Practitioners' Views on How Children Learn Mathematics

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Journal of Modern Education Review Volume 2, Number 4, August 2012

Contents Articles 215

Teaching Dispositions as Feedback Loops Leading to Cultural Proficiency Eunice M. Merideth

224

Challenges and Perspectives Related to the Integration of Immigrant Students in Francophone Minority Area Schools Yamina Bouchamma

238

Effects of Creating Three Kinds of Digital Storytellings on Student Attitude Isao Miyaji

260

Challenges in Accreditation of Engineering Education for Sustainable Development Om Vikas

272

Early Childhood (0–4 yrs) Practitioners’ Views on How Children Learn Mathematics Nosisi Feza

279

Entrepreneurship Education: Trends, Challenges and Possibilities in Nigerian Higher Education John A. Undie, M. Sule, Ubom Bassey

Journal of Modern Education Review, ISSN 2155-7993, USA August 2012, Volume 2, No. 4, pp. 215–223  Academic Star Publishing Company, 2012 http://www.academicstar.us

Teaching Dispositions as Feedback Loops Leading to Cultural Proficiency Eunice M. Merideth  (Department of Teaching and Learning, Drake University School of Education, Des Moines, IA 50311, USA) Abstract: This paper will discuss the methodology and results of how defining, cultivating, and documenting teacher dispositions at three levels in a teacher education program can lead to measureable success in establishing cultural proficiency. The four distinct stages of feedback loops: evidence, relevance, consequence, and action form a strong framework for defining, valuing, and adapting dispositional behaviors for teaching candidates — major elements of cultural proficiency. When this type of looping occurs three times throughout a program, it provides assessment points within the program and from the field, as well as opportunities for self-reflection for teacher candidates. Data offered in this paper affirms the success of supporting dispositions with feedback loops and a focused curriculum that emphasizing cultural proficiency. These loops then change data points scattered across the program into a sustainable system that triangulates data from faculty members, students, and mentor teachers, providing a pathway for candidates to demonstrate personal efficacy and responsive professional practice. Key words: teacher disposition, cultural proficiency, feedback loops

1. Introduction The challenge of educating a diverse population is not education’s only problem or even a new one: the United States has always had an immigrant population that added characteristics of difference to the dominant culture. However, the level and variety of these characteristics of differences have never been more compelling. While public school classrooms are becoming more diverse, the teachers in those classrooms reflect a relatively homogeneous population. According to Cruz & Patterson (2005), 87% of elementary and secondary schoolteachers were Caucasian, female, and from the middle class. This statistic has not gotten better; Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan, reported in February, 2011 that “nearly 35% of our students in this country are Black or Hispanic, but less than 2% of our nation’s teachers are Black or Hispanic men”. When projected forward, Eggen and Kauchak (2007) estimate that, given the current rate of immigration, by the year 2020 two thirds of American school population will be African American, Asian, Hispanic, or Native American. In addition to this racial diversity, teachers also need to understand and be sensitive to characteristics of difference for special needs students, low SES students, LGBT students, and different religions, genders, and ethnicities. Combined with the national and state calls for teachers to be accountable and effective while being empathetic and caring of all students, the need to take teaching dispositions as seriously as the knowledge and skills to deal with diversity in classrooms is clear. Osguthorpe (2008) asserts that teacher dispositions are integral to good teaching, but that these dispositions must connect “to the activities of teaching and learning, moving them away from a narrow focus on moral 

Eunice M. Merideth, Ph.D., Levitt Distinguished Professor and Associate Dean; research areas: technology in education, effective assessment, active learning. E-mail: [email protected]. 215

Teaching Dispositions as Feedback Loops Leading to Cultural Proficiency

development” (p. 288). Our program at a private Midwest university agrees with this stance and, consequently defines dispositions as measureable behaviors that illustrate and guide the major ethical mandate of teaching: the commitment and the will to facilitate the learning of each student. To accomplish this lofty goal, we believe professional teaching dispositions can be learned and nurtured through academic and social experiences as well as reflective opportunities about practice. Benninga et al. (2008) affirm this perspective when they assert, “The moral nature of teaching cannot be neatly folded into an articulation of the knowledge and skills essential for teaching, but neither can they be articulated separately from the requirements of effective teaching practice” (p. 4). This means, however, that dispositions have to be addressed in multiple ways and at multiple levels in a looping manner: through academic work, the manner in which teacher candidates interact with colleagues and students in the field, and reflective practice about content knowledge, pedagogical skill, and professional relationships. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the methodology and results of how defining, cultivating, and documenting teacher dispositions at three levels in a teacher education program through data-driven feedback loops can lead to measureable success in establishing cultural proficiency while at the same time supporting assessment of those dispositions within accreditation mandates.

2. Feedback Loops as a Medium for Change A feedback loop is essentially a control system that allows for feedback and adjustment according to the desired output. In human terms, Thomas Goetz (2011), states that the basic premise is simple: “Provide people with information about their actions in real time (or something close to it), then give them an opportunity to change those actions, pushing them toward better behaviors” (p. 130). Goetz identifies four stages of a feedback loop: evidence, relevance, consequence, and action. The evidence stage involves data that is gathered on both a formal and informal basis and entered into an information system. The relevance stage converts the raw data into a usable format, one that has meaning for the individual. The consequence stage results in recommendations for future behaviors. Finally, the action stage includes decision-making for action or implementation. The more often the feedback loop is run, the more often that small actions approach large changes. Because we defined dispositions in terms of measurable behaviors, we were able to intentionally support and assess those actions that approach cultural proficiency; that is, the ability to interact effectively with people who differ from oneself. Within our conceptual framework based upon Professional Relationships, we have adopted the following three dispositional foci to advance and assess the commitment and will of our pre-service teachers to facilitate classroom learning for each student: (1) A Learning Leader who models honesty, integrity, professional ethics, and empowers each student to succeed. (2) A Student Advocate who provides a positive, safe, and secure learning environment, as well as values and sustains positive and professional relationships with students. (3) A Reflective Practitioner who engages in continuous self-assessment of professional strengths, by actively seeking feedback from supervisors, mentor teachers, and peers to improve.

3. Methodology With the three foci for program dispositions defined in the spring of 2008, the program faculty members spent a two-day summer workshop operationalizing those dispositions into behaviors that could be measured at 216


three different levels — Beginning, Developing, and Proficient — resulting in the outline below. At all levels and in all three foci, principals of cultural proficiency are stressed and built upon retaining and expanding previous behaviors. In the Beginning Level, students are expected to simply demonstrate an awareness of the importance of dispositions and ask them to comply with basic standards. At the Developing Level, students are expected to continue compliance with the beginning standards in a looping manner as well move to the developing level. Moreover, at the Development Level, students are asked to think of themselves as professional and demonstrate standards to that end. As students reach the Proficient Level, they again loop back to the Beginning and Developing Levels; however, they are also expected to implement curriculum while demonstrating attitudes and dispositions that can make them successful educators. When Proficient, students are expected to set professional goals, develop a philosophy that supports learning of all students, demonstrate flexibility, and communicate high expectation to students. For example, as a novice Learning Leader, a beginning student is expected to act respectfully. At the developing level, that student is expected to act respectfully and develop lesson plans that accommodate different ways of learning. At the proficient level of a Learning Leader, the student is expected to act respectfully, develop lesson plans that accommodate different ways of learning, and communicate high expectations to all students. Advanced goals are also defined for teacher candidates as they transition to PK-12 practicing teachers. Disposition 1 A learning leader who models honesty, integrity, professional ethics, and empowers each student to succeed.

Disposition 2 A student advocate who provides a positive, safe, secure learning environment, as well as values and sustains positive and professional relationships with students and colleagues.

Table 1 Criteria and Assessment Points for Teaching Dispositions Criteria and Assessment Points: Learning Leader Beginning: (Foundations Course: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to the Teacher Education Program: Faculty; Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Completes assignments, tasks and requirements on time b. Arrives in class and to appointments on time c. Uses references and resources ethically d. Acts respectfully Developing: (Methods Courses: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to Student Teaching: Faculty; Methods Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Demonstrates an open mind and willingness to try new things b. Develops lesson plans that accommodate different ways of learning c. Plans learning activities and assessment to support academic, social, emotional, and physical growth of students d. Takes initiative to work with students and collaborate with educators Proficient: (Student Teaching Exit Survey: Student Self-Assessment; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: University Supervisors; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: Mentor Teachers) a. Sets professional goals b. Demonstrates confidence and self-direction in pursuing solutions to problems or questions c. Communicates high expectations to all students Advanced: (Goals for Practicing Teachers) a. Uses the needs and interests of students to approach curricular and strategic decisions b. Extends learning beyond classroom walls Criteria and Assessment Points: Student Advocate Beginning: (Foundations Course: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to the Teacher Education Program: Faculty; Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Uses professional language appropriate in discussions and writing b. Maintains a positive attitude toward students, peers, educational stakeholders Developing: (Methods Courses: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to Student Teaching: Faculty; Methods Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Maintains professional boundaries with students and educational stakeholders b. Facilitates a learning environment to support the safety, dignity, and equity of students Proficient: (Student Teaching Exit Survey: Student Self-Assessment; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: University Supervisors; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: Mentor Teachers)

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Teaching Dispositions as Feedback Loops Leading to Cultural Proficiency a. b.

Disposition 3 A reflective practitioner who engages in continuous self-assessment of professional strengths, by actively seeking feedback from supervisors, mentor teachers, and peers to improve teaching.

Develops a teaching philosophy that respects all learners Demonstrates pedagogical flexibility by adapting, adjusting and modifying practices to meet the needs of students Advanced: (Practicing Teacher Goals) a. Accepts professional responsibility for student learning outcomes b. Advocates on the part of students and/or educational stakeholders (IEP meetings, parent-teacher conferences, etc. Criteria and Assessment Points: Reflective Practitioner Beginning: (Foundations Course: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to the Teacher Education Program: Faculty; Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Follows established policies and procedures b. Expresses a positive view of self Developing: (Methods Courses: Student Self-Assessment; Admission to Student Teaching: Faculty; Methods Practicum Evaluations: Mentor Teachers) a. Expresses a commitment to teaching and learning b. Participates in thoughtful, reflective conversations with students, peers and educators c. Incorporates feedback into products and performance Proficient: (Student Teaching Exit Survey: Student Self-Assessment; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: University Supervisors; Final Evaluation for Student Teaching: Mentor Teachers) a. Sets and achieves professional goals b. Articulates high expectations for professional performance c. Incorporates feedback from supervisors, mentor teachers, and peers into revisions of products or performances Advanced: (Practicing Teacher Goals) a. Engages in self-assessment as part of ongoing professional growth b. Involves and works with others in planning, problem solving, and learning.

