only for the health and safety of individuals (employees) but also for the health of the ... stress (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2000; Consumer ...
STRESS FROM THE ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE: AN OVERVIEW Mohamed Noor Rosli Baharom, Rohani Salleh and Haryanni bt Harun General Studies Program Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
ABSTRACT This paper discusses stress from the organizational perspective. While factors outside the workplace can contribute to a person's overall stress condition, this paper focuses mainly on stress in relation to the workplace. Among issues addressed including the causes and symptoms of stress at work and the effects/implications on individuals and organizations. Some practical suggestions on addressing stress problems in organizations are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION “Stress has been called the disease of the 1990s – and it is well set to continue into the next decade.” (Bland, 1999, pg. 44) Stress at work is a relatively new phenomenon of modern lifestyles. It is an extremely complex phenomenon that can affect individuals in many different ways and to differing degrees. Over the past few decades, especially in the developed countries, stress at work has increasingly been the focus of attention by both practitioners as well as academicians. Such development has largely been due to the growing belief that workplace stress has undesirable consequences not only for the health and safety of individuals (employees) but also for the health of the organizations as a whole. In the UK, for example, research has indicated that in 2003/4, a total of 12.8 million working days were lost to stress, depression and anxiety (Health and Safety Executive, 2005), costing the British economy about £100bn (RM700bn) a year in lost output (Carvel, 2005). In the USA, studies reported that one-fourth of employees viewed their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives and problems at work were claimed to be more strongly associated with health complaints than any other life stressors (NIOSH, 1998). Although there is an increasing concern about job stress in developing countries, research on stress in the Malaysian working environment is still limited (Mansor et al., 2003). However, lessons learned from studies done in the developed countries clearly indicated that stress-related illness is a major cause for concern in terms of its impact on both individuals‟ lives and the productivity of organizations and countries.
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WHAT IS WORK-RELATED STRESS? Work related stress can be defined as “the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressure or other types of demand placed on them” (HSE, 2005). More simply stress is the reaction when an individual feels that he or she cannot adequately cope with the demands of a job being made on them, which, in turn, contribute to an equally wide range of health outcomes. STRESS VS CHALLENGE Every job brings its own pressures and demands; these are an unavoidable part of working life. It is therefore rather unusual nowadays to find anyone who would consider they have no stress at work. Research shows that certain amount of stress can be a good thing. The body releases adrenalin in response to stress and this gives the stimulation needed to deal with difficult situations (Managing stress at work, n.d.). Differences in individual characteristics such as a person's background, character traits, personality, motivation, experience, coping style, skills and knowledge do play an important role in determining one‟s tolerance level to work pressures (NIOSH, 1998). Some people, for instance, are motivated by the challenges and difficulties that normally occur with work demands and react by improving performance. Meeting those challenges and overcoming the difficulties causes feeling of satisfaction and achievement. In this sense, „challenge‟ might be a more appropriate word to use rather than „stress‟. The points and views raised in this section serve to provide two useful points. First, what may be seen as a challenge by one person may be an impossible/difficult task to another. Coping is an important part of the overall stress process. Secondly, although unacceptable levels of stress may be associated with a range of adverse effects both physiological and psychological, positive pressure at work, on the other hand, can be valuable motivational drive to individuals. THE CAUSES OF STRESS IN ORGANISATIONS The experience of stress through work is often associated with exposure to particular conditions of work, both physical and psychological. It also associated with individual‟s realization that they are having difficulty in coping work demands. Inevitable, stress in organizations can be the result of a complex interaction of factors affecting the individuals in different ways. A large body of evidence (e.g. ALARM, 2001; Cooper and Cartwright, 1996; European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2000; Leka et al., 2003; NIOSH, 1998) has highlighted some major/common causes of stress from the organizational perspective. These are summarized in Table 1. Apart from organizational factors, problems outside of work and personal problems such as relationship problems, financial difficulties, family worries and addictions can also contribute to stress (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2000; Consumer and Employment Protection, 2001). When one has personal problems and is in a depressed mood, his unfocused attention or lack of motivation affects his ability to carry out job responsibilities. Non-work
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problems can make it difficult for people to cope with the pressures of work, and their performance at work may suffer. Table 1: Stressful characteristics of work Category Conditions defining hazard Context to work Organizational culture and function Role in organization Career concerns Decision / latitude control Relationships at work Job insecurity
Technological developments Home-work interface Inadequate training
Leadership/management style
Poor communication, low levels of support for problem- solving and personal development, lack of definition of organizational objectives. Role ambiguity and role conflict, ill-defined expectations, conflicting priorities. Career stagnation and uncertainty, lack of opportunity for advancement/promotion, poor pay, job insecurity, low social value to work. Low participation in decision-making, lack of control over work. Social or physical isolation, poor relationships with superiors, interpersonal conflict, lack of social support, low level of trust. Reorganizations, takeovers, mergers, downsizing and other changes have become major stressors for employees, as companies try to live up to the competition to survive. Rapid technological developments have changed the shape of organizations and the responsibilities of employees. Constant pressure to keep up with technological breakthroughs can cause stress to employees. Conflicting demands of work and home, low support at home, dual career problems. Training is crucial in enabling employees to perform their jobs competently. New skills will increase the ability of employees to cope with the routine pressure associated with their jobs. Leadership/management style can have a significant impact on the frequency, intensity and duration of work-related stress. Characteristics of leaders that can exacerbate stress include poor communicator, unwilling or unable to delegate, provides excessive supervision, shows lack of respect for employees and indeciveness.
