Students using visual thinking to learn science in a ...

Students Using Visual Thinking to Learn Science in a Web-based Environment A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Drexel University by Jean Margaret Plough In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2004

©Copyright 2004 Jean M. Plough. All Rights Reserved

ii

Dedications

for my parents

iii

Acknowledgements

Dr. Elizabeth L. Haslam, Dr. Sheila Rao Vaidya, Dr. Marion Dugan, Dr. David Emmons, Dr. Peter Kinney, Dr. Wesley Shumar, Dr. Eva Thury, Dr. Craig Bach, Ms. Tina Hallquist, Ms. Tasha Russell, Dr. James Ayer, & Dr. Adrienne Jacoby

iv Table of Contents

List of Tables………………………………………………………………….…… viii List of Figures …………………………………………………………………….…ix Abstract……………………………………………………………………………...x 1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………… .1 Background of the Problem……………………………………………….…4 Science Learning…………………………………………………… 4 Constructivism…………………………………………………….…7 Problem Solving……………………………………………..8 Hyperlinked Web-Based Environment…………………….………. 9 Visual Thinking……………………………………………………. 10 Significance of the Study………………………………………………… 13 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………….. 14 Research Questions………………………………………………………… 15 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………16 Delimitations……………………………………………………………….. 18 Limitations…………………………………………………………………. 19 Summary…………………………………………………………………… 19 2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………...21 Visual Thinking……………………………………………………………. 21 West’s theory………………………………………………………. 21 Studies on Visual Thinking……..…………………………………..22 Value of Visual Thinking…………………………………………. 26

v Current Trends in Learning in a Web-based Environment………………… 28 Ethnography………………………………………………………………... 40 Visual Ethnography………………………………………………... 44 3. Methods…………………………………………………………………………. 49 Overall Approach and Rationale…………………………………………… 49 Site Selection………………………………………………………………. 52 Student sample……………………………………………………... 55 Data Collection…………………………………………………………….. 56 Field notes………………………………………………………….. 57 Role of the researcher – the participant observer…………...59 Visual learning logs………………………………………………... 61 Student web pages…………………………………………………..64 Assessment…………………………………………………………. 65 Videotaped informal group interviews…………………………….. 68 Data Recording…………………………………………….. 70 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………. 70 Triangulation……………………………………………………………….. 72 Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………….. 74 Political and Ethical Issues………………………………………………… 75 4. Results…………………………………………………………………………… 77 Site Setting…………………………………………………………………. 77 How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? Visual Learning Logs……………………………...82 Producer……………………………………………………………. 83

vi Consumer…………………………………………………………... 83 Decomposer………………………………………………………... 84 Interdependency of Living Things…………………………………. 84 Ecosystem………………………………………………………….. 85 Food Chain…………………………………………………………. 86 Basic Needs of Organisms…………………………………………. 87 Groups of Living Things……………………………………………88 How does making links between web pages help students construct Science Knowledge Structures? Student Web Pages & Field Notes ……... 91 The Individual Science Structures of Six Students……………….. 94 Judy………………………………………………………… 94 Blanca……………………………………………………… 96 Marquis…………………………………………………….. 99 Nakia……………………………………………………….. 101 Russell ……………………………………………………... 103 John…………………………………………………………105 Standards-Based Rubric……………………………………………. 112 Standards…………………………………………………… 114 What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking? Informal Group Interviews………………………………………………… 117 Looking for Information (Exploration) ……………………………. 118 Extracting Relevant Information……………………………………120 Simplifying Information…………………………………………… 121 Organizing Information……………………………………………. 121

vii Understanding Basic Concepts…………………………………….. 122 How Visual Thinking Helps……………………………………….. 124 Summary…………………………………………………………………… 127 5. Summary and Discussion………………………………………………………...131 Discussion………………………………………………………………….. 135 Implications for Research and Practice……………………………………..137 Significance…………………………………………………………………142 References………………………………………………………………………….. 145 Appendix…………………………………………………………………………… 160 Grade 4 - Relevant Science & Technology Standards……………………... 160 1992 International Science Test Comparison Riskline………………...…... 162 TIMSS 1999 Assessment Results………………………………………….. 163 Problem Solving, grade 4, TIMSS Performance Assessment , 1995 ……... 164 Seven Goals for the Design of Constructivist Learning Environments……. 165 Technology Foundation Standards for All Students……………………….. 167 Performance Indicators for Technology-Literate Students………………… 169 Problems…………………………………………………………………… 170 Views of Knowledge …………………………………………………….. 171 Video Time Coding…………………………………………………………172 Constant Comparison Method ………………………………………….…..173 Grade 4 - Science…………………………………………………..…….… 174 Dual Coding Theory…………………………………………………….…. 177 Vita…………………………………………………………………………. 178

viii List of Tables

1. Comparison of Hyperlinked Web-based Environment and Visual Thinking ………………...……………..…………………..…….10 2. Research Questions, Methods, & Analysis…………………………….. 57 3. Page Making and Linking Sequence………….……………………….. 93 4. Problem Solving (Bruner,1966),(Schacter et al,1997)…………..……..118 5. Views of Knowledge………………………………………………...….171 6. Video Time Coding………………………………………………..……172 7.

Grade 4 – Science………………………………………….………….. 174

ix List of Figures

1.

Trends in Average Scale Scores…………………………………… 5

2.

Visual Learning Log - Herbivore……………………………………62

3.

Science and Technology Standards-Based Rubric…………………..67

4.

Mike’s Visual Learning Log - Groups of Living Things, Mammals……………………………………………………………82

5.

Science Structure Format……………………………………………91

6.

Science Structure , Judy……………………………………………. 95

7.

Science Structure, Blanca………………………………………….. 97

8.

Science Structure , Marquis..………………………………………. 100

9.

Science Structure , Nakia………………………………………….. 101

10.

Science Structure , Russell…………………………………………. 104

11.

Science Structure , John……………………………………………. 106

12.

Connection Concept Map………………………………………….. 110

13.

Rubric Scores………………………………………………………. 113

14.

Mean according to Standard……………………………………….. 114

15.

Mean according to Student...………………………………………. 116

16.

1992 International Science Test Comparison Riskline…..…………162

17.

Problem Solving, grade 4,TIMSS Performance Assessment,1995... 164

18.