The feedback loops within this program were set up to coincide with the levels of dispositional behaviors that were assessed at three “gates” within the program: entrance into the Teacher Education Program, entrance to student teaching, and finally, certification. The emphasis on cultural proficiency within the dispositions measured has been supported throughout the program by the curricular mapping of twelve characteristics of difference or labels that may affect students’ success: English language learning, race, talented and gifted, at-risk, ethnicity, LGBT, gender, sex, socio-economic status, religion, immigrant status, and disabilities as identified by the IDEA act. These characteristics are mapped across the curriculum and designated as either Strongly Addressed (experiences that are multidimensional and may be identified by active learning, frequency, assessment measures, intensity, simulation, debriefing activities, or student reflections) or Addressed (experiences that create awareness of characteristics of difference by one or more of the following instructional strategies: lecture, classroom discussion, activity through class participation or authentic assessment). Consequently, dispositional behaviors as well as knowledge and skill to handle cultural proficiency is not segregated into one class or treated as expectations that magically appear, but are integrated into both university and practicum work. The lack of a broad consensus in the field of education about defining teaching dispositions has led to models of assessment based on standards, professional behaviors, moral obligations, or self-reflection. Whatever approach a program adopts for assessing dispositions, there exists a delicate balance between philosophical ideals espoused and behavior in the field. Ritchart (2001) explains, “Unlike desire, dispositions are accompanied by behavior and thus assume the requisite ability to carry out that behavior” (p. 145). To provide as much feedback as possible for candidates and establish the balance between the ideal and the real, we elected to spread the assessment of dispositions among faculty members, practicum PK-12 teachers in the field, and students themselves. The implementation of these measures began with students in fall of 2008, using an electronic form to rate their

218


behaviors at the appropriate level. Students used the form to assess their performance of dispositional behaviors and to use that feedback to establish a goal in each of the three focus areas for the next semester. PK-12 practicum teachers were then added with electronic forms, and finally faculty members transitioned from written reference forms to electronic that allowed the collection and aggregation of data at each level. Although students are identified by name and program by faculty members and PK-12 practicum teachers, students’ self-reflections are anonymous to encourage honest self-reflection. Other areas of the program have been added as the system to handle the data has been built.

4. Results Three years of data have resulted in strong feedback loops for teacher candidates in the program, but also for the program itself. In the tables below, results for individual items have been averaged within their categories in order to report a profile across years and levels. Tables 2 and 3 illustrate the simultaneous implementation of the cultural proficiency curriculum and feedback loops through the assessment of related dispositional behaviors listed within the tables at the Beginning Level. Scores for these basic behaviors have remained fairly steady in these areas over three years, but it is interesting that PK-12 practicum teachers with limited exposure to teacher candidates actually rank them higher than they rank themselves. Table 2

Profile Data — Level 1 Dispositions for Cultural Proficiency: Students’ Self-Reflections in Foundations Courses (Aggregated Mean Data in a Likert Scale of 1–4) F2008 S2009 F2009 S2010 F2010 S2011 Criteria for Dispositions n = 57 n = 65 n = 74 n = 72 n = 65 n = 49 Using references and resources ethically 3.54 3.73 3.58 3.65 3.66 3.67 Acting respectfully toward others

3.81

3.88

3.61

3.71

3.74

3.84

Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and caregivers Expressing a positive view of self

3.65

3.63

3.72

3.43

3.58

3.76

3.60

3.0

3.46

3.36

3.40

3.39

Table 3

Profile Data – Level 1 Dispositions for Cultural Proficiency: Practicum Teachers Assessments in Foundations and Human Development Courses (Aggregated Mean Data in a Likert Scale of 1–4) F2008 S2009 F2009 S2010 F2010 S2011 Criteria for Dispositions n = 95 n = 100 n = 121 n = 107 n = 108 n = 119 Using references and resources ethically 3.92 3.89 3.90 3.90 3.94 3.86 Acting respectfully toward others

3.95

3.90

3.90

3.87

3.92

3.88

Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and caregivers Expressing a positive view of self

3.90

3.90

3.91

3.86

3.91

3.85

3.91

3.90

3.84

3.79

3.89

3.85

Table 4 Faculty Assessment after the First Four Courses in the Program and at the Entrance to the Teacher Education Program 2010–11 n = 236 Criteria for Dispositions Using references and resources ethically

1.95/2.0

Acting respectfully toward others

1.95/2.0

Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and caregivers

2.0/2.0

Expressing a positive view of self

1.95/2.0

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One of the real advantages of this type of data collection is that when any of these scores do dip, program adjustments can be quickly made. For example, when students indicated a lower “view of self” in S2009, Vygotsky’s theory of self-talk was included in the Foundations class the following semester to help students understand that what they say to themselves matters just as what they say to others matter. In the fall of 2010, faculty members’ assessments of students ready to enter the Teacher Education Program (typically after 2 to 2 ½ years) moved from hand-written references to an electronic form with only three levels: Proficient (2), Needs Improvement (1), and Unacceptable (0). The scores above must be read within this context. Data from faculty earlier than fall 2010 was qualitative as well as subjective and very difficulty to analyze from a programmatic point of view. By creating and using an electronic form, faculty members are able to see student readiness for 236 students within one year as a aggregate figure, but still have individual ratings and improvement plans for students at this first gate in teacher education. Students who have been assessed for the 2010–2011 academic year, have been part of the cultural proficiency curriculum and feedback loop since their entrance into university study. Tables 5 and 6 also reflect the implementation of the cultural proficiency curriculum and feedback loops; however, the students at this level were at the junior-senior level when the implementation began. Although once again the PK-12 practicum teachers rated the students very high across items and years, the students’ self-reflection illustrate the desired growth within teacher candidates over time. Students in the fall of 2008 ranked themselves 2.71 on a “positive view of self” and 3.02 in “acting respectfully toward others.” Within a semester of feedback loops, the scores rose swiftly and have remained in the same range since that time as students were given clear objectives and understood that their behaviors both in class and in practicum were to be assessed against those objectives. Table 5

Trend Data – Level 2 Dispositions for Cultural Proficiency: Students’ Self-Reflections in Methods Courses (Aggregated Mean Data in a Likert Scale of 1–4) F2008 S2009 F2009 S2010 F2010 S2011 Criteria for Dispositions n = 43 n = 43 n = 36 n = 24 n = 35 n = 25 Using references and resources ethically 3.02 3.83 3.86 3.96 3.69 3.92 Acting respectfully toward others Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and caregivers Expressing a positive view of self

3.02

3.97

3.89

4.0

3.83

3.75

3.02

3.83

3.81

3.67

3.54

3.88

2.77

3.87

3.75

3.54

3.51

3.67

Demonstrating an open mind and willingness to try new things Planning learning activities and assessments to support academic, social, emotional, and physical growth of each student Facilitating a learning environment to support the safety, dignity, and equity of each student Incorporates feedback into products and performance

3.44

3.70

3.75

3.71

3.63

3.46

3.49

3.30

3.72

3.71

3.54

3.48

3.93

4.0

3.94

3.88

3.60

3.96

3.67

3.57

3.81

3.63

3.69

3.83

Table 7 outlines the responses of students as they are exiting the program. The Likert Scale at this level was expanded to 5 so that students would have a greater range to rate their behavior. Students are asked to fill out a exit survey as part of their last seminar before graduation and certification. It is a time for them to reflect back on their own performance, but also to lend their voices to the improvement of their programs. This particular feedback loop was implemented in the spring of 2009, so students in the earlier years on this table did not have the same foundation with feedback loops and a cultural proficiency curriculum as those starting in spring 2010. Although most of the areas indicate a steady growth, the improvement of scores in “expressing a positive view of 220


self,” “planning learning activities and assessment to support academic, social, emotional, and physical growth of each student,” and “ communicates high expectations for students” points to increased success for students and program. Student teaching PK-12 mentors and supervisors have had a long history of careful assessment throughout the program, but the last assessment by PK-12 mentors or supervisors have been more focused on knowledge and skills of INTASNC standards than teacher dispositions. This next year, they will begin assessing dispositions based on the outline of dispositional behaviors as outlined previously. Table 6

Trend Data – Level 2 Dispositions for Cultural Proficiency: Practicum Teachers Assessments in Methods Courses (Aggregated Mean Data in a Likert Scale of 1–4) F2008 S2009 F2009 S2010 F2010 S2011 Criteria for Dispositions n = 31 n = 62 n = 72 n = 81 n = 101 n = 93 Acting respectfully toward others 3.90 3.94 3.90 3.91 3.99 3.94 Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and 3.97 3.92 3.94 3.90 3.95 3.95 caregivers Expressing a positive view of self 3.90 3.84 3.88 3.82 3.89 3.93 Demonstrating an open mind and willingness to try new things Planning learning activities and assessments to support academic, social, emotional, and physical growth of each student Facilitating a learning environment to support the safety, dignity, and equity of each student Incorporates feedback into products and performance

3.87

3.80

3.93

3.85

3.90

3.83

3.69

3.75

3.71

3.65

3.72

3.71

3.90

3.89

3.9

3.85

3.92

3.91

3.86

3.87

3.77

3.77

3.82

3.83

Table 7

Trend Data – Level 3 Dispositions for Cultural Proficiency: Students’ Self-Assessment at the End of Student Teaching (Aggregated Mean Data in a Likert Scale of 1–5) S2009 F2009 S2010 F2010 S2011 Criteria for Dispositions n= n= n= n= n= Acting respectfully toward others 4.4 4.34 4.39 4.6 4.48 Maintaining a positive attitude toward students, peers, educators and caregivers

4.0

4.53

4.44

4.7

4.69

Expressing a positive view of self

4.0

4.21

4.32

4.6

4.58

Demonstrating an open mind and willingness to try new things Planning learning activities and assessments to support academic, social, emotional, and physical growth of each student Facilitating a learning environment to support the safety, dignity, and equity of each student Incorporates feedback into products and performance

4.2

4.3

4.13

4.5

4.38

3.7

3.82

3.96

4.2

4.22

4.3

4.26

4.43

4.45

4.45

4.2

4.1

4.12

4.5

4.34

4.0

4.21

4.37

4.6

4.49

4.3

4.13

4.27

4.5

4.38

Communicates high expectations for students Demonstrates pedagogical flexibility by adapting, adjusting and modifying practices to meet the needs of students

5. Summary Cultural proficiency goes beyond an awareness of cultural differences; it also requires that an individual or organization respond effectively in a variety of environments. A Teacher Education Program can promote cultural proficiency through its practice and its policies. Students in that program, on the other hand, must interact with diverse humans through behaviors, adapting to others rather than expecting others to adapt to themselves. Feedback loops that help teaching candidates’ dispositional behaviors to evolve provide the opportunity for those students to step back and reflect in order to move forward. McAlpine (2004) acknowledges the significance of this type of feedback when he states, “All too often, students are provided with an introduction to a topic (informing), 221


often in class, and left to achieve the learning on their own with minimal structure and frequently no formative feedback” (McAlpine, 2004, p. 128). Yet Moll and Artnot-Hopffer (2005) assert that teachers need “sociocultural competence in working with the diversity of students that characterize contemporary schooling. Few places provide aspiring teachers, or veteran teachers for that matter, with such experiences, as critical as they may seem” (p. 244). Using intentional feedback loops to nurture dispositions is not meant to place one individual’s personal values above another or to make subjective judgments about a teacher candidate’s moral character, but rather to recognize that the will to facilitate the learning of each student is as important as the ability to do so. Feedback loops can also be valuable to programs by identifying areas that need attention. As Wiggins (1989) states, “In the mass of information that students are exposed to, what the modern student needs is the ability to see how questions both produce and point beyond current knowledge.” Support for documenting observable behaviors that challenge teacher education candidates to both learn and grow, therefore, must be clear, consistent, reliable, and available from a variety of sources. In addition, the documentation of realistic dispositional behaviors can link data to action through informed decision-making in curricular and pedagogical areas. While the data offered here affirms the success of supporting dispositions with feedback loops and a focused curriculum, it also serves as an encouragement to sustain and keep improving efforts within the program.