Content of work Work equipment Physical work environment Task design Workload /workpace Work schedule
Problems regarding the reliability, availability, suitability and maintenance/repair of both equipments and facilities. Unpleasant or dangerous physical conditions such as cramped space, heat, high level of noise, inadequate lighting, fumes, air pollution, ergonomic problems and smells. Lack of variety and short work cycles, fragmented or meaningless work, underuse of skills, high uncertainty. Work overload or underload, lack of control over pacing, high levels of time pressure Shift working, inflexible work schedules, unpredictable hours, long or unsocial hours.
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WARNING SIGNS OF WORKPLACE STRESS The signs of job stress vary from person to person, depending on the particular situation, how long the individual has been subjected to the stressors, and the intensity of the stress itself. Recognizing stress is the first step in developing an action plan to reduce and control stress. Some of the signs/symptoms of stress are as indicated in Table 2. Table 2: Signs and symptoms of stress Physical
Mental
Migraine
Anxiety
Headaches
Inability to feel sympathy with other people
Stomach problems
Anger, protest, frustration
Over-eating or loss of appetite
Constant irritability
Frequent indigestion or heartburn
Apathy (lack of interest/concern)
Insomnia (inability to sleep sufficiently)
Difficulty in making decisions
Constant tiredness
Loss of sense of humor
Raised/high blood pressure
Poor concentration, poor memory
Frequent crying or desire to cry
Feelings of guilt or embarrassment
Breathlessness or panic attacks
Withdrawal and day dreams
Heart disease
Depression, excessive and rapid mood swings
(Adapted from ALARM, 2001; Cooper and Cartwright, 1996; European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2000; Leka et al., 2003 and NIOSH, 1998) WORKPLACE STRESS AND PRODUCTIVITY/ PERFORMANCE Research has shown that stress can adversely affect an employee's performance. This, in turn will contribute to many negative consequences to organizational performance and productivity. Some of the consequences, as noted in several major studies/research (e.g. NIOSH, 1998; ALARM, 2001; Department of Consumer and Employment Protection, 2001) including:
high staff turnover high/increased absenteeism reduced work performance poor timekeeping poor quality control more customer complaints; increased rate of workplace accidents; reduction in output, product quality, service or morale. industrial relations difficulties
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The above list, although not exhaustive, has highlighted the fact that the cost of stress consequences can become a huge burden to organizations. EXAMPLES OF STRESS CASES: Case 1: Karoshi in Japan Nobuo Miuro was under a lot of pressure from his employer to get a new restaurant ready for its launch. The interior fitters from Tokyo worked late, sometimes until 4:30 in the morning. After one such marathon, Miuro caught a few hours of sleep, then returned to work for another long day. He didn‟t get very far. The 47-year old suddenly took ill and keeled over while picking up his hammer and nails. He died a week later. The coroner‟s verdict was that Miuro died of karoshi – “death by work”. Karoshi accounts for nearly 10,000 deaths each year in Japan. Research indicates that long work hour causes unhealthy lifestyle behaviors, such as smoking, poor eating habits, lack of physical exercise, and insufficient sleep. Karoshi came to the public spotlight in the 1970‟s when Japan‟s economy was booming, but the country‟s current recession is making matters worse. So far only 17 percent of Japanese firms offer over stressed employees some form of counseling. However, the Japanese government has launched an advertising campaign encouraging people to call a karoshi hotline for anonymous help. Sources: Japan Weekly Monitor (14 May 2001); Los Angeles Times (12 April 2000) Case 2: Suicide Attempt In Cheras, a Chinese man climbed to the top of a three-storey building stark naked at 6 am. At about 7 am, practically the whole neighbourhood was already surrounding the house attracted by the extraordinary scene due to noises made by the man. Not long after, police personnel arrived to assist in settling the predicament. The man was attempting to commit suicide. In his hand was an iron rod that prevented his family members and police officers to get near him. His family members continuously begged for him to stop and come down. Many times he contemplated on jumping but withdrew from doing so. Police experts were also around consoling him to come down. They however failed to do so. It was only about 12.30 pm (almost 6 hours later) that he finally came down after his mother fainted due to heat. The police immediately detained him and he was sent to the hospital for check up. A local daily newspaper reported that this man was an engineer and was seriously under work pressure and, a few days before the incident he had just changed workplace for the 5th time. Source: NST, 2004
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Case 3: Unfair Dismissal In 1999, Tan Sim Poh was laid off after 27-years of service with a well-known company in Penang. Reason being was that the company found Tan‟s performance was dissatisfying. Tan was taken aback with the sudden termination and considered the decision as an unfair dismissal. He then resorted to sue the company and the case was taken to the Industrial Court. According to his lawyer, Tan was then (while in service) an Operation Manager was having a bad relationship with his superior. Tan told the court that the superior had once said in public that he (the superior) could not work with Tan and didn‟t trust him. Investigation however showed that there was no substantial evidence provided by the superior on why he couldn‟t work with Tan. Tan won the case and was compensated with RM320, 484. Source: The Star (24 December 2004) MANAGING WORK-RELATED STRESS As previously discussed, individuals are different and their coping ability is important in determining whether certain job conditions will result in stress. The ways people manage their stress factors are different. Hence, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for another person. This viewpoint leads to the idea that managing stress is an individual responsibility. Recently, however, developed countries such as the US, the UK and Japan, have started to pay serious attention to stress issues as it is found affecting work and organizational performance. Hence, stress problems are now seen as a joint responsibility of organizations and their employees. Organizations must now take proactive steps to manage stress (ALARM, 2001). Most scholars, however, emphasize the fact that no one type of coping strategy is necessarily better than any other in solving a stress problem. People use a mixture of strategies in most situations, although certain situations may tend to be associated with particular types of strategy. This paper looks at several practical approaches that can be adopted and used by organizations as well as individuals. According to McShane et al. (2003), four (4) approaches can be adopted. 