coast. The northwest of the province includes the Oenake Range behind Vanimo, the plains of the Puwari and Nemayer rivers, the Serra Hills and the Bewani Mountains. The northeast of the province includes the plains of the Arnold and Yalingi rivers, the Torricelli Range and the southern Torricelli foothills. The centre of the province is dominated by the plains and floodplains of the Sepik Valley including the Sepik River itself and the Nambilo, Wagasu, Nopan, Wagana, Yellow, North, Horden, Green and Yapsiei rivers. The Border Mountains lie along the border with the Indonesian province of Irian Jaya. The Telefomin area, in the south of the province, is remote and rugged and covers the headwaters of the Sepik River and mountains of the West, Thurnwald, Fiamolu, Star and Victor Emanuel ranges. Altitude varies from sea level to over 4000 m in the Star Mountains. Average annual rainfall varies from 2000 mm near Aitape, to over 4000 mm in the upper Sepik Valley near Yapsiei. There is a moderate dry season in the northeast of the province. The four districts in Sandaun are Aitape-Lumi, Nuku, Telefomin and Vanimo-Green River.

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Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000

Amanab

Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Green River

Yellow River

Vanimo-Green River

VANIMOGREEN RIVER

Telefomin

AITAPELUMI

Imonda

Nuku

Aitape Aitape-Lumi

The estimated rural population of Sandaun in the year 2000 is 151 000, which is four per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 1.8 per cent per year. The highest population density is in the Tekin Basin, west of Oksapmin, where there are 98 persons/km2. The area south of Telefomin and the coastal areas around Vanimo have an average density of 80 persons/km2. The Aitape coastal plains, Torricelli foothills and Oksapmin area have moderate densities of 23 persons/km2, while the remaining areas in the province have low densities of 10 persons/km2. Approximately half of the province is unoccupied. There is significant in-migration into the Torricelli foothills, while the Ok Om Valley, north of Oksapmin, has significant outmigration.

NUKU Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries

Yapsiei

TELEFOMIN Tumolbil Mianmin Kilometres 0

Telefomin

25

50

100

Oksapmin


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40 000 Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000

Amanab

Lumi

Guraiso Nuku Yellow River

Green River

NUKU

Vanimo-Green River

VANIMOGREEN RIVER

Telefomin

Imonda

Aitape-Lumi

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land Major roads Minor roads/tracks

Yapsiei

District boundaries TELEFOMIN

District boundaries

Tumolbil

Airstrip

Mianmin

Kilometres

Telefomin Oksapmin

25

50

100


224

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0

224

The Sepik Highway connects Lumi, Nuku and other areas in the Torricelli foothills to Maprik and Wewak in East Sepik Province, but not to the provincial headquarters at Vanimo. Aitape is also connected to Wewak, but not Vanimo, via the Coastal Highway. There is a good road that runs from Vanimo along the coast to the border with Irian Jaya and continues on to Jayapura. There is also a road of lesser quality that runs inland from Vanimo to Bewani. A road network from logging operations is developing in the Nemayer plains and Serra Hills to the east of Vanimo. A road from Aitape through the Torricelli Range to Lumi is almost complete but progress on the final section is sporadic. There are no roads to Telefomin or Oksapmin, in the southern mountains, and these areas are only accessible by expensive air travel. Most people on the Vanimo Coast can travel to Vanimo in under one hour. Those in the Torricelli foothills, the Aitape Coast, Border Mountains, Bewani Range, Nemayer plains and Serra Hills require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. Most other people in the province are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

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Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000


Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Green River

Yellow River

Vanimo-Green River

Imonda

Telefomin

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape Aitape-Lumi

Rural people in Sandaun are the poorest in PNG. People around Vanimo earn low incomes from sales of fresh food and betel nut. People around Oksapmin and Telefomin earn low incomes from sales of fresh food to the Ok Tedi mine in Western Province. Many people in the Telefomin area also receive remittances from relatives who are working at the mine. People in the Torricelli foothills have very low incomes which are derived from minor sales of cocoa and Robusta coffee. Smallholder cocoa production is increasing around Lumi but regular purchasing is prevented by poor road conditions and occasional periods of criminal activity along the Sepik Highway. All other people in the province are very poor and derive very low incomes from sales of fresh food, rubber or fish. Some income is derived from wage employment and royalties provided by forestry operations near Vanimo and Aitape.

NUKU Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Yapsiei


Tumolbil Mianmin Kilometres Telefomin

0

25

50

100

Oksapmin


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40 000 Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000

Amanab

Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Yellow River

Green River

Vanimo-Green River

VANIMOGREEN RIVER

Telefomin

Imonda

Aitape-Lumi

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape

NUKU

Sago is the most important food in the lowlands of the province and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. There is one planting before a fallow period of more than 15 years. On the coastal plains around Vanimo, people cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. Here, coconut is an important food. People in the southern mountains cultivate low intensity taro gardens, while those around Oksapmin make low intensity sweet potato gardens. Land management practices that improve productivity are not widely used in the province.

Low intensity mixed staple gardens Sago with low intensity mixed staple gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens Low intensity taro gardens Low intensity yam gardens Unoccupied land District boundaries

Yapsiei

District boundaries

TELEFOMIN Tumolbil Mianmin

Kilometres Telefomin 0

25

50

100

Oksapmin


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Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000


Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Green River

Yellow River

NUKU

Vanimo-Green River

Imonda

Telefomin

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape Aitape-Lumi

The land potential is high to very high in the Torricelli foothills, Bewani foothills and Oenake Range, where there are few limitations. The Torricelli Range has low to moderate potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The coastal plains have moderate to high potential limited by poor soils and frequent flooding. The Serra Hills and Border Mountains have high potential constrained by steep slopes, while the Sepik Valley has low potential due to poor soils, high rainfall and frequent inundation. The southern mountains have low potential caused by steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover, while the Tekin, Ok Om and Strickland valleys have very low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes, frequent cloud and high rainfall.

Very high potential High potential Moderate potential Low potential Very low potential Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries

Yapsiei

TELEFOMIN Tumolbil Mianmin Kilometres Telefomin 0

25

50

100

Oksapmin


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40 000 Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000

Amanab

Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Yellow River

Green River

NUKU

Vanimo-Green River

VANIMOGREEN RIVER

Telefomin

Imonda

Aitape-Lumi

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land

Yapsiei


District boundaries

Tumolbil Mianmin

Kilometres

Telefomin Oksapmin

25

50

100


228

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0

There is no agricultural pressure on land in the province. There is potential for agricultural development in the Torricelli foothills given the high to very high land potential and reasonable access to markets in Wewak. Further road development through the Torricelli foothills, regular road maintenance along the Sepik Highway and new roads from Lumi to Aitape are necessary to realise the full potential of the area. There is also some potential for agricultural development on the Oenake Range and in the Serra Hills given the high land potential and reasonable access to Vanimo, which may improve if planned road developments take place. The Bewani foothills and Border Mountains have moderate to high land potential but there is poor access to markets. There is potential for expansion of the smallholder cocoa industry in the province, given the active extension activities and the recent development of solar driers. Fresh food and betel nut are also established smallholder cash-earning activities.

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Vanimo

Bewani

30 000 20 000 10 000


Lumi

Guraiso Nuku

Green River

Yellow River

Vanimo-Green River

Imonda

Telefomin

AITAPELUMI

Nuku

Aitape Aitape-Lumi

Most people in Sandaun are strongly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. The most disadvantaged people in the province live in the southern mountains in places such as Telefomin, Mianmin, Tumolbil and Yapsiei. In these areas, large numbers of people are constrained by low potential environments, very low incomes and poor access to services. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Smaller numbers of people in the Sepik Valley around Idam, Green River, Kwomtari, Guriaso, Yellow River, Yilui and Wokiem have similar problems. People in the Oksapmin area earn very low incomes and live in a low potential environment. Most other people in the province earn very low incomes.

NUKU Poor environment, very low income, poor access Very low income, poor access Poor environment, very low income Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Yapsiei

District boundaries

TELEFOMIN Tumolbil Mianmin

Kilometres Telefomin Oksapmin


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229

0

25

50

100

229

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Aitape-Lumi District

Aitape-Lumi District is in the north of Sandaun and covers parts of the Sepik Valley, Torricelli foothills, Torricelli Ranges and coastal plains and hills. The coastal plains and hills extend from Sissano in the west to the border with East Sepik Province. The coastal plains are dissected by the floodplains of the Arnold, Yalingi, Rainu, Nigla, Harech and Danop rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2000 and 2700 mm, increasing from east to west. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1500 m on the Torricelli Range.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 39 000. The population density in the Torricelli foothills and coastal plains is 23 persons/km2, while the far south of the district has only 3 persons/km2. The area around Lumi has significant in-migration, with the population of the Somoro census division increasing by five per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

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The Sepik Highway connects Lumi and other areas in the Torricelli foothills to Maprik and Wewak, but not to the provincial headquarters at Vanimo. The Sepik Highway is poorly maintained and often closed between Lumi and Maprik after extended rainfall. Periodic criminal activity between Maprik and Wewak also inhibits travel. A road along the coast connects Aitape to Wewak, but it is often closed by flooded river crossings. A road from Aitape to Lumi is almost completed but work on it has ceased. A plan exists to connect Aitape to Vanimo through the Serra Hills. Aitape Harbour is not protected from the northwest winds and



230

Airstrips: 5

swell during the wet season. People in the Torricelli foothills and coastal plains require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the far south are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Income Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. Cocoa production is increasing in the Torricelli foothills. Small numbers of people receive wages and royalties from the Damansara forestry and oil palm project which is inland of Aitape.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sago is the most important food in the district. Coconut is also an important food. People in most areas cultivate supplementary low intensity mixed staple gardens, with one planting followed by a fallow period of more than 15 years. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 35 per cent of children were stunted and 10 per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the Torricelli foothills around Lumi is high, but is limited by steep slopes in some places. The plains and hills inland of Aitape have high land potential limited by seasonal flooding in low-lying areas. The eastern extent of the Serra Hills has high potential constrained by steep slopes, while the coastal plains and floodplains have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and seasonal flooding.



Agricultural pressure and potential There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the Torricelli foothills given the high land potential and reasonable access to markets. Further road development through the Torricelli foothills, regular road maintenance along the Sepik Highway and the new road from Lumi to Aitape are necessary to realise the full potential of the area. Cocoa production is a developing smallholder cash-earning activity and Robusta coffee is well established, but prices for the latter are low compared to other cash crops. The high potential land south of Aitape is the site of the Damansara forestry and oil palm project. Other areas around Aitape have potential for agricultural development given the moderate to high potential land and access to the ports at Aitape and Wewak.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the far south around Kwieftim and Wokien who have poor access to services and very low incomes. Most other people in the district earn very low incomes. Overall, people in AitapeLumi District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 42 000. The population density in the Torricelli foothills is 23 persons/km2, while the far south of the district has only 3 persons/km2.

Access to services The Sepik Highway connects Nuku to Maprik and Wewak, but not to the provincial headquarters at Vanimo. The road is poorly maintained and often closed between Lumi and Maprik after extended rainfall. Periodic criminal activity between Maprik and Wewak also inhibits travel. A road from Aitape to Nuku is almost complete, but work on it is sporadic. A poorly maintained road runs south from Nuku. People in the Torricelli foothills require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the far south are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Income


Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of cocoa, Robusta coffee and fresh food. Cocoa production is increasing in the Torricelli foothills.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the Torricelli foothills given the high land potential and reasonable access to markets. Further road development through the Torricelli foothills, regular road maintenance along the Sepik Highway and the new road to Aitape are necessary to realise the full potential of the area. Cocoa production is a developing smallholder cash-earning activity and Robusta coffee is well established, but prices for the latter are low compared to other cash crops.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sago is the most important food in the district. Coconut is also an important food. People in most areas also cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens with one planting before a fallow period of more than 15 years. East of Nuku, people make low intensity yam gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as very serious; 68 per cent of children were stunted and eight per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the Torricelli foothills around Nuku, Anguganak, Mukili, Mai and Ningil is high with no major limitations. The Sepik Valley, in the far south of the district, has low potential because of poor soils and long-term inundation. The Torricelli Range has low to moderate potential limited by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Nuku District

Nuku District covers the Torricelli Range, the Torricelli foothills and the northern side of the Sepik Valley including the Nopan, Wagasu and Nambilo rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2100 and 3000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 50 m in the lower Wagasu floodplain, to over 1300 m on the Torricelli Range.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the far south around Warasai and Nabadua who are constrained by poor access to services, very low incomes and low potential environments. Most other people in the district earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Nuku District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of serious concern.

Sandaun Province


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Telefomin District

Telefomin District covers the Torricelli foothills, the headwaters of the Sepik River and mountains of the West, Thurnwald, Fiamolu, Star and Victor Emanuel ranges. Its shape, size and lack of transport infrastructure place severe limits on administration and the delivery of services. The Tekin and Ok Om rivers join the upper Strickland River that runs along the southeast border with Southern Highlands. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2700 and 4000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from 50 m near Yellow River, to over 4000 m in the Star Mountains.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. The highest population density is in the Tekin Valley, west of Oksapmin where there are 98 persons/km2. A small area south of Telefomin has 74 persons/km2. The southern mountains have 11 persons/km2, while the Sepik Valley has very low densities of 3 persons/km2. Over half of the district is unoccupied. The area north of Oksapmin has significant out-migration with the population of the Om River census division decreasing by 2.1 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

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People living near Oksapmin and Telefomin can reach the nearest service centre in a few hours, while those in the southern mountains and Sepik Valley are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. There are few roads in the district. Canoe travel is common on the lowland part of the Sepik River and its tributaries.



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Income


Incomes are low around Oksapmin and Telefomin, and are derived from the sale of fresh food to the Ok Tedi mine in Western Province. Some people in these areas also receive remittances from relatives working at the mine. All other people in the district have very low incomes and have few cash-earning activities.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is some potential for agricultural development in the Tekin Valley where people grow fresh vegetables for the Ok Tedi mine. There is little potential elsewhere in the district.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sago is the most important food in the lowland part of the Sepik Valley and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. People in the southern mountains cultivate low intensity taro gardens, while those around Oksapmin make low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 66 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential in the lowland part of the Sepik Valley is low to moderate and is limited by poor soils, high rainfall and frequent flooding. The southern mountains have low potential caused by steep slopes, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover, while the Tekin, Ok Om and Strickland valleys have low to moderate potential limited by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Major roads (km): 0


Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the large numbers in the southern mountains around Telefomin, Mianmin, Tumolbil and Yapsiei who earn very low incomes, have poor access to services and live in low potential environments. They have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Smaller numbers of people in the lowland part of the Sepik Valley around Yilui, Yellow River, Wokikori and Idam have similar constraints. People in the Oksapmin area are constrained by very low incomes and low potential environments. Overall, people in Telefomin District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is very poor and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.




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Income


Incomes are low on the Vanimo coastal plains and are derived from the sale of betel nut and fresh food. People in the remainder of the district earn very low incomes from minor sales of betel nut, fresh food, rubber and tobacco. Limited numbers of people receive wages and royalties from forestry operations in the Oenake Range, Nemayer flooplains and Serra Hills. Small numbers of people import and sell goods from Jayapura in Irian Jaya.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the Oenake Range and Serra Hills given the high to very high land potential and reasonable access to markets in Vanimo. The Bewani foothills and Border Mountains have high potential land but poor access to markets. Cocoa, fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Population



The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 35 000. The highest population densities occur on the coastal plains around Vanimo where there are 84 persons/km2. The Oenake Range, Serra Hills, Bewani plains and Border Mountains have 14 persons/km2, while the far southeast of the district has very low densities of 3 persons/km2. Over half of the district is unoccupied.

Sago is the most important food in the district and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. There is one planting before a fallow period of more than 15 years. People on the coastal plains around Vanimo cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. In this area, sago and coconut are also important foods. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 43 per cent of children were stunted and nine per cent were seriously under weight.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the far southeast of the province around Green River, Kwomtari and Guriaso where access to services is poor, incomes are very low, and in some places, there are low potential environments. Most other people in the district earn very low incomes. Overall, people in Vanimo-Green River District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern.

Access to services


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233

Airstrips: 14

Land potential Land potential in the Oenake Range, Serra Hills, Bewani foothills and Border Mountains is high to very high but is limited in places by steep slopes. The Bewani plains, Nemayer floodplains, Vanimo coastal plains and the far southeast of the province have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and frequent flooding. The Bewani Mountains have low potential as a result of steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.




Sandaun Province

People on the Vanimo coastal plains require less than one hour’s travel to reach Vanimo. Those in the Oenake Range, Serra Hills, Bewani plains and Border Mountains require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the far southeast are very remote and require more than one day’s travel. There is a good road from Vanimo to the border with Irian Jaya, which continues on to Jayapura, and a road of lesser quality that runs inland to Bewani. Forestry roads extend through the Nemayer floodplains and Serra Hills and are planned to connect with roads from Aitape.

Vanimo-Green River District

Vanimo-Green River District is in the northwest of Sandaun and covers the Vanimo Coast, Oenake Range, floodplains of the Nemayer River, Bewani plains, Serra Hills, Bewani Mountains and Border Mountains. The southeast of the district covers the Wuro, North, Horden, Senu and Faringi rivers, which are tributaries of the Sepik River. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2400 and 3600 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1500 m in the Bewani Mountains.