6. Implications However promising an educational innovation or change, it is only theory until it has been implemented and sustained. “Because of all of the emphasis on and excitement about ‘newness’ in change, it is easy to lose sight of the fact that change is a transitional process that also involves loss” (Merideth, 2007, p. 22). Technologies that are now available to help present, gather, compile, sort, and report data aid the design and process of assessing teaching dispositions. However, these new technologies may bring a sense of loss of the familiar paper form and checklist, while providing anxiety about use and future sustainability. The implications of using feedback loops in assessing teaching dispositions include the following: (1) Teaching dispositions must be consistent with a program’s conceptual framework and connected to the knowledge and skills of teaching and learning. (2) Using feedback loops in assessing teaching dispositions must be able to provide credible evidence for individual and programmatic feedback. (3) Using feedback loops in teaching dispositions should involve systems that build from basic behaviors to complex behaviors expected of a professional educator. (4) Using feedback loops in teaching dispositions should involve systems that are clearly designed and reliable, with direct data collection and standard management. Consistent and well-established dispositions that encourage educators to reflect on themselves as learning leaders, student advocates, and reflective practitioners are program objectives that, when built over time, establish a coherent programmatic design. Feedback loops from these self-reflections and responses from educational partners then change raw data points scattered across a program into a sustainable system that triangulates data from faculty members, students, and mentor teachers, providing a both pathway for candidates to demonstrate personal efficacy and responsive professional practice and a pathway for a program to engage in continuous improvement.

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Teaching Dispositions as Feedback Loops Leading to Cultural Proficiency References: Cruz B. and Patterson J. (2005). “Cross-cultural simulations in teacher education: Developing empathy and understanding”, Multicultural Perspectives, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 40–47. Duncan A. (2011). “The next generation of teachers”, available online at http://www.ed.gov/blog/2011/02/the-next-generation-of-teachers/. Eggen P. and Kauchak D. (2007). “Group and individual differences”, in: J. W. Johnston & K. M. Davis (Eds.), Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms (7th ed.), Pearson: Merrill Prentice Hall, pp. 103–116. Goetz T. (2011). “The feedback loop”, Wired, Vol. 19, No. 7, p. 130. McAlpine L. (2004). “Designing learning as well as teacher”, Active Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 119–134. Merideth E. M. (2007). Leadership Strategies for Teachers (2nd ed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Moll L. C. and Arnot-Hopffer E. (2005). “Sociocultural competence in teacher education”, Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 242–247. Osguthorpe R. D. (2008). “On the reasons we want teachers of good disposition and moral character”, Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 59, No. 4, pp. 288–299. Ritchhart R. (2001). “From IQ to IC: A dispositional view of intelligence”, Roeper Review, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 143–150. Vygotsky L. S. (1962). Thought and Language, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Original work published 1934).

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Journal of Modern Education Review, ISSN 2155-7993, USA April 2012, Volume 2, No. 4, pp. 224–237  Academic Star Publishing Company, 2012 http://www.academicstar.us

Challenges and Perspectives Related to the Integration of Immigrant Students in Francophone Minority Area Schools Yamina Bouchamma (Department of Educational Foundations and Practices, Laval University, Canada) Abstract: This study addressed the challenges facing the integration of immigrant students in francophone minority area schools in the province of New Brunswick, Canada. Thirty-six respondents (school principals, teachers, resource teachers, a pedagogical advisor, and immigration experts) participated in the study. The challenges evoked pertain to the global issue of Frenchifying of new arrivals parallel to their integration into regular classes, with no specific programme or adequate human resources. The inadequate framework and the lack of specific policies regulating this practice are also discussed. Key words: Immigrants; Adjustment (to environment); Cultural difference; Immigrants; Social integration; linguistic minorities

1. Introduction From 1991 to 2000, 2.2 million immigrants entered Canada, the highest number ever observed in all the decades in the last century. In 2001, almost three-quarters of these immigrants lived solely in three metropolitan regions: Toronto, Vancouver, and Montréal (Statistique Canada, 2004). If the issue is relatively under control in these large centres, such is not the case in the francophone regions of New Brunswick. In this minority setting, schools continuously face the challenge of meeting the needs of new immigrant students in a context where the primary focus is the promotion and affirmation of the French language and culture in an Anglophone-dominated setting. New Brunswick’s francophone schools already have several important goals in sight, including improving academic achievement at every level (New-Brunswick Department of Education (NBDE), 2007) and promoting the French language and culture in minority areas. This study therefore examined the global issue regarding the immersion of immigrant students in a francophone minority setting and addressed the school’s perspective with all of its human resources. In the francophone context of New Brunswick, where the challenges related to immigration are relatively recent, what is the perception of school contributors regarding immigration in francophone minority setting (FMS)? What are the main challenges emerging from their discussion when they are talking about new arrivals in schools? What are the consequences for students in the context of these challenges? This study focus on the school contributors’ opinions regarding the integration of immigrant students in  Yamina Bouchamma, Ph.D., full professor at the Department of Educational Administration and Foundations, Laval University; research areas: exemplary schools, school effectiveness; academic achievement, supervision of teachers, linguistic minorities, ethnic minorities and professional learning communities. E-mail: [email protected].

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Challenges and Perspectives Related to the Integration of Immigrant Students in Francophone Minority Area Schools

francophone minority area schools (FMS). Our particular aim is to find the challenges facing the integration of immigrant students in francophone minority area schools (FMS) and the consequences of these challenges on immigrant students.

2. The Problem 2.1 The Francophone Minority Reality The 2006 Census of Statistic Canada enumerated 6,186,950 foreign-born people in Canada. They accounted for virtually one in five (19.8%) of the total population, the highest proportion in 75 years (Crompton, 2008). New Brunswick is one of Canada’s least visibly diversified provinces (one in 33) (Canadian Labour and Business Centre, 2005). In New Brunswick, the Anglophone sector has developed a global view of the diversity which surpasses merely learning a second language to dealing with the particularities involved in the social integration of immigrant students in schools and in society in general by providing references on the steps toward cultural adaptation (Gallant, 2004). The francophone sector, on the other hand, straggles behind with several major challenges, including the promotion of the French language and culture and improving academic achievement, to which we add the Frenchifying of the new arrivals. New Brunswick Francophones have felt the influence of an assimilatory ideology that supported uniformity by banning instruction in French (Martel and Villeneuve, 1995; Bouchamma, 2006). Much legislation has been introduced respecting this duality and equal opportunity (NBDE, 1997; Chapter E-1.12) as well as equality among linguistic communities between Anglophones and Francophones (Bill 88). In 1982, article 23 was added to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms to give parents of these minorities the right to homogeneous francophone schools and to manage these schools (Foucher, 1999). In this context, New Brunswick’s Education Act (NBDE, 1997) ensures equal opportunity for both of the province’s official linguistic communities. Since 1967, the provincial government is solely responsible for funding public education and is committed to equal opportunity for all of its students. The Department of Education also dictates its education programs, norms, and objectives (Bouchamma, 2004). In addition to their battle against assimilation, francophone minorities are also experiencing a low birth rate (Castonguay, 2001; Couture, 2001; Martel, 2001), which signifies a decrease in available resources in francophone schools. Immigration therefore provides an invaluable solution to meet staffing requirements which will be on the rise in the coming years (Clews, 2003). Citizenship and Immigration Canada’s Strategic Plan to Foster Immigration in Francophone Minority Communities proposes to increase numbers to between 8,000 and 10,000 French-speaking immigrants per year in its francophone communities by 2020. Even though francophone immigration in FMS does not involve big numbers (Belkhodja, 2008) and remains a small scale enterprise, there is a great deal of interest regarding this topic in the Acadian movement because it represents an opportunity to revitalize the francophone community in a minority setting (Trainsnel, 2008). This interest is relatively recent and it must be set in an historical context where the Canadian francophone society has constructed its own definition from an ideal of fallback position in order to preserve its own personal space (Belkhodja, 2008; p. 4). From that point of view, the challenges to immigration remain important for society in general and, in particular, for schools who must manage all the aspects of diversity.

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2.2 Integrating Immigrant Students Immigrant students experience difficulties because the new education system differs significantly from theirs. In fact, they must familiarise themselves not only with a new education program but also learn French (in the case of Allophones), not to mention learn the social codes and values of the welcoming society, which call for specific programmes and resources (Gallant, 2004).

3. Theoretical Framework In the FMS, schools are considered as the community promotion and development agents (Foucher 1999) to counter assimilation by promoting this particular environment (Martel, 2001; Landry Allard, 1996; 1997; 1999). In the FMS context, how are new immigrants integrated? According to Gallant (2004; p. 347), the francophone sector speaks in terms of “universality (thus, assimilating), whereby immigrant children are perceived and treated ‘as any other child’, with ‘the same rights and services’, ‘the same privileges’, ‘treated like the others’, and not benefiting from any ‘specific program’”. Regardless of the views regarding immigrant students, there is a definite lack of resources in the FM communities to help them recruit immigrants, introduce welcoming communities, and effectively integrate French-speaking immigrants (Fédération des communautés francophones et acadienne du Canada (FCFA), 2004). Moreover, the FM considers itself to be a minority that must protect itself rather than an assimilatory majority (Belkhodja and Gallant, 2004; pp. 79–94; Gallant, 2004). Despite the fact that New Brunswick’s Acadian and francophone associations are sensitive to the immigration issue, its education system remains relatively unaffected in the matter (Gallant and Belkhodja, 2005). The province has begun a global reflection on diversity and immigration, yet its decisions with regard to education remain inexistent, despite the major role played by schools in integrating immigrants and in welcoming and including the latter in our society. On this issue, Bernard (1997) speaks of fundamental contradiction to demonstrate the paradox in which schools in minority settings find themselves, where the more minoritised the community, the greater the role of the school in countering the linguistic erosion. Unfortunately, it is in these very communities where material and human resources lack the most (Bouchamma, Lapointe & Richard, 2007). Thus, for integration to succeed, schools must work toward this social transformation by instilling the notion of inclusive identity in their students (Gallant, 2004). 3.1 Integration in the Francophone Minority Setting: The Role of the School In New Brunswick schools, the French language needs of allophone students are determined and it is the Department of Education who funds the programme that is offered outside of regular school hours in the form of tutoring. According to Gallant (2004), this “uniformist” approach calls for the Frenchifying of immigrant allophone students elsewhere than in the school, involving the school only once the students are fluent, with no sustaining institutional framework or qualified personnel (Gallant, 2004). This lack of official guidelines results in enormous discrepancies in terms of the level of language acquisition and accompaniment of these immigrants. From that point of view, the integration enterprise couldn’t be achieved with the negation of differences, or what Bourdieu (1966) called the indifference to differences. It goes without saying that opening to diversity in education involves changes which have implications on other institutions. The starting point is to make major changes in the training of teachers, curriculum, schools, and society (Ducette et al., 1996). In fact, in a context where immigrants are few and heterogeneous, providing a common programme or immersion/integration classes is difficult, which is why schools must play a key role with these groups.