1. Remove the Stressor One of the ways to manage workplace stress is to remove the stressors that cause unnecessary tension and job burnout. Firstly, management should investigate the main cause of stress at their workplace and remove it. Management should empower employees so that they have more control of their work and work environment thus the effort of removing stressors would be more effective. Workplace bullying, for instance, can be minimized through clear guidelines for behavior and feedback to those who violate those guidelines. This approach, although is considered the most effective, is rather difficult to apply, as realistically, it is almost impossible to totally avoid factors that can cause stress. What can be done is just to minimize the possible negative impact or risk of stress. 6
2. Withdraw from the Stress (permanent / temporary) Another way is to permanently or temporarily remove employees from the stressor(s). Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that better fit their competencies and values. Temporarily withdrawing employees from stressors is the most frequent approach for employees to manage stress. This is where employees are provided facilities that can be used to calm their mind for a while from the hassles of work. Vacations or sabbaticals are also opportunities that employees can use to get away from their hectic work schedules and deadlines for a certain period of time. 3. Change stress perception As employees often experience different levels of stress in the same situation because they perceive it differently, organizations must be prepared to change negative perceptions of stress. This approach involves strengthening self-confidence and esteem so that job challenges are not perceived as threatening, rather than to totally ignore the stress factors. Using humor in doing work or communication between workers could be beneficial. However it must be done within the line of ethics. Some researchers described that self-leadership can also help to alter employees‟ perceptions of job-related stressors. Bland (1999), for example, suggested that “more success is likely to be achieved by changing people’s attitudes rather than trying to change their environment” (pg. 48). Stress, he added, should be recognized as a positive force rather than a negative one and employees should learn to let go of their “comfort zones”. 4. Control stress consequences Managing stress also include controlling the stress consequences. This involves physical exercise or fitness programs to reduce the stress effects. Organizations must readily and strongly support to ensure these programs can be successfully implemented. Apart from these activities, organizations can also offer wellness programs that educate and support employees in better nutrition and health habits. Stress management efforts are considered a good human resource management practice (Shannon, 2003). Organizations, for example, should provide facilities that enable employees to conduct fitness or health related activities. Studies by Daley and Parfitt (1996), Falkenberg (1987) and Shepard et al., (1981) showed that fitness activities particularly physical exercises could reduce unwanted implications especially from the physiological aspects. In Malaysia, for example, many government agencies and private companies have started to implement and encourage fitness programs (e.g. light exercise in the morning and group aerobic on weekends). Apart from what have been discussed above, religious and learning activities or programs can also help to strengthen employees values that would help them to better manage their stress. There are also programs such as Employee Assistance Program (EAP) and stress management training that improve the ability of employees to cope with difficult work situations and adopt more effective coping mechanism (NIOSH, 1998).
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CONCLUSION This paper discusses issues and approaches relevant to the study of workplace stress. Definitions of stress, factors that can cause stress and the implications of stress on employees and organizations are discussed. Also presented are some suggestions on the approaches that can be considered to manage and overcome stress. Although positive pressure at work can be a valuable motivational drive, stress, on the other hand, can bring negative effects to both the physical and mental health. Work-related stress is a serious problem. The impact of stress on organizations, through high turnover and sick absence levels, poor morale and reduced productivity can be significant. The stress rate in Japan, for example, is at a critical level. In Malaysia, although work-related stress may still be at a tolerable level, the issue should not be ignored or taken for granted. The problems of stress are actually a complex issue particularly when it differs from one individual to another, one organization to another and one culture to another. There is no straightforward cause to stress and no definite remedy to get rid of it. Although practically, creating a stress-free organization seems rather impossible, organizations should do their best to plan and adopt approaches that can help to better manage stress among employees. Tackling stress effectively can result in significant benefits for organizations. Ideally, reducing workplace stress should be a joint responsibility and efforts of both employees and employers. When this is successful, employees will enjoy their work more and employers (organizations) will thrive as a result.
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