Constant Comparison Method……..………………………...…… 173

19.

Dual Coding Theory……………………………………………….. 177

x

Abstract Students Using Visual Thinking to Learn Science in a Web-based Environment Jean Margaret Plough Elizabeth L. Haslam, Ph.D.

United States students’ science test scores are low, especially in problem solving, and traditional science instruction could be improved. Consequently, visual thinking, constructing science structures, and problem solving in a web-based environment may be valuable strategies for improving science learning. This ethnographic study examined the science learning of fifteen fourth grade students in an after school computer club involving diverse students at an inner city school. The investigation was done from the perspective of the students, and it described the processes of visual thinking, web page construction, and problem solving in a webbased environment. The study utilized informal group interviews, field notes, Visual Learning Logs, and student web pages, and incorporated a Standards-Based Rubric which evaluated students’ performance on eight science and technology standards. The Visual Learning Logs were drawings done on the computer to represent science concepts related to the Food Chain. Students used the internet to search for information on a plant or animal of their choice. Next, students used this internet information, with the information from their Visual Learning Logs, to make web pages on their plant or animal. Later, students linked their web pages to form Science Structures. Finally, students linked their Science Structures with the structures of

xi other students, and used these linked structures as models for solving problems. Further, during informal group interviews, students answered questions about visual thinking, problem solving, and science concepts. The results of this study showed clearly that 1) making visual representations helped students understand science knowledge, 2) making links between web pages helped students construct Science Knowledge Structures, and 3) students themselves said that visual thinking helped them learn science. In addition, this study found that when using Visual Learning Logs, the main overall ideas of the science concepts were usually represented accurately. Further, looking for information on the internet may cause new problems in learning. Likewise, being absent, starting late, and/or dropping out all may negatively influence students’ proficiency on the standards. Finally, the way Science Structures are constructed and linked may provide insights into the way individual students think and process information.

1

Chapter 1 - Introduction

Results of the International Assessment of Educational Progress in Science show a critical problem in the ways US students learn science. Ever since 1983, when A Nation At Risk described a constant downward trend in US science achievement scores from 1969 to 1977, the United States has attempted to reform its science educational system (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983, p.9). Ten years later, in 1993, the International Assessment of Educational Progress showed the United States scoring thirteenth out of fifteen countries in science (Riskline, 1993)(see appendix). In 1995, The Third International Mathematics and Science Study measured the performance of students from 38 countries, and found that US eighth graders ranked 18th in science (TIMSS, 1995). Again, the 1999 Third International Math and Science Study Repeat showed no improvement, and validated the fact that, “after the fourth grade, students in the United States fall behind their international peers as they pass through the school system”( Dr. Gary Phillips, commissioner of education statistics for U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Educational Statistics, p 2, Delisio,2000)(TIMSSR,1999). The purpose of this ethnographic study is to explore qualitatively how students use visual thinking, and problem solving to learn science in a constructivist, web-based environment. While there has been much quantitative study and theory focusing on graphics in recall or achievement tests (Paivio, 1990; Weiss,1999; MejiaFlores, 1999), qualitative descriptive studies are needed to describe the role of visual

2 thinking and visual representations in the creation of science knowledge structures, and in the science problem solving process. The existing studies depend mainly on pre and post tests. No one has described the process of science learning from the students’ point of view. Further, existing research has been mainly quantitative and has not focused on elementary students, who are still establishing and forming their thinking patterns. What works for high school, college students, and adults, may not work for younger students. In addition, studies are needed that describe science and technology from the point of view of the learner. Since most studies in science and technology are done by quantitative research, such a descriptive qualitative study as this one may uncover important information that might other wise be overlooked, and as a result, assist in the design of new learning technologies and programs (Hess, 2001). More recently, the 2000 National Assessment of Educational Progress showed that there has been no significant average improvement since 1996 in fourth or eighth grade science scores, while the average science score of twelfth grade students has actually gone down three points. In addition, only 29 percent of fourth graders, 32 percent of eight graders, and 18 percent of twelfth graders achieved a proficient level in science (NAEP, 2000). Because of this alarming pattern of low science achievement, leading scientists and researchers are calling for more effective ways to teach science, United States students are falling behind other countries, and despite the reform efforts, U.S. students continue to do poorly (Glenn, 2000). How is science traditionally taught? United States science teachers often present a science concept by lecturing and textbook reading. Then students are given worksheets to fill out, and solve sample problems to review the science material

3 presented in the lecture and book. Finally, our students are assessed with a test that usually involves direct feedback of lecture and book material. This is probably due to the fact that “the science (and math) curriculum in America is a mile wide and an inch deep”. US schools are unfocused, trying to cover as much material as possible, without covering the most important material in sufficient depth (Schmidt, 1999, p 2; Schmidt, 1997; TIMSS, 1997). Newer, learner-centered standards focus more on the process of learning. For example, Arthur L. White, PhD, executive secretary, National Association for Research in Science Teaching, and author of many journal articles on science education, and a chapter in the International Handbook of Science Education , states that one proven and reasonable way to improve science learning is to “replace memorization with exploration, and invention” (p.1,White, 1999). White, whose interests include the integration of science and technology in the classroom, believes that when students are confronted with new information, they make different associations than adults do. He suggests a better approach, a ”learning cycle,” which involves exploration, finding patterns in data, and tying new knowledge to real world experiences. Likewise, exploration and invention involve meaningful, authentic activities that help students “construct understanding and develop skills relevant to solving problems” (Wilson, p 3,1996). Problem solving merits consideration, since United States fourth grade students scored below average on TIMSS Scientific Problem Solving performance assessment (TIMSS,1995)(see appendix). Since problem solving involves 1) exploration, 2) extraction of relevant material, 3) simplification of the material, and 4) organization of the material, and all these problem solving skills may be

4 accomplished meaningfully in a web-based environment, it is reasonable to conclude that the web-based learning environment may provide a rich setting for problem solving . Further, problem solving is a non-linear system; in other words, problem solving involves relating parts of the problem to other parts, and also to the whole problem. This kind of holistic problem solving can be accomplished with visual thinking; processing information through images instead of words (Bruner, 1966; Schacter, 1997; Rieber, 1994; Olson, 1992). Visual thinking may be a valuable addition to elementary science learning and problem solving. Because of the existing problem in science achievement, especially in the area of problem solving, we must look at new ways for students to learn science and think scientifically. Students need visual thinking skills to make science representations and solve problems. By teaching students how to do visual thinking, we give them a valuable tool to improve their science understanding and learning, and by using a web-based environment, we foster exploration in a real world environment. In addition, making links or connections between concepts allows students to organize information, and to connect new information with existing knowledge structures (constructivist learning). Making links is facilitated in a web-based authoring program, such as Claris Home Page or DreamWeaver. Moreover, since links are structured more like human memory connections, what students learn by making links may help their recall of science concepts. Finally, authoring, making science web pages, and linking these pages , encourage multiple modes of representation (constructivism) (Schacter, 1997;Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu, 2001;Wilson, 1996).