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Manus Province

Small tubers affected by low soil fertility. High population densities in poor environments have resulted in strong agricultural pressure on some small islands in the province. People do not use land improvement practices to maintain crop productivity, and this has resulted in soil fertility decline and reduced crop yields. On several of the very small islands in the province, agriculture is limited and people depend on trade to survive, exchanging fish and coconuts for sago and garden produce.

Fish for sale in the Lorengau market. The sale of fish and other marine produce is an important smallholder cash-earning activity in the province, especially for people living on the very small islands north, west and south of Manus Island. Other sources of income include fresh food, betel nut and copra. There are a large number of well-educated Manus people who live and work elsewhere in PNG. Overall, cash remittances probably contribute more to annual incomes than any of the agricultural commodities.

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Introduction Occupied land

Diagrammatic Insets (2)

2

Unoccupied land

1

Major roads Minor roads/tracks Ava-Wuvulu Islands

Ninigo Group

Anchorite (Kaniet Islands)

Hermit Islands


Kilometres 0

25

100

50

Ponam Is. Andra Is. Hus Is.

Ahet Is.

Inset 1 Oneta Is. Hawei Is.

Ndrilo Is.

Pityilu Los Negros Is. Lorengau Sisi Is.

Momote

Manus Is.

Bipi Is.

Pak Is.

Tong Is.

MANUS Horno Is.

Ndrowa Is. Tilianu Is.

Rambutyo

Mbuke Is. Lou Is.

Pam Is. Baluan Is.

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Manus Province

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Manus comprises approximately 2000 km2 of islands in the far north of PNG. It is the smallest province in the country, both in land area and population. Manus Island is the largest island in the province and is dominated by hills and the mountain peaks of Mt Dremsel, Mt Tapalow and Mt Chayer. The coastal areas include limestone plains, swamps and the floodplains of the Lauis, Warei, Malai, Uganda, Kauwa, Drangoi and Tingau rivers. There is a causeway between Los Negros and Manus islands that connects the provincial airport at Momote to Lorengau. Rambutyo, Lou and Baluan islands, southeast of Manus Island, have mountainous interiors surrounded by narrow limestone plains. Most of the remaining islands in the province are small raised coral limestone plains, located close to Manus Island. Four groups of islands, however, are distant from Manus Island. The Aua-Wuvulu Islands are about 400 km to the west, the Ninigo Group is 280 km to the west, the Hermit Islands are 170 km to the west, and the Kaniet Islands are 200 km to the northwest of Manus Island. Altitude in the province varies from sea level to over 700 m on Mt Dremsel. Most people live near sea level. Average annual rainfall is 3500 mm on most islands. There is only one district in the province, also named Manus.

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Population

Number of people

Diagrammatic Insets

Ava-Wuvulu Islands

Ninigo Group


Low density (1–20 persons/km2) 30 000


20 000


10 000


Hermit Islands

District boundaries Manus

The estimated rural population of Manus in the year 2000 is 37 000, which is one per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is high at three per cent per annum. The highest population densities are on the small islands off the north coast of Manus (Harengan, Arowe, Sori, Ponam, Andra, Hus, Oneta, Pityilu, Hawei and Ndrilo islands) and off the south coast (Mbuke, Johnston, Ndrova and Tilianu islands) where there is an average of 500 persons/km2. Bipi, Sisi and Pahi islands to the west of Manus have densities of 250 persons/km2, while Baluan, Pam and Nauna islands to the south have 125 persons/km2. The remote AuaWuvulu, Ninigo, Hermit and Kaniet island groups have densities of 65 persons/km2, while Rambutyo, Tong, Pak and Los Negros islands to the east of Manus have 25 persons/km2. Manus Island itself has relatively low densities of 25 persons/km2 in the east and 7 persons/km2 in the west and contains the majority of the provincial population.

Kilometres 0

25

50

237

100

Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

MANUS


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District boundaries

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Diagrammatic Insets

Ninigo Group


Hermit Islands


20 000


10 000


Manus

Ava-Wuvulu Islands

4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 30 000


Kilometres 0

25

50


Airstrip

Inset 1

Lorengau

There is a good quality road from Momote airport to Lombrum and Lorengau, and a network of minor roads in the eastern part of Manus Island. However, outboard motor boats and canoes are the most common means of transport in the province. Most people in the province require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Lorengau. People in the Aua-Wuvulu, Ninigo, Hermit and Kaniet island groups are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach Lorengau or Wewak. The Aua-Wuvulu and Ninigo island groups are closer to Wewak in East Sepik Province, than to Lorengau and were previously administered and serviced from Wewak.

Momote

MANUS


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Income Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Number of people

Diagrammatic Insets

Ava-Wuvulu Islands

Ninigo Group


Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) 30 000

Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year)

20 000


10 000

Hermit Islands

Unoccupied land District boundaries Manus

Most people in the province have moderate to high incomes derived from the sale of copra, betel nut, fresh food, fish and cocoa. People closer to markets in Lorengau tend to have higher incomes. People in the Aua-Wuvulu, Ninigo, Hermit and Kaniet island groups earn low incomes from minor sales of copra. The major source of non-agricultural income in the province is remittances from relatives working in urban centres elsewhere in PNG. People from Manus Province have a long history of gaining advanced education, working elsewhere and sending money home.

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

MANUS


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239

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Subsistence agriculture Low intensity mixed staple gardens Number of people

Low intensity cassava/sweet potato gardens Diagrammatic Insets

Ninigo Group


Hermit Islands

Sago with high intensity mixed staple gardens

20 000


10 000

Moderate intensity sweet potato/yam gardens Unoccupied land District boundaries

Manus

Ava-Wuvulu Islands


30 000

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

MANUS


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Sago is the most important food on Manus Island and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. On Bipi, Sisi and Pahi islands, people cultivate high intensity mixed staple gardens. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. People on most other islands in the province make low intensity mixed staple or sweet potato gardens. There is minimal agriculture on the small islands off the immediate north and south coasts of Manus Island where there are very high population densities. Livelihoods are mostly based on fishing and trading, though in areas where there is access to land some people cultivate gardens close to their houses. Coconut is an important food in the entire province. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 30 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

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Land potential Number of people

Diagrammatic Insets

Ava-Wuvulu Islands

Ninigo Group


30 000

Very high potential

20 000

High potential 10 000

Hermit Islands

Moderate potential Low potential Manus

The land potential is high to very high on Los Negros, Lou, Baluan and Horno islands. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. The central and eastern hills of Manus Island have moderate potential constrained by high rainfall. Most of the smaller islands have moderate to high potential limited by high rainfall and poor soils that are prone to rapid fertility decline. The northern and western hills of Manus Island have low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils and high rainfall. Swamp areas on the floodplains of the Uganda and Kauwa rivers have very low potential.


Kilometres


25

50

100

Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

MANUS


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241

241

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Very strong agricultural pressure Diagrammatic Insets

Ninigo Group


Hermit Islands

Moderate agricultural pressure 20 000


10 000

High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land

Manus

Ava-Wuvulu Islands


30 000


Kilometres 0

25

50


Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

There is very strong agricultural pressure on Bipi, Sisi and Pahi islands resulting from intensive agriculture being practised in poor to moderate environments. These areas are prone to declining crop yields and food shortages. There is potential for agricultural development on the central and eastern hills of Manus Island where there is moderate potential land, low population densities and good access to markets. Cocoa, copra, betel nut and fresh food are established cash-earning activities. Most islands with high and very high land potential, perhaps with the exception of Lou Island, are unsuitable for agricultural development because of existing land shortages.

MANUS


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Disadvantaged people Number of people

Diagrammatic Insets

Ava-Wuvulu Islands

Ninigo Group


Moderate pressure 20 000

243

Poor environment Poor access

10 000

Hermit Islands

Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Inset 1

Lorengau

Momote

MANUS


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Strong pressure

30 000

Manus

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Aua-Wuvulu, Ninigo, Hermit and Kaniet island groups where access to services is poor. Small numbers of people on Bipi, Sisi and Pahi islands are constrained by very strong agricultural pressure and are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. In the east of Manus Island, people live in low potential environments. Those on Harengan, Arowe, Sori, Ponam, Andra, Hus, Oneta, Pityilu, Hawei, Ndrilo, Mbuke, Johnston, Ndrova, Tilianu, Baluan, Pam and Nauna islands are disadvantaged by very high population densities, which lead to land shortages. Overall, people in Manus District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are moderate.

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New Ireland Province

Children walk through a large coconut plantation. Copra production is an important smallholder cash-earning activity in New Ireland. Other significant sources of income in the province include fresh food, fish and royalties from the Lihir gold mine. Throughout PNG, the copra industry has declined over the past decade due to high shipping costs, low returns on labour and the re-allocation of resources to other cash-earning activities, particularly betel nut, cocoa and oil palm.

A road on New Ireland made from coralline materials. There is a network of good quality roads on most of New Ireland, largely because of an abundance of coralline road building material. These roads provide reliable access to services and markets. There are some roads on the smaller islands in the province, but few vehicles.

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Introduction

ds an Isl st Ea

Lavongai Is. Taskul

Kavieng

Tingwon Is.

KAVIENG

Tabar Islands

Inset 1 Saint Matthias Islands

Dyaul Is. Mussau Is.

KAVIENG

Emirau Is.

Lihir Group

Sc Konos hle ini tz Ra ng e Lelet Plateau

Tanga Islands Namatanai Kilometres 0

25

50

NAMATANAI 100

Ha n Ra s M ng ey e e

r

Occupied land

Anir Islands


Karias

Minor roads/tracks

n rro Ve

Silur

e ng Ra


Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — New Ireland Province

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246

New Ireland is in the northeast of PNG and consists of 9600 km2 of small island groups and the main island of New Ireland. The outer edge of the island of New Ireland is made up of narrow coastal limestone plains, floodplains and hills. The north of the island is dominated by the plains and floodplains of Balgai Bay and the mountains of the Schleinitz Range that extend from Kaut in the north to the Lelet Plateau in the middle of the island. The narrow northern part of the island, between Karu Bay and Namatanai, is dominated by low altitude hills. The south of the island is dominated by the high Hans Meyer Range, Verron Range and the valleys of the Kamdaru and Weitin rivers. The islands in the province include East, Tabar, Lihir, Anir and Tanga island groups and the islands of Lavongai, Dyaul and Tingwon. Most of these islands have mountains in the centre of over 500 m, which are surrounded by narrow limestone plains and floodplains. The altitude on New Ireland varies from sea level to over 2000 m in the Hans Meyer and Verron ranges. Most people live between sea level and 300 metres. The highest place where agriculture is practised is on the Lelet Plateau at 1000 metres. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2800 to 3200 mm on New Ireland and Lavongai, with extremes of 3600 mm on the small island groups. An important goldmine is located on Lihir Island. The two districts in New Ireland are Kavieng and Namatanai.

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Population

70 000 60 000

Taskul

Number of people

Kavieng

KAVIENG Inset 1

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000

Namatanai Kilometres 0

25

50

Namatanai

KAVIENG Kavieng

The estimated rural population of New Ireland in the year 2000 is 133 000, which is three per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is very high at four per cent per year. The highest population densities of 162 persons/km2 are on the East Islands, off Lavongai, and on the Tingwon Islands. Mahur and Masahet islands, in the Lihir Group, and Boang Island, in the Tanga Group, have similar densities. The coastal plains of Lavongai, Lihir and Malendok islands and the Anir Islands have moderate densities of 47 persons/km2, while most of New Ireland has 30 persons/km2. All remaining areas in the province have low population densities. Areas around Kavieng and Namatanai have significant in-migration.

NAMATANAI 100

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2)

Karias Silur

Unoccupied land District boundaries District boundaries


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247

247

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Number of people

60 000

Kavieng

Taskul

KAVIENG Inset 1

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


25

50


Major roads


Minor roads/tracks


District boundaries


District boundaries


Airstrip

Namatanai

Kavieng

KAVIENG

NAMATANAI 100

Karias Silur

The Bulominski Highway, constructed almost 100 years ago during the German colonial period, connects Kavieng to Namatanai via the east coast. Many sections are sealed and the unsealed parts have a good gravel surface. There are minor roads in all other coastal areas of New Ireland, but some are now in poor condition. Most of the islands have some road development in coastal areas. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used in coastal areas and between islands. People on New Ireland to the north of Namatanai, those on the coastal areas of Lavongai Island and on Dyaul Island require less than four hours’ travel to Kavieng or Namatanai. People in the far south of New Ireland and in the island groups require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Kavieng or Namatanai. Most of the island groups have at least one airstrip that is serviced by scheduled passenger flights.

Unoccupied land


248

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Income 70 000 60 000

Taskul

Number of people

Kavieng

KAVIENG Inset 1

249

40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


25

50

Namatanai

KAVIENG

NAMATANAI 100

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year)

Karias Silur



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50 000

Kavieng

On most of New Ireland, and on the coastal areas of Lavongai and Dyaul islands, incomes are high and are derived from the sale of copra, cocoa, oil palm, betel nut, fish and fresh food. People on the Lelet Plateau earn high incomes from the sale of fresh food. People in the inland areas of Lavongai Island earn moderate incomes from the sale of betel nut, fresh food and tobacco. Incomes are low in the very south of New Ireland and on the island groups, and are derived from minor sales of cocoa, copra, fish, fresh food and betel nut. Many sources of non-agricultural income exist on the northeast coast of New Ireland. People run small businesses, PMVs and trade stores, and gain wage employment from both businesses and plantations. A limited number of people on the southeast coast receive wages from cocoa and oil palm plantations. People on Lihir Island receive significant income in the form of wages and royalties from the gold mining operations, but the distribution of this income is very restricted.

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70 000

Number of people

60 000

Kavieng

Taskul

KAVIENG Inset 1

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


25

50


Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries


Namatanai

Kavieng

KAVIENG

NAMATANAI 100

Karias

Agriculture in New Ireland Province is relatively diverse. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas. Most people on New Ireland, Mussau Island and in the Anir, Tanga, and Lihir island groups cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, with either yam or taro as co-dominant staples. There are 1–2 plantings before a fallow period of more than 15 years. People on Mali, Masahet and Mahur islands, in the Lihir Group, make moderate intensity mixed staple gardens with two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. People on the Tabar Islands and in the interior of Lavongai Island cultivate low intensity sweet potato and cassava gardens. Sago is the most important food on the coast of Lavongai and Dyaul islands and at Balgai Bay, and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple or sweet potato cultivation.

Silur

Sago with low intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens Low intensity sweet potato/yam gardens


250

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Land potential

70 000 60 000

Taskul

Number of people

Kavieng

KAVIENG Inset 1

251

40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


Very high potential

Very low potential

High potential

Unoccupied land

Moderate potential

District boundaries

Low potential

District boundaries

25

50

Namatanai

KAVIENG


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50 000

Kavieng

Land potential is high to very high on the southeast coastal plains and hills of New Ireland from Karu Bay to Manga. Rainfall, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops, but the limestone soils which are found in the area are prone to rapid fertility decline. The Kaut area has high potential limited by frequent cloud cover, while the coastal plains of the Tabar, Lihir and Anir island groups have high potential constrained by high rainfall. Moderate potential land exists in the northern hills of Lavongai Island, on Dyaul Island and in the inland areas of the Tabar and Anir island groups. The northeast coastal plains, the southeast coastal hills and isolated parts of the west coast of New Ireland also have moderate potential. Common limitations include steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The inland mountains of New Ireland and the island groups have low potential with similar constraints.

NAMATANAI 100

Karias Silur

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70 000

Number of people

60 000

Kavieng

Taskul

KAVIENG Inset 1

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


50




Occupied land


Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries

NAMATANAI 100

Karias Silur


252

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25

Namatanai

Kavieng

KAVIENG

There is moderate agricultural pressure in the hills around Namatanai and on Boang Island in the Tanga Group. There is marginal pressure in the Tabar Islands. Areas of marginal pressure will be of concern if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land management practices. There is potential for agricultural development on the southeast coast of New Ireland, from Karu Bay to Manga, where there is high to very high potential land and good access to markets. In these areas cocoa, copra, betel nut, fresh food and, more recently oil palm, are established smallholder cashearning activities. The Kaut area also has potential for development given the high land potential and close proximity to Kavieng. Copra, cocoa and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the area.

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70 000 60 000

Taskul

Number of people

Kavieng

KAVIENG Inset 1

50 000 40 000 30 000 20 000

Konos

10 000


25

50

Namatanai

KAVIENG Kavieng

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the moderate agricultural pressure areas around Namatanai and on Boang Island. These areas are vulnerable to land degradation and declining crop yields. Large numbers of people in central New Ireland and on Lihir, Lavongai and Mussau islands are limited by low potential environments, while smaller numbers of people on Mali, Masahet and Mahur islands in the Lihir Group, have very low incomes. People in the East Islands and on Tingwon Island are disadvantaged due to land shortages which are caused by very high population densities. People on these islands are also vulnerable to food and water shortages during periods of drought.

NAMATANAI 100

Moderate pressure Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas)

Karias Silur



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Kavieng District New Ireland Province 254

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Kavieng District is in the north of the province and includes New Ireland, north of Konos, and the Lavongai, Dyaul, Saint Matthias and Tingwon islands. New Ireland, Lavongai and Mussau islands have mountains surrounded by coastal limestone plains and floodplains. Average annual rainfall is 3800 mm in the Saint Matthias Islands, while the rest of the district receives around 3000 millimetres. Altitude varies from sea level to over 900 m on Lavongai Island.

