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Style file version Nov. 19th, 1999

C 2002) Sex Roles, Vol. 45, Nos. 3/4, August 2001 (°

Satisfaction With Body Image and Peer Relationships for Males and Females in a College Environment1 Wendy D. Hoyt2 and Lori R. Kogan Colorado State University

The purpose of this study was to examine body image and relationship satisfaction in male and female college students. A total of 101 males and 187 females, primarily Caucasian and middle class, completed a questionnaire designed to measure satisfaction with specific body parts, overall body characteristics, and relationship status. These variables were examined in light of gender and body size differences. Results indicated that women, especially those under or above average weight, were more dissatisfied with their appearance than were men, whereas men were more dissatisfied with their relationships and sex lives than were women. In addition, those body parts with which each gender was most dissatisfied were consistent with the body parts emphasized through “ideal” images. These results are discussed in relation to gender role dynamics and societal pressures. The idea that women in today’s society are generally dissatisfied with their appearance is not a new one. Research has repeatedly shown that, over the past 30 years, American women have become increasingly dissatisfied with their physical appearance. Not surprisingly, images in print and film media have depicted thinner and thinner women during this same time period. The relationship between these two phenomena has been difficult to elucidate. However, recent studies have provided convincing evidence that media images play a significant role in how women feel about their bodies (Grogan, 1999; Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & 1A

modified version of this paper was presented at the meeting of the Rocky Mountain Psychological Association, Tucson, Arizona, April 15, 2000. whom correspondence should be addressed at Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523; e-mail: [email protected].

2 To

199 C 2002 Plenum Publishing Corporation 0360-0025/01/0800-0199/0 °


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Stein, 1994), and Stice et al. (1994) found that media consumption does indeed have a direct link with the development of eating disorder symptoms. In addition, the media has a tendency to link good looks with social desirability, particularly as it relates to sexual relationships (Eagly et al., 1991). Little research to date, however, has focused on the role of body dissatisfaction in interpersonal relationships. Although some researchers have linked disordered eating with impaired sexual relationships, rarely have researchers examined the relationship between one’s body satisfaction and one’s satisfaction in peer and romantic relationships. Thus, this study was designed not only to update information regarding body dissatisfaction in men and women, but to provide further information about the relationship between body and relationship satisfaction. Body image has been defined in numerous ways; however, most agree that body image is multidimensional, and includes physiological, psychological, and sociological components (Cash, 1994; Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990; Parks & Read, 1997). In general, body image is one’s attitude towards one’s body, particularly its size, shape, and aesthetics (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990); it refers to individuals’ evaluations and affective experiences regarding their physical attributes (Cash, 1994; Cash, Ancis, & Strachan, 1997). Garner (1997) states: Body image is influenced by feelings and it actively influences much of our behavior, self-esteem, and psychopathology. Our body perceptions, feelings, and beliefs govern our life plan—who we meet, who we marry, the nature of our interactions, our dayto-day comfort level. Indeed, our body is our personal billboard, providing others with first—and sometimes only—impressions. (p. 30)

As is illustrated by the sheer number of studies related to female body image, the subject is clearly a significant issue for women in today’s society. In fact, women’s dissatisfaction with their bodies has been termed by some as “normative discontent” (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & TantleffDunn, 1999). Being dissatisfied with one’s body now seems the norm for women in the United States. Unfortunately, at the same time, unhealthy eating practices have also become the norm for women in the United States to the extent that some call dieting “normal” for women (Polivy & Herman, 1987). The link between these now “normal” thoughts and behaviors has been long noticed. Body image has repeatedly been identified as the most important factor in the development of eating disorders, and body dissatisfaction is the most consistent predictor of the development of an eating disorder (Bruch, 1962; Thompson et al., 1999). Jackson (1992) indicated that, over the lifespan, women are significantly more dissatisfied with their body image than are men, and this is largely due to the belief that they are overweight, even when they are of average or below average weight.