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4. Method This section presents the Participants, Data Collection Tools, and the Data analysis procedure. This study has received the approbation from the Research Ethics Committee on human subjects of Laval University. Participants understood that the focus of the study was to identify the challenges associated with the integration of immigrant students in the FMS. They were free to participate or not, knew their role, etc., an understanding which is conform to the norms of the Committee. 4.1 Participants Thirty-six respondents (N = 36) participated in the study: school principals (P) and vice-principals (VP) (N = 10), teachers (T) (N = 21), resource teachers (RT) (N = 2), a pedagogical advisor (PA) (N = 1), and immigration experts (N = 2). Table 1 show that our participants were coming from nine schools (N = 9) and three Districts of the francophone sector (01, 03, and 11): four primary schools, two composed of kindergarten and classes from 1 to 5, one composed of classes from 1 to 8, and one composed of classes from 6 to 8; three high schools composed of classes from 9 to 12; and two schools involving both levels: one composed of classes from 1 to 12, the other one from 6 to 12. Table 1 Cities

Districts and levels Schools

Distribution of Schools in Districts and Levels Districts Levels

L’Odyssée Moncton

Dieppe Shédiac

Kindergarten and primary Kinder 1–5

1–8

6–8

01

Le Mascaret

01

Saint-Henri

01

Mathieu Martin

01

Champlain

01

Mgr-François Bourgeois

11

Louis-J.-Robichaud

11

Saint Léonard

École Grande-Rivière

03

Fredericton

Sainte Anne

01

High-school 9–12

Primary and high-school 1–12 6–12

X X X X X X X X X

4.2 Data Collection Tools In this study, participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview techniques, which are most valuable when the fieldwork requires an insider perspective (Fetterman, 1989). Each interview lasted 1 hour to 1:30 hour, and included open-ended questions. The main questions for the teacher interview protocol are presented in Table 2. The questions asked have been adapted to the participant status: school principals, teachers, resource teachers, pedagogical advisor, and immigration experts. For example, the teaching practices with teachers, the management practices with school principals, etc. In general, this study was oriented with a grounded theory. This approach consists in a developing theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed. Theory evolves during the actual research, and it does this through the continuous interplay between analysis and data collection (Strauss & Corbin, 1994; p. 273). The semi-structured interviews focused on the experiences of the various education agents with immigrant students (daily teaching practices, relationships with these students and their parents, with peers, etc.), the effect of this contract on their education practices and the problems encountered, their expectations in promoting the 227


French language and the Acadian culture, as well as the deployed strategies and proposed solutions to assist immigrant students in their adaptation. Table 2

Guidelines for Teachers’ Interview

Main questions 1. What is your experience with immigrant students? 2. What kind of relationship do you have in your daily practice with immigrant students and their parents? 3. What are the effects of this relationship on your teaching practices? 4. What are the relationships between immigrant students and their peers? 5. How do you characterize the adaptation of students from the welcoming society regarding these immigrant students? Specific questions 1. What kind of challenges do you face? 2. What kind of strategies do you use? 3. Do you have any solutions to propose regarding a better adaptation for the immigrant students?

4.3 Data Analysis In order to respect the reliability criteria, each coding category was determined and subjected to inter-code validation. The rates of agreement, calculated as the “number of agreements and disagreements multiplied by 100”, amounted to 81% before revisions and 93% following revisions of categories and a correction of errors and omissions. An agreement of 90% was considered reliable (Huberman and Miles, 1991). Our analysis creates meaning from data in order to gain an understanding of the challenges facing the integration of immigrant students in francophone minority area schools. Interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (Atlas.ti). Transcripts of the interviews were coded and themes emerged through constant comparison: challenges they had to deal with, strategies used and solutions proposed, adjustments of questions with the main themes discussed and the participant discourse. Data were coded into a “thematic tree” and conclusions were drawn and verified (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Researcher coded independently and in a second time coded with another researcher to confirm the decisions made about initial coding and emerging categories. A coding operation was conducted on part of the corpus by other coder who applied the principle of inter-code reliability (Miles and Huberman, 2003). Numerous cycles of analysis were performed; refining and conceptualizing the themes. The results are reported as themes supported by quotes and a referenced data source.

5. Results The data enabled us to identify tow main themes: (1) Perception of immigration in FMS. This theme is constructed around two sub-themes: 1.1 New Arrivals: a boon to the FMS; and 1.2 New Arrivals: a challenge for the FMS. (2) Consequences of challenges. 5.1 Theme 1: Perception of Immigration in FMS New Arrivals: Benefits Challenges for the FMS Our participants perceived two representations of immigration in a francophone minority setting: 1.1 new arrivals were a benefit to the FMS, and 1.2 new arrivals created a challenge for the FMS.

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Challenges and Perspectives Related to the Integration of Immigrant Students in Francophone Minority Area Schools Immigration in FMS

Perception of immigration in FMS A boon to the FMS

Consequences for students

A challenge for the FMS

Communication problems

Academic difficulty

The presence of immigrants and the use of English in the FMS school Structural challenges

New Bruswick’s sociodemograhic and cultural characteristics Immigrants’ sociodemograhic and cultural characteristics Figure 1

“Thematic Tree”

5.1.1 Sub-theme1.1: New Arrivals: A Boon to the FMS Participants began by saying that immigration was not always synonymous with difficulties, in terms of the acquisition of language and culture. They referred notably to new arrivals whose transition posed no problem, such as, for example, immigrant investors who had chosen Canada as their new home and who hailed from crisis-free countries. They arrive here as wealthy individuals with an education level equal to our own when they arrive at school. Of course these people also need to be welcomed, we must also ensure their integration, but in my opinion it’s a bit easier for them than for the student who has lived three or four years in a refugee camp before coming to Canada (PA)

In the opinion of our participants, despite the presence of immigrants who are challenged in terms of the language, the FMS nevertheless succeeded in its fight to preserve the language. The presence of new arrivals provided welcoming students with an opportunity to learn about Francophones elsewhere in the world. There are students who do not have to deal with the language barrier: “We have students who are immigrants and things are going extremely well. They arrive here and have an equal level if not above-average level of education. That’s interesting to see.” (PA). Some respondents mentioned certain immigrants who were perceived as examples in terms of the quality of their language: “So she brought this rich vocabulary, and the way in which she expresses herself is why I often choose her to read aloud in class.” (T4) We identified two positive points as to how immigration was perceived, namely that the presence of immigrants legitimized discussions on the language and that the mission of FM schools was in continuity with the immigrants rather than opposed to them. (1) The Presence of Immigrants Legitimize Discussions Regarding Language Some participants viewed the immigrants as a valued addition rather than a menace to the language in a minority setting, as they contribute to sustaining this community. A few participants believed that the language

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barrier created problems that hindered the promotion of the French language in the FMS, while others considered this challenge as a means to generate discussion on preserving the French language. In this sense, they considered immigrants in the FMS as an opportunity to demonstrate in vivo what standard French was. Their presence enabled educators to get the message across to the francophone students of New Brunswick regarding the importance of their own language. Furthermore, in the presence of immigrant students, an improved standard French would be more justified and would become somewhat more legitimate in facilitating communication. Having immigrants in our schools, the students realise what a language well spoken is. We notice that immigrants often have an accent that is definitely more French than ours is. Now, not because it’s better or worse, but at one point there is also a conversational French, a standard French that people must learn too to be able to communicate. For us, it becomes a really good tool to get them to understand. That’s how I see it: it’s a good thing. (P5)

(2) The FMS School: Promoting Continuity Along with the promotion of the French language, the respondents emphasised the promotion of the Acadian culture as another mandate of the FM school, which concerns Acadian students as much as the immigrant students, who must adhere to this principle: […] In addition to promoting the Acadian culture, we have the promotion of the French language. I therefore feel that it sort of meets the needs of the students more. Our policy applies not only to the Acadian students but to the others in the school as well […] the District’s linguistics policy, in addition to meeting the needs of the immigrant students, responds to the needs of our main clientele. (P6)

Aside from acknowledging the complexity of the teachers’ practice, a pedagogical advisor involved in the case of immigrant students stated that the teacher’s workload did not necessarily increase with the arrival of immigrant students in the FMS: I think that the school staff has a heavy workload because they must be very conscious of our reality, of our minority setting. Their job involves not only the born-and-bred Acadians but also those who come from all over the world, so it’s not exclusive; it’s not because they are not necessarily Francophone or Acadian: as their teacher, they have a job to do. (PA)

Regardless of their opinion, our respondents were unanimous in denouncing the lack of essential resources and services to welcome and support the new arrivals. Among other comments, they pointed out the difficulties faced by immigrant students in French language comprehension and the challenges they themselves encountered in communicating with allophone parents. The participants were all conscious of the importance of helping new arrivals to develop an awareness of the linguistic reality in the FMS. 5.1.2 Sub-theme1.2: New Arrivals: A Challenge for the FMS While several participants saw no potential language barrier problems brought on by the presence of immigrant students in the community, others expressed their concern with regard to the language level of immigrants in a context where educators are particularly sensitive to the linguistic question. (1) The Presence of Immigrants and the Use of English in the FMS School Certain participants reiterated that the school’s mission was to safeguard language and culture, regardless of the advantages of immigration within the minority setting. In this regard, they assured that French was spoken during recess and in the extra-curricular activities. Moreover, in the presence of students who did not speak French in class or outside of class and as the use of English became more evident, teachers had to be doubly

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vigilant: “We must really intervene to remain proud of our French in our school” (P4). Several participants feared that speaking English on a daily basis would weaken the importance of French. […] I noticed… in the halls and in the cafeteria, we spoke English more when we were with them [immigrant students]. We have a duty to perform with regard to that, because we are in a francophone school, but I don’t see the presence of immigrants as being a threat to the language, even if we have to watch that from time to time. (T7)