Population

Income Incomes are high on New Ireland, in the coastal areas of Lavongai Island, and on Tingwon and Dyaul islands, and are derived from the sale of copra, cocoa, oil palm, betel nut, fish and fresh food. People in the inland areas of Lavongai Island and in the Saint Matthias Islands earn moderate incomes from sales of betel nut, fresh food, tobacco, copra and fish. Many sources of non-agricultural income exist in the northeast of New Ireland.

The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 56 000. The highest population densities are on the East Islands and Tingwon Island with 162 persons/km2. The coastal plains of Lavongai Island have moderate densities of 47 persons/km2, while New Ireland and Dyaul Island have 30 persons/km2. The Saint Matthias Islands support 16 persons/km2, while the interior of Lavongai Island has 4 persons/km2. The Kaut hills and coastal plains, southeast of Kavieng, have significant in-migration. The population of the Tigak and East Coast Kara Nalik census divisions increased by an average of eight per cent per year between 1980 and 1990. These are fast growing populations.


Access to services

Land potential

People on New Ireland, in the coastal areas of Lavongai Island, and on Tingwon and Dyaul islands require less than four hours’ travel to reach Kavieng, while people in the Saint Matthias Islands and those in the interior of Lavongai Island require 4–8 hours’ travel. There are good roads in the coastal areas of New Ireland and minor roads on Lavangai, Dyaul and Mussau islands. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used along the coast and between the islands.

Land potential is very high in the Tingwon Islands with no limitations. The Kaut hills have high potential limited by frequent cloud cover. The northern hills of Lavongai Island have moderate potential with frequent cloud cover, while the east coast plains of New Ireland, Dyaul and Emirau islands and the East Islands and have moderate potential with poor soils. Mussau Island has low potential constrained by high rainfall and frequent



254

Airstrips: 5

Agriculture on the coastal plains of New Ireland and in the Saint Matthias Islands is characterised by low intensity sweet potato and taro cultivation. Sago is the most important food on the coast of Lavongai and Dyaul islands and at Balgai Bay and is supplemented by low intensity mixed staple or sweet potato cultivation. People in the interior of Lavongai Island cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as poor; 36 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.



cloud cover, while the mountains of New Ireland and Lavongai Island have low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is some marginal agricultural pressure near Kaut and in the East Islands. This will be of more concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable land management practices. There is potential for agricultural development in the Kaut hills given the high land potential and close proximity to Kavieng. Copra, cocoa and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the area.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the large numbers on Mussau Island, Lavongai Island and on the west coast of New Ireland who live in low potential environments. People in the East Islands and on Tingwon Island are also at a disadvantage due to very high population densities, which lead to land shortages. As a result, people become vulnerable to food and water shortages during periods of drought. Overall, people in Kavieng District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 77 000. The highest population densities are on Mali, Mahur and Masahet islands in the Lihir Group, and on Boang Island in the Tanga Group, with 210 persons/km2. The coastal plains of Lihir and Malendok islands and the Anir Islands have moderate densities of 47 persons/km2, while the central part of New Ireland has 30 persons/km2. The far south of New Ireland and the Tabar Islands have low densities of 16 persons/km2. The southeast coast around Namatanai has significant in-migration. The population of the East Coast Namatanai census division increased by 5.1 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services


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255

Airstrips: 8

Income Cash incomes on New Ireland north of Manga, are high and are derived from sales of copra, cocoa, oil palm, betel nut, fish and fresh food. In the south of New Ireland and on the island groups, people earn low incomes from sales of cocoa, copra, fish, fresh food and betel nut. Small numbers of people on the southeast coast of New Ireland receive wages from cocoa and oil palm plantations. People on Lihir Island receive wages and royalties from gold mining operations.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on New Ireland and in the Anir, Tanga, Tabar and Lihir islands is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation, with either taro, cassava or yam as co-dominant staples. People on Mali, Masahet and Mahur islands cultivate moderate intensity mixed staple gardens and make two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 34 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential Land potential is high to very high on the southeast coastal plains and hills of New Ireland from Karu Bay to Manga, but the limestone soils which are found in the area are prone to rapid fertility decline. The coastal plains of the Tabar, Lihir and Anir islands have high potential limited by high rainfall. Major roads (km): 207


There is moderate potential land in the inland areas of the Tabar and Anir islands. The southeast coastal hills and isolated parts of the west coast of New Ireland also have moderate potential land. Common limitations include steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The mountains of New Ireland have low potential with similar constraints.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is moderate agricultural pressure in the hills around Namatanai and on Boang Island, in the Tanga Group. There is marginal pressure in the Tabar Islands. Potential for agricultural development exists on the southeast coast of New Ireland, from Karu Bay to Manga, where land potential is high to very high and access to markets is good. Cocoa, copra, betel nut, fresh food, and more recently oil palm, are established smallholder cash-earning activities in the area.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the moderate agricultural pressure areas around Namatanai and on Boang Island. These people are vulnerable to land degradation and declining crop yields. Large numbers of people in central New Ireland and on Lihir Island are constrained by low potential environments, while people on Mali, Masahet and Mahur islands, in the Lihir Group, have very low incomes. Overall, people in Namatanai District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are high.




New Ireland Province

People in New Ireland north of Namatanai, require less than four hours’ travel to reach Namatanai or Kavieng, while those south of Namatanai and in the island groups require 4–8 hours’ travel. The Bulominski Highway connects Kavieng to Namatanai along the east coast. There are minor roads in most coastal areas of New Ireland and on

the island groups, but many are in poor condition. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common along the coast and between the islands.

Namatanai District

Namatanai District is in the south of the province and includes New Ireland, south of Konos, and the Tabar, Lihir, Tanga and Anir island groups. New Ireland includes the Schleinitz, Hans Meyer and Verron ranges which are surrounded by narrow coastal limestone plains, floodplains and hills. Average annual rainfall is 3000 mm on New Ireland, while the offshore islands receive 3500 millimetres. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m in the Verron Range.

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East New Britain Province

An infant sits in a wheelbarrow full of cocoa. These cocoa pods are being transported for village-level fermentation. Plantation and smallholder cocoa development in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula has created one of the most well-developed areas in PNG. Cocoa is an important lowland cash crop and support for smallholder production is increasing through targeted research and extension programs. Other established sources of agricultural income include copra, betel nut and fresh food. There is widespread interest in alternative cash crops such as balsa and vanilla.

A woman removes the husks from coconuts. Copra production was once an important source of cash income along the south coast of New Britain, including in the Pomio area. The industry has collapsed over the past decade due to high shipping costs, sporadic production and low returns on labour. This has contributed to Pomio District having some of the most disadvantaged people in PNG. A low-cost and reliable coastal shipping service could improve access to services and raise household incomes.

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Introduction RABAUL Watom Is.

kun likli Ata Bay

Lassul

Keravat

GAZELLE

ins nta ou gM nin Bai

Pondo

Duke of York Islands

Rabaul

KOKOPO Kokopo

angoi Waralley V

Open Bay

Tol

POMIO Leli

Occupied land

Nutuve

Unoccupied land

Cape Oxford

M

ey all ia V An

y lle Va oi elk

s ain nt u o iM na Me a k gig Na i Va lle y

Major roads

Pomio

Minor roads/tracks District boundaries District boundaries Kilometres

0

25

50

100

Uvol

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — East New Britain Province

258

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East New Britain includes roughly 15 100 km2 of the island of New Britain, in the northeast of PNG. The Gazelle Peninsula is in the north of the province and encompasses the Baining Mountains, the valleys of the Keravat and Warangoi rivers, numerous smaller rivers and narrow coastal plains. In the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula are fertile hills and plains that surround the Rabaul volcanoes. The area is densely settled and well-developed. Past volcanic eruptions have covered the area in fertile volcanic ash, but the 1994 eruptions caused widespread damage to infrastructure, cash crops and water supplies. The Duke of York Islands are 20 km northeast of Kokopo, and Watom Island is 10 km north of Rabaul. The south of the province is dominated by the Nakanai Mountains, extensive limestone plateaux, narrow coastal plains and the active volcanic peaks of Mt Ulawun and Mt Bamus. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m on Mt Ulawun, Mt Bamus and Mt Berurumea. The highest altitude where agriculture is practised is 1200 m on the Mamusi Plateau and in the Baining Mountains. Average annual rainfall varies from 2000 mm near Kokopo, to over 5000 mm on the south coast. There are moderate dry seasons in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula. The four districts in East New Britain are Gazelle, Kokopo, Pomio and Rabaul.

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Population 90 000

RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000

GAZELLE

Keravat

KOKOPO Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Pomio

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol

Gazelle

The estimated rural population of East New Britain in the year 2000 is 247 000, which is six per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is a very high 4.2 per cent per year. The highest population densities are on the volcanic hills and plains of the Gazelle Peninsula, in the Duke of York Islands and on Watom Island, with an average of 220 persons/km2. The coastal plains around Pomio have a population density of 78 persons/km2, while the coastal plains around Uvol have 55 persons/km2. Most other areas in the province have moderate to low densities that average 25 persons/km2. There is significant in-migration in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula, with people from many parts of PNG seeking better access to services, more productive environments and wage employment opportunities provided by the towns and plantations.

Nutuve Cape Oxford

Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Pomio

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries

Kilometres

District boundaries Uvol

0

25

50


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259

100

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RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

GAZELLE

Keravat

70 000

KOKOPO Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

Lassul

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Pomio

Gazelle

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol

> 1 day’s travel to service centre Nutuve Cape Oxford Pomio

4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land

The northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula has an extensive network of sealed roads. Good quality roads extend into the Baining Mountains and along the north coast to Lassul Bay. A road of lesser quality crosses the island from Hoskins in West New Britain Province, to Amio and Uvol. There are few roads in the south of the province. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas. People in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula require less than one hour’s travel to reach Kokopo, while those in the west Baining Mountains, in the Duke of York Islands and on Watom Island require less than four hours’ travel. People on the south and northwest coasts require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in the inland mountains of Pomio District are very remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Major roads Minor roads/tracks Kilometres Uvol

0

25

50




260

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Income 90 000

RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000

GAZELLE

KOKOPO

Keravat

Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Pomio

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol

Gazelle

The northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula, including the Duke of York Islands, is one of the wealthiest areas in PNG. People earn high to very high incomes from the sale of cocoa, betel nut, fresh food, copra and fish. There are low incomes in the west Baining Mountains derived from the sale of fresh food. People in all other areas in the province earn very low incomes from minor sales of cocoa, copra and fresh food. There are many sources of non-agricultural income in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula. People run small businesses such as PMVs, trade stores and cocoa fermentaries; and gain wage employment from businesses and plantations. A limited number of people in the Baining Mountains, in the inland Pomio area and in other coastal areas receive wages and royalties from forestry operations.

Nutuve Cape Oxford

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) Low income (21–40 kina/person/year)

Pomio

Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land Kilometres Uvol

0

25

50



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261

District boundaries

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Subsistence agriculture 90 000

RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000 Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

Keravat

GAZELLE

KOKOPO 60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Pomio

Gazelle

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol


Nutuve Cape Oxford Pomio

Low intensity banana gardens High intensity banana gardens Low intensity Chinese taro gardens Low intensity sweet potato gardens Low intensity sweet potato/taro gardens Low intensity taro gardens Unoccupied land

Kilometres

Agriculture on the volcanic plains and hills of the Gazelle Peninsula and in the Duke of York Islands is dominated by high intensity banana cultivation, supplemented by Chinese taro and sweet potato. Here, coconut is an important food, and triploid bananas can produce for 20 years if they are managed properly. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–10 years. Tillage and the rotation of legumes between plantings are used to improve production. Agriculture in the lower Keravat and Warangoi valleys is similar, but less intensive. People in the Baining Mountains cultivate low intensity Chinese taro gardens, while those on the northwest and southeast coasts make low intensity mixed staple gardens. Agriculture in the Nakanai Mountains and on the south coast is characterised by low intensity sweet potato cultivation. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas.


Uvol

50

100

District boundaries


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25

262

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RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000 Keravat

GAZELLE

KOKOPO Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Pomio

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol

Gazelle

The land potential is high to very high on the volcanic plains and hills of the Gazelle Peninsula, on Watom Island and in the Duke of York Islands. The land in these areas is among the most productive in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many tropical crops. The plains and hills on the southeast coast have moderate potential due to poor soils and high rainfall. The Baining Mountains have very low to moderate potential constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover, while the plains and hills on the south coast have low potential caused by poor soils, steep slopes and very high rainfall. The Nakanai Mountains and other inland areas have very low to low potential due to steep slopes, poor soils, high rainfall and frequent cloud cover.

Nutuve

Very high potential

Cape Oxford

High potential Pomio


Kilometres


25

50

100

District boundaries

Uvol


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263

263

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RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000 Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

Keravat

GAZELLE

KOKOPO 60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Rabaul

Leli

Pomio

Gazelle

POMIO

Kokopo

10 000

Tol


Nutuve Cape Oxford


Pomio

Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Kilometres

0

50

100


Uvol


264

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25

Unoccupied land

Based on the measures used in this handbook, there is no agricultural pressure in the province. However, there is concern over gullying and soil erosion on the volcanic soils of the Gazelle Peninsula. There is potential for agricultural development in the Warangoi and Keravat valleys, and in the coastal plains and valleys of Ataliklikun Bay, where land potential is moderate to very high and access to markets is good. Cocoa, betel nut, fresh food and copra are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. Existing cash crop development and very high population densities limit the agricultural potential on the volcanic plains and hills of the Gazelle Peninsula. The southeast coast has potential for agricultural development given the moderate land potential, but access to markets depends on expensive coastal shipping. This was the main reason for the collapse of the copra industry on the south coast during the 1980s.

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RABAUL

80 000 Rabaul

Lassul

70 000

GAZELLE

KOKOPO

Keravat

Kokopo

Pondo

Number of people

60 000 50 000 40 000 30 000

Open Bay

20 000

Nutuve

Rabaul

Pomio

POMIO Leli

Kokopo

10 000

Tol

Gazelle

The most disadvantaged people in the province are those in the Nutuve and Leli areas inland of Pomio, the Melkoi and Torlu valleys inland of Uvol, and on the Mamusi Plateau. Here, large numbers of people have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods due to low potential environments, very low incomes and poor access to services. Large numbers of people on the south coast around Uvol, and on the northwest coast between Lassul and Open Bay, are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes. People in the southeast of the Baining Mountains and on the southeast coast, between Warangoi Bay and Cape Oxford, earn very low incomes.

Poor environment, very low income, poor access Cape Oxford

Pomio

Poor environment, very low income Moderate pressure Poor environment Very low income Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas) Unoccupied land

Kilometres Uvol

0

25

50



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265

District boundaries

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Gazelle District

Gazelle District is in the northwest of the Gazelle Peninsula and covers the volcanic plains and hills around Mt Varzin, the Keravat Valley, the north side of the Warangoi Valley, the Baining Mountains, and the coastal plains from Ataliklikun Bay in the north to Open Bay in the southwest. Average annual rainfall ranges between 2200 and 3800 mm, increasing from northeast to southwest. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1000 m in the Baining Mountains.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 93 000. The highest population density of 220 persons/km2 is on the volcanic plains and hills. The Baining Mountains, the north coast plains and valleys and the west coast plains support densities of 23 persons/km2, while the lower Keravat and Warangoi valleys have low densities of 10 persons/km2. The western half of the district is mostly unoccupied. The volcanic plains and hills have significant in-migration. The population of the Toma and Central census divisions increased by an average of eight per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services

East New Britain Province 266

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People on the volcanic plains and hills, on the coast of Ataliklikun Bay, and in the Keravat and Warangoi valleys require less than one hour’s travel to reach Kokopo. People in the Baining Mountains require less than four hours’ travel, while those on the north and west coasts require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Kokopo. There is a network of sealed roads on the volcanic plains and hills. Gravel surfaced roads connect Lassul on the north coast to the western Baining Mountains.



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Income Incomes are high to very high on the volcanic plains and hills, on the coast of Ataliklikun Bay and in the lower Keravat and Warangoi valleys, and are derived from the sale of cocoa, betel nut, fresh food and copra. People in the Baining Mountains earn low incomes from the sale of fresh food, while those on the north and west coasts earn very low incomes from minor sales of cocoa, copra and fresh food. Other sources of income in the district are derived from small-scale enterprises such as cocoa fermenting, trade stores, construction, and also from wage employment from businesses and plantations. Small numbers of people in the Baining Mountains receive wages and royalties from forestry operations.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on the volcanic plains and hills is dominated by high intensity banana cultivation. Here, coconut is also an important food and triploid bananas can produce for 20 years if they are managed properly. People make two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–10 years. Agriculture in the area to the southwest is similar, but is less intensive. People in the Baining Mountains and on the north and west coasts cultivate low intensity mixed staple gardens. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 33 per cent of children were stunted and one per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is high to very high on the volcanic plains and hills, the coast and inland valleys of Ataliklikun Bay, and in the Keravat and Warangoi valleys. The very high potential land is among the Major roads (km): 41


most productive in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops however, gullying and soil erosion is a problem in some places. The Baining Mountains have very low to moderate potential due to steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover, while the north and west coasts have low potential constrained by poor soils and frequent flooding.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is no agricultural pressure in the district. The potential for further development on the volcanic plains and hills is limited by existing development and very high population densities. At present, people are squatting or leasing land for subsistence agriculture and there are concerns over soil erosion on the steeper slopes. There is potential for agricultural development in the Warangoi and Keravat valleys and on the coastal plains and valleys of Ataliklikun Bay, where land potential is moderate to very high and access to markets is good. Cocoa, betel nut and fresh food are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are those on the coast between Lassul and Open bays, who are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes. These people have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Small numbers of people in the Baining Mountains live in low potential environments. Overall, people in Gazelle District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is very good and cash incomes are very high.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 92 000. The population density is 220 persons/km2 in the rural areas of both districts. After the destruction caused by the 1994 volcanic eruption, there was significant out-migration of people from the Rabaul area.