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Perhaps one of the issues that makes weight so very important for women, in comparison to men, is the realization that men emphasize physical attractiveness significantly more than do women when choosing a partner for a sexual, short-term, or long-term relationship (Buss, 1994; Feingold, 1990; Jackson, 1992; Lundy, Tan, & Cunningham, 1998; Townsend & Levy, 1998; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997). In comparison to women, men have been shown to be much less willing to enter a relationship requiring a high level of personal investment when their prospective partner is perceived as unattractive (Townsend & Levy, 1998). Many researchers have tried to determine what role weight, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), breast size, and hip size play in men’s ratings of women’s physical attractiveness. It has been repeatedly shown that men rate women with low WHRs as being more attractive, feminine and healthy, and that overweight women are typically stigmatized, particularly with regard to issues of sexuality and dating (Regan, 1996; Sobal, Nicolopoulos, & Lee, 1995; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997, 1998). In addition to having a low WHR, women are rated as being most attractive when they have a slender figure, small hips, and large breasts (Singh & Young, 1995), a combination that is impossible for many to achieve without the help of plastic surgery. Not surprisingly, men also rate physically attractive women as being those with whom they would most willingly enter a short-term or long-term relationship. In a review of the “physical attractiveness stereotype,” Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, and Longo (1991) found that physical attractiveness has a very significant impact on perceived social competence (i.e., sociability, popularity, etc.). Overall, perceived obesity seems to be the most negative factor for men choosing a partner (Singh & Young, 1995). Townsend and Levy (1998) found that men emphasize physical attractiveness in a potential sexual partner to such a great extent that they are unwilling to enter any type of relationship if the woman is not deemed to be desirable as a sex partner. Indeed, men seem to decide based on sexual attractiveness alone with whom they are interested in pursuing a sexual relationship, and it is not until the later stages of a relationship that the woman’s other personal characteristics become important. Evolutionary psychologists have argued the reasoning for men’s preferences from a number of angles (see Singh, 1995; Townsend & Levy, 1998), but the bottom line is that women receive the messages that thinness equals attractiveness, and are therefore inclined to pursue the ideal image portrayed in the media to increase the chances of finding a partner. But what role does body image play, once relationships are formed? Anderson and Cyranowski (1995) proposed and tested the concept of sexual schema in women. They reported that “women with a positive sexual schema, relative to those with a negative schema, view themselves as emotionally


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romantic or passionate and as women who are behaviorally open to romantic and sexual relationships and experiences” (p. 1094). In addition, women with positive sexual self-schemas were more likely to have engaged in sexual relationships and experienced sexual arousal. It is reasonable to expect that a woman who feels positively about her own body is more likely to be comfortable in sexual relationships than is a woman who does not, regardless of how others rate her attractiveness. Indeed, Wiederman and Hurst (1997) found that women’s sexual self-schemas were not related to overall body dissatisfaction or thinness, but that it was the individual’s sense of feeling attractive that mattered. However, the authors also note that social avoidance as a result of appearance concerns did negatively affect sexual self-schema. However, other researchers have found discrepant results regarding physical attractiveness and sexual experience. Several studies have shown that attractiveness is related to sexual experience (Ackard, Kearney-Cooke, & Peterson, 2000; Faith & Schare, 1993; Murstein & Holden, 1979), yet other studies have not shown this relationship (Curran & Lippold, 1975; Feingold, 1992). Previous research has also shown differences based on whether physical attractiveness is rated by an experimenter or by the individual in question (Ackard et al., 2000; Stelzer, Desmond, & Price, 1987; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997, 1998). Women who are thinner, objectively more attractive, and rate themselves as having attractive bodies are the ones most likely to currently be involved in a relationship (Ackard et al., 2000; Wiederman & Hurst, 1998). Overall, the majority of the available research indicates that a woman’s attractiveness is highly important for sexual desirability prior to marriage. It is not surprising that the media takes the ideal image preferred by the opposite gender and pushes it to the farthest extent; after all, this is how the money is made. Cash et al. (1997) states, “Body image evaluations and emotions derive in part from self-perceived discrepancies from internalized physical ideals” (p. 433). Social comparison theory would predict that women will have lower self-esteem if they compare themselves to images in the media, and see themselves as falling short. Research has supported this hypothesis, indicating that women do feel more guilty, anxious, and depressed after viewing thin-build models (Cusumano & Thompson, 1997; Grogan et al., 1996; Kalodner, 1997; Stice & Shaw, 1994). To be attractive, women today are expected to be thin, but also muscular (Grogan, 1999; Wilfley & Rodin, 1995). They are told to achieve a delicate balance of thinness without appearing to be simply “skin and bones.” This is, at best, a difficult look to achieve, and women striving for this goal have led to increasing profits for the multibillion dollar dieting industry. In addition, American women are pouring billions of dollars into exercise equipment,