In fact, certain situations brought some teachers to allow the use of English, but strictly on a sporadic basis when they were understood by the immigrant. In essence, it meant using English as a means to communicate in situations where they had no other choice. The teachers remained preoccupied, however, that this would perhaps incite other students to do the same; they were concerned to see that this tolerance went against their role as defenders of the importance of using French in school. In class, I became aware that at one point there were students who spoke English as well as they spoke French, so it was easier for them to speak English to her than to speak French. We had to watch that, because the others did the same thing, so it’s something to watch out for. (T9)

A few participants agreed that it was important to involve these students in promoting the language, regardless of their ethnic origin or language of origin, although they were unsure as to whether these new students would want to promote the language: “I don’t think that promoting the language is as important to them as it is to us” (VP3). (2) Challenges Associated to the Frenchifying of Immigrants We identified three types of challenges related to immigrant Frenchifying: structural challenges, sociodemographic and cultural characteristics of New Brunswick, and sociodemographic and cultural characteristics of the immigrants. (A) Structural challenges Our participants talked about the tutoring practices in this setting, the inadequate preparation on the part of the school system, and the lack of preparation of the immigrants themselves among these structural challenges. (A.1) Tutoring One major problem deplored by the majority of participants was the fact that the students followed a tutored French programme outside of regular school hours. This practice was strongly criticised for tutoring was provided by personnel who were not necessarily French language specialists: …the entire school day and at the end of the day the child had to go be tutored from 4:30 to 5, in addition to all of the homework he had to do at night… Can you imagine the conditions we place these children in? (P4)

Practices varied. Some mentioned tutoring as the support provided in several subjects to bring the new arrival up to par. “We also have tutoring services for them; services to accelerate their learning, because there was fairly obvious catching up to do on different levels” (P1). The teachers also spoke of the language difficulties and the support provided: I noticed in their summaries that they had difficulty writing and sometimes the words made no sense in relation to the story. At that moment, we had a retired teacher who came in to help X to correct his texts to write complete sentences. (T7)

Some students partially integrated the regular class, spending the rest of the time learning the language; 231


however, both the teachers and the principal reported that one student transferred from the francophone to the anglophone sector: The integration should have been done at the beginning, as with X, another immigrant. She only came to two classes, and for all of the others she had help to try to learn the language. Her approach was different, I think, but she also left for John Caldwell. (T8)

Despite considering several options, several of our participants believed in the benefits of first directing the student toward learning the language with specialised human resources prior to beginning any other learning process: …have one year of schooling with someone who is a specialist who knows the context, who knows what they have gone through, rather than just throwing them into classrooms right away. (T3)

(A.2) The school system: deficient and unprepared The participants viewed the system as being ill-equipped to welcome immigrants by failing to provide educators with the necessary resources to accompany these new students. At the immigration level, they bring them to Canada. Yes, they are better off here than in their own country, but the people who bring them here send them into a school system that does not yet have the right tools; we are not properly equipped to accompany these children. (VP1)

The teaching staff is often overwhelmed by situations that go beyond their professional abilities, where communication (at the heart of any support measure) remains arduous and at times even impossible, resulting in a feeling of incompetence: […] that it’s impossible to know anything about these people. How can we help them? We offer some services to the students at school, but it’s always a question of communication. We help a student who manages to share little things with us, but when all we see is the suffering in their faces, how do we go about helping them, exactly? (P3)

The communication problems affect not only those who do not speak French but also those who do. In fact, certain adjustments are even made to the local dialect: “We get individuals from French-speaking countries, but often, for some of them, it’s their third of fourth language and French is not always their mother tongue” (PA). The problems related to comprehension are not limited to the oral but also to textbook content: “Our books are made in Canada, so in our books we use terms which mean something different to them. We have to explain almost every word of a text to them to enable them to understand the content.” (T10) (A.3) Unprepared immigrants Our respondents also deplored the fact that new arrivals receive little preparation or information as to the social and educational context that awaits them: They make a quick pit stop in Québec or Toronto or Montréal, then arrive here where they know little about the area, little about our culture, and are disadvantaged in terms of the economic level or their understanding of the school system. (P2) On the other hand, what bothers me is how little these individuals are prepared. If they knew exactly where they were going and were well informed about the culture or the customs pertaining to the language of the area, where they will settle, etc., it would probably help them make better choices as to where they would go. Has the family been well prepared before coming here? (VP2)

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(B) New Bruswick’s sociodemograhic and cultural characteristics The participants emphasized another concern caused by the province’s small population level. (B.1) Low population Our respondents pointed out that the small population of New Brunswick perhaps explained the slow immigration rate, suggesting that the province must foresee investing long-term in this process and somehow compensate this deficiency by providing a better quality of life for its new arrivals: Here, our province is rural, so if we want to invest in this area, in the long term, we won’t have any choice. They have to want to, and we have to spread the word that when you come to New Brunswick, you are welcomed and supported. It doesn’t mean spending exorbitant sums of money, but providing guidance and accompaniment for families and for students who attend school throughout their entire integrative process. (VP2)

According to the CIR directors, the sociodemographic constraints of small communities warrant that we “rethink” and “redesign” the existing system that currently hinders the growth of programmes that are likely to ensure well-adapted pro-integration services. They found it difficult to develop and implement such services, and emphasize the obstacles facing cultural organisations in this rural context in maintaining their autonomy as well as other networks which contribute to keeping immigrants in the area: It’s always a question of how we can revamp existing programmes not just for the larger centres… This is not easy, unless cultural organisations start up by themselves; otherwise, it’s tough, and also because we often see just how important these networks are for an immigrant to stay in the area. (CIR) Currently, the small number of immigrants within the system does not enable to provide appropriate French immersion services: “It’s not as easy as that to go look for tutors and even Frenchifying specialists; it often depends on the size of the school, as we often don’t have enough students” (CIR. (C) Immigrants’ sociodemograhic and cultural characteristics Among the factors related to the sociodemograhic and cultural characteristics of the new arrivals, we have been able to find: (1) linguistic diversity, (2) school-family relationship, and (3) sociocultural characteristics. (C.1) Linguistic diversity To ensure adequate Frenchifying, the role of the school becomes that much more important in terms of linguistic diversity, a phenomenon that is increasingly present with the arrival of allophone social groups whose mother tongue is neither French nor English. But lately we have had children from China and Korea. We obviously expect that they be French-speaking citizens who will promote the French language and that they be able to function; it’s more a case of being able to function in this language. (VP+TA)

Such diversity is even noticed within the family: “The father speaks Spanish, the mother speaks another language (English), and they have chosen a French school, yet they are unable to help with their child’s homework” (P10). (C.2) School-family relationship Children’s education cannot take place without the active participation of their parents. Communicating with the parents calls for a certain adaptation with regard to the spoken language. Because of the language barrier, several participants mentioned the difficulties they themselves experienced when trying to communicate with the parents of their students. Some teachers reported having to translate and communicate with parents in writing.

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Also stated was the fact that these adjustments required more time and energy on their part because it was not easy for them to write in English. In certain cases, the teachers were assisted in translating their correspondence with the parents: “Yes, with the parents, at the beginning of the year, I called them to introduce myself. In terms of the language, it was difficult; there was like a wall. We didn’t understand each other very well” (T6). In addition, the teachers spoke of having to resort to writing in English or getting someone to translate their messages to the parents, which thereby increased their workload: For me, what I found most difficult was corresponding with the parents. My English is not 100%, while for them, it was their language [...] A retired teacher translated my things in English, then she spoke to the parents, which is how we managed to establish a contact with the parents. (T9)

As Allophones, these parents were unable to help with homework: “But sometimes, the homework is not done, but it’s because the parents don’t understand the spelling, the spelling tests, the writing assignments… They sometimes just don’t understand the vocabulary” (T6). In the case of students who did not speak French at home, the participants agreed that their role in the lives of these children was very important in terms of promoting the French language: “Maybe we can have a bigger impact on them at home because they speak neither English nor French and it’s up to us to sell them the idea” (P7). (C.3) Sociocultural characteristics The notion of time was brought up as being perceived differently by the new arrivals: These people are, by their very nature, very laid back. Such is the case with X, who is really slow. We are used to pushing and sometimes I feel that I push him too hard, because he always takes his time. It’s not the same lifestyle. (T8)

This point, however, was not shared by all of the participants who found that the slowness in accomplishing tasks was attributable rather to their non-fluency. 5.2 Theme 2: Consequences Our study identified two significant consequences resulting from the various difficulties in communication as well as those experienced in class. 5.3 Communication problems The CIR members referred to remarks dominating many discussions on the subject of immigration in which the provincial government admitted that New Brunswick was not yet ready for immigration. When the language (essential to procuring information and learning) is not mastered, the result is confusion and delays in these processes: “When we get immigrant children, the initial obstacle to overcome is obviously at the communication level” (P3). The lack of information occasionally results in confusion in the perceptions and expectations one has of the other: “As I mentioned, the challenge here is in the expectations. They come from a system where the teacher’s expectations of their students are different and vice-versa” (T1). What was said of the students applied to the parents as well: “With them, it would be interesting if the parents could received information on, for example, the school system” (T4), or again “And I think that the school expects the parents of our immigrant students participate like the parents who are from here, but that’s not necessarily the case” (T6). This situation therefore has many consequences. In short, our respondents mentioned several challenges with regard to immigration. Not knowing the language hinders communication at several levels, particularly between teacher and student: “This year, I welcomed a new student who was placed in my Grade 10 class, and in the beginning, I didn’t know 234


if she spoke French, English, or another language. I just could not understand” (T3), or “…but when he explained, I didn’t understand him, you see? It’s because that’s not the way we usually explained things to him where he came from” (T1). The lack of communication also has definite repercussions on student/student dialogue, which stunts their socialisation, and subsequently, their integration. Being in the same class with students their own age with no way of communicating, new arrivals feel isolated, which is paradoxical, as they are physically present in these classes where they work on ‘projects’, yet they remain absent by their lack of understanding of what is going on around them in class, and by their silence: …because the language barrier is also present when he must stay in the same class, work on a project… The result… we’re under the impression that they are on another planet because they have no idea what the others are saying. (T1)

Even those who hail from francophone countries are unsettled by the chiac (a regional dialect combining old and new French with English): They come from a francophone country where English is not used at all in the French language, so they already have a handicap as they do not yet master French and now they have to deal with other students who combine French and English, so it’s an added difficulty for them as they don’t understand at all. (T1)

5.4 Academic difficulties It goes without saying that the contradictory context in which new arrivals are placed is not to their advantage: we ask that they learn new content without even first learning the language, which prevents them from moving forward in their learning experiences. “How can she possible answer science questions when she cannot communicate? Science is all greek to her” (T3). Consequently, they do not learn at the same rate as the others. The real challenge, however, are situations involving allophone immigrants, who often drop out of the francophone sector and transfer to the anglophone sector: “He left and went to an anglophone school because of the language barrier. In his case, it’s simple: He really liked school, that’s for sure, but we lost him because of the lack of available services for him. He was worried that his marks would suffer” (VP2).