5 Background of the Problem

The problem of insufficient science learning with traditional instruction in the United States needs to be examined. The following five areas form the background for this study: 1)science learning, 2) constructivism, 3) a hyperlinked or web-based environment., and, 4) visual thinking.

Science Learning

Traditional science learning often involves teacher lecture with students filling out worksheets to demonstrate learning. Yet, traditional science teaching that emphasizes memorizing facts is not effective (WaytGibbs & Fox, 1999; NSTA, 2002). Further, United States students do poorly on standardized science tests (TIMSS, 1995;TIMSS-R, 1999). Figure 1 shows that from 1969 to 1999 science scores have hardly improved at all, and for students age 17, science scores actually went down. For this reason, the way students learn science and math must be changed in order for science learning to improve. In contrast, theories on successful learning include constructivism and problem solving (Wilson,1996;Bruner, 1966).

6

Figure 1- Trends in average scale scores

from National Center for Educational Statistics http://nces.ed.gov/quicktables/Detail.asp?Key=453

Trends in average scale scores for the US in science: 1969 - 1999 http://nces.ed.gov/timss/results.asp

One proven and reasonable way to improve science teaching is to use exploration, invention, and inquiry instead of memorization. Hence, schools must access “performance, not regurgitation ( p.1, Atkin, Hauser. Kulm, Raizen, Schmidtt, White, 1999)” Traditional science instruction relies largely on lecture and memorization of facts, and is assessed by tests. Teachers often teach science concepts via worksheets, separate from authentic learning. For example, the science teacher lectures on a topic, and then writes the science terms on the blackboard. Students copy this information in their notebooks. Later, the teacher passes out science worksheets that also cover the topic. Students fill in these worksheets, and are later tested on this information. In contrast, we need to implement constructivist learning activities and multiple modes of representation that employ visual thinking and problem solving, and we need to assess students with performance tasks based on science standards (Alkin, Hauser, Kuln, Raizen, Smidtt, & White, 1999). To date, many quantitative studies have focused on visual thinking to improve learning in science and math. For example, Wang (1996) used pre and post tests to show that children learned fractions better through their visual understanding of math, as opposed to merely relying upon rote fraction formulas and rules. Also, Yildirim,

7 Ozden, and Aksu (2001) showed, by positive test results, that more significant learning happened for ninth grade biology students through hypermedia (text, graphics, and animation), than through traditional teaching. Moreover, Weiss (1999) found that concrete (as opposed to abstract) computer visuals helped most adult students understand the laws of motion in science, such as velocity, gravity/inertia, acceleration /speed. Her findings showed that computer graphics caused higher achievement on science posttest questions (Weiss, 1999). Since most studies in science are done by quantitative research and test scores, a descriptive ethnographic study on science in a web-based environment, which documents the feedback of students, may uncover important social or cultural information that might other wise be overlooked. As a result, an ethnographic study may improve the “design of new technologies and programs” (Hess, p. 240), by considering the social shaping contexts. Existing studies depend mainly on test scores; no one has described the process of science learning from the students’ point of view (Hess, p 240, 2001).

Constructivism In Constructivist Learning Environments, Wilson (1996) states the importance of meaningful, authentic activities that help students develop problem solving skills and create understandings. Schacter (1997) considered using the internet as such an authentic learning activity. In addition, students need to make links between new information and what they already know, to be able to create knowledge. Hence, learning is creating new frameworks by taking in information and linking it with already existing knowledge structures. For example, linking science concepts with

8 concepts students already understand may help students make new science knowledge structures. (Wilson, 1996; Schacter, 1997; Jonassen, 1991). Further, educators may use media like computer, video, and photos to give students a richer learning experience, and to reinforce concepts. This “encourages the use of multiple modes of representation,” one of the goals of constructivist learning (Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993). Another constructivist learning goal is to promote awareness of the process of knowledge construction: students explain how or why they solved a problem – by reflecting upon it – something this study documented. In contrast, many of our traditional ways of teaching are becoming outdated because they view knowledge merely as a unit of content to be transmitted to the student (Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993; Knuth & Cunninngham, 1993). Nevertheless, existing constructivist theory and research have not focused on the effectiveness of using a web-based environment, or visual thinking, to teach students how to solve problems or make science structures (Wilson, 1996).

Problem solving .

Even though computers and the internet are available, teachers are continuing to teach in much the same way they did before computers. Yet , computers and the internet provide a rich setting for problem solving by providing students access to information, and by providing visual software tools for organizing, and linking

9 information . In addition, problem solving may often use visual or non-linguistic models, and can be considered to be similar to some types of creativity, which are right hemisphere activities like visual thinking. At present, we need students to use their creative potential to find solutions to problems, but our educational system is not training students in this creative area of problem solving, visual thinking (Restak, 1991;Dacey Lennon, p 203,1998). Visual thinking can help students create models of science systems, and knowledge structures involving them. For example, Benoit Mandelbrot, who discovered the fractal nature of geometry, thought of visual thinking as a valid method for finding a solution for a problem. So did the scientists, Einstein, Faraday and Maxwell. Yet without using the problem solving method of visual thinking, "...the conventional educational system may eliminate many of those who have the greatest high-level talents, especially when these talents are visual rather than verbal" ( Lesmoir-Gordon, Rood, Edney, 2000; West, p 11, 1997). Bruner (1966), states that problem solving involves 1) exploration or looking for information, 2) extraction of relevant material 3) simplification of material, and 4) organization of the material. These activities can be accomplished meaningfully within a web-based environment. Further, simplification and organization can also be accomplished visually by web authoring (Schacter, et al, 1997; Brown,1997). Schacter’s research on problem solving (1997), was the only study that focused on problem solving in a web-based environment. Likewise, the only study on problem solving which used visual thinking was Smith’s Discovery Learning with a Computer Graphics Utility as a Tool in Investigating the Characteristics of Linear Equations , Here Smith (1995) stated that high school students’ math scores in

10 plotting and interpreting graphs were significantly better after they used discovery learning, with a visual graphics utility. Smith’s graphics program let students visually explore, generalize, and hypothesize the nature of graphs, but did not utilize a webbased environment, nor did it include construction by students (Smith, p 93 1995).