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diet programs, cosmetics, and various types of cosmetic surgery (Wilfley & Rodin, 1995). Numerous studies have shown that women are repeatedly bombarded with messages in the media about weight loss. In the past 30 years, the average body size of Miss America winners has decreased significantly (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992), the prevalence of diet and exercise articles in women’s magazines has grown exponentially (Anderson & DiDomenico, 1992; Garner et al., 1980; Thompson et al., 1999), and the physical appearance of the average fashion model is now achievable by only 3–5% of the U.S. population (Thompson et al., 1999). There are a number of reasons why women have been the focus of body image literature. Research indicates that women make up 90–95% of the individuals with eating disorders (Thompson et al., 1999). When young girls reach puberty, their body shapes tend to deviate further from the cultural ideal, whereas male body shapes tend to change towards the ideal (Thompson et al., 1999). However, this does not mean that men are immune to the effects of media images. Men are increasingly being given the message that they need to achieve a mesomorphic, “V-shape” body (Abell & Richards, 1996; Blouin & Goldfield, 1995; Grogan, 1999; Grogan et al., 1996; Parks & Read, 1997). In addition, although women focus less on physical attractiveness in identifying a mate (Buss, 1994; Feingold, 1990; Jackson, 1992; Lundy et al., 1998; Townsend & Levy, 1998; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997), physical attractiveness is not completely irrelevant. Women have been shown to prefer average weight men with higher WHRs (Singh, 1995). In addition, women tend to prefer muscular men, possibly because of the evolutionary concept of searching for a man who can protect her (Singh, 1995). Regardless of the reasoning, overweight men are not typically perceived as attractive to women. These cultural messages are leading to what some call the “Adonis Complex” in men (Cloud, 2000). Adonis, the gorgeous half-man, half-God of mythology, is a depiction of the muscle-bound ideal seen in many male actors and models. Some argue that, as women have moved into typically male-dominated positions, men’s self-worth is increasingly tied to this ideal image. Cloud (2000) argues that, in this environment, obtaining a muscular body is the one thing men can do to appear masculine. Similar to the female ideal, the male ideal is difficult to achieve naturally; only a small number of men actually have the genetic and hormonal makeup to achieve the appearance of today’s bodybuilders (Cloud, 2000). This has led to the increasing amount of money spent on gym memberships, home exercise equipment, supplements, and anabolic steroids. In 1999 alone, men spent over $4 billion on gym memberships and home exercise equipment (Cloud, 2000; Grogan, 1999).