Access to services All people on the mainland are less than one hour’s travel to the nearest service centre, while those on Watom and the Duke of York islands require less than four hours’ travel. There is a network of sealed roads in the mainland areas. Outboard motor boat travel is common along the coast and between the mainland and the islands.

Income

Land potential

Incomes are very high in the mainland areas and are derived from the sale of cocoa, betel nut, fresh food and copra. People on Watom and the Duke of York islands earn high incomes from the sale of copra, cocoa, fresh food, fish and betel nut. Other sources of income in the district include small business activities and wage employment from businesses and plantations.

The land potential is high to very high in most areas of both districts and this land is among the most productive in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. The limestone plains on the east coast, between Warangoi Bay and Cape Gazelle, have moderate to high potential.


There is no agricultural pressure in either district. However, changes in fallow vegetation and soil erosion on slopes suggest that very high population densities and land shortages are causing some localised problems. Potential for further agricultural development is limited by very high population densities and existing plantation and smallholder cash crop development.

Agriculture on Watom and the Duke of York islands is dominated by high intensity banana cultivation, with Chinese taro, sweet potato and cassava as other important crops. Coconut is also an important food and triploid bananas can produce for up to 20 years if they are managed properly. People make 3–5 plantings before a fallow period of 1–4 years. Agriculture on the mainland is similar, but is less intensive. Here, peanuts are planted in rotation with root crops. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair. In Rabaul District, 30 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were seriously under weight. In Kokopo District, 26 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.


Disadvantaged people There are no disadvantaged people in either district, as defined by the criteria used in this handbook. Overall people in Rabaul and Kokopo districts are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts in PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is very good and cash incomes are very high.


Airstrips: 2






East New Britain Province

Kokopo District Total area (km2): 408

Kokopo and Rabaul districts

Kokopo and Rabaul districts are in the northeast of the Gazelle Peninsula. Both districts are small and semi-urban in nature. They cover the volcanic peaks around Simpson Harbour, the volcanic plains that extend north of the Warangoi River to Kokopo, the limestone plains on the east coast between Cape Gazelle and Waragoi Bay, Watom Island and the Duke of York Islands. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2000 mm around Kokopo, to 2500 mm on the Duke of York Islands. Altitude varies from sea level to over 500 m on the Rabaul volcanoes.

Rabaul District Total area (km2): 95

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267

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Pomio District

Pomio District is in the south of East New Britain and covers the east Baining Mountains, the coastal plains, the inland limestone plateaux and valleys, the Nakanai Mountains and the volcanic peaks of Mt Ulawun and Mt Bamus. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2500 mm in the east Baining Mountains, to over 5000 mm on the south coast. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m on Mt Ulawun and Mt Bamus.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 62 000. The highest population density is on the coastal plains around Pomio with 78 persons/km2, while the coastal plains around Uvol have 55 persons/km2. There are 23 persons/km2 in the Nutuve and Leli areas, in the east Baining Mountains, on the southeast coast from Warangoi Bay to Cape Oxford, and in the Melkoi, Megigi and Torlu valleys. The Wala and Ania valleys, in the southwest of the district, have 10 persons/km2. The east Baining Mountains have significant in-migration of people looking for more productive environments for cash-cropping. People displaced by the 1994 volcanic eruptions in Rabaul have also settled in the area. The population of the SinivitEast Baining census division increased by 8.2 per cent per year between 1980 and 1990.

Access to services East New Britain Province 268

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People in the east Baining Mountains, on the southeast coast, and in the Wala and Ania valleys require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. People in the Nutuve and Leli areas, and in the Melkoi, Megigi and Torlu valleys are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre. There are rough logging roads



268

Airstrips: 8

inland of Pomio Station, and a road that crosses the island from Hoskins in West New Britain Province, to Amio and Uvol. Outboard motor boat travel is common in coastal areas.


Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of cocoa, copra and fresh food. Small numbers of people receive wages and royalties from forestry operations in the Leli area and along the southeast and south coasts.

There is no agricultural pressure in the district and limited potential for agricultural development, other than in the east Baining Mountains and in the Ania Valley, where there is moderate potential land and reasonable access to markets. Development of moderate potential land on the southeast coast is constrained by the high cost of coastal shipping, which was the main reason for the collapse of the copra industry during the 1980s.



Income

Agriculture in the east Baining Mountains and on the southeast and south coasts is dominated by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. One planting is made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the Nutuve and Leli areas and in the Melkoi, Megigi and Torlu valleys cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, which are supplemented by taro in some places. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as serious; 56 per cent of children were stunted and four per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is moderate in the east Baining Mountains and on the southeast coast, but is constrained by steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. Mt Uluwan is a hazardous active volcano. The Ania Valley has moderate potential constrained by high rainfall. The limestone plains on the south coast have low potential caused by poor soils and high rainfall, while the inland mountain areas have very low to low potential due to high rainfall, steep slopes, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. Major roads (km): 0


The most disadvantaged people in the district are those in the Nutuve and Leli areas, inland of Pomio, in the Melkoi and Torlu valleys inland of Uvol, and on the Mamusi Plateau. Large numbers of people in these areas have limited opportunities to improve their livelihoods due to low potential environments, very low incomes and poor access to services. Large numbers of people on the south coast around Uvol and Pomio are constrained by low potential environments and very low incomes. People in the east Baining Mountains and on the southeast coast, between Warangoi Bay and Cape Oxford, have very low incomes. Overall, people in Pomio District are extremely disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is no agricultural pressure, land potential is low, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low. Child malnutrition is of concern. Because the district is part of a province where the other three districts are among the least disadvantaged in PNG, the problems of Pomio District are often overlooked.




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West New Britain Province

A man harvests oil palm fruit on a settlement block. Oil palm development on the north coast between Talasea and Sule has created one of the more developed areas in the country. The population has one of the highest growth rates in PNG, largely due to the in-migration of settlers to oil palm blocks. There is a good network of surfaced and sealed roads and people earn very high incomes.

People oversee logging operations near the Aria River. There has been extensive logging in West New Britain, particularly along the south coast, in the centre of the island and between Cape Gloucester and the Willaumez Peninsula. Logging activities temporarily improve access to services and markets through road construction and provide some cash income to people through royalties and wage employment. However, the income is short-term and the roads often become unusable when maintenance stops. Unless income is invested into long-term development activities, including education, cash-cropping and small businesses, people will return to being very poor when logging ceases. 269

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Introduction

Witu Islands

Lolobau Is.

Bali Is. Willaumez Penninsula

Sule

Talasea Bialla Hoskins Cape Gloucester in

Na k

KANDRIAN-GLOUCESTER

a

Awio Valley

Whiteman Range Anduru Valley

Kandrian

Palicks Valley

Arawe Islands

unt a Mo

nai

Ar Vall ia ey

Mt Schrader

s

Kimbe

Iboki Point

Banu y Valle

TALASEA Occupied land Unoccupied land Gasmata

Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — West New Britain Province

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West New Britain occupies 20 800 km2 of New Britain Island in the northeast of PNG. The northeast coast, from Talasea to Sule, is dominated by plains and floodplains with fertile volcanic soils. This area has been densely settled since the early 1970s through formal settlement schemes based on oil palm production. Inland of the coastal plains are the volcanic peaks of Mt Ulawun, Mt Bamus and Mt Galloseulo. The Willaumez Peninsula has fertile valleys and many volcanic peaks, of which a number are still active. West of Talasea are extensive coastal plains and a number of prominent mountains including the active volcanic peaks around Cape Gloucester. The interior of the province is dominated by the Nakanai Mountains and the Whiteman Range with coastal plains and valleys along the south coast. The Bali Witu Island group is 160 km northwest of Kimbe in the Bismarck Sea, while Lolobau Island is eight km off the coast from Sule. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m on Mt Ulawun and Mt Bamus. Average annual rainfall varies from 3500 mm at Cape Gloucester, to over 5000 mm on the south coast. Most occupied areas of the province receive over 4000 mm of rain per year. The two districts in West New Britain are Kandrian-Gloucester and Talasea.

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Population 80 000


70 000

High density (61–100 persons/km2) 60 000 Number of people


50 000


40 000 30 000 20 000

Talasea

10 000

Kandrian-Gloucester

The estimated rural population of West New Britain in the year 2000 is 99 000, which is 2.5 per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is high at 3.3 per cent per annum. The highest population densities are on the Bali Witu Islands where there are 220 persons/km2 and the Arawe Islands which have 200 persons/km2. The northeast coastal plains, from Kimbe to Bialla, have 130 persons/km2, while the Talasea area has a density of 50 persons/km2. The north coast plains, west of Talasea, the south coast plains and the Cape Gloucester area have an average density of 30 persons/km2, while the inland areas have 5 persons/km2. The northeast coastal plains from Kimbe to Bialla have significant in-migration of people to the various settlement schemes, mainly from East Sepik, Simbu and East New Britain provinces.

Sule

Talasea Bialla Hoskins Cape Gloucester Iboki Point

Kimbe

KANDRIAN-GLOUCESTER TALASEA

Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0


ANUA001 layout new

271

25

50

100

271

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Access to services

The northeast coastal plains from Talasea to Sule have an extensive network of good roads that service the oil palm settlement schemes. Much of the New Britain Highway is sealed. A gravel road crosses the island from Hoskins to Amio and a road of lesser quality extends south from Sule into the inland. There are numerous logging roads in the south coast valleys, inland of Kandrian, and around Cape Gloucester. These roads, and in particular the bridges, are short-term constructions that deteriorate when maintenance stops. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas. People on the coastal plains between Talasea and Bialla require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those in most other parts of the province require 4–8 hours’ travel. People in the Nakanai Mountains are very remote and require more than one day’s travel to reach the nearest service centre.

80 000 70 000

Number of people

60 000 50 000


Major roads


Minor roads/tracks


District boundaries


District boundaries


Airstrip

Unoccupied land

40 000 30 000 20 000

Talasea

Kandrian-Gloucester

10 000

Sule


Kimbe


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0

50

100


272

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25

272

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Income 80 000

Very low income (0–20 kina/person/year) 70 000



High income (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year)

50 000

Unoccupied land 40 000


30 000 20 000

Talasea

10 000

Kandrian-Gloucester

People on the northeast coast have high to very high incomes derived from oil palm production and supplemented by income from the sale of fresh food, cocoa, betel nut and copra. People in the Bali Witu Islands earn high incomes from the sale of copra, cocoa, fish, fresh food and betel nut. All other people in the province have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fresh food, copra, cocoa, fish or tobacco. There are many sources of non-agricultural income on the northeast coast around Talasea, Kimbe and Hoskins including small businesses such as PMVs and trade stores, and wage employment opportunities provided by businesses and plantations. People on the south coast, on the northwest coast and in the interior of the island receive wages and royalties from forestry operations. There appears to be little investment of this money into other income-generating activities. Many people who received some income from logging in the past now have very limited income. It is likely that this trend will continue.

Sule


Kimbe


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0


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273

25

50

100

273

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Subsistence agriculture 80 000 70 000

Number of people

60 000 50 000





Low intensity cassava gardens

Low intensity taro gardens

Low intensity cassava/Chinese taro gardens

Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries

40 000 30 000 20 000

Talasea

Kandrian-Gloucester

10 000

Sule


Kimbe

Agriculture in the Bali Witu Islands is characterised by moderate intensity mixed staple cultivation of banana, cassava, Chinese taro and sweet potato. There are two consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 1–3 years. On the northeast coastal plains and in most inland areas, people cultivate similar crops at lower intensities. Food crops are grown on the oil palm settlement blocks. Settlers on the older blocks are commonly short of land for food gardens, but people on the newer blocks grow and sell significant quantities of food. On the northwest coast, on the south coast and in the Cape Gloucester area, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, while those in the valleys inland of Kandrian make low intensity sweet potato and taro gardens. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas.


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0

50

100


274

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25

274

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Land potential 80 000 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000 40 000

Very high potential

Very low potential

High potential

Unoccupied land

Moderate potential

District boundaries

Low potential

District boundaries

30 000 20 000

Talasea

10 000

Kandrian-Gloucester

The land potential is very high on the volcanic plains and fans around Cape Gloucester, although rainfall is high. Soils, slope and temperature are ideal for the production of many crops. However, the north side of Cape Gloucester is vulnerable to volcanic activity from Mt Gulu. The northeast coastal plains have low to high potential limited by inundation, poor soils and high rainfall. Where land is drained, the land potential is significantly increased. The south coast around Kandrian and the Bali Witu Islands have moderate to high potential constrained by high rainfall, while the south coast around Gasmata has very low potential because of high rainfall, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. Most inland areas have low to moderate potential caused by steep slopes, high rainfall, poor soils and frequent cloud cover.

Sule


Kimbe


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0


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275

25

50

100

275

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Agricultural pressure and potential 80 000 70 000

Number of people

60 000 50 000




Occupied land


Unoccupied land


District boundaries


District boundaries

40 000 30 000 20 000

Talasea

Kandrian-Gloucester

10 000

Sule


Kimbe


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0

50

100


276

ANUA001 layout new

25

Strong agricultural pressure exists in parts of the Bali Witu and Arawe islands as a result of moderate intensity agriculture being practised in low potential environments. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. The northeast coastal plains have areas of moderate pressure, while the area around Talasea has marginal pressure. There is potential for agricultural development around Cape Gloucester where land potential is very high, but there is a volcanic hazard and market access is restricted by the high cost of coastal shipping. Given the very high potential land on nearby Umboi Island and the close proximity of both areas to Lae, there is potential for large-scale agricultural development. Cocoa, betel nut, oil palm, fresh food and copra are some possible crops for further development. Existing oil palm development on the northeast coast and very high population densities limit the potential for further expansion, however, there is scope for more productive use of land within the settlement blocks.

276

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277

Disadvantaged people 80 000 70 000 60 000 Number of people

50 000


Poor environment


Very low income




Unoccupied land

Strong pressure

District boundaries

Moderate pressure

District boundaries

40 000 30 000 20 000

Talasea

10 000

Kandrian-Gloucester

There is a marked contrast in the environments, income and access to services between the two districts in the province, with conditions significantly better in most parts of Talasea District compared to Kandrian-Gloucester District. The most disadvantaged people in the province are the small numbers in the Gavuvu and Ala valleys of the Nakanai Mountains who live in low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. They have few opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Small numbers of people in the Arawe Islands are constrained by strong agricultural pressure, very low incomes and very high population densities. They are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have limited cash to purchase supplementary food. Large numbers of people in the Bali Witu Islands face similar constraints but have higher incomes. In the Gasmata area and the Banu, Palicks and Anduru valleys, people live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes. Most other people in the province earn very low incomes.

Sule


Kimbe


Kandrian

Kilometres

Gasmata 0


25

50

100

277

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Kandrian-Gloucester District

Kandrian-Gloucester District is in the southwest of West New Britain and covers the northwest coastal plains, the inland valleys, the prominent peaks of Mt Andewa and Mt Schrader, and the active volcanoes around Cape Gloucetser. The south of the district covers narrow coastal plains, inland valleys and extensive limestone plateaux. Average annual rainfall ranges from 3500 mm at Cape Gloucester, to over 5000 mm on the south coast. Altitude varies from sea level to over 1900 metres.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 36 000. The highest population density is in the Arawe Islands where there are 200 persons/km2. The south coast, from Amio to the Arawe Islands, has moderate densities of 36 persons/km2, while the northwest coast and Cape Gloucester area have 25 persons/km2. The Aria and Gaho valleys, inland of Cape Kirchoff on the north coast, and the Alimbit, Palicks, Anduru and Awio valleys, inland of Kandrian, have low densities of 8 persons/km2.

Access to services

West New Britain Province 278

ANUA001 layout new

All people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. A gravel road crosses the island from Hoskins to Amio and there are numerous poor quality logging roads in the valleys inland of Kandrian and around Cape Gloucester. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used in coastal areas.

Income Incomes are very low in the entire district and are derived from minor sales of cocoa, copra, fresh food, fish and tobacco. At present, some people on the south coast, around Kandrian, and at Cape Total area (km2): 12499


278

Airstrips: 6

Gloucester, receive wages and royalties from forestry operations. It is most likely that incomes will decline once logging operations cease over the next decade.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture in the Banu, Aria and Gaho valleys is characterised by low intensity mixed staple cultivation. There is one planting before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the Palicks, Anduru and Awio valleys cultivate low intensity sweet potato and taro gardens, while those on the northwest coast, in the Cape Gloucester area, on the south coast and in the inland valleys of the Magap, Anu and Alimibit rivers make low intensity sweet potato gardens. Coconut is an important food in all coastal areas. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 34 per cent of children were stunted and three per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is very high on the volcanic plains and fans around Cape Gloucester, although rainfall is high and Mt Gulu presents a distinct volcanic hazard, especially towards the northwest. The south coast around Kandrian and the inland valleys of the Magap, Anu and Alimibit rivers have low to moderate potential due to high rainfall. The south coast around Gasmata and the inland valleys of the Palicks, Anduru and Awio rivers have very low to low potential caused by high rainfall, poor soils and frequent cloud cover. The northwest coast and the inland valleys of the Aria, Gaho and Banu rivers have low to moderate potential as a result of high rainfall, steep slopes and poor soils.