6. Discussion Our findings reveal several obstacles in the integration of new immigrants in FMS schools. All of the challenges mentioned by the respondents essentially pertain to the fact of being non-fluent in the language. In the FMS, Frenchifying activities for new arrivals are provided in the form of tutoring outside of regular school hours. This standardize approach currently used by the school system is deemed inadequate, as it has no institutional basis, and is rarely dispensed by qualified teachers (Gallant, 2004). In fact, the integration of immigrant students can be achieved only with the recognition of their differences, or what Bourdieu (1966) called the indifference to differences. This recognition should be the starting point in order to achieve the equality of chances which is one of the main themes in the actual discourse regarding equality and equity for the financing of francophone schools. On this particular topic, the French Teachers Federation of New Brunswick was reminding us a decision from the Supreme Court of Canada (Arsenault-Cameron c. L’Île-du-Prince-Édouard, [2000] 1 R.C.S. 3, 2000 CSC 1, par. 31) where they talk about the possibility, if necessary, of different treatments in accordance with the needs, in order to ensure a quality of education equivalent to the one of the majority (l’Association des enseignantes et des enseignants francophones du

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Nouveau-Brunswick (AEFNB), 2008). At present, there is no available data on the rate of migration toward the anglophone sector following a more or less lengthy stay in the francophone sector. Several of our participants spoke of this phenomenon which occurs following a partial or total integration in regular class. While a number of causes may explain this transfer (seeking better grades, a belief that the English language is easier to learn, students’ age), we must seriously examine current practices and revitalise the human and material resources deployed in this process. The province of New Brunswick has seen several debates on the subject of immigration; none, however, have directly discussed its policies and perspectives, which as a result have created a feeling of uncertainty and incompetence among its educators, which thus explains the many personal initiatives taken to address the urgent needs of immigrants, as is evidenced, among others, in the differentiation between education and evaluation. Our participants felt strongly that the system should improve their response to this new clientele by addressing several inadequacies in its integration process of immigrant students, such as how we welcome them and their families, the lack of understanding with regard to our educational system, the lack of open, effective communication, and clearer expectations by both parties. The respondents maintained that they remained confused as to how to interact with new arrivals under these difficult conditions (we know nothing about you and have not met, there is no possibility of any clear communication between us, we are unable to provide the essential support services because we do not know your needs or your interests, to name a few), only to lose them to the anglophone sector. Participants shared their feelings of uneasiness caused by the obvious lack of the number one resource that is essential to communication, namely, language, thereby hindering all possibility of communication and consequently, any possible integration. In this sense, when the language is not fully acquired, trying to communicate becomes almost futile. In short, the various challenges evoked were mainly attributed to the fact of not mastering the language. We must nevertheless consider this issue within its socioeconomic and cultural context: immigration occurs less here and is heterogeneous because of the ethnic origin of the immigrants, which is why teachers are key agents for change with these new students (different evaluations/pedagogy) in a context where they must consider the mission of the school in preserving and promoting the French language. This adaptation process cannot be successful without high-quality trained personnel, which is another issue to be explored. References: l'Association des enseignantes et des enseignants francophones du Nouveau-Brunswick (2008). Mémoire présenté dans le cadre de la consultation publique sur l’école francophone du Nouveau-Brunswick [En ligne]. Available online at: http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/CommEcoleFran/M%C3%A9moire%20AEFNB.pdf. Belkhodja C. and Gallant N. (2004). “D’un déficit de diversité à la production de la diversité: l’expérience immigrante francophone au Canada et au Nouveau-Brunswick”, in: J. Gatugu, S. Amoranitis and A. Manco (dir), La vie associative des migrants : quelles (re)connaissances ? Réponses européennes et canadiennes, Paris: L’Harmattan, pp. 79–94. Bouchamma Y. (2006). “School principals perceptions of personal and professional efficacy with regards to teacher supervision in new brunswick”, Journal of Educational Administration and Fondations, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 9–23. Bouchamma Y. (2004). “Gestion de l’éducation et construction identitaire sur le plan professionnel des directeurs et directrices d’établissements scolaires”, Éducation et francophonie, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 62–78. Bouchamma Y., Lapointe C. and Richard J. F. (2007). “School determinants of achievement in writing: Implication for school management in minority settings”, The Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 121–150. Bourdieu P. (1966). “L’école conservatrice. Les inégalités devant l’école et devant la culture”, Revue française de sociologie, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 325–347. Canadian Labour and Business Centre (2005). “National and Provincial Trends & Issues on Immigration New Brunswick and

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Challenges and Perspectives Related to the Integration of Immigrant Students in Francophone Minority Area Schools Canada”, available online at: http://www.clbc.ca/files/Presentations/Trends_and_Issues_on_Immigration_-_Fredericton.pdf. Castonguay C. (2001). “Démographie comparée des minorités de langue officielle”, Francophonies d'Amérique, No. 12, pp. 25–36. Clews R. (2003). “Examen et élimination des obstacles à l’immigration au Nouveau-Brunswick”, available online at: http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca:8000/archive/00000078/02/Clews_French.pdf Couture C. (2001). “La disparition inévitable des francophones à l'extérieur du Québec: un fait inéluctable ou le reflet d'un discours déterministe”, Francophonies d'Amérique, No. 11, pp. 7–18. Fédération des communautés francophones et acadienne du Canada (FCFA) (2004). Profil de la communauté francophone de la Colombie-Britannique (2ieme éd.), Ottawa, ON: Fédération des Communautés Francophones et Acadienne du Canada. Foucher P. (1999). “Les droits linguistiques au Canada”, in: J. Y. Thériault (dir.), Francophonies minoritaires au Canada : l’état des lieux, Moncton : Éditions d’Acadie, pp. 307–323. Gallant N. (2004). “L’école francophone du Nouveau-Brunswick face à la diversité. Actes de la conférence sur l’immigration. Saint-Andrews, Nouveau-Brunswick, août 2004”, available online at: http://atlanticportal.hil.unb.ca:8000/archive/00000080/02/Gallant_French.pdf Gallant N. and Belkhodja C. (2005). “Production d’un discours sur l’immigration et la diversité par les organismes francophones et acadiens au Canada”, Canadian Ethnic Studies, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 35–58. Huberman A. M. and Miles B. M. (1991). Analyse des données qualitatives: recueil de nouvelles méthodes (trad. C. De Backer et V. Lamongie), Bruxelles: De Boeck. Landry R. and et Allard R. (1999). “L’éducation dans la francophonie minoritaire”, in: D. Y. Thériault (Éd.), Francophonies minoritaires au Canada, Moncton: Les Éditions de l’Acadie, pp. 403–424. Landry R. and Allard R. (1997). “L'exogamie et le maintien de deux langues et de deux cultures: le rôle de la francité familio-scolaire”, Revue des sciences de l'éducation, Vol. 23, pp. 561–592. Landry R. and Allard R. (1996). “Vitalité ethnolinguistique. Une perspective dans l'étude de la francophonie canadienne”, in: J. Erfurt (dir.), De la polyphonie à la symphonie. Méthodes, théories et faits de la recherche pluridisciplinaire sur le français au Canada, Leipzig : Leipziger Universitätsverlag, pp. 61–87. Martel A. (2001). Droits, écoles et communautés en milieu minoritaire: 1986–2002. Analyse pour un aménagement du français par l'éducation, Commissariat aux langues officielles, Ottawa. Martel A. and Villeneuve D. (1995). “Idéologies de la nation, idéologie de l’éducation au Canada entre 1867 et 1960 : le « bénéfice du locuteur » majoritaire ou minoritaire”, Revue canadienne de l’éducation, No. 20, pp. 392–406. Miles M. B. and Huberman A. M. (2003). Analyse des données qualitatives: recueil de nouvelles méthodes (2e éd.), Bruxelles: De Boeck Université. New-Brunswick Department of Education (2007). “When kids come first”, available online at: http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/4578_report_e.pdf New-Brunswick Department of Education (1997). “Education Act. CHAPTER E-1.12”, available online at: http://www.gnb.ca/0062/PDF-acts/e-01-12.pdf. Statistic Canada (2004). “Children of immigrants: how well do they do in school?”, available online at: http://www.statcan.ca/francais/freepub/81-004-XIF/200410/immi_f.htm#b. Strauss A. and Corbin J. (1994). “Grounded theory methodology: An overview”, in: N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 273–285. Zine J. (2001). “Muslim youth in Canadian schools: Education and the politics of religious identity”, Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 399–423.

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Journal of Modern Education Review, ISSN 2155-7993, USA August 2012, Volume 2, No. 4, pp. 238–259  Academic Star Publishing Company, 2012 http://www.academicstar.us

Effects of Creating Three Kinds of Digital Storytellings on Student Attitude Isao Miyaji  (Department of Information Science, Okayama University of Science, Japan) Abstract: This paper reports on the results of evaluation and modification activities related to digital storytelling creation by students in a university. Creating storytelling enables students to heighten skills for their computer utilization, to deepen their self-understanding, and to develop skills for problem-solving. Students first write a script for autobiographical stories and then convert them to slide presentations. After viewing the storytelling slide shows together and performing peer reviews, the students modify their own work. Through this exercise, which was repeated for three storytelling themes, students experienced to raise skills for their computer utilization, to enhance self-understanding, and to bring up skills for problem-solving, as shown by significantly high average rating scale values. Second, activities that are significantly useful for improving attitude related to ability were confirmed. Third, for all three themes, students realized that both their own work and the work of their peers improved because of the exercise. Key words: storytelling, slide-show storyboards, evaluation activity, peer assessment, self-undrestanding

1. Introduction Many studies have been conducted on new effective methods of teaching (Kayatsu, 2009; Miyaji, 2009; 2011a). Problem solving skill is necessary to work in society. Therefore it is important to bring up it in a class. It has been found that classes can foster students’ problem solving skills through a series of activities that repeat self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and correction of weaknesses in assignments where students need to produce a work in a university class (Miyaji, 2003; 2006). Creative activities that produce works that inform and entertain people by describing real and imaginary events, using graphics, narration, and music are called storytelling (Figg, 2010; Zipes, 1995). In digital storytelling, still pictures such as photographs, figures, and drawn pictures are displayed sequentially to create a storytelling and narrated. Digital stories can be easily reconstructed, and producers can distribute a story to many people through the Internet (Susono, 2007). Still pictures are easy to handle for the producers of such assignments, and students can reflect upon memories or what they have learned through reviewing still pictures (Barrett, 2008). Kelleher (2007) proposed to use storytelling to motivating programming. Tsou (2006) explained that storytelling is a practical and powerful teaching tool, especially for language learning. Chu (2009) have developed an intelligent storytelling system which is used to adapt the after school practice' concept for Chinese language learning. Digital storytelling is in a good position to help teachers use technology in their classrooms effectively (Robin, 2008). Renda (2010) reported to encourage meaningful teacher reflection using digital storytelling. In this way, storytelling is used various fields of education and helps in a large variety of scenes. 