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It is important to note that, although the ideals for men and women are overtly different, they both emphasize the need to be lean. As has been repeatedly shown, there is an extremely negative stereotype for overweight people in Western society (Monteath & McCabe, 1997; Thompson et al., 1999). Body size is seen as one of the few personal attributes that is still an acceptable target of prejudice (Thompson et al., 1999). Overweight individuals are teased more in adolescence, and obesity is frequently judged as the result of “personal misbehavior” (Thompson et al., 1999). This is clearly illustrated in the media messages that purport a number of exercises for both women and men that focus on specific body parts. Women’s magazines frequently print exercises designed to tone the stomach, hips, and thighs, whereas men’s magazines provide numerous exercises designed to increase chest and arm muscle size. The message is that one’s bodily imperfections can be remedied through simple exercise. Measuring dissatisfaction with one’s body has been done in different ways. Some researchers have measured overall body dissatisfaction, whereas others have focused on specific body parts. Those that have focused on specific body parts have shown that women tend to be most dissatisfied with their middle and lower bodies—specifically their hips, stomach, buttocks, waist, and thighs (Garner, 1997; Garner & Kearney-Cooke, 1996; Grogan, 1999; Monteath & McCabe, 1997). Little research has examined with what specific parts men are dissatisfied. However, what research is available indicates that men’s body satisfaction is most significantly affected by their sense of upper-body strength, and they are frequently most dissatisfied with their abdomen and chest (Franzoi & Shields, 1984; Garner, 1997; Grogan, 1999). Men and women are certainly unified in their dissatisfaction with some traits. Studies from the 1970s to the present have shown that both men and women are dissatisfied with their overall muscle tone and their weight (Berscheid, Walster, & Bohrnstedt, 1973; Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986; Garner, 1997; Grogan, 1999; Thompson et al., 1999). The study that follows was designed to measure satisfaction with specific body parts and overall body appearance in male and female college students. In addition, this study examined satisfaction with peer and sexual relationships. A college population was chosen because of the particular emphasis placed on appearance and relationships in the college environment. Of particular interest was determining the specific body parts with which college students seem to be most dissatisfied. It was expected that the dissatisfaction would parallel those areas emphasized in the media. Therefore, it was hypothesized that men would be more dissatisfied with their upper bodies, whereas women would be more dissatisfied with their middle/lower bodies. It was also expected that overweight individuals would be the most dissatisfied with their bodily appearance and with their relationships with


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peers. Finally, it was hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation between satisfaction with appearance and satisfaction with relationships. Specifically, it was expected that partnered men and women would be more satisfied with their appearance. METHOD Participants Participants in this study were recruited from psychology classes at a large university (>20,000 enrollment) in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States. Students from this institution tend to be politically moderate and more vocationally oriented than are students from private or liberal arts colleges. In addition, the majority of students are from middle class backgrounds. Students were told the study involved measuring their satisfaction with specific body parts, overall appearance, and relationship status. For some students, participation in the study satisfied part of their experimental participation requirement for introductory psychology. Other participants were enrolled in higher-level psychology classes, and they received no compensation for their participation. The mean age of participants was 20.71 years (SD = 3.30). The mean height (in inches) and weight (in pounds) for females was 65.78 (SD = 2.65) and 135.24 (SD = 22.25), respectively. The mean height and weight for males was 71.28 (SD = 2.92) and 172.60 (SD = 31.85), respectively. Overall, 35.1% of the participants were not currently dating, 61.5% were either dating or engaged, and 3.5% were married. The majority of the participants were Caucasian (95.1%); 3.5% were Hispanic. Measures Body and Relationship Satisfaction Survey This 24-item questionnaire was used to assess participants’ satisfaction with 15 specific body parts, and nine global appearance and relationship constructs. Participants were asked to rate their satisfaction for each item on a 6-point likert scale (i.e., 1 – extremely satisfied, 6 – extremely dissatisfied). This survey was adapted by the researchers, and was based on the Body Satisfaction Scale (Berscheid et al., 1973). At the end of the survey, the following demographic information was requested: gender, age, current height and weight, ethnicity, and dating status (i.e., not dating/single, dating with no serious commitment, dating with serious commitment, engaged, and married).