Major roads (km): 0


Agricultural pressure and potential There is strong agricultural pressure in the Arawe Islands caused by moderate intensity agriculture being practised in a low potential environment. There is potential for agricultural development around Cape Gloucester where land potential is very high, but there is a volcanic hazard and market access is constrained by expensive coastal shipping. Given the very high potential land on nearby Umboi Island and the close proximity of both areas to Lae, there is potential for large-scale agricultural development. Cocoa, betel nut, oil palm, fresh food and copra production are some possible crops for further development.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Arawe Islands who are constrained by strong agricultural pressure, very low incomes and very high population densities. They are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have little cash to purchase supplementary food. In the Gasmata area and in the Banu, Palicks and Anduru valleys, people live in low potential environments and earn very low incomes. Most other people in the district earn very low incomes. Overall, people in KandrianGloucester District are seriously disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is poor and cash incomes are very low.




13/11/01, 12:35 PM

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 63 000. The highest population densities are in the Bali Witu Islands where there are 220 persons/km2 and on the northeast coastal plains from Hoskins to Sule where there are 130 persons/km2. The Talasea area has a density of 50 persons/km2, while the Gavuvu and Ala valleys have densities of 34 persons/km2. The Metelen, Awio and Iglik valleys have very low densities of 4 persons/km2. The northeast coastal plains have significant in-migration, mainly into the existing land settlement schemes. The population of the Bola census division increased by 6.3 per cent per annum between 1980 and 1990. People on the coastal plains from Talasea to Bialla require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. Most other people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel, except for those in the Gavuvu and Ala valleys of the Nakanai Mountains who need more than one day’s travel


ANUA001 layout new


279

Airstrips: 5

Income People on the northeast coast have high to very high incomes derived from the sale of oil palm, fresh food, cocoa, betel nut, fish and copra. In the Bali Witu Islands, people earn high incomes from the sale of the same products, with the exception of oil palm. People in the Kapiura, Metelen, Awio, Iglik, Gavuvu and Ala valleys earn very low incomes from minor sales of tobacco. There are many sources of non-agricultural income on the northeast coast around Talasea, Kimbe and Hoskins including small businesses such as PMVs and trade stores, and wage employment opportunities provided by businesses and plantations.

Land potential The land potential ranges from low to high on the northeast coast. Some areas are regularly flooded, have poor soils and high rainfall. Where drainage is used, the land potential increases significantly. The Bali Witu Islands have low to moderate potential due to high rainfall and steep slopes. In the inland valleys of the Nakanai Mountains, land potential is low to moderate caused by high rainfall, steep slopes and frequent cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is strong agricultural pressure in the Bali Witu Islands, moderate pressure on the northeast coastal plains and marginal pressure around Talasea. Existing oil palm development on the northeast coast and very high population densities limit the potential for new agricultural development, but there is scope for more productive use of land within the settlement blocks.



Agriculture in the Bali Witu Islands is characterised by moderate intensity mixed staple cultivation, with large areas of smallholder coconut plantations. There are two consecutive staple crop plantings before a fallow period of 1–3 years. People on the northeast coastal plains and in the inland valleys cultivate similar crops but at lower intensities. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as relatively low; 32 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight. However, the contrasts in living conditions between the oil palm block settlers and the local village people makes this informaton difficult to interpret.

The most disadvantaged people in the district are the small numbers in the Gavuvu and Ala valleys of the Nakanai Mountains who live in low potential environments, earn very low incomes and have poor access to services. Large numbers of people in the Bali Witu Islands are constrained by strong agricultural pressure and very high population densities. They are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. Overall, people in Talasea District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.






West New Britain Province

Access to services

to reach the nearest service centre. The northeast coastal plains from Talasea to Sule have an extensive network of good roads and much of the New Britain Highway is sealed. A gravel road crosses the island from Hoskins to Amio. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas.

Talasea District

Talasea District is in the northeast of West New Britain and covers the Willaumez Peninsula, the northeast coastal plains from Talasea to Sule and numerous volcanic peaks including Mt Ulawun and Mt Bamus. The interior of the district covers the Nakanai Mountains and the valleys of the Kapiura, Metelen, Awio, Iglik, Gavuvu and Ala rivers. The Bali Witu Island group is approximately 160 km northwest of Kimbe, while Lolobau Island is eight km from Sule. Average annual rainfall ranges between 4000 and 5000 mm, increasing from north to south. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2000 m on Mt Ulawun.

279

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280

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280

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Bougainville Province

Genetically improved cocoa seedlings in a nursery. Before the ‘crisis’, Bougainville produced about half of PNG’s annual cocoa crop through both plantation and smallholder production. Rehabilitation of the smallholder cocoa industry is now progressing with the planting of genetically improved seedlings, better management of existing cocoa trees and the introduction of solar dryers that improve returns for smallholder growers. Incomes on much of Bougainville Island are likely to rise significantly over the coming decade.

A newly constructed bridge on Bougainville Island. The extensive road network on Bougainville deteriorated during the ‘crisis’ and many bridges were destroyed. Infrastructure, particularly roads and bridges, is now being rebuilt. This will improve access to services and markets for most rural people and bring many other benefits to them.

281

ANUA001 layout new

281

13/11/01, 12:35 PM

Introduction

o Parkings e R an

n

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

Inset 1 Nissan Islands

Buka Is.

Inset 3

Inset 2

Tulun Islands

Nuguria Islands

Inset 5 2

Nukumanu Islands

1 3 4 5

Inset 4 Takuu Islands

Buka Taiof Is.

Tinputz

Em pe ror

Kunua

Ra ng

Wakunai

e

CENTRAL BOUGAINVILLE

Cape Mabiri Bougainville Is. Laruma Valley Torokina

Cr ow n

Pr in ce R

Arawa an ge

l Lu ua

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

iV

Boku

co

as

a ll

ey


tal fl

oo

Buin

d p lains

Tonolei Harbour

Major roads Minor roads/tracks District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

100

50

Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook — Bougainville Province

282

ANUA001 layout new

District boundaries

282

Bougainville Province consists of 9300 km2 of islands in the far east of PNG and is on the border with the Solomon Islands. The province includes the main island of Bougainville and adjacent Buka Island, and a number of small offshore island groups including the Nissan, Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands. The Nukumanu Islands are 530 km east of Buka, while the Takuu and Nuguria islands are 250 km east and north of Buka respectively. Bougainville Island is dominated by the volcanic peaks of the Crown Prince Range, including the active volcano of Mt Bagana. The coastal areas include raised coral limestone plains, volcanic plains and fans, valleys, floodplains and swamps. Most of the coastal areas have fertile volcanic soils that have been used extensively for plantation and smallholder cocoa and coconut production. Buka Island is a large raised coral limestone plain with the hills of the Parkinson Range in the southwest. Average annual rainfall in the province varies from 2500 mm around Tinputz, to over 4000 mm around Buin. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2700 m on Mt Balbi. During the 1990s, the civil war (or ‘crisis’) caused considerable disruption to the lives of villagers and to the provincial economy. Fighting ceased in 1996. Before the crisis, Bougainville Island was one of the most developed areas in PNG. The three districts in the province are Central Bougainville, North Bougainville and South Bougainville.

13/11/01, 12:35 PM

Population 50 000

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Buka

Inset 4

Inset 5

Number of people

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville

Tinputz Central Bougainville

The estimated rural population of Bougainville in the year 2000 is 157 000, which is four per cent of the national rural population. The provincial rural population growth rate is 2.4 per cent per annum. These figures are estimates and may be inaccurate because the last population census in Bougainville was in 1980 and many people left the province during the crisis. The highest population densities are on Matsungan, Petats, Yame, Pororan and Hetau islands, off the west coast of Buka, with 300 persons/km2. The Nissan, Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands have 150 persons/km2. Buka Island and the Buin area have a density of 40 persons/km2, while the east coast and south of Bougainville have an average of 30 persons/km2. The northwest coast and central mountains of Bougainville have low population densities of 14 persons/km2.

Arawa

Torokina

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE Low density (1–20 persons/km2) Boku

Moderate density (21–60 persons/km2) High density (61–100 persons/km2) Buin

Kilometres

Very high density (101–600 persons/km2) Unoccupied land District boundaries

0

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

283

District boundaries

283

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Access to services

Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 5

Inset 4

Buka

Number of people

50 000

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville

Central Bougainville

Tinputz


Arawa

Torokina

4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

< 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land Boku

Major roads Minor roads/tracks Buin

Kilometres 0

25


50

Airstrip


284

ANUA001 layout new

District boundaries

The east coast and southern interior of Bougainville Island had a good network of roads before the crisis. There was also a road along the northwest coast of Bougainville from Siara to Kuraio. However, most of the roads and bridges were not maintained during the crisis and are now in poor condition. International development organisations are presently funding road maintenance activities as part of a larger infrastructure development program in the province. Buka Island has a good network of roads. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used in coastal areas and between islands. People on Buka and in the north and southeast of Bougainville Island require less than four hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre. People on the rest of Bougainville Island and in the Nissan Islands require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre, while those on the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands are remote and require more than one day’s travel.

284

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Income 50 000

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 4

Buka

Inset 5

Number of people

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


North Bougainville

Kunua

South Bougainville


People on Buka and in the northeast of Bougainville Island earn high incomes from the sale of cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. People elsewhere on Bougainville earn low to moderate incomes from the sale of cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. As new cocoa plantings come into production, and existing plantings are restored, incomes should become very high on most of Bougainville. People in the Nissan Islands earn low incomes from the sale of fish and copra, while those in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fish and copra. There are presently few non-agricultural sources of income in the province. However, Bougainville is rich in resources and there is potential for income to be derived from royalties, wage employment and business opportunities associated with mining, forestry and plantation operations.

Arawa

Torokina


SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

Low income (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate income (41–100 kina/person/year) High income (101–200 kina/person/year)

Boku

Very high income (> 200 kina/person/year) Buin Kilometres


0

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

285

285

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Subsistence agriculture Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 4

Buka

Inset 5

Number of people

50 000

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville


Tinputz

Arawa

Torokina

High intensity coconut/swamp taro gardens

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

Agriculture on Buka and on most of Bougainville is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People on the southeast coast of Bougainville and in the Nissan Islands cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. In the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands, agriculture is characterised by permanent stands of coconut and swamp taro, and the high intensity cultivation of cassava and sweet potato. In these islands, cultivation is continuous and production is supported by mulching and mounding. On the small islands west of Buka Island, people make high intensity sweet potato gardens. Coconut is an important food in all areas of the province.

Low intensity sweet potato gardens Moderate intensity sweet potato gardens High intensity sweet potato gardens

Boku

Unoccupied land District boundaries Buin Kilometres 0

25

100

50


286

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District boundaries

286

13/11/01, 12:35 PM


NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 4

Buka

Inset 5

Number of people

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


Arawa

Torokina

South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville


The land potential is very high on the east coast of Buka Island and on the northeast coast of Bougainville Island, and is among the highest in PNG. Rainfall, soils, slope, light and temperature are ideal for the production of many tropical crops. There is high land potential in the Parkinson Range on Buka, on the southeast and northwest coasts of Bougainville Island and on Taiof Island. The central plains on Buka have moderate potential limited by frequent cloud cover, while the inland valleys in the north of Bougainville Island have moderate potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The inland valleys in the south of Bougainville Island have moderate potential limited by high rainfall and frequent cloud cover, while the coastal floodplains in the southwest have low potential constrained by high rainfall, poor soils and frequent inundation. The offshore islands have moderate potential constrained by poor soils.

Very high potential High potential Moderate potential

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

Low potential Very low potential Boku

Unoccupied land District boundaries Buin

District boundaries

Kilometres 0

25

50

100


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287

287

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Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 4

Buka

Inset 5

Number of people

50 000

NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai



Arawa

Torokina

South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville


Tinputz


SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential

Boku

Occupied land Unoccupied land Buin Kilometres 0

25


50


288

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District boundaries

288

There is very strong agricultural pressure in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands resulting from very high intensity agriculture being practised in moderate potential environments. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages. Moderate agricultural pressure exists in the centre of Buka Island, in the northern and western valleys and on the southwestern plains of Bougainville Island. There are areas of marginal pressure in the Nissan Islands and on the southern plains of Bougainville Island which will be of concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is good potential for agricultural development on the east coast of Buka Island and on the northeast coast of Bougainville Island, where there is very high land potential and good access to markets. Cocoa, copra, fresh food and betel nut production are established smallholder cash-earning activities in these areas. The areas of moderate and high land potential on Bougainville are also suitable for agricultural development.

13/11/01, 12:35 PM


NORTH BOUGAINVILLE

Inset 1

Inset 2

Inset 3

Inset 4

Buka

Inset 5

Number of people

40 000 30 000 20 000 10 000

Wakunai


South Bougainville

Kunua

North Bougainville


The most disadvantaged people in the province are those on the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands where very small numbers of people are constrained by very high population densities, very strong agricultural pressure, very low incomes and poor access to services. People in these areas are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have limited money to purchase supplementary food. They are among the most disadvantaged people in PNG. Large numbers of people on central Buka Island, in the northern and western valleys and on the southwestern plains of Bougainville Island are affected by moderate agricultural pressure.

Arawa

Torokina

Strong pressure, very low income, poor access Strong pressure

SOUTH BOUGAINVILLE

Moderate pressure Poor environment Not disadvantaged (relative to other areas)

Boku

Unoccupied land District boundaries Buin Kilometres 0

25

50

100


ANUA001 layout new

289

District boundaries

289

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Central Bougainville District

Central Bougainville District is located along the central east coast of Bougainville Island. The district covers the inland mountains of the Crown Prince Range, the eastern coastal plains from Cape Nehus to Lalaui Point, and the inland valleys of the Lalaui, Aropa, Pinei, Arakawau, Vito and Wakunai rivers. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2700 mm near Wakunai, to 3300 mm in the Laluai Valley on the southeast coast. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2200 m on Mt Takaka.

Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 45 000. The highest population densities of 30 persons/km2 are in the southern mountains of the Crown Prince Range, the inland valleys of the Laluai, Aropa, Pinei, Arakawau and Vito rivers and on the coastal plains south of Cape Mabiri. The coastal plains north of Cape Mabiri and the Wakunai Valley have a density of 24 persons/km2, while the northern mountains of the Crown Prince Range have 14 persons/km2.

Access to services

Bougainville Province 290

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The coastal areas of the district have a good network of roads and maintenance has improved over the past few years. There is a road inland to the Panguna mine site, which continues to the west coast. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used in coastal areas. People in the inland valleys of the Laluai, Aropa, Pinei, Arakawau and Vito rivers and on the coastal plains south of Cape Mabiri require less than four hours’ travel to reach Arawa. People in the Crown Prince Range, the Wakunai Valley and the coastal plains north of Cape Mabiri require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach the nearest service centre.



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Income

Land potential

Incomes are high in the Wakunai Valley and on the coastal plains north of Cape Mabiri, and are derived from the sale of cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. People in the Crown Prince Range earn moderate incomes from similar activities, while people in the remainder of the district earn low incomes. As cocoa comes back into production, incomes should again become high to very high in most parts of the district. There are presently few non-agricultural sources of income in the district. However, the area is rich in resources and there is potential for income to be derived from royalties, wage employment and business opportunities associated with mining, forestry and plantation operations. Wage employment around Arawa and Kieta should also increase over time.

The land potential is very high on the volcanic plains and fans between Cape Nehus and Manetai. The land here is among the most productive in PNG. There is high land potential constrained by steep slopes in the inland valleys of the Lalaui, Aropa, Pinei, Arakawau, Vito and Wakunai rivers. The Crown Prince Range has low to moderate potential due to frequent cloud cover and steep slopes, while the coastal floodplains have low to moderate potential caused by poor soils and frequent inundation.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Sweet potato is the most important staple crop in the district. People in the Crown Prince Range, the Wakunai Valley and on the coastal plains north of Cape Mabiri cultivate moderate intensity gardens. In these areas 3–5 consecutive plantings are made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the inland valleys and on the coastal plains south of Cape Mabiri plant low intensity sweet potato gardens. Coconut is an important food in all areas of the district. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 38 per cent of children were stunted and two per cent were seriously under weight.



Agricultural pressure and potential There are areas of marginal agricultural pressure in the Crown Prince Range which will be of more concern in the future if agriculture continues to intensify without the adoption of suitable management practices. There is potential for agricultural development on the volcanic plains and fans between Cape Nehus and Manetai, where there is very high land potential and good access to markets. The areas of high and moderate land potential in the inland valleys are also well-suited to agricultural development. In this area, cocoa, copra, fresh food and betel nut are established cash crops, but other crops may have economic potential.

Disadvantaged people There are few disadvantaged people in the district according to the criteria used in this handbook. Overall, people in Central Bougainville District are slightly disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is little agricultural pressure, land potential is high, access to services is good and incomes are low.