Isao Miyaji, Ph.D., Professor, Graduate School of Informatics, Okayama University of Science; research areas: blended learning, educational technology. E-mail: [email protected]. 238

Effects of Creating Three Kinds of Digital Storytellings on Student Attitude

Ballast (2008) has reported that the practical class improved the quality of their text narratives through the practice of digital storytelling, compared to the control class that did not practice it. Ku (2012) reported that storytelling task showed effect of similar patterns to the other tests in written language comprehension. In this study, students created things that others could use and evaluated each other’s work. They modified works based on each other’s evaluations. We let students learn how to create works as per the specifications required by others. It is believed that student problem-solving skill can be fostered by such practice (Miyaji, 2011b). Instructional design plays important roles to realize the charming, effective and efficient class (Gagine, 2005; Lee, 2001). Before a class, we need to consider which media should be used, how they should be utilized, and when and where they should be handled. The changes and effects on student attitude related to the skills are rarely measured quantitatively in a class creating storytelling. Few reports have measured at length the effects of learners' attitude evaluating the storytellings created and subsequently modifying their own work. There are few detailed reports about the changes on student's attitude in a class where learners create theme-based storyboards. In this paper, educational information in creating storytelling is quantitatively measured in detail as there are few reports measured in detail so far. Then analyzing it shows changes of attitude and difference of effects through creating three kinds of storytelling. Storytelling was undertaken as a class in order to improve their skills for computer utilization and increase student self-understanding. “Self-understanding” means to understand and recognize oneself, one’s character, likes, dislikes, and so on. Students created a slideshow in PowerPoint that presented a reflective autobiographical story. In the creative process, students were informed about the purpose of revision when creating a work and the means to communicate their own thoughts through a self- and peer-evaluation process and through several steps of correction. Throughout the study, students were required to present reports of filled-in content on works, self-evaluation, peer evaluation, and consideration about the contents. After checking the submitted reports, the teacher pointed out unclear and incomplete elements and students corrected their reports based upon the instructor feedback received. It is reported that the attitude related to the skills acquired through these activities was improved. In this paper, the effects of creating digital storytellings for three themes are explained by analyzing questionnaires on attitude related to abilities. The purposes of lesson, lesson plans, contents of report, and the function of e-learning in this practice as instructional design are explained in section two. The results of analyzing the educational information are shown and discussed in section three.

2. Instructional Design and Method The target subject in this study is called an information science experiment, consisting of three hours per week as one of the compulsory subjects in the second semester at the department of information science in a university. A purpose of the target subject is to experience that students learned in classroom lectures about information science so far through the experiment and to learn how to write report. The class of subject consisted of 14 lessons. Three teachers were in charge of contents of each teacher by this subject. Students chose one of them and took subjects. The content which the author was in charge of was “creating digital storytellings”. Each class session was 180 minutes long, and the class proceeded according to the plan shown in Table 1. The class was conducted by a teacher and a teaching assistant. After explaining the activity contents of the day at the beginning of each class, the teachers walked around the classroom and responded to questions as needed. There were the

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third-year 31 student participants who are belong to in a university. Five of them are femail. 2.1 Lesson Purposes The purposes of this class are as follows: (1) to heighten students' skills for computer utilization and self-expression through creative activities, especially to raise a technique using softwares, that is, three softwares for presentation, for making a document, and for processing a spreadsheet; (2) to deepen self-understanding and self-analysis through creating a story on the assigned theme, since they are important when searching for jobs; (3) to increase and develop problem solving skill through the activities of evaluation and revision as it is necessary to work in society. Since students told their stories through a slide show in this class, it was important to create a scenario through which their peers could understand their stories. In order to complement the narrative, they had to consider how pictures and photos are composed and organized as a form of expression unlike the sentence. They made their stories easy to understand in order to convey their actions and thoughts to peers by using a computer and manipulating graphic and text media. The autobiographical nature of the storytelling assignment made the students think about themselves in the draft of the first story. Students were required to modify their works after peer-review, and were asked to understand that they should work while they thought about a person in order to work for the person. 2.2 Contents of Three Themes The three themes that students were required to make were on the themes of “self understanding”, “a children’s story”, and “a future course”. The first theme was related to autobiographical topics such as “my hobby”, “my memories”, and “a childhood dream”. Students were directed to include their reflections upon these topics in order to express their thoughts to their peers and to further their own self-understanding. The second theme was set to have a student think about a meaning to work. It means that working does something for a person. The students were allowed to create the second work in order to understand that they worked for persons. It was considered that they work for chidren as example of the persons. Examples of such work for children included fantasyland, a dog’s adventure, a children’s story about a spider, an insect’s life, a funny trip to space, and the underground world. Students were told to create a story that would interest a child or be useful or educational for a child. The third work was set to improve student attitude towards work. The students conducted self-examination tasks and were then allowed to think about their futures. As an example, the following examples were presented to them about constructing a storytelling related to a dream: “a job that I would like to get”, “workplace where I want to work”, “company for which I want to take an entrance examination”, “my dream job”, “person that I want to be”, “work that would allow me to take advantage of my hobby”, “my meaning for working”, “institutional research”, “job hunting”, “my qualifications”. The students were requested to think about a future course and to create the work with an attitude towards work based upon this theme. 2.3 Lesson Plans Table 1 shows lesson plans. The first, second, and third works were made in five, five, and four weeks respectively. The students drew six pieces of pictures in accord with the scenes of the stories and converted them into a PowerPoint slide show storytelling. The students were requested to include an animation to promote the understanding of the stories. The narration was recorded with a microphone to enhance the feeling of each story’s content, thus producing a digital picture book. 240


Table 1 Time

Work

1

First Product

Lesson Plans

Lesson content Explanation of theme priori consciousness survey related to skills, information retrieval story creation

2

Story submission, slide creation based on the first story

3

Slide creation, recording of narration, self-evaluation, modification of story and slide, writing the second of the first report Appreciating slide show of the first story, peer evaluation, modification of story and slides, writing the second of the first report Appreciating slide show of the story, peer evalution, writing the third of the first report, posteriori consciousness survey related to skills Story submission, information retrieval, slide creation based on the second story

4 5 6 7

Second product

Slide creation based on the second story, making animation

8

Slide creation, recording of narration self-evaluation, writing the first of the second report

9

Appreciating slide show of the second story, peer evalution, modification of story and slides, writing the second of the second report Appreciating slide show of the story, peer evalution, writing the third of the second report, posteriori consciousness survey related to skills Story submission, information retrieval, slide creation based on the third story

10 11 12

Third product

Slide creation based on the third story, making animation, recording of narration

13

Appreciating slide show of the third story, peer evaluation, writing the first of the third report

14

Writing the second of the third report, posteriori consciousness survey related to skills

Figure 1 shows diagram of the practice for creating a work. In the first session, advance survey for skills and perception was first conducted. Then, the teacher distributed to the students an A4 30-page experiment description document that explained the experiment’s purpose, contents, plan, slide creation method, experimental method, and related details. He explained them on the basis of the document. He distributed one sheet as shown in Figure 2 to the students. Six pictures and the narrative stories could be entered using both sides of the sheet of A4 paper. Figure 2 is an example of the entered case. Students were assigned to write a story on the right-hand page and to draw a related picture within the square frame on the left-hand page before the second session. The students were instructed to download the story slide of the “Diet Challenge Story” shown in Figure 1 as an example for their assignment. 1

A dvance survey for skills and perception

B ig H at

Explaining experim ent contents C larifying problem s

5

C ollecting inform ation C reating a story

C orrecti ng slides

D raw ing pictures

4

2

C reating slides C heck

3

R ecording narration S elf

R eading story slides & peer assessm ent

assessm ent

R eading story slides & peer assessm ent A nalyzing peer assessm e nt & self assessm e nt

お話スライド(アニメ)被他者評価と自己評価の差およ被他者び評価と自己評価との差再被他者評価と再自己評価の差の比較再被他者評価と再自己評価との差 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 評 0.5 定 0.0 差 - 0.5 - 1.0 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0

A nalyzing peer assessm e nt & self assessm e nt

(1 2 )動くものは適切か．

(1 3 )アニメーションの動きは円滑か．

(1 0)文字の大きさや色は適切か．

(1 1 )登場するものは適切か．

(1 6 )音やB G M は適切か．

(1 7 )時間配分は適切か．

(8 )イラストは適切か．

(9 )スライドの背景は適切か．

(1 4 )子供に喜んで見てもらえるか．

(1 5 ) 声は聞き取りやすいか．

Figure 1

(3 )お話に興味関心がわくか．

4

(7 )スライド全体の構成は適切か． (6 )スライドが話をわかりやすくしているか． (5 )お話と各スライドとが一致しているか． (4 )お話はわかりやすいか．

(1 )お話全体の構成は適切か．

C heck

W riting C orrect report N o.1 & add

(2 )タイトルとお話は一致しているか．

3

P osteri ori survey for skills and percep tion

C heck

5

C heck

W riting W riting C orrect report N o.2 & add report N o.3

C orrect

Diagram of the Practice for Creating A Work 241


I07I255 M om otaro O kayam a Content of the story slides Introduction

３

タイトル

３ Momotaro, "Finally I r eached the target weig ht!" Quitting drinking a nd smoking, and watch ing his eating, he could recovered good health. 揑've done a good job, ! myself

Introduction A story of challe nging dieting, I07I255 Okayama Momotaro 学番 I07I255 氏名岡山桃太郎

１

４

１

４ Momotaro "All my family was happy because I became well and healthy. Now, I'll do my best to work harder than ever !"

１ Momotaro, " Oh, no ! Gained weight again! Metabolic syndrome? . . . "

２

２ Dr. Kitano, "You will be in trouble if you leave it unattended." Nurse Rika, "Please take dietary therapy into consideration besides exercising." Momotaro, "Ok! I will begin dieting today! I will do my best to reach the target weight!" Figure 2

End

End As a result, I find myself healthy at this age. Happy ending!

Sheet Example in Which A Story and A Picture Are Entered (Entered Case)

In the second session, the teacher checked the sheet that each student wrote and drew and gave students advices. Then, the students completed their written narratives/story lines. They painted their pictures on the paper sheet with colored pencil. They subsequently scanned the images of their sheet with an image scanner. Then they imported the images to Paint software, which were installed as part of Windows XP Microsoft® suite of files. They modified the images on Paint software by deleting the part of unnecessary illustration, adding necessary lines, and painting an image in a color with Paint. The students cut the images on Paint software and pasted them on slides with PowerPoint. The students created their slides by adding necessary character to them with PowerPoint. At the beginning of the third session, the teacher instructed the students how to write reports. They were required to enter the final image works into PowerPoint to create their slides. They attached an animation to illustrations and characters for deeper understanding for their stories. Students then recorded their storytelling narrations using a microphone while viewing their slide show. Finaly, they checked the slides with the annimation and narration. The students submitted their files of their story slides at the end of the third session. The students performed self-assessments after completion of the first draft at the end of the third lesson. The students wrote and submitted the first report until the day before the fourth session. The students wrote the report using Word; they made their charts in Excel and pasted them into their reports.