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Body Mass Index (BMI) Self-reported height and weight were used to calculate participants’ BMI. Prior research has demonstrated that self-report of these parameters correlates highly (r = .98) with objective height and weight measures (Burckes-Miller & Black, 1988). As a standard measure of participant’s body size, BMI was calculated using the following formula: weight in kilograms divided by height in squared meters. Procedure The study was conducted in groups of approximately 50–100 students. Respondents were initially provided with informed consent materials. To increase accuracy of the information provided, participants were informed that the information provided would remain anonymous and confidential. The surveys and demographic questionnaires were then administered and collected individually when participants were finished. RESULTS Overall Results A total of 288 participants completed the survey materials; 101 males and 187 females. BMI scores ranged from 14.37 to 36.49 (M = 22.74, SD = 3.65). Participants were divided into four groups based on their BMIs. Based on Schultz (1999), the BMIs were grouped as follows: Those with a BMI of 17.9 and below were classified as underweight, 18.0–24.9 as normal, 25.0–29.9 as overweight, and 30 and higher as obese. Overall, women indicated significantly higher dissatisfaction than did men with all the body parts measured, with the exception of their forearms (see Table I). In addition, females indicated significantly more dissatisfaction with all the measured overall bodily characteristics (see Table II). However, men indicated significantly greater dissatisfaction with their relationship status and overall sex life than did women (see Table III). Body Part Satisfaction / Dissatisfaction A one-way MANOVA was performed to examine with which variables the level of dissatisfaction was significantly different (see Table IV). Overall, women were significantly more dissatisfied with their thighs, hips, butt, waist, abdomen, and upper arms. In addition, women were more dissatisfied with


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Table I. Percent Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction for Body Parts Any dissatisfaction

Neck Shoulders Chest/breasts Upper arms Forearms Abdomen Waist Butt Hips Thighs Calves

Male (%)

Female (%)

5.0 8.9 23.8 15.8 11.9 27.8 10.9 10.9 4.0 5.0 15.1

7.1 6.5 17.9 22.8 7.7 47.5 33.3 36.3 23.9 48.4 15.2

their weight, muscle tone, overall body appearance, and physical attractiveness. As compared to women, men were significantly more dissatisfied with their forearms only. To test the hypothesis that men would be more dissatisfied with their upper bodies and women would be more dissatisfied with the lower bodies, body parts were grouped into upper body (shoulders, chest/breasts, upper arm, and forearm) and lower body (abdomen, waist, butt, hips, and thighs), and a factorial MANOVA was conducted. Although females (M = 4.14, SD = 0.99) were more dissatisfied with their lower bodies than were men (M = 2.30, SD = 0.70), (F = 28.94, p < .000), men (M = 2.41, SD = 0.68) were not significantly more dissatisfied with their upper bodies than were women (M = 2.31, SD = 0.66), (F = 1.49, p > .05). A 2 × 3 × 4 MANOVA was conducted to compare the participants’ satisfaction with the overall bodily characteristic variables based on the participants’ body size and relationship status. Significant main effects for body size were found on a number of the independent variables. Post hoc analyses indicated that the underweight individuals were not significantly more satisfied with their weight than were the normal or overweight Table II. Percent Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction for Bodily Characteristics Any dissatisfaction

Weight Height Muscle tone Muscle strength Facial appearance Body appearance Physical appearance

Male (%)

Female (%)

15.8 4.0 18.0 14.9 10.9 8.9 5.0

33.9 7.1 28.8 23.9 9.2 15.8 15.3


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Hoyt and Kogan Table III. Percent Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction with Relationships Any dissatisfaction

Dating status Sex life

Male (%)

Female (%)

38.6 25.5

19.7 11.7

participants, but they were more satisfied than were the obese participants. However, there were significant differences between all the other groups. Overall, the normal weight participants were most satisfied (M = 2.67, SD = 1.03), followed by the underweight (M = 2.80, SD = 1.03), overweight (M = 3.15, SD = 1.35), and obese (M = 4.31, SD = 1.18) participants. The same pattern emerged for overall body appearance. Again, the normal weight participants were most satisfied (M = 2.42, SD = 0.79), then the underweight (M = 2.70, SD = 0.82), overweight (M = 2.88, SD = 1.00), and obese (M = 3.77, SD = 1.30) participants. Regarding physical attractiveness, there were significant differences between the underweight (M = 2.60, SD = 0.70), normal (M = 2.44, SD = 0.85), and overweight (M = 2.71, SD = 1.08) participants, and those classified as obese (M = 3.77, SD = 1.42). Finally, the opposite pattern was found for the participants’ satisfaction with relationships with peers of the same gender. The underweight (M = 2.80, SD = 0.92) participants were significantly more dissatisfied than were the normal (M = 1.90, SD = 0.81), overweight (M = 2.17, SD = 1.05), and obese (M = 2.07, SD = 0.64) participants. Interestingly, there were no significant differences in satisfaction with body appearance or overall physical attractiveness based on gender and current dating situation. Table IV. Significant Differences in Body and Relationship Satisfaction by Gender