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Population The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 57 000. The highest population densities are found on the small islands off the west coast of Buka Island where there are 300 persons/km2. The density on the Nissan, Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands is 150 persons/km2. Buka Island and the north coast of Bougainville Island have densities of 40 persons/km2, while the northeast coast of Bougainville Island has 25 persons/km2. The plains and valleys on the west coast of Bougainville have low densities of 14 persons/km2.

Access to services


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Airstrips: 4

Incomes are high on Buka and on the northeast coast of Bougainville and are derived from the sale of cocoa, copra, fresh food, betel nut and fish. People on the west coast of Bougainville earn moderate incomes from the same activities. As cocoa comes back into production, incomes should become very high on most of Bougainville. People in the Nissan Islands have low incomes, while those in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands have very low incomes derived from minor sales of fish and copra.

Subsistence agriculture and nutrition Agriculture on Buka and on most of Bougainville is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production. There are 3–5 consecutive plantings before a fallow period of 5–15 years. People in the Nissan Islands cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens, while those on the small islands west of Buka make high intensity sweet potato gardens. On the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands, agriculture is characterised by permanent stands of coconut and swamp taro, and high intensity cultivation of cassava and sweet potato. Coconut is an important food in all areas of the district. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 28 per cent of children were stunted and seven per cent were seriously under weight.

Land potential The land potential is very high on the east coast of Buka and on the northeast coast of Bougainville. There is high land potential in the Parkinson Range on Buka, on the northwest coast of Bougainville and on Taiof Island. The central plains of Buka Island have moderate potential limited by frequent cloud Major roads (km): 78


cover, and the northern inland valleys of Bougainville Island have moderate potential due to steep slopes and frequent cloud cover. The offshore islands have moderate potential constrained by poor soils.

Agricultural pressure and potential There is very strong agricultural pressure in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands. There is moderate pressure in central Buka Island and in the northern valleys of Bougainville Island, and there is marginal pressure in the Nissan Islands. There is potential for agricultural development on the east coast of Buka and on the northeast coast of Bougainville, where there is very high land potential and good access to markets. The areas of moderate and high land potential on Buka and Bougainville are also well-suited to agricultural development. Cocoa, copra, fresh food and betel nut are established cash crops, but other crops may have economic potential.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the very small numbers in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands who are constrained by very high population densities, very strong agricultural pressure, very low incomes and poor access to services. They are vulnerable to the effects of land shortages, land degradation, declining crop yields and food shortages, and have limited money to purchase supplementary food. These people are among the most disadvantaged people in PNG. Overall, people in North Bougainville District are not disadvantaged relative to people in other districts of PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is very high, access to services is good and cash incomes are high.




Bougainville Province

Buka Island and the northeast coast of Bougainville Island have a good network of roads and there is a road of lesser quality along the west coast from Siara to Kuraio. Roads are being improved following a lack of maintenance during the crisis. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are used in coastal areas and to travel between islands. People on Buka and on the north coast of Bougainville require less than four hours’ travel to reach Buka town. People on the west and east coasts of Bougainville and in the Nissan Islands require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Buka town, while those in the Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands are remote and require more than one day’s travel.

Income

North Bougainville District

North Bougainville District includes Buka Island and the northern third of Bougainville Island. The Nissan, Nuguria, Takuu, Nukumanu and Tulun islands are also part of the district. Most of these small islands are raised coral limestone plains. Average annual rainfall ranges from 2600 to 3300 millimetres. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2700 m on Mt Balbi.

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South Bougainville District

South Bougainville District covers the southern end of Bougainville Island. It includes the inland mountains and valleys of the Crown Prince Range, the extensive volcanic fans around Mt Taraka, the Deuro Range and the coastal floodplains and swamps, from Laruma Point on the west coast to Laluai Point on the southeast coast. Average annual rainfall ranges from 3200 mm near Torokina, to over 4000 mm on the volcanic fans around Boku and Buin. Altitude varies from sea level to over 2200 m on Mt Takaka. The border with the Solomon Islands is 10 km southeast of Tonolei Harbour.

Income

Population


The estimated rural population in the year 2000 is 55 000. The highest population densities of 35 persons/km2 are found on the volcanic fans, the Deuro Range, the hills around Tonolei Harbour and isolated settlements on the south coast. The Crown Prince Range and the Torokina and Laruma valleys on the west coast, have a density of 14 persons/km2.

Agriculture in the west of the district is characterised by moderate intensity sweet potato production, where 3–5 consecutive plantings are made before a fallow period of 5–15 years. In the upper Abia and Piria valleys, near Oria, people cultivate low intensity sweet potato gardens. Coconut is an important food in all areas of the district. In the 1982–83 National Nutrition Survey, malnutrition in children under five years was assessed as fair; 31 per cent of children were stunted and six per cent were seriously under weight.

Access to services The southernmost part of the district has a good network of roads and maintenance has improved over the past few years . Roads extend to the south coast at Patupatuai, Tokuagu, Mosigo, Aitara and Marau. Outboard motor boat and canoe travel are common in coastal areas. All people in the district require 4–8 hours’ travel to reach Arawa. Bougainville Province 292

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Airstrips: 5

Incomes are moderate in the entire district and are derived from the sale of cocoa and fresh food. As new cocoa plantings come into production, and old plantings are restored, incomes should become high to very high on the volcanic fans. There are presently few non-agricultural sources of income in the district. However, the area is rich in resources and there is potential for income to be derived from royalties, wage employment and business opportunities associated with mining, forestry and plantation operations.

Land potential The land potential is very high in the upper Abia and Piria valleys, east of Oria, but is constrained by high rainfall. There is high land potential in the inland valleys of the Crown Prince Range limited by steep slopes. The volcanic fans have moderate potential constrained by frequent cloud cover and

Major roads (km): 0


high rainfall, while the Deuro Range has moderate potential due to steep slopes and high rainfall. The coastal plains have very low to low potential caused by high rainfall, poor soils, frequent flooding and excessive cloud cover.

Agricultural pressure and potential Areas of marginal and moderate agricultural pressure occur throughout the district. There is potential for agricultural development in the upper Abia and Piria valleys, east of Oria, where there is very high land potential and good access to markets. The areas of moderate and high land potential in the inland valleys of the Crown Prince Range and on the volcanic fans are also well-suited to agricultural development. Road access to the inland valleys in the north of the district will need to be improved to realise the full potential of the area. Cocoa and fresh food production are established smallholder cash-earning activities.

Disadvantaged people The most disadvantaged people in the district are the large numbers on the southwestern volcanic plains and fans who are constrained by moderate agricultural pressure. Overall, people in South Bougainville District are moderately disadvantaged relative to people in other districts in PNG. There is some agricultural pressure, land potential is moderate, access to services is moderate and cash incomes are moderate.




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National Overview

Tobacco leaves dry on the wall of a house. Tobacco is commonly grown in PNG for home use and sale in local markets. It is sometimes traded over long distances. Tobacco is grown in all regions of the country, but is more commonly found in inland locations between altitudes of 400 and 1200 metres.

Betel nut palms. Betel nut is widely grown in lowland PNG and a related species is grown in several highland areas. It is an important source of cash income in areas with good road or river access to Port Moresby and the Highlands Highway, as well as areas near major urban centres such as Kokopo and Madang. Over the past decade, there have been extensive new plantings of betel nut in many areas as demand continues to grow.

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Population

Approximately 25 per cent of rural land is occupied by semi-subsistence farmers, while the remaining 75 per cent is unoccupied. Most occupied land has low population densities.

Inset 1

Population densities are increasing in many areas due to high fertility rates, significant in-migration and little expansion of occupied land.

Kilometres 0

100

200

The highest population densities are in the central highland valleys, some lowland areas, and on a number of small islands.

400


Population density


Low (1–20 persons/km2)


Moderate (21–60 persons/km2)

Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

High (61–100 persons/km2) Very high (101–600 persons/km2)

Estimated year 2000 rural population 736 800 1 479 400 812 600 1 003 800

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Inset 1

Access to services

People with the worst access to services live in the fringe areas of the highlands, in much of Sandaun Province, in inland eastern Papua and in the interior of New Britain.

People living in the highland valleys and near major towns generally have good access to services.

Kilometres 0

100

200

400

> 1 day’s travel to service centre 4–8 hrs travel to minor service centre 4–8 hrs travel to major service centre 1–4 hrs travel to major service centre < 1 hrs travel to major regional centre Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

Access to services Very poor (>1 day's travel to a service centre) Poor (4–8 hrs travel to a minor service centre) Moderate (4–8 hrs travel to a major service centre) Good (1–4 hrs travel to a major service centre) Very good ( 200 kina/person/year) Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

Very low (0–20 kina/person/year) Low (21–40 kina/person/year) Moderate (41–100 kina/person/year) High (101–200 kina/person/year) Very high (>200 kina/person/year)

1 424 000 769 000 824 200 746 600 268 800

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Inset 1

Kilometres 0

100

200

400

Low intensity (R-values of 1–27) Moderate intensity (R-values of 28–50) High intensity (R-values of 51–100) Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

Est. 2000 population

Mixed staples Banana Banana/cassava Banana/Chinese taro Banana/sago Banana/sweet potato Banana/yam Cassava Cassava/Chinese taro Cassava/sweet potato Chinese taro Chinese taro/sweet potato Chinese taro/taro Coconut with mixed staples Coconut with swamp taro Sago Sago with sweet potato Sago with taro Sweet potato Sweet potato/taro Sweet potato/yam Taro Taro/yam Yam Agricultural intensity

This map is different from the provincial maps as there are too many staple crop classes to present at the national level. The table of staple crops clearly shows the importance of sweet potato, which is the single dominant staple for over two million rural people.

352 300 273 900 4300 7200 8200 88 300 16 300 8700 7900 26 700 48 100 35 300 16 800 1800 2300 428 100 19 800 400 2 270 200 158 600 48 500 17 700 71 900 119 400


Staple crop

Est. 2000 pop.

Low (R-values of 1–27) Moderate (R-values of 28–50) High (R-values of 51–100)

2 312 700 902 400 817 600

Over 50 per cent of the rural population practice low intensity agriculture, defined here as where land is cropped for up to a quarter of the entire cultivation cycle (sum of the cropping and fallow periods). Intensity increases when the number of plantings increase or the length of the fallow period shortens. 297

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Land potential

Approximately 40 per cent of the rural population live in environments with very low to low land potential. These people are constrained by some combination of poor soil, high rainfall, steep slopes, excessive cloud cover, frequent flooding, and low temperatures.

Most of the unoccupied land in the country has very low to low land potential.

Inset 1

Approximately 35 per cent of the rural population live in environments with high to very high land potential. People in these areas often improve their land through practices such as drainage, composting, mounding and legume rotation. Kilometres

0

100

200

400

Land potential Very high potential High potential Moderate potential Low potential

Very low potential Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

Very low Low Moderate High Very high

Estimated year 2000 rural population 188 800 1 404 100 1 072 000 442 800 922 200

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Inset 1

There are a number of areas that have high potential for further agricultural development, but this depends on the availability of relevant information, suitable marketing arrangements and reliable transport. Strong environmental contrasts over short distances often create potential for marketing local produce such as fresh food and fruit.

Kilometres 0

100

200

400

Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Occupied land Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries


Approximately 25 per cent of the rural population, most of whom live in the highlands, are vulnerable to the effects of agricultural pressure. Examples include land degradation, declining crop yields and subsistence food shortages.

Agricultural pressure and potential Very strong agricultural pressure Strong agricultural pressure Moderate agricultural pressure Marginal agricultural pressure High agricultural potential Very high agricultural potential Other occupied land

Estimated year 2000 rural population 2300 265 900 499 700 337 200 921 700 unoccupied 2 000 800 299

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The most disadvantaged people in the country live in the fringe areas of the highlands, in most of Sandaun province, in the interior of New Britain and on a number of small islands in Bougainville Province.

Inset 1

This map is a summary of the 14 classes presented in the provincial maps. The four classes represent various combinations of constraints such as low potential environment, strong agricultural pressure, very low income and poor access to services.

Kilometres 0

100

200

400

Strongly disadvantaged (three constraints) Moderately disadvantaged (two constraints)


Estimated year 2000 rural population

Marginally disadvantaged (one constraint) Not disadvantaged (no constraints) Unoccupied land Lake Province boundaries

Strongly disadvantaged Moderately disadvantaged Marginally disadvantaged Not disadvantaged

113 800 629 300 1 707 700 1 581 700

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District Comparisons

Men sell fresh food at a market near Tari. This market near Tari in Southern Highlands Province is unusual because women are generally the main sellers of fresh food at local markets. Sales of fresh food, both traditional and introduced types, provided cash incomes to more rural Papua New Guineans in the mid 1990s (over three million people) than any other single source. The total value of fresh food sales is exceeded only by oil palm and Arabica coffee.

A vegetable garden in Enga Province. Fresh vegetables are grown at high altitude locations in Enga Province. The vegetables are intended for distant markets, in regional centres such as Mt Hagen, Goroka, Port Moresby and Lae. There is considerable scope for expansion of fresh food marketing in PNG.

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Background The final chapter of this handbook summarises the detail presented in the district summaries from a sub-district level to a district level. This creates a framework for comparing districts that can be used by international donors and all levels of government within PNG to better target the distribution of resources. Five of the parameters described in the handbook are first ranked individually from worst to best. These attributes are then combined to create a ‘disadvantage index’, which is used to rank districts from most disadvantaged to least disadvantaged. This is not the first attempt to identify disadvantaged districts or areas in PNG. During the mid to late 1970s, the PNG National Planning Office based their Public Expenditure Plan in part on the identification of ‘less developed areas’ (National Planning Office, 1980). One outcome of this analysis was the funding of integrated rural development projects in many of the identified areas. More recently, the 1998 Human Development Report presented a provincial level ‘human development index’ based on factors such as life expectancy, education and living standards (McKay et al., 1999). The two most comprehensive studies of disadvantaged districts were published by Wilson (1974) and de Albuquerque and D’Sa (1986). Wilson used six indicators to identify the level of socio-economic development for each subdistrict. The indicators were smallholder cash crop production, hospital beds per 1000 people, administration staff per 1000 people, enrolments at primary and secondary schools per 1000 people, accessibility to the district headquarters, and the level of local government services. The second

study by de Albuquerque and D’Sa used complex statistical analyses to identify ‘least developed’ districts based on measures of population density, sex ratios, dependency ratios, urbanisation, internal migration, employment, cash income, education, health and accessibility. Neither of these studies considered environmental quality or land potential, which is an important factor in determining where and how rural people live. They were also based on the pre-1995 Organic Law district boundaries that are no longer in use.

The method The classification of disadvantaged districts incorporates a balance of environmental, social and economic data, to better reflect the factors that create disparities between rural people. Ideally, this classification should use the same socioeconomic parameters as the previous studies, to foster an understanding of how specific conditions are changing over time. However, most of the data used in the previous studies is no longer available in a consistent form for all provinces. The handbook uses the following five parameters to classify disadvantaged districts. • Land potential • Agricultural pressure • Access to services • Income from agriculture • Child malnutrition These parameters were identified through a number of collaborative workshops with researchers from the National Agricultural Research Institute in Lae. Details on how these parameters were derived are presented in Chapter 2 (pages 19–24).

The classification method used to derive the disadvantage index is relatively simple and transparent. It is designed to allow users to track back through the classification stages to see how the final values were generated. First, all census points and population values from the 1980 National Population Census were digitised. These census points were then allocated to the combined MASP/ PNGRIS mapping unit used in the handbook, so that each mapping unit had a 1980 population. This was then updated to an estimated population for the year 2000 based on the growth rate derived from differences between the 1980 and 1990 census figures. Each parameter was then classified into the same five classes used in the provincial maps (see Table 1). Income from agriculture, for example, was classified into a range that represents very low, low, moderate, high and very high income. These classes were assigned a working value of one to five, where a value of one was the worst, or most constraining, and a value of five was the best, or least constraining. With the classification structure in place, the estimated populations for the year 2000 were summed for each class of each parameter in every district. This process spread the rural population of each district over the classes of each parameter. In some cases, the entire district population fell into one class, while in other cases the district population was spread over all five classes. From this, the most representative class for each parameter was derived based on the distribution of the population. Many techniques could be used to identify the most representative class. In this case, the location of the median person was used, and the working value from the identified class progressed to the final stage

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of the classification. The median person was defined as the mid-point of the total district population. Table 2 demonstrates this process. It is important to note that data resolution was lost at this point due to the process of smoothing or generalising. The child malnutrition data was already summarised to the district level, as explained in Chapter 2 and seen in Appendix 2a and 2b.

In the final stage of the classification, the five working values were added together to produce the disadvantage index for each district. The lowest total reflects the most disadvantaged district, while the highest total reflects the least disadvantaged district. Table 3 provides a worked example of this process. The final values were classified into five relatively even classes that represent districts that

Parameter

Class

Land potential

Very low

1

Low

2

Moderate

3

High

4

Very high

5

Very strong pressure

1

Strong pressure

2

Moderate pressure

3

Marginal pressure

4

No pressure

5

Very poor access

1

Poor access

2

Moderate access

3

Good access

4

Very good access

5

Income class

Very low

1

Working value

Low

2

Population

Moderate

3

High

4

The total population of Wabag District is 77 790 and the mid-point of this population, or the median person, is 38 895. This person is located in the moderate class, which has a working value of 3. Therefore, the moderate class best represents income levels in this district and the working value of 3 is used to generate the disadvantage index.