Hyperlinked Web-Based Environment

A hyperlinked web-based environment provides a rich setting for problem solving, and construction, while enhancing robust science instruction with visual thinking. Since a web-based environment may by nature be non-linear and visual, it may facilitate non-linear problem solving and visual thinking. In addition, a hyperlinked web-based environment may facilitate the non-linear, holistic organization of information, because of its linking and organizational capabilities. The linking capability of web page construction, or authoring, lets students link new pieces of information with existing knowledge. In Constructivist Learning Environments,Wilson (1996) states that teaching may be letting a student “use resources and tools in a setting with abundant resources.” On the other hand, students’ construction of new knowledge, while anchoring learning in real world contexts like the internet, makes the knowledge meaningful to the students (Wilson, p 4, 1996; Brown, 1989, Collins, 1989, Duguid, 1989, Bonk, 1998). Models, and visual representations, are holistic rather than linear, like a hyperlinked web. In visual thinking, parts of a whole do not have to be accessed sequentially, but may be linked by relationships to each other and to the whole problem, as they are in a web-based environment. For this reason, a web-based

11 environment may provide a basis for students to construct meaning, by visually representing ideas and linking them. Although they are different, the hyperlinked web-based environment and visual thinking have many qualities in common. Therefore, the web-based environment may give a rationale for using visual thinking, which is discussed in the next section. In addition, Table 1 shows some similarities between the hyperlinked web-based environment and visual thinking.

Table 1 - Comparison of Hyperlinked Web-based Environment and Visual Thinking

Hyperlinked Web-Based Environment Visual Thinking Non linear Facilitate the holistic organization of information Have linking and organizational capabilities Allow students to link new information with existing knowledge May facilitate problem solving Are not accessed sequentially Linked by relationships of their various components to each other, and to the whole Allow creation and display of models Expand the way we see our environment Exploration of relationships between ideas facilitated by ability to link and view concepts When students are involved in making holistic representations, brain activity increases May be visual Is visual Abundant resources for finding information Helps students simplify information Is a rich setting for problem solving Helps students display information

Visual Thinking

12 Many activities produce visual representations, such as making graphic representations, making physical models, and drawing pictograms. Such visual thinking can be represented by illustrations, schematics, or charts, and may be assessed by rubrics and student performance tasks, such as logs or web pages. Students need the ability to use these visual representations to think, and solve problems. Yet, many teachers are not helping students learn how to do this. Visual instruction provides an opportunity to explore, model ideas, and solve problems (on pollution, overpopulation, drought, hunting, and extinction) with visual tools like concept maps and diagrams. Further, improvement in recall has been shown using visual tools, visual thinking, and dual coding. In addition, researchers have demonstrated that exploration of the relationships between ideas is facilitated by the ability to see concepts (Olson, 1992; Healy, 1990; Paivio,1967,1971,1990;Hyerly, 2000). Visual Thinking is processing information through images instead of words (Olson, 1992). Not surprisingly, non-linguistic representations are behind many scientific theories, like Darwin’s “tree of life” and Freud’s view of the unconscious as a submerged iceberg . Accordingly, visual representations often help comprehension of science systems, and often make science concepts more understandable. (Gardner in West, 1997: West, 1997). Because of computers, some scientists and statisticians are now giving serious attention to visual ways of thinking. West (1997) believes that we may be going into a new era where visual thinking will be important in giving creative new answers to problems. Problem solving will use visual models made from graphic representations of data. In addition, we will handle some kinds of information more visually. Since

13 computers can take care of the more mundane tasks of working with data, people may need to do the tasks computers cannot do: problem solving that may involve “insightful and integrative capacities associated with visual thought” (West, p 225). Further, if we, as teachers, want learning to happen the same way in school as it does in a community of practice, we need to give serious attention to encouraging visual modes of representation. Since learning with oral and written means may limit the way students see their environment, visual thinking may be a worthwhile teaching method to help change students’ misconceptions in science (West, 1997; Brown, 1989; Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993; Knuth & Cunningham, 1993). The dual coding theory of information storage states that people store knowledge in two ways: linguistically (verbally) and by imagery (by pictures). Therefore, knowledge is better used and remembered if both representational systems are used to process it (Paivio, 1969, 1971,1990). Typically, the way that knowledge is portrayed to students is linguistically or verbally – either by talking or reading (Flanders, 1970). Students are not usually taught how to make non-linguistic representations, even though learning often improves when students have help generating them. When students are involved in making non-linguistic representations, brain activity increases (Marsano, R., Pickering, D., Pollock, J., 2001; Gerlic & Jausovec, 1999). In addition, visual representations help students elaborate on knowledge By adding to or elaborating on knowledge, students understand it better, as well as being better able to remember it. When students support and give meaning to their elaborations, learning is stronger (Anderson, 1990; Marsano, R., Pickering, D., Pollock, J. 2001;Welch, 1997; Macklin, 1997; Newton, 1995; Pruitt, 1993; Pressley,