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At the start of the fourth session, the teacher printed and distributed a peer evaluation sheet and a handout in which all works by the students were printed. The slide shows of all members in the class were projected on the screen in succession. The students were directed to observe the story slide shows at the same time and then evaluate them for one minute. Each show was followed in immediate succession. After the students evaluated each story, the evaluations were entered into the peer evaluation sheet. After viewing all the story slide shows, the students entered the rating value and comment to spreadsheet in Excel, and the files were submitted using the Internet. The teacher gathered and summarized the evaluations in each student’s file, then gave each student access to an e-learning portal so that they could download the peer evaluations. The teacher also pointed out the points that should be revised in the printed work and distributed instructor feedback to each student. The students were then required to modify their digital stories and slides by referring to the peer evaluations and the instructor feedback provided. Students performed the second self-assessments after modification in the fourth session. The teacher returned the first report with the instructor feedback to each student. The students wrote over the first report, add some contents to it, and submitted the second report until the day before the fifth session by referring to the instructor feedback. The modified story slides were viewed again in the same manner as during the fourth session, and then evaluated once again in the fifth session. The second peer evaluation was entered into an assessment spreadsheet, which was also submitted as the previous peer evaluation. The teacher gathered and summarized the evaluations in each student’s file, then gave each student access to an e-learning portal in the same manner as in the fourth session. Students then pasted the second peer assessment for themselves on an assessment spreadsheet. By comparing the first and second evaluations, students could learn from and interpret the appropriateness of the corrected elements. Students performed the third self-assessments after the final evaluation in the fifth session. The teacher returned the second report with the instructor feedback to each student. The students wrote over the second report, add some contents to it, and submitted the third report until the day before the session of next theme by referring to the instructor feedback. The procedures similar to one mentioned above for a work were repeated for creating the other two works. In order to improve students’ computer application skills, they were allowed to use Word, Excel, Power Point, and Paint software. 2.4 Report Contents The student wrote each one report for a theme in three steps using Word, and submitted them on the days before the fourth, fifth, and sixth sessions. The teacher returned their reports with the instructor feedback to each student during class hours. The students wrote over the previous report by referring to the instructor feedback, add some contents to it, and submitted next report until the day before next session. Contents of the reports consisted of 11 items: (1) definition of storytelling and digital picture books, (2) contents of the story slide show, (3) structure of the work, (4) self-evaluation of the story and its slide show, (5) peer assessment from reviewing the story slide show, (6) the elements of the story and its modifications based upon peer assessment feedback, (7) the correction elements modified based upon teacher feedback, (8) evaluation of the peer’s work, (9) changes of the contents from re-evaluation of the corrected work, (10) change of attitude of their skills improved by the course, and (11) discussion on items (2) through (10). The contents of these 11 items is written dividing into three times. It is explained as follows in detail; the first, second and third reports consist of (1)–(4) and (11), (1)–(8) and (11), and all of (1)–(11) respectively. The report becomes approximately 15 pages. Students were required to write the report mentioned above for each work. As they created three works, they must write three reports. 243


2.5 Function of E-learning The students obtained the report template and the assessment spreadsheet file from the e-learning portal. The teacher created the worksheet required for the evaluation activities of the lesson as an Excel assessment spreadsheet. The contents of the assessment consisted of three self-assessments, two peer-evaluations, and preand post-evaluation of the student’s attitude of his/her own skill. Students submitted the files through the e-learning portal, which has the following functions that students could utilize: (1) Browsing. Students could browse examples of the story slideshow, how to draw illustrations, how to create story slides, and the set-up procedure for creating their animations. (2) Downloading files. Students could download the Word files of the paper sheet on which a story and a picture were entered, the template of the report, the Excel file of the assessment spreadsheet template and the peer assessment results, and PDF files of the experiment description document. (3) Uploading files. Students could upload the Word files of their reports, the Excel file of their assessment spreadsheets, and the PowerPoint file of their storytelling slideshows. (4) Bulletin board. Students could browse other communication, ask questions and see the response. (5) E-mail. Students could send the teacher files and mail to ask questions.

3. Analysis Result and Discussion Eight kinds of results investigated were analyzed in order to find the learning effects gained by creating the storytelling piece described in section two. First, the stories that the students created were categorized to know the main contents of the story that students took up and the main contents were described. Since it is believed that one fundamental element of learning is time required for learning activities, the students were required to write the time necessary to investigate writing their stories, creating the slides, and completing the report inside the report cover. Next, those times were analyzed, and the time required was considered. In order to determine the reviewing time, we conducted a survey of the time required for narration. Student’s degree of self-understanding was examined before and after learning, in order for us to analyze the increase in self-understanding caused by this course. Student awareness of their skill levels was investigated before and after learning, so that we could assess the skill achievement. One goal of this paper was to understand student skill achievement based upon student self-understanding. We analyzed student attitudes towards their skills in order to find differences in the learning effects gained by creating the three kinds of storytelling works discussed. We find that the student attitude towards their skills increased by comparing their pre- and post-ratings. The factor analysis was conducted for the rating of attitude and related factors were extracted. Students were required to enter some activities so as to determine which ones would be useful in improving their abilities and attitudes in the posteriori. The cluster analysis was conducted for a cross table of attitude and activities to understand the activities useful for improving the students’ attitudes related to skill. With regard to the stories they created, the students conducted self-evaluation and peer-evaluation after two observations, which did show an effect. The difference was calculated at the 5% significance level.

244


3.1 Classification of Work Contents Classification of the work titles for the content that students created is shown in Table 2. It was repeated that a work was located so that a similar one approached. Works were drawn toward each other by their likeness. The first work for self-understanding was classified into five categories with the procedure: memories from childhood, high school, and college, a trip, and a hobby. The topics of stories created can be classified into the memories of childhood (12), high school (1), and college (7), travels (4), and hobbies (7). The number of pieces of each type is shown in a parenthesis after the category labels. Many students selected the theme of recollections, of which childhood and recent memory share the same number. Table 2

Self understanding C lasification

M em orie s from childhood

T itle of story B eing different in old and now M em ory in sandy beach on sum m er M em ory of sea bathing C ocada collecting Firefly catching Fishing at sea B ig fish w hich w as caught in sum m er C raw fish collecting P leasure of the snow boading M em ory for the m ask rider M om ory for m ini-four-w heel drive car C ockateel of m y hom e

Classification of the Work Titles

Story for children C lasification

Story of the anim al

M em ory in M y adm iration - high school baseball club high school C am pus Life R egret in juniors

M em orie s in college

Trips

H obbies

For three years in college and from now Fire w ork H ero M em ory of fire w ork Exercise in the club M om ory of the ham burger steak H ot sum m er that w ere spent w ith a friend Fantasy S um m er m em ory for trip to H iroshim a A im less trip to S hodoshim a N ice event T rip to Fukuoka w ith fam ilies M y hobby - video view ing C reation of the poetry W anting a M y hobby - Kyudo M y hobby - bow ling child to M y hobby - tennis ball learn C hallenge to a guitar D aily experience of a boot cam p

Future course

T itle of story C lasification Let's go on a m essage C hristm as of Taro of the dog Job S tory of a m an and dog W hite cat H ana and black cat T aro hunting Frog express letter H appy rabbit A rabbit and fox B ig hat (a fox and elephant) Fly! To the south island! S w allow of the lost child P enguin story P arent and child of the cheetah O ne's P ow er of the banana (a chim panzee and rabbit) dream s Friends in the forest B irthday party of the anim al A boy w ith the big body

Title of story M y job hunting M y job hunting Job hunting Job hunting Activity of a young m an Self-appeal Future dream (police officer) Future dream (teacher) M y dream (teacher) M y dream (floatation) M y dream (plan section) M y dream (pilot)

H ero of the justice H ero of the justice A brave m an and dragon D ay of the scarecrow M agician D ay of the opening P resent from S anta Fragm ent of the courage G reetings Let's take good care of a thing Let's dum p garbage into a trash box T oothbrushing P revention of cold R oad safety of Lucky B e careful about road safety

Person im age w hich I w ant to becom e Person im age w hich I w ant to becom e The m eaning that I com m it The m eaning that I com m it The m eaning w hich w orks M y finding em ploym ent Finding em ploym ent M y qualification (teacher) W ork Future design Future plan Looking ahead to the future Future m e M y w ay of life Let's consider an environm ental problem

Thought about w orking Thought about the future

M y dream (program m er) D ream Ideal w ork Type of job to w ant to becom e

The second work for self-understanding was classified into five categories: story of the animal, hero, fantasy, a nice event, wanting a child to learn. The third work for a future course was classified into four categories: job hunting, one’s dreams (aspirations), thoughts about working, and thoughts about the future. These classifications adapt to three kinds of themes respectively. 3.2 Time Required to Create a Work On the inside of the report cover, students wrote the number of hours required for the investigation for the narratives, the complete slide creation, and the report creation. Their average times are shown in Table 3, where m and SD mean the average and standard deviation respectively. The average time required for completing the first, second, and third works is 22.7, 23.0, and 10.5 hours respectively. Class lessons accounted for 10.5, 10.5, and 6 hours respectively. It was found that it took about 12.2, 12.5, and 4.5 hours to do the independent activities for creating the work outside of class time. As mentioned in section 2.3, the first, second, and third works were made 245


for five, five, and four weeks respectively. The author gather that difference of a week brings significant differences to total time required of the first and second works compared with the third work. Total time required of the third work is less than that of the first two works, because deference in lesson times led to deference in the total time required. There is no significant difference between total time required of the first and second works. Table 3

C ontents of activity

Time Required for Each Activity in the Course (Hours)

1st product 2nd product 3rd product m

SD

m

SD

m

Investigation

5.8 4.9 6.2 5.0 3.3 9.0 4.5 9.0 4.7 3.8 Report creation 8.0 4.1 7.9 3.2 3.3 Total 22.8 10.5 23.0 10.3 10.5 Slide creation

SD 3.2 2.2 1.3 5.8

M ean square Square M ultiple com parisons F p C ondi1st- 2nd- 1stC ondiError value Error 3rd tion 2nd 3rd tion 147.3 1831.2 73.6 20.3 3.6 * * * 558.7 1453.6 279.4 16.2 17.3 *** * * 438.0 889.2 219.0 9.9 22.2 *** * * 3205.5 7761.7 1602.8 86.2 18.6 *** * * * p

Practitioners' Views on How Children Learn Mathematics

Practitioners' Views on How Children Learn Mathematics

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