Very high

5

Very serious

1

Serious

2

Poor

3

Fair

4

Relatively low

5

Agricultural pressure

Access to services

Income

Child malnutrition

Working value

Table 2: Examples of the method used to identify the most representative income class for each district, based on the location of the mid-point of the total population, or the median person. While these examples are for income, the most representative classes for land potential, agricultural pressure and access to services were defined in the same way. Income class Working value Population

Very low

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

1

2

3

4

5

2077

21 174

10 295

1456

4086


Table 1: Input parameters, classes and working values that are used to generate the disadvantage index for each district.

The total population of Lufa District is 39 088 and the mid-point of this population, or the median person, is 19 544. This person is located in the low class, which has a working value of 2. Therefore, the low class best represents income levels in this district and the working value of 2 is used to generate the disadvantage index.

Income class Working value Population

Very low

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

1

2

3

4

5

9950

7754

60 086

Very low

Low

Moderate

High

Very high

1

2

3

4

5

1309

0

1891

45 932

37 814

The total population of Talasea District is 86 946 and the mid-point of this population, or the median person, is 43 473. This person is located in the high class, which has a working value of 4. Therefore, the high class best represents income levels in this district and the working value of 4 is used to generate the disadvantage index. 303

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Table 3: Examples of the method used to derive the disadvantage index for each district, based on the addition of the five working values. In the case of Telefomin District, the index value is 11 (2+5+1+1+2 = 11). District

Land potential


Access to services

Income

Child malnutrition

Disadvantage index

Telefomin

2

5

1

1

2

11

Kandep

2

2

3

2

3

12

Bogia

3

5

3

2

3

16

Talasea

3

4

4

4

5

20

Gazelle

5

5

5

5

5

25

are ‘extremely disadvantaged’ (index values of 11-13), ‘seriously disadvantaged’ (index values of 14-15), ‘moderately disadvantaged’ (index values of 16-17), ‘slightly disadvantaged’ (index values of 18-19) and ‘not disadvantaged’ (index values of 20-25). These are the classes that are referred to in the final paragraph of each district summary.

The input parameters Tables 4–8 present a comparison of district working values for land potential, agricultural pressure, access to services, income from agriculture and child malnutrition. A value of one is the worst or most constraining, while a value of five is the best or least constraining. Refer to Appendices 3a-3h on the digital version of this handbook at http://rspas.anu.edu.au/lmp/ for the estimated 2000 population of each class.

The disadvantage index The disadvantage index values range from 11 to 25. It is important to note that while some districts have the same value, the combination of working

values can be different. Table 9 presents the 85 rural districts, sorted from the most disadvantaged to the least disadvantaged. Each input parameter is included to illustrate how each district total was derived. The least disadvantaged district in the country is Gazelle in East New Britain Province. The 17 districts in the ‘not disadvantaged’ class contain 910 000 people or 23 per cent of the national rural population. There is a clear geographic pattern associated with these districts. Eight are located in the fertile valleys of Western Highlands Province and adjacent areas in Enga and Simbu provinces; three are located in the fertile valleys of Eastern Highlands Province; and three are located in the fertile northeast lowlands of the Gazelle Peninsula in East New Britain Province. At the opposite end of the scale, the two most disadvantaged districts in PNG are Middle Ramu in Madang Province and Telefomin in Sandaun Province. The 13 districts in the ‘extremely disadvantaged’ class contain 606 000 people or 15

per cent of the national rural population. The location of these 13 districts also has a clear geographic pattern. Six are in fringe areas of the central highlands and five are in inland areas of the lowlands. Another clear pattern associated with these districts is their location adjacent to provincial borders, particularly in the area around Morobe, Madang, East Sepik, Sandaun, Western, Southern Highlands, Enga and Gulf provinces. People in these border areas are commonly neglected by all provincial administrations. Of the 20 most disadvantaged districts identified here, 17 were identified by the studies of either Wilson (1974) or de Albuquerque and D’Sa (1986), and 12 districts were identified by all three studies (see Table 10). These are Middle Ramu, Telefomin, Pomio, Finschhafen, Koroba-Lake Kopiago, LagaipPorgera, Menyamya, Nipa-Kutubu, North Fly, Rai Coast, Goilala and Vanimo-Green River. The strong correlation between these three independent studies is notable, particularly because they were conducted at different times over a period of 25 years using different assumptions, data and methods. Moreover, the correlation suggests that there are chronic problems in these districts as the living standards of people are not improving relative to people in other districts. This is most likely due to the two fundamental constraints of low potential environments and poor access to services and markets. These constraints inhibit the ability of people to raise household incomes. Low education levels and remoteness also mean that the communities remain marginalised and unable to exert effective influence on political and administrative processes.

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District name

Land potential

District name

Land potential

District name

Land potential

District name

Land potential

Angoram

2

North Fly

2

Lufa

3

Tari

4

Finschhafen

2

Obura-Wonenara

2

Madang

3

Vanimo-Green River

4

Goilala

2

Pomio

2

Manus

3

Yangoru-Saussia

4

Henganofi

2

Rai Coast

2

Markham

3


5

Huon Gulf

2

Rigo

2

Mendi

3

Dei

5

Jimi

2


2

Middle Fly

3

Gazelle

5

Kabwum

2

South Fly

2

Namatanai

3

Goroka

5

Kagua-Erave

2

Telefomin

2

Okapa

3

Hagen

5

Kainantu

2

Usino-Bundi

2

Samarai-Murua

3

Kerowagi

5

Kairuku-Hiri

2

Abau

3

South Bougainville

3

Kokopo

5

Kandep

2

Alotau

3

Talasea

3

North Bougainville

5

Karimui-Nomane

2

Bogia

3

Tewai-Siassi

3

North Wahgi

5

Kerema

2

Bulolo

3

Unggai-Bena

3

Nuku

5

Kikori

2

Chuave

3

Wabag

3

Rabaul

5

Kompiam-Ambum

2

Daulo

3

Wewak

3

Sohe

5

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

2

Gumine

3

Aitape-Lumi

4

Sumkar

5

Kundiawa

2

Ialibu-Pangia

3

Ambunti-Dreikikir

4

Tambul-Nebilyer

5

Lagaip-Porgera

2

Ijivitari

3

Baiyer-Mul

4

Wapenamanda

5

Menyamya

2

Kandrian-Gloucester

3


4

Wosera-Gaui

5

Middle Ramu

2

Kavieng

3

Esa’ala

4

Nawae

2

Kiriwina-Goodenough

3

Imbonggu

4

Nipa-Kutubu

2

Komo-Margarima

3

Maprik

4


Table 4: Ranking of districts, from worst to best, based on land potential working values. These values reflect the land potential class that is most representative of the district population. A value of 2 represents low land potential; a value of 3 represents moderate land potential; a value of 4 represents high land potential; and a value of 5 represents very high land potential. Refer to page 23 for more details.

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Table 5: Ranking of districts, from worst to best, based on agricultural pressure working values. These values reflect the agricultural pressure class that is most representative of the district population. A value of 2 represents strong agricultural pressure; a value of 3 represents moderate agricultural pressure; a value of 4 represents marginal agricultural pressure; and a value of 5 represents no agricultural pressure. Refer to page 23 for more details. District name


District name


District name


District name


Kandep

2

Angoram

5

Karimui-Nomane

5

Okapa

5

Henganofi

3

Baiyer-Mul

5

Kavieng

5

Pomio

5

Kainantu

3

Bogia

5

Kerema

5

Rabaul

5

Kairuku-Hiri

3

Bulolo

5

Kerowagi

5

Rai Coast

5

Kompiam-Ambum

3


5

Kikori

5

Samarai-Murua

5

Kundiawa

3

Chuave

5

Kokopo

5

Sohe

5

Lagaip-Porgera

3

Daulo

5

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

5

South Fly

5

Mendi

3

Dei

5

Lufa

5

Sumkar

5

Nipa-Kutubu

3

Esa’ala

5

Madang

5

Tambul-Nebilyer

5


3

Finschhafen

5

Manus

5

Tari

5

South Bougainville

3

Gazelle

5

Maprik

5

Telefomin

5

Gumine

4

Goilala

5

Markham

5

Tewai-Siassi

5

Kiriwina-Goodenough

4

Goroka

5

Menyamya

5

Unggai-Bena

5

Komo-Margarima

4

Hagen

5

Middle Fly

5

Usino-Bundi

5

Rigo

4

Huon Gulf

5

Middle Ramu

5

Vanimo-Green River

5

Talasea

4

Ialibu-Pangia

5

Namatanai

5

Wapenamanda

5

Wabag

4

Ijivitari

5

Nawae

5

Wewak

5

Abau

5

Imbonggu

5

North Bougainville

5

Wosera-Gaui

5

Aitape-Lumi

5

Jimi

5

North Fly

5

Yangoru-Saussia

5

Alotau

5

Kabwum

5

North Wahgi

5

Ambunti-Dreikikir

5

Kagua-Erave

5

Nuku

5


5

Kandrian-Gloucester

5

Obura-Wonenara

5

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District name

Access to services

District name

Access to services

District name

Access to services

District name

Access to services

Telefomin

1

Kerema

3

Abau

4

North Bougainville

4

Alotau

2

Kikori

3


4

North Wahgi

4

Jimi

2

Kiriwina-Goodenough

3

Baiyer-Mul

4

Rigo

4

Kandrian-Gloucester

2

Komo-Margarima

3

Bulolo

4


4

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

2

Kompiam-Ambum

3


4

Sohe

4

Middle Ramu

2

Manus

3

Chuave

4

Talasea

4

Pomio

2

Menyamya

3

Gumine

4

Tambul-Nebilyer

4

Usino-Bundi

2

Middle Fly

3

Henganofi

4

Unggai-Bena

4

Vanimo-Green River

2

Namatanai

3

Imbonggu

4

Wabag

4

Aitape-Lumi

3

Nawae

3

Kagua-Erave

4

Wapenamanda

4

Ambunti-Dreikikir

3

North Fly

3

Kainantu

4

Wosera-Gaui

4

Angoram

3

Nuku

3

Kairuku-Hiri

4

Yangoru-Saussia

4

Bogia

3

Obura-Wonenara

3

Kavieng

4

Daulo

5

Esa’ala

3

Okapa

3

Kerowagi

4

Dei

5

Finschhafen

3

Rai Coast

3

Kundiawa

4

Gazelle

5

Goilala

3

Samarai-Murua

3

Lagaip-Porgera

4

Goroka

5

Huon Gulf

3

South Bougainville

3

Lufa

4

Hagen

5

Ialibu-Pangia

3

South Fly

3

Madang

4

Kokopo

5

Ijivitari

3

Sumkar

3

Maprik

4

Rabaul

5

Kabwum

3

Tari

3

Markham

4

Kandep

3

Tewai-Siassi

3

Mendi

4

Karimui-Nomane

3

Wewak

3

Nipa-Kutubu

4


Table 6: Ranking of districts, from worst to best, based on access to services working values. These values reflect the access to services class that is most representative of the district population. A value of 1 represents very poor access to services; a value of 2 represents poor access to services; a value of 3 represents moderate access to services; a value of 4 represents good access to services; and a value of 5 represents very good access to services. Refer to page 21 for more details.

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Table 7: Ranking of districts, from worst to best, based on income from agriculture working values. These values reflect the income from agriculture class that is most representative of the district population. A value of 1 represents very low income from agriculture; a value of 2 represents low income from agriculture; a value of 3 represents moderate income from agriculture; a value of 4 represents high income from agriculture; and a value of 5 represents very high income from agriculture. Refer to page 21 for more details. District name

Income from agriculture

District name


District name


District name


Aitape-Lumi

1

Usino-Bundi

1

South Fly

2

Dei

4

Finschhafen

1

Vanimo-Green River

1

Wewak

2

Goroka

4

Imbonggu

1

Abau

2

Wosera-Gaui

2

Hagen

4

Kagua-Erave

1

Alotau

2

Yangoru-Saussia

2

Henganofi

4

Kandrian-Gloucester

1

Ambunti-Dreikikir

2

Bulolo

3

Kainantu

4

Komo-Margarima

1

Angoram

2

Huon Gulf

3

Kavieng

4

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

1

Baiyer-Mul

2

Ialibu-Pangia

3

Kerowagi

4

Kundiawa

1

Bogia

2

Kabwum

3

Manus

4

Lagaip-Porgera

1


2

Kairuku-Hiri

3

Namatanai

4

Mendi

1

Chuave

2

Kerema

3

North Bougainville

4

Menyamya

1

Esa’ala

2

Kikori

3

North Wahgi

4

Middle Fly

1

Goilala

2

Kiriwina-Goodenough

3

Sohe

4

Middle Ramu

1

Gumine

2

Madang

3

Sumkar

4

Nipa-Kutubu

1

Ijivitari

2

Maprik

3

Talasea

4

North Fly

1

Jimi

2

Obura-Wonenara

3

Unggai-Bena

4

Nuku

1

Kandep

2

Okapa

3

Gazelle

5

Pomio

1

Karimui-Nomane

2

South Bougainville

3

Kokopo

5

Rai Coast

1

Kompiam-Ambum

2

Tambul-Nebilyer

3

Markham

5

Rigo

1

Lufa

2

Wabag

3

Rabaul

5

Tari

1

Nawae

2

Wapenamanda

3

Telefomin

1

Samarai-Murua

2


4

Tewai-Siassi

1


2

Daulo

4

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District name

Child malnutrition

District name

Child malnutrition

District name

Child malnutrition

District name

Child malnutrition

Middle Ramu

1

Vanimo-Green River

2

Sohe

3

Kundiawa

4

Nuku

1

Wosera-Gaui

2

South Fly

3

Lufa

4

Alotau

2

Abau

3

Tari

3

Manus

4

Ambunti-Dreikikir

2

Aitape-Lumi

3

Tewai-Siassi

3

Namatanai

4

Esa’ala

2

Angoram

3

Wewak

3

North Bougainville

4

Finschhafen

2

Bogia

3

Yangoru-Saussia

3

Rabaul

4

Goilala

2

Bulolo

3


4


4

Kabwum

2

Jimi

3


4

South Bougainville

4

Kerema

2

Kagua-Erave

3

Chuave

4

Wabag

4

Kiriwina-Goodenough

2

Kairuku-Hiri

3

Dei

4

Baiyer-Mul

5

Maprik

2

Kandep

3

Gumine

4

Daulo

5

Markham

2

Kavieng

3

Henganofi

4

Gazelle

5

Menyamya

2

Kikori

3

Huon Gulf

4

Goroka

5

North Fly

2

Kompiam-Ambum

3

Ialibu-Pangia

4

Hagen

5

Obura-Wonenara

2

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

3

Ijivitari

4

North Wahgi

5

Okapa

2

Lagaip-Porgera

3

Imbonggu

4

Talasea

5

Pomio

2

Madang

3

Kainantu

4

Tambul-Nebilyer

5

Rai Coast

2

Mendi

3

Kandrian-Gloucester

4

Unggai-Bena

5

Samarai-Murua

2

Middle Fly

3

Karimui-Nomane

4

Wapenamanda

5

Sumkar

2

Nawae

3

Kerowagi

4

Telefomin

2

Nipa-Kutubu

3

Kokopo

4

Usino-Bundi

2

Rigo

3

Komo-Margarima

4


Table 8: Ranking of districts, from worst to best, based on child malnutrition working values. These values reflect the child malnutrition class that is most representative of the district population. A value of 1 represents very serious child malnutrition; a value of 2 represents serious child malnutrition; a value of 3 represents poor child malnutrition; a value of 4 represents fair child malnutrition; and a value of 5 represents relatively low child malnutrition. Refer to page 22 for more details.