Thighs Hips Butt Waist Forearms Abdomen Upper arms Weight Muscle tone Overall body Physical attractiveness Sex life Dating status

Females

Males

F

p

3.41 (1.26) 2.82 (1.15) 3.19 (1.210) 3.12 (1.156) 2.14 (0.851) 3.42 (1.228) 2.88 (0.970) 3.05 (1.180) 3.01 (0.989) 2.68 (0.954) 2.68 (1.021) 1.94 (1.19) 2.17 (1.37)

2.21 (0.89) 2.18 (0.77) 2.34 (0.96) 2.45 (0.93) 2.57 (0.83) 2.97 (0.99) 2.60 (0.88) 2.47 (0.99) 2.64 (0.94) 2.39 (0.84) 2.34 (0.80) 2.59 (1.54) 2.95 (1.54)

35.98 12.35 19.42 12.65 10.49 5.08 3.55 9.48 4.59 3.41 4.50 11.669 12.236

.000 .000 .000 .000 .000 .007 .030 .000 .010 .030 .010 .000 .000

Note. Rated on a scale from 1 (extremely satisfied) to 6 (extremely dissatisfied). Values represent mean (standard deviation).


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Body Satisfaction as Related to Satisfaction With Relationships To further examine the relationship between satisfaction with body appearance and satisfaction with one’s dating situation and sex life, participants were placed in two groups based on satisfaction with their sex life. A 2 × 2 ANOVA was then conducted to measure satisfaction with their body appearance, and significant results were found based on satisfaction with their sex life (F = 7.15, p < .01). Overall, those who were dissatisfied (M = 2.81, SD = 0.77) with their sex lives were more dissatisfied with their body appearance than were those satisfied (M = 2.51, SD = 0.93) with their sex lives. The interaction between gender and satisfaction with sex life was not significant. Similar results were found when participants were placed into two groups based on their satisfaction with their dating situation, and another 2 × 2 ANOVA was conducted (F = 6.26, p < .05). Those who were dissatisfied (M = 2.75, SD = 0.84) with their dating situation were more dissatisfied with the body appearance than were those satisfied (M = 2.51, SD = 0.94) with their dating situation. Again, the interaction was not significant. Finally, to examine what variables were specifically related to satisfaction with overall body appearance for each gender, a correlation matrix for all of the body part variables was conducted. For males, the following variables correlated with overall body appearance satisfaction at the .01 level: weight, chest, upper arm, forearm, abdomen, waist, buttocks, hips, and thighs. However, for women, all the measured variables correlated significantly with appearance satisfaction at the .01 level.

DISCUSSION Overall, the college-aged men and women who participated in this study were surprisingly satisfied with their bodily appearance. Indeed, 91% of men and 84% of women indicated satisfaction with their overall body appearance. These percentages are significantly higher than those found for the general public in past surveys (Berscheid et al., 1973; Cash et al., 1986; Garner, 1997), but are consistent with those found in other surveys directed towards college-aged men and women (Donaldson, 1996; Grogan, 1999). These results conflict with the notion put forth by Polivy and Herman (1987) that body dissatisfaction is the norm for U.S. women. However, only 84% of men and 66% of women were satisfied with their current weight, a characteristic that is strongly emphasized in the college environment. The results support past research indicating that women are typically more dissatisfied with their appearance than are men. In addition, women