14 Symons, McDaniel,Snyder, & Turnure, 1988; Woloshyn, Willoughby. Wood, & Pressley, 1990; Willoughby et al, 1997). Other studies on visual thinking looked at its role in memory and retention. For example, Mejia-Flores (1999) studied how visual thinking helped Puerto Rican students learn a second language. In The Role of Contextual Visuals in Second Language Acquisition: Puerto Rican University Students Learning English, she found that on a receptive language test, the association between visuals and words helped college students store language material in long-term memory. Likewise, Herskowitz (2000) found that visual thinking (computer graphics and animation) helped college students learn beginning computer programming. In Using Computer Graphics and Animation to Visualize Complex Programming Concepts, he collected anecdotal evidence (class observations, class interviews, student interviews, and instructor interviews) to show that visual representations helped students understand and remember computer programming (Mejia-Flores, 1999; Herskowitz, 2000). Present teaching methods in the public schools meet only the needs of students who think verbally, even though 15 percent or more of the students do not learn verbally. However, students who have high visual capabilities can solve complicated problems and do complex thinking. Further, children of our TV age are natural visual learners. Children’s feedback on the process of problem solving using visual representations may be documented to show how students learn. Then students’ reflections on how they solve problems can describe the science learning process. Further, a networked computer environment can help document the process of visual thinking by recording students’ work, step by step, so that the learning

15 process may be reviewed and compared with what the students say. (Olson, 1992; Healy, 1990;Hyerly, 2000; Taylor, 1979). The computer’s ability to display visual models of scientific systems has important implications in science teaching. Moreover, since the computer and internet may be visual, visual ways of thinking should receive more attention in education. Yet, although there has been much quantitative study and theory focusing on the role of graphics in recall, qualitative descriptive studies are needed to describe how visual thinking is used in science learning (Tamir, 1985/86;West, 1997).

Significance of the Study

Qualitative studies are needed that describe how 1) problem solving, 2) visual thinking, and 3) the hyperlinked web environment relate to science learning (Rieber, 1994;Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu, 2001). This study is significant because it examined the similarities between a web-based environment and visual thinking, and how these similarities may be used in learning. It is also significant because the students were the ones who constructed, and the ones who spoke; unlike previous studies (Wilson, 1996;Hess, 2001). Further, it may provide useful information, and insights from the points of view of the students, which can help educators, researchers, and policy makers improve our current methods of science learning. How can we as educators in the United States, ensure that our students have the best basis for science learning? First, we must admit that a critical problem exists in this area. Second, we must provide effective science learning tools and

16 technologies for our students. And, finally, we must facilitate the use of these tools and technologies.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this ethnographic study is to explore qualitatively how students use visual thinking, and problem solving to learn science in a constructivist, web-based environment. Students solved problems on pollution, overpopulation, drought, hunting, and extinction that revolve around the food chain. Further, the study described how students learned science by searching for information, simplifying information, and organizing information. Students did this by searching the internet, keeping visual learning logs (described in Chapter 3), and by making and linking visual web pages (also described in Chapter 3). Finally, the web pages were assessed with a standards-based rubric based on Science and Technology Standards (see p 67), and posted on the school web site. This descriptive ethnography studied how a “diverse” fourth grade group of students used visual thinking to learn science in a web-based environment. (Diverse here refers to students of many varied cultural backgrounds). In this study, the role of visual thinking was explored by investigating one group of fifteen students during a voluntary after school computer club. The study took place in the computer lab, and focused on the process of how students learned science facilitated by visual software tools. Ethnography was used to show what happened, and to create a picture of how science learning took place with visual thinking. Since learning is a process, in describing it by test scores and numbers, something vital is lost. Further, ethnography

17 is one of the qualitative research approaches that was suitable here. Rich ethnographic description was an important element of this study, because it describes observations and learning experiences. To facilitate this, this researcher acted as a participant observer, validated by several outside observers (Creswell, 1998). The data collection methods involved field notes, visual learning logs, student web pages, and videotaped informal group interviews. The field notes were daily notes taken by the researcher that described each day’s occurrences, and students’ social interactions while learning science. Visual learning logs were weekly logs of simple science drawings that students made on their computers after each science lesson. The student web pages were web pages that the students constructed and linked to illustrate the science concept of the food chain, while the videotaped informal group interviews focused on the voices of the students as they reflected on visual thinking, construction and problem solving.

Research Questions

The research questions to be answered are: 1. How do students use visual thinking for learning science in a web-based environment ? a) How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? b) How does making links between web pages help students construct science knowledge structures ?

18 c) What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking?

Definition of Terms

1. Animation - A process that produces the illusion of motion or change of an object over a period of time (Kemp & Smellie, 1989).

2. Concept map - A graphical method of displaying concepts and relationships between or among concepts (Wolf, 1991).

3. Construct - Put together systematically

4. Constructivist learning - Meaningful, authentic learning that “help the learner to construct understandings and develop skills relevant to solving problems” (Wilson,p 3,1996).

5. Diverse students - Students of many varied cultural backgrounds

6. Dual coding - Processing information by both words and images (Paivio, 1969,1971,1990)

7. Ethnography - The study of an intact cultural or social group (or an individual or individuals within the group) based primarily on observations and a prolonged

19 period of time spent by the researcher in the field. The ethnographer listens and records the voices of informants with the intent of generating a cultural portrait (Thomas, 1993; Wolcott, 1987).

8. Graphics - Diagrams or visual representations that call forth mental images. Graphics can be animated or static.

9. Hyperlinks - Active electronic connections between pages, words, pictures, or concepts

10. Learning - An active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge (Bruner, 1966).

11. Linear thinking - Sequential thinking; linear thinking consists of a sequence of words, numbers or other traditional symbols. Linear is the opposite of holistic (Hyerly, 2000).

12. Multimedia - The integration of media such as text, sound, graphics, animation, video, imaging, and spatial modeling into a computer program (VonWodtke, 1993).

13. Non-linear thinking - Holistic thinking that is non-sequential

20 14. Problem Solving - The cognitive process directed at achieving a goal when a solution method is not obvious to the problem solver (Chi & Glaser, 1985; Dorner, 1983; Jausovec, 1994; Hoyoak, 1995;Howard, 1983; Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Simon, 1973; Voss & Means, 1989) (from Schacter et al, 1997) Problem solving involves 1) exploration, 2) extraction of relevant material 3) simplification of material, and 4) organization of the material (Bruner, 1966).

15. Science Structures or Science Knowledge Structures - Representations of science concepts and/or science systems

16. System - “An arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or organic whole (Webster, 1968).

17. Visual Thinking - Processing information through images instead of words (Olson, 1992).

18. Visual Tools - Any kind of graphics that permits reasoning and visual representation of ideas.

19. Web-based environment - A space where users have access to the internet , and where learning occurs around and in conjunction with the use of the internet.