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Table 9: Ranking of districts, from most disadvantaged to least disadvantaged, based on the disadvantage index. The working values for the five input parameters are included to demonstrate how each index value was derived (ie. land potential + agricultural pressure + access to services + income from agriculture + child malnutrition = disadvantage index). Legend: extremely disadvantaged; seriously disadvantaged; moderately disadvantaged; slightly disadvantaged; not disadvantaged. Province name

District name

Land potential


Access to services


Child malnutrition

Disadvantage index

Rank

Madang

Middle Ramu

2

5

2

1

1

11

1

Sandaun

Telefomin

2

5

1

1

2

11

1

Enga

Kandep

2

2

3

2

3

12

3

East New Britain

Pomio

2

5

2

1

2

12

3

Madang

Usino-Bundi

2

5

2

1

2

12

3

Morobe

Finschhafen

2

5

3

1

2

13

6

Enga

Kompiam-Ambum

2

3

3

2

3

13

6

Southern Highlands

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

2

5

2

1

3

13

6

Enga

Lagaip-Porgera

2

3

4

1

3

13

6

Morobe

Menyamya

2

5

3

1

2

13

6

Southern Highlands

Nipa-Kutubu

2

3

4

1

3

13

6

Western

North Fly

2

5

3

1

2

13

6

Madang

Rai Coast

2

5

3

1

2

13

6

Milne Bay

Alotau

3

5

2

2

2

14

14

Central

Goilala

2

5

3

2

2

14

14

Western Highlands

Jimi

2

5

2

2

3

14

14

Simbu

Kundiawa

2

3

4

1

4

14

14

Southern Highlands

Mendi

3

3

4

1

3

14

14

Central

Rigo

2

4

4

1

3

14

14

Sandaun

Vanimo-Green River

4

5

2

1

2

14

14

East Sepik

Angoram

2

5

3

2

3

15

21

Morobe

Kabwum

2

5

3

3

2

15

21

Southern Highlands

Kagua-Erave

2

5

4

1

3

15

21

Central

Kairuku-Hiri

2

3

4

3

3

15

21

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Province name

District name

Land potential


Access to services


Child malnutrition

Disadvantage index

Rank

West New Britain

Kandrian-Gloucester

3

5

2

1

4

15

21

Gulf

Kerema

2

5

3

3

2

15

21

Milne Bay

Kiriwina-Goodenough

3

4

3

3

2

15

21

Southern Highlands

Komo-Margarima

3

4

3

1

4

15

21

Western

Middle Fly

3

5

3

1

3

15

21

Morobe

Nawae

2

5

3

2

3

15

21

Sandaun

Nuku

5

5

3

1

1

15

21

Eastern Highlands

Obura-Wonenara

2

5

3

3

2

15

21

Milne Bay

Samarai-Murua

3

5

3

2

2

15

21

Simbu


2

3

4

2

4

15

21

Western

South Fly

2

5

3

2

3

15

21

Morobe

Tewai-Siassi

3

5

3

1

3

15

21

Sandaun

Aitape-Lumi

4

5

3

1

3

16

37

East Sepik

Ambunti-Dreikikir

4

5

3

2

2

16

37

Madang

Bogia

3

5

3

2

3

16

37

Milne Bay

Esa’ala

4

5

3

2

2

16

37

Simbu

Karimui-Nomane

2

5

3

2

4

16

37

Gulf

Kikori

2

5

3

3

3

16

37

Eastern Highlands

Okapa

3

5

3

3

2

16

37

Bougainville

South Bougainville

3

3

3

3

4

16

37

Southern Highlands

Tari

4

5

3

1

3

16

37

East Sepik

Wewak

3

5

3

2

3

16

37

Central

Abau

3

5

4

2

3

17

47

Simbu

Gumine

3

4

4

2

4

17

47

Eastern Highlands

Henganofi

2

3

4

4

4

17

47


Table 9: (continued).

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Table 9: (continued). Province name

District name

Land potential


Access to services


Child malnutrition

Disadvantage index

Rank

Morobe

Huon Gulf

2

5

3

3

4

17

47

Oro

Ijivitari

3

5

3

2

4

17

47

Eastern Highlands

Kainantu

2

3

4

4

4

17

47

Morobe

Bulolo

3

5

4

3

3

18

53

Simbu

Chuave

3

5

4

2

4

18

53

Southern Highlands

Ialibu-Pangia

3

5

3

3

4

18

53

Southern Highlands

Imbonggu

4

5

4

1

4

18

53

Eastern Highlands

Lufa

3

5

4

2

4

18

53

Madang

Madang

3

5

4

3

3

18

53

East Sepik

Maprik

4

5

4

3

2

18

53

Enga

Wabag

3

4

4

3

4

18

53

East Sepik

Wosera-Gaui

5

5

4

2

2

18

53

East Sepik

Yangoru-Saussia

4

5

4

2

3

18

53

Bougainville


4

5

4

2

4

19

63

New Ireland

Kavieng

3

5

4

4

3

19

63

Manus

Manus

3

5

3

4

4

19

63

Morobe

Markham

3

5

4

5

2

19

63

New Ireland

Namatanai

3

5

3

4

4

19

63

Madang

Sumkar

5

5

3

4

2

19

63

Western Highlands

Baiyer-Mul

4

5

4

2

5

20

69

West New Britain

Talasea

3

4

4

4

5

20

69

Oro

Sohe

5

5

4

4

3

21

71

Eastern Highlands

Unggai-Bena

3

5

4

4

5

21

71

Western Highlands


5

5

4

4

4

22

73

Eastern Highlands

Daulo

3

5

5

4

5

22

73

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Province name

District name

Land potential


Access to services


Child malnutrition

Disadvantage index

Rank

Simbu

Kerowagi

5

5

4

4

4

22

73

Bougainville

North Bougainville

5

5

4

4

4

22

73

Western Highlands

Tambul-Nebilyer

5

5

4

3

5

22

73

Enga

Wapenamanda

5

5

4

3

5

22

73

Western Highlands

Dei

5

5

5

4

5

23

79

Western Highlands

North Wahgi

5

5

4

4

5

23

79

Eastern Highlands

Goroka

5

5

5

4

5

24

81

Western Highlands

Hagen

5

5

5

4

5

24

81

East New Britain

Kokopo

5

5

5

5

4

24

81

East New Britain

Rabaul

5

5

5

5

4

24

81

East New Britain

Gazelle

5

5

5

5

5

25

85

Recommendations While the handbook has not attempted to provide solutions to the predicament of disadvantaged people in PNG, the following are some key recommendations that may improve their standard of living. 1. By formally incorporating ‘disadvantaged districts’ into a national policy, governments could begin to address the inequalities identified in this handbook. 2. National and provincial government policy could be implemented to support service providers, such as health workers and teachers, who work in disadvantaged districts. Incentives such as salary loadings, housing, education assistance and better communications could be provided to encourage workers to commit to their positions.

3. Access needs to be improved for people in remote areas. Planning and securing funds for on-going maintenance of roads would provide sustained benefits and a good source of local employment. Other possible initiatives include subsidies to third-level airlines to service communities living in remote areas, support for local shipping in island and coastal areas, and support for local communities to maintain airstrips and wharves. 4. Many children in remote areas suffer from malnutrition. By providing sources of income and education, particularly to mothers, the consumption of foods which are high in energy and protein could be increased. This would improve child nutrition.


Table 9: (continued).

5. With effective research, planning and implementation, suitable alternative cash crops could be identified. Consideration of agronomic techniques, crop protection, transport, marketing and value-to-weight ratios would ensure that identified crops are appropriate for respective areas. Private enterprise, with support from government, could carry out the promotion and marketing of identified crops to ensure that the enterprise is economically viable. 6. The flow of information to people in remote areas is critical for informed decision making. By developing reliable mechanisms to inform people in remote areas about issues such as primary health care, cash crop production, marketing and improved land management, people will have better opportunities to improve their standard of living. 313

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Table 10: A comparison of the 20 most disadvantaged districts (index values of 11-14) identified by this handbook (2001) with those identified by de Albuquerque and D’Sa (1986) and Wilson (1974). Note that the changes in district names and boundaries since 1975 have been accounted for. The strong correlation suggests that the living standards of people in the most disadvantaged districts have not improved over the last 25 years, relative to people in other districts. Rural Development Handbook (2001)

de Albuquerque and D’Sa (1986)

Wilson (1974)

Middle Ramu

Ramu

Ramu

Telefomin

Telefomin

Telefomin

Kandep

Kandep

Pomio

Pomio

Usino-Bundi

Ramu

Finschhafen

Finschhafen

Finschhafen

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

Koroba

Koroba and Lake Kopiago

Lagaip-Porgera

Lagaip

Lagaip

Menyamya

Menyamya

Menyamya

Nipa-Kutubu

Nipa

Nipa

North Fly

Kiunga

Kiunga

Rai Coast

Rai Coast

Saidor

Pomio

Kompiam-Ambum

Alotau

Baniara

Goilala

Goilala

Jimi

Jimi

Goilala

Kundiawa Mendi Rigo

Rigo

Vanimo-Green River

Amanab

Amanab

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References

An intensive banana garden in Gulf Province. Banana is the most important food crop in some lowland areas of Gulf, Central, Western, Morobe and East New Britain provinces. There are many varieties of banana grown in PNG, including triploid types which produce for up to 20 years if managed properly.

Steep slope gardens with soil retention barriers and planted casuarina fallows in Simbu Province. Intensive agriculture on land constrained by steep slopes has resulted in land degradation in many parts of the highlands. In some cases, slope gradients are as high as 50 degrees and villagers make soil retention barriers to help reduce soil erosion. The casuarina trees are planted to restore soil fertility and to provide timber for fuel and construction.

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References

Allen, B.J., Bourke, R.M. and Hanson, L. (2001). Dimensions of PNG village agriculture. In: R.M. Bourke, M.G. Allen and J.G. Salisbury (eds). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, PNG University of Technology, Lae. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. pp. 529-553.

Gibson, J. (2001). The economic and nutritional importance of household food production in PNG. In: R.M. Bourke, M.G. Allen and J.G. Salisbury (eds). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. pp. 37-44.

Margules, C.R. and Redhead, T.D. (1995). BioRap: Guidelines for Using the BioRap Methodology and Tools. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization and the World Bank BioRap Project, Canberra.

Bellamy, J.A. (1986). Papua New Guinea Inventory of Natural Resources, Population Distribution and Land Use: Handbook. Division of Water and Land Resources, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Melbourne.

Hanson, L.W., Bourke, R.M., Allen, B.J. and McCarthy, T.J. (2001). Mapping Land Resource Potential and Agricultural Pressure in Papua New Guinea: an Outline of New Methods to Assist Rural Planning. ACIAR Technical Reports No. 50. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.

Mueller, I. (2001). The spatial pattern of child growth in PNG. In: R.M. Bourke, M.G. Allen and J.G. Salisbury (eds). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. pp. 414-431.

Heywood, P., Singleton, N. and Ross, J. (1988). Nutritional status of young children - the 1982/83 National Nutrition Survey. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 31: 91-101.

National Planning Office (1980). The National Public Expenditure Plan: 1981-1984. National Planning Office, Port Moresby.

Bierwirth, P.N. and McVicar, T.R. (1998). Rapid Monitoring and Assessment of Drought in Papua New Guinea Using Satellite Imagery. Report for United Nations Development Program, Port Moresby. Bourke, R.M., Allen, B.J., Hobsbawn, P. and Conway, J. (1998). Papua New Guinea: Text Summaries. Agricultural Systems of Papua New Guinea Working Paper No. 1. Two volumes. Department of Human Geography, Australian National University, Canberra. de Albuquerque, K. and D’Sa, E. (1986). Spatial inequalities in Papua New Guinea: a district-level analysis. IASER Discussion Paper No. 49. Papua New Guinea Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, Port Moresby.

Keig, G. (2001). Rural population growth in Papua New Guinea 1980-90. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 42(2&3): 257-270. Malau, C. (2001). The HIV/AIDS epidemic in PNG: implications for development and food security. In: R.M. Bourke, M.G. Allen and J.G. Salisbury (eds). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. pp. 63-72.

McKay, K., Lepani, K. and Wagner, T. (1999). Papua New Guinea Human Development Report 1998. Office of National Planning, Port Moresby.

Ruthenberg, H. (1980). Farming Systems in the Tropics. Third edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Smith, T., Earland, J., Bhatia, K., Heywood, P. and Singleton, N. (1993). Linear growth of children in Papua New Guinea in relation to dietary, environmental and genetic factors. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 31: 1-25. Wilson, R.K. (1974). Socio-economic indicators applied to sub-districts of Papua New Guinea. Economic Geography Department Discussion Paper 1. Melbourne University, Melbourne.

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Appendices

Coconut palms damaged and killed by the 1994 Rabaul Volcano eruption. There are a number of active volcanos adjacent to population centres in PNG and these present a constant risk to human life and infrastructure. The 1994 eruptions in Rabaul destroyed most of the town, while a previous eruption of Mt Lamington in Oro Province in 1951 killed thousands of people.

Logs are loaded from a barge to a ship off the coast of Gulf Province for transport to overseas ports. Logging operations are common in the forests of Gulf Province. The royalties are a useful short-term income source for local people, but villagers receive a very small proportion of the export value of the logs. There is little evidence that income from logging royalties is being invested by people for long-term benefits.

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Appendix 1

Appendix 1: Comparison of estimated 2000 district populations used in this handbook with preliminary 2000 census populations. Estimated 2000 populations are based on the 1980 census population extrapolated using the 1980 to 1990 inter-census growth rate. Preliminary 2000 census populations were released as this handbook went to press. Note that the estimated 2000 populations are for rural areas only, while the preliminary 2000 census populations include non-rural areas.

Province name

District name

Estimated 2000 population (rural areas only)

Preliminary 2000 census population (rural areas and towns)

Difference

Bougainville


45262

36065

-9197

Bougainville

North Bougainville

57339

71917

14578

Bougainville

South Bougainville

55602

59008

3406

Central

Abau

33843

38508

4665

Central

Goilala

35362

70408

35046

Central

Kairuku-Hiri

63179

55722

-7457

Central

Rigo

35089

39128

4039

East New Britain

Gazelle

93769

27131

-66638

East New Britain

Kokopo

58900

44137

-14763

East New Britain

Pomio

62507

44698

-17809

East New Britain

Rabaul

34151

27023

-7128

East Sepik

Ambunti-Dreikikir

48386

54919

6533

East Sepik

Angoram

51408

68801

17393

East Sepik

Maprik

53197

96137

42940

East Sepik

Wewak

29681

63443

33762

East Sepik

Wosera-Gaui

46059

64080

18021

East Sepik

Yangoru-Saussia

42392

32885

-9507

Eastern Highlands

Daulo

30257

50033

19776

Eastern Highlands

Goroka

18117

35957

17840

Eastern Highlands

Henganofi

41382

50243

8861

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Province name

District name



Difference

Eastern Highlands

Kainantu

35302

47428

12126

Eastern Highlands

Lufa

39088

43589

4501

Eastern Highlands

Obura-Wonenara

45050

29394

-15656

Eastern Highlands

Okapa

54617

62257

7640

Eastern Highlands

Unggai-Bena

31461

44766

13305

Enga

Kandep

66331

35874

-30457

Enga

Kompiam-Ambum

77336

58339

-18997

Enga

Lagaip-Porgera

99352

84951

-14401

Enga

Wabag

77791

57684

-20107

Enga

Wapenamanda

72243

53149

-19094

Gulf

Kerema

39379

39874

495

Gulf

Kikori

25390

58650

33260

Madang

Bogia

46090

76938

30848

Madang

Madang

34095

57721

23626

Madang

Middle Ramu

41189

56536

15347

Madang

Rai Coast

43949

56403

12454

Madang

Sumkar

47595

66783

19188

Madang

Usino-Bundi

38346

39966

1620

Manus

Manus

37025

49074

12049

Milne Bay

Alotau

60695

74116

13421

Milne Bay

Esa’ala

44753

45266

513

Milne Bay

Kiriwina-Goodenough

47900

63895

15995

Appendix 1

Appendix 1: (continued).

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Appendix 1

Appendix 1: (continued). Province name

District name



Difference

Milne Bay

Samarai-Murua

40912

42855

1943

Morobe

Bulolo

39668

10236

-29432

Morobe

Finschhafen

36327

89664

53337

Morobe

Huon Gulf

31921

67558

35637

Morobe

Kabwum

43385

91511

48126

Morobe

Markham

41303

67839

26536

Morobe

Menyamya

55008

57961

2953

Morobe

Nawae

29956

34967

5011

Morobe

Tewai-Siassi

30376

42789

12413

New Ireland

Kavieng

56087

54865

-1222

New Ireland

Namatanai

77735

65138

-12597

Oro

Ijivitari

47019

37479

-9540

Oro

Sohe

64492

65156

664

Sandaun

Aitape-Lumi

39488

53246

13758

Sandaun

Nuku

42330

46156

3826

Sandaun

Telefomin

34985

35564

579

Sandaun

Vanimo-Green River

35188

50824

15636

Simbu

Chuave

31689

30446

-1243

Simbu

Gumine

31377

55193

23816

Simbu

Karimui-Nomane

26120

65176

39056

Simbu

Kerowagi

34022

49590

15568

Simbu

Kundiawa

26682

86901

60219

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Province name

District name



Difference

Simbu


32185

37676

5491

Southern Highlands

Ialibu-Pangia

66669

59813

-6856

Southern Highlands

Imbonggu

45299

41877

-3422

Southern Highlands

Kagua-Erave

56763

78386

21623

Southern Highlands

Komo-Margarima

44902

69465

24563

Southern Highlands

Koroba-Lake Kopiago

53489

118413

64924

Southern Highlands

Mendi

62074

55025

-7049

Southern Highlands

Nipa-Kutubu

59308

98261

38953

Southern Highlands

Tari

66835

51898

-14937

West New Britain

Kandrian-Gloucester

35503

53010

17507

West New Britain

Talasea

86946

129116

42170

Western

Middle Fly

42857

86517

43660

Western

North Fly

37384

50956

13572

Western

South Fly

28706

46407

17701

Western Highlands


61781

96413

34632

Western Highlands

Baiyer-Mul

52551

56741

4190

Western Highlands

Dei

40952

42493

1541

Western Highlands

Hagen

70265

59754

-10511

Western Highlands

Jimi

45549

54640

9091

Western Highlands

North Wahgi

44468

51282

6814

Western Highlands

Tambul-Nebilyer

59163

60825

1662

Appendix 1

Appendix 1: (continued).

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Appendix 2a

Appendix 2a: Matrix used to generate child malnutrition classes for each district. The horizontal axis displays height-for-age (stunting) and the vertical axis displays weight-for-height (wasting), measured in standard deviations from the PNG national mean. The five classes of very serious, serious, poor, fair and relatively low are defined by the dotted lines. The working values used to generate the disadvantage index for each district correspond to the same five classes. Height-for-age Weight-for-height