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were significantly more dissatisfied with their weight than were men. These results confirm those reported in Jackson (1992), where it was determined that women are dissatisfied primarily because they perceive themselves to be overweight. Although the emphasis on an “ideal” appearance for men seems to be increasing, it appears college-aged men are still generally satisfied with their bodily appearance. As hypothesized, it does seem to be true that men are most dissatisfied with their chest, upper arms, and abdomen, features that are frequently emphasized in the media. These results are consistent with those seen in Franzoi and Shields (1984) and then again in Garner (1997) and Grogan (1999), which indicate the emphasis on upper-body appearance has been consistent for over 15 years. Men are increasingly expected to have a broad chest, “six-pack abs” and “bulging biceps.” In fact, some men have resorted to implants, and so their abdominal muscles seem more pronounced. However, upper body was not the only area that was related to male body satisfaction; men’s satisfaction with their lower bodies also correlated highly with their overall body satisfaction, indicating that men may be beginning to focus on their overall appearance more than they have in the past. Meanwhile, women are much more dissatisfied with their abdomen, waist, buttocks, and thighs. This is consistent with what was found by Cash et al. (1986) and Grogan (1999). Not surprisingly, these are the areas targeted by the numerous “wonder exercises” touted in popular women’s magazines. Women are constantly bombarded with messages that they can improve these body parts by doing crunches, lunges, and leg lifts in a variety of different ways. In addition, these are the exact areas most frequently referred to by individuals with eating disorders as their “fat” areas. It is interesting to note that women who are underweight, and therefore could be at risk for anorexia nervosa, were not any more satisfied with their bodily appearance than were normal or overweight women, which again supports the notion that it is one’s own perception of body size that is of greatest importance. Indeed, although the difference was not statistically significant, normal weight women indicated being more satisfied than were underweight women. And probably most interestingly, women who were underweight were the most dissatisfied with their relationships with peers of the same gender. Therefore, not only does being thinner not make these women happier, it is actually linked to less satisfying relationships with other women. There might be a number of explanations for the negative relationship between being underweight and experiencing positive same-sex peer relationships. Perhaps this finding could be due to the tendency for women with poor body image and eating disorders to constantly compare themselves to, and compete with, other women. As stated previously, most women are well aware of the emphasis placed on body size and attractiveness in our culture; thus, it is common sense that women tend to compete with one another,


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and sometimes are very critical of women they perceive as being smaller. However, this finding may also be explained in terms of social avoidance and discomfort in social situations. If indeed these underweight women are more likely to have an eating disorder, it would not be a far leap to expect these same women to feel uncomfortable in social settings, as this is common of eating disordered individuals. The final explanation has been previously addressed by a number of researchers. Dermer and Thiel (1975) were the first to refer to “the dark side of beauty,” which they described as the tendency for attractive women to be judged by both men and women as more conceited, egotistical, and vain than less attractive women. Clearly, the scope of this study did not include an in-depth analysis of the factors that mediate the relationship between body size and peer relationship satisfaction; thus, this is a direction that would be beneficial in future research. Although men do not seem to be overly concerned with their appearance, an interesting and unexpected finding was that men are more dissatisfied than are women with their dating relationships and sex lives. Not surprisingly, those most dissatisfied with both their dating situations and sex lives were those who were not currently engaged in a dating relationship; participants who were engaged or married seemed to be equally satisfied. Perhaps these two variables are closely linked for men. In other words, it is possible that single men have less active or less satisfying sex lives, which is again something stressed in this age group and in the college environment. While women at this age are often expected to look beautiful, men are often expected to have high sexual prowess; those that don’t are not sexually active and are frequently questioned or scorned. Indeed, if one listens to conversations on a college campus, it seems women frequently talk with their friends about their appearance, whereas men talk about their sex lives. This finding also supports the notion that men of college age are more focused on sexual activity than are women college students. Previous researchers have noted that female college students are relatively unwilling to have sex with men regardless of physical attractiveness, and instead tend to emphasize an emotionally intimate relationship prior to a sexual one (Townsend & Levy, 1998). Surprisingly, the participants’ current dating situation had no effect on their satisfaction with their appearance. It was expected that men and women who were partnered would be more satisfied with their appearance. However, the results of this study indicate that single, engaged, and married participants are equally satisfied with their appearance and physical attractiveness. Hopefully this finding signals a growing acceptance of oneself without external reinforcement of one’s attractiveness, and it seems this might be true for men and women who are satisfied with being single. However, when the participants’ satisfaction with their dating situation and sex life was taken into account, there were differences in how they felt


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about their appearance. As might be expected, individuals who had less satisfying dating situations and sex lives were less satisfied with their overall appearance. Interestingly, females who were most dissatisfied with their dating situations and sex lives were also most dissatisfied with the overall body image, which supports the notion of sexual schema in women (Anderson & Cyranowski, 1994). Again, the way the woman perceives her own level of attractiveness seems to influence her comfort in and enjoyment of sexual relationships. This could also be due to the societal message that appearance is most important in finding a mate; thus, for the men and women who are single and displeased with being single, it is not unlikely that these men and women would attribute their lack of a relationship to not being “attractive enough.” As for those individuals who were partnered and displeased, there could be a number of explanations for the resulting dissatisfaction. Perhaps the most logical would be the noted differences in sex drive for men and women in their early 20s. While men may not feel like they are having enough sex, women may be dissatisfied by being pressured to have sex more often than they desire (obviously, this is a broad generalization). However, the dissatisfaction also could be due to the link that has been identified between body image and sexuality in eating disordered individuals, and noneating disordered individuals who have significant body dissatisfaction. Many individuals with poor body image are less comfortable in intimate situations. They frequently do not want to be seen undressed by their partners, and they are often obsessed about bodily features with which they are displeased. These fears and obsessions can easily detract from the pleasures those with more positive body images normally experience. This study clearly has its limitations. A large majority of the participants were Caucasian; thus, minority ethnic groups were not well represented. In addition, the results can only be directly applied to men and women of college age, in a college setting. It is entirely possible that different results would be found in a noncollege setting, where attractiveness and body appearance may be less emphasized. Finally, many of the findings are primarily correlational; a more in-depth analysis of the relationships between body image, sexual satisfaction, and peer relationship satisfaction was beyond the scope of this survey-based study. In spite of the above-mentioned limitations, this study does provide further information regarding the previously underemphasized relationship between body image and relationship and sexual satisfaction. Previous research has shown conflicting results regarding the relationship between an individual’s self-perception of attractiveness and interpersonal relationships. The results of the current study support those indicating a relationship between physical attractiveness and sexual experience. Women who perceive themselves as attractive and appear attractive to others are more likely to


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be involved in and enjoy romantic relationships. Overall, the results of this study indicate that normal weight individuals are most satisfied with their overall appearance, weight, and physical attractiveness, indicating that being either over- or underweight has a negative impact on self-image and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships. In light of the limitations, recommendations for further research would include identifying individuals who are dissatisfied with their relationship and their body appearance and interviewing them to gain a deeper understanding of the relationships between these variables. In addition, it would be beneficial to examine relationships between physical attractiveness and relationships satisfaction in more diverse groups, including ethnic minorities and gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgendered communities. Although we are able to propose a number of hypotheses related to these variables, survey and experimental research can only provide so much information. In conclusion, the present findings are consistent with those from previous decades regarding body satisfaction/dissatisfaction. The “bad news” is that women continue to be relatively more troubled by their appearance than are men, regardless of their actual body size. In addition, this dissatisfaction appears to be linked to dissatisfaction with same and opposite sex relationships, both sexual and nonsexual. The “good news” is that, although women are more dissatisfied than are men, overall the majority of women are satisfied, to some extent, with their physical appearance. In addition, the fact that 95% of college-aged men are satisfied with the overall physical appearance may indicate that these men are fairly resistant to ideal body size images that are increasingly being portrayed in the media. Finally, it appears that both men and women would benefit from interventions directed towards body satisfaction and positive self-image prior to engaging in serious romantic relationships, as there is evidence of a link between body dissatisfaction and relationship dissatisfaction. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We acknowledge the contributions made by Maria Mora, Charla Stephan, and MaryAnn Williams in assisting with data collection for this study. REFERENCES Abell, S. C., & Richards, M. H. (1996). The relationship between body shape satisfaction and selfesteem: An investigation of gender and class differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 691–703.


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