21 Delimitations

This study focused on elementary students at Emerson Elementary School, which is a large urban elementary school in North Philadelphia. It was limited to fifteen fourth grade students in a voluntary, after school computer club. These students were in the computer club for two fourty-five minute club sessions each week after school , on a voluntary basis for five weeks. It viewed those aspects of science learning which involved visual thinking, problem solving and a web-based environment.

Limitations

The main limitation of this study was the time period. This study was limited to a time period of three to five weeks in total. In contrast, a longer study would have allowed more in depth gathering of data. On the other hand, the shorter study prevented the data analysis from becoming overwhelming. The findings of this study may be open to other analyses beside those of the researcher (Kunes,1991). Moreover, in this process of knowledge construction, associations may be made by the readers. Nevertheless, by its descriptive nature, this study may point the way to future directions for research in science and technology education.

Summary

22 United States students’ standardized test scores in science are low, especially in problem solving, and traditional science instruction is not as effective as it might be. Visual thinking, construction of science structures, and problem solving in a webbased environment may be valuable instructional strategies for improving science learning. Although not new, visual thinking has not been used to its full capacity. Even though students with high visual ability are able to solve complicated problems, no one has studied the process that these students use. Although theory and quantitative studies have looked at graphics’ role in recall, retention, and achievement, these studies do not describe the process of visual learning . Since students construct their own knowledge from their experiences, it may be helpful to focus on the experiences of students, and what they have to say about the problem solving process (Bruner, 1990, Dewey, 1934). This study filled a gap that existed in current literature: it described elementary students and their experience learning science with visual thinking. The hyperlinked web-based environment allowed for searching for information, and authoring and posting of linked science knowledge structures (linked web pages). Further this study documented the practicality of visual thinking and construction. By focusing on how students solved problems involving pollution, overpopulation, drought, hunting, and extinction, the results of this study may help educators improve science learning. Further, by using the web environment to create, link, and share science knowledge structures, I tried to demonstrate the use of visual thinking in a web environment. By being qualitative and ethnographic, this study attempted to view science and technology in a different way.

23

24 Chapter 2 - Literature Review

This study described the role of visual thinking to learn science in a webbased environment. A web-based environment provides a situation and environment conducive to using visual thinking to learn science. Since not much is known about this, an ethnographic method was used to capture the students’ experiences as they described visual thinking, and the learning process . The study examined visual learning as a process that allows for the inclusion of marginalized learning styles and diverse or multiple voices. This chapter focuses on these three areas: visual thinking, current trends in learning in a web-based environment, and ethnography.

Visual Thinking

Visual Thinking was defined in this study as processing information through images instead of words (Olson, 1992). In addition, visual thinking can be using one’s visual imagination to take experience and experiment and make new models of reality (West, 1997), or using the visual in abstract thought (Barry, 1997). This section looks at Thomas West’s theory, studies on visual thinking, and the value of visual thinking.

West’s Theory

Thomas West, a proponent of visual thinking, and author of In the Mind’s Eye, states that visual thinking may be a superior way to solve problems, and create models. In addition, West notes that references to visual thought are frequent in the most original and greatest ideas of science, i.e., Darwin, Einstein, Faraday, Maxwell,

25 and Edison, among others. Scientists are now giving serious attention to visual modes of thought, partly due to new technology. West mentions the importance of making models of reality in one’s head, or “survival intelligence” (West, p 225). He goes on to say that visual thinking helps the construction of mental models, and that model making can be connected with creative thinking and learning. In addition, computer models have become familiar ways of representing our world, because they make thinking visible. West believes that we may be going into a new era where visual thinking will be important in giving creative new answers to problems. Problem solving will use visual models made from graphic representations of data. In addition, we will handle some kinds of information more visually. Since computers can take care of the more mundane tasks of working with data, people may need to do the tasks computers cannot do: problem solving that may involve “insightful and integrative capacities associated with visual thought” (West, p 225). West suggests that technology provides the tools that allow people to think visually, and that since computers give us models for new understanding and problem solving, with more technological development, we may see more opportunities for people who are visual thinkers (West, 1997).

Studies on Visual Thinking

Studies involving visual thinking seemed to focus on: 1. visual thinking as an alternate learning mode to improve achievement, performance, retention, motivation, or attitude 2. visual thinking to promote understanding of concepts 3. visual thinking for “construction” (construct here means, to make, build, or put together systematically)

26 4. visual thinking with middle, high school, college students, or teachers

First, visual thinking, as an alternate learning mode to improve achievement, can be seen in a study by Renee Weiss, where graphics were used as alternate means to teach Newton’s Laws of Motion to undergraduate college students (Weiss, 1999). Weiss proposed that the concreteness of the visual animations (as opposed to less real looking, more abstract visuals) may have reminded participants of experiences in the past, and therefore improved achievement. In Tennessee, Jenia Alphonso did another study that transmitted information to fourth grade remedial students on division and measurement, as well as adverbs, nouns, and verbs. Here she used Hyperstudio with graphics as means to teach the math or language concepts to the students, and found that using Hyperstudio with visuals seemed to help students’ academic performance improve (Alphonso,1999). In addition, several researchers have noted the importance of future research in visual representations in mathematics (Bishop, 1989; Clements, 1982; Eisenberg & Dreyfus, 1989; Janvier, 1987). However, merely looking at quantitative results that suggest visual thinking as an alternate learning mode may help student achievement, may be a limitation, since it does not examine the process involved while students are learning with visual thinking. Similarly, visual thinking’s effect on achievement, retention, motivation, or attitude has been examined in numerous quantitative studies. For example, in Rieber’s study with fourth grade students, animated computer visuals on Newton’s laws of motion motivated students to stay on task for longer amounts of time (Rieber,1991). Frederickson also found positive effects of visuals on intrinsic motivation for learning (Frederickson, 1990). Another example used cartoons and humor to teach about ticks and diseases carried by ticks, and was interpreted to mean that computer visuals also produced positive effects on retention (Snetsinger & Grabowski, 1993). Further, Alphonso Smith found that computer graphics visuals

27 paired with discovery learning improved achievement and attitude for high school Algebra I students (Smith, 1995). Again, these studies may be limited, since they focus on the results of visual thinking, and not the process involved during visual thinking, or how learning takes place from the point of view of the students. Second, in contrast, studies that used visual thinking to promote understanding of concepts to students, as the current study did, have also been done quantitatively. Wang’s (1996) study of “Using Computer Graphics to Teach Fraction Concepts”, discussed a visual computer application that promoted understanding of fractions to students in grades four to six. His study used a program he created called “Fraction Concepts Exploration.” He said that traditionally students often learned tricks and rules for fractions, but relied on “rote memory without meaning”. In the fraction program he used images of fractions to help students understand their meaning, as I did in this study, using images of science concepts to help students understand their meaning (Wang, 1996). Likewise, another study by Anna MejiaFlores at the University of Puerto Rico suggested that visuals, as an alternate way of representing concepts, made English easier to learn, and that visual representations made abstract concepts “easier to understand and internalize” (Mejia-Flores, p 529530, 1999). Likewise Herskowitz used visual animations, animated flowcharts, and static graphics to teach beginning computer programming concepts to college students at the Teacher’s College of Columbia University. He reported that anecdotal evidence suggested that this visual approach was helpful for understanding C programming concepts (Herskowitz, 2000). Similarly, the study reported here, suggested that a visual approach was helpful for understanding science concepts related to the food chain. Third, also like this research, a study on visual thinking that involved construction, was that of Mevarech and Kramarsky (1997), who examined the

28 construction of graphs by eighth grade students in Israel. They documented both the construction and interpretation of graphs, and included much student work in their report to illustrate the visual thinking of their students. Mevarech and Kramarsky also stressed the importance of context in construction, as does this research, and the importance of teachers’ validation of what students bring into the learning situation themselves (Mevarech & Kramarsky, 1997). Further, Puntambekar and Kolodner did a study that used construction of arthropod models and visual thinking. Here, middle school science students in Georgia created models of arthropods, and then used design diaries to “make thinking visible.” The construction of artifacts (arthropod models) gave continuing feedback to the students, (as did the construction of food chain models in this study), while students put their understanding of science concepts into practice (Puntambekar & Kolodner, p 230, 231,1998). Likewise, 20 preservice science teachers, in a study by Klemm & Iding, drew visual learning logs as an alternative way of communicating and thinking about science experiences. Here, teacher participants noted that the construction of visual learning logs involved hands-on activity, made connections with real world situations, and could help students with different learning styles (Klemm, Iding, 1998). These findings are also similar to the results of the current study. Fourth, although many quantitative studies have been done using visual thinking with middle, high school and college students, these may not be applicable to younger students since elementary skill levels are different and less sophisticated (Lee, 2000; Herskovitz, 2000; Mevarech & Kramarsky, 1997; Weiss, 1999; MejiaFlores, 1999; Smith, 1995). Moreover, there are few qualitative studies that explore the use of visual tools by primary students, as well as the process involved when using these visual tools in learning (Hyerly, 2000). Further, it may be when students are younger and less specialized, learning and visual thinking may be much more closely connected. Although the literature on the visual learning of science is

29 especially limited for the elementary students, visual learning might be a useful tool for younger learners, since it does not depend on text or the use of scientific terminology (Klemm, Iding, 1997). To support students in learning in a verbally oriented educational system, studies are needed to examine how students can use computers as visual tools to solve problems, and to construct visual models. This gap in the literature helped establish the need for this study.

Value of Visual Thinking

The upcoming points show four important reasons that visual thinking may be valuable in learning. The study presented here later takes these points into account and builds on them.

1) visual thinking and children’s thought development 2) visual thinking as communication of experience 3) visual thinking to facilitate problem solving 4) visual thinking to create models

First, visual thinking is extremely important in children’s thought development. Freud (1921) thought that before they possess logic and language, children’s primary thought processes are based on images. In addition, children learn reading by putting pictures, letters and words together. This is effective because images are concrete representations of what children know. In contrast, words are more abstract to children because something written may have many interpretations, while an idea represented by a picture is concrete. Similarly, students use pictures and photographs as they learn to read and write.

30 The trends in multimedia learning are changing slowly from verbal to visual, while today’s literacy involves images as well as text (Brown, 1999). Both R. Shepard, author of Imagination and the Scientist (1988), and John Hortin , vice president of the International Visual Literacy Association and teacher of educational technology at Kansas State University, suggest that traditional education does not advance children’s creative, visually-based inclinations, and that our educational system does not usually use visual thinking as a means of thinking. Second, Ann Marie Seward Barry, associate professor of Communication at Boston College, believes that visual thinking is better than text for communicating experience. This is because images are more immediate, whereas words are more removed from real life. Since developmentally, visual thinking comes before words, visual imagery is our first system of communication, and is connected more with experience and perception. Barry also states that verbal expression is basically a linear framework placed on our non-linear experience. Barry suggests that non-linear visual thinking has a creative power and natural intelligence. Accordingly, the strength of an image is not usually linear, but instead comes from experience, which is more holistic, and related to culture. In Visual Intelligence (1997), Barry states that critical visual awareness can be developed and used to think more creatively and to better understand the world. Third, in order to understand the world, students need tools to help them solve problems. Visual thinking is such a tool. In Visualization as an Aid to Problem Solving: Examples from History (1994), L.P. Rieber suggests that problem solving is a non-linear system. Thus visual thinking, which is also non-linear, may facilitate problem solving. Plotnick, in his 1997 article on concept mapping, states that visual representation provides a holistic understanding, which cannot be conveyed with words alone. In addition, research on problem solving has accepted mental images as a worthwhile tool for some time (Finke, 1990; Finke, Ward, Smith, 1992). Further,

31 Puntambekar and Kolodner (1998), in their study on design diaries for learning science, report that visual design activities are a good way for students to learn critical problem solving skills. Problem based learning is in demand, according to Inae Kang, an assistant professor at Kyung Hee University in Korea, and the new educational model needs a process-centered approach and creative thinking (Kang, 1998). However, using basic visual thinking to help with problem solving is frequently discouraged and ignored. Fourth, making models of their experience can help students’ critical thinking skills. Howard Gardner, a psychologist at Harvard University who identified the seven types of intelligence, states that mental images or models may be used to help problem solving. To make models and erase misconceptions, visual information including photographs, drawings, and schematics can be important (Klemm, Iding, 1997). Further, Barry (1997) suggests that an image can show a mental idea of how something works, which has the same function that a model has. Accordingly, computers provide tools to create models, and offer a direct route for most students to communicate and demonstrate patterns of thinking.

Current Trends in Learning in a Web-based Environment

The research presented here hopefully will help build better web-based environments for education, because it shows how students effectively think and learn in a web-based environment, and thus may help website designers and teachers choose, design, and utilize web-based material. One key variable that affects education has been the rise of information technology (Kang, 1998). It follows that the future may require very different ways of teaching and learning (West, 1997). Now, because of the large amounts of

32 information that can be stored and manipulated by computer technology, we need people to think critically and solve problems. Before computers, education in the industrial age was characterized by a results centered approach, mechanization, uniformity, mass production and standardization (Reigeluth, 1994). At present, new ways of teaching and learning are starting to occur because of the response of educators to the compartmentalized and passive kind of learning of the past hundred years (Bonk, 1998). While education is changing to new learner centered, constructivist, or sociocultural models, it is necessary to tie learning with real world or authentic contexts (Bonk, 1998). Anchoring learning in real world contexts makes learning meaningful to the students (Brown, 1989, Collins, 1989, Duguid, 1989, Bonk, 1998). Knowledge which is unconnected may not be retained, so students need to integrate knowledge with what they already know (West, 1997). Learning now needs to be experience, inquiry or discovery based (Brown, 1999, Dewey, 1934). Dewey views experience as helping to mold thinking (Dewey, 1934), and Dewey’s “experience” may further be interchanged with “culture” (Glassman, 2001). At present, knowledge is partly a “product of the context or culture in which it is developed or used” (Brown, Collins, Duguid, 1989). Past research suggests that the current study was needed. Since students make their own knowledge out of their experiences and culture, (Bruner, 1990, Dewey, 1934), it was useful to focus on the experiences of the students in an ethnographic study. Presently, learner centered technology helps students learn how to look at information and think about how to organize it to create new knowledge (Riel, 1998). Therefore, qualitative studies were needed to see how learner centered technology promotes the experience or culture of the students. In contrast we have studies on discovery based learning, but they focus quantitatively on its effect on achievement and attitude (Smith, 1995).

33 In this study, the students used web-base inquiry and authoring of visual models (of the food chain) to work like scientists. Thus, context based learning occurred when students undertook the activities of practitioners in a domain (Brown, Collins, Duguid, 1989). For example, in science, the activities of the students would be similar to the activities of a scientist. Further, since many scientists use visual models, visual models may help many students learn science concepts using the same process as if they were science practitioners (West, 1997). Quantitative studies reporting visual thinking’s improvement on performance, retention, or attitude are not sufficient because they miss the step by step process involved when visual thinking is used in learning, creating new knowledge, and/or problem solving. Currently, qualitative studies are needed to describe the role of visual thinking in the process involved in discovery based learning. While quantitative studies have been done on the effect of computer multimedia on knowledge gain and retention, they have not assessed visual thinking or construction of new knowledge (Alfonzo, 1999). We have quantitative studies of elementary students constructing computer presentations for social studies (Burge, 1999), but no qualitative studies on elementary students making models in science. A quantitative study was done assessing hypermedia learning material on science systems, that was developed in a web-based environment for ninth grade biology students (Yildirim, Ozden, Aksu, 2001). The study used pre and post-test experimental design to measure retention on circulatory and excretory systems. This hypermedia science material included pictures, text, sound, and video, and the authors developed this web-based learning program. Yet, allowing students to develop the web-based material themselves is constructivist, and lets students develop the material instead of having others develop it and then assess it. Thus in addition, we need to measure the learning process in terms of student/teacher interaction, and also the viability of technology. Today computer supported

34 collaborative learning lets teachers and students change patterns of interaction and roles (King, 1998). Further qualitative studies may also need to be done that document this change of roles and show how a teacher can become a facilitator. Finally, with our schools giving more technological support for learning, we need practical examples of technologies that work (Bonk, 1998). At present the WWW is increasingly becoming a place to learn (Berenfeld, 1996; Khan, 1997). Web-based learning environments can offer interesting ways of changing our current ideas of learning, and many chances to use the WWW for teaching are evident (Bonk & Cunninghan, 1998), (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). In addition the web can be used to distribute content to schools, and is capable of providing practical tools for learning (De La Beaujardiere, Cavallo, Hasler, Mitchell, O’Handley, Shiri,White, 1997). It follows that when new tools become available, the whole approach to a problem may change, and the new tools may call for new talents and new skills (West, 1997). Studies need to be done on knowledge construction in a web-based environment. In the past, authoring technology focused on text while the web is a more visual medium, and web-based learning environments may use more visual intelligence for authoring. Further, the WWW is a learning medium where meaningful understanding can be constructed and shared, because the web also provides a two way communication medium (Brown, 1999). Therefore, the process of shared construction using authoring technology warranted examination. To date studies have been done using computers to learn science or math concepts (Weiss, 1999, Smith, 1995, Wang, 1996, Herskowitz, 2000), but they did not qualitatively examine the learning in context of the construction of knowledge, nor did they look at whether the concepts are presented in context. Collaboration, problem solving, and inquiry-based activity are important educational activities and should be included in web-based learning environments and

35 educational technology applications (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). In addition, using the web in education should be able to help teachers restructure their teaching (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). However WWW educators may have to go through a maturation process before the new technologies are used to their full potential. In practice, “One step ahead for technology, two steps back for pedagogy,” (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000), meaning that teachers are using older processes with newer technology. With computer applications that can include knowledge construction, collaboration, problem solving, and inquiry-based activity, web technology may be increasingly adapted for learning using critical thinking. Hence, this study focused on how construction , collaboration, problem solving, and inquiry-based activity took place in a web-based environment, as opposed to merely looking at results or test scores of closed-end computer instruction, such as multiple choice, data entry, drill, or returning facts. In addition, there are many educational web sites that might provide teaching and learning experiences for students. However, commercial web sites are increasing while educational and scientific sites are less common (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). In addition, the percentage of commercial web sites increased from one and a half percent in 1993 to fifty percent in 1996 (Gray, 1996). InterNIC registered 420,000 .com sites by 1996 compared to 2,700 .edu sites (InterNIC, 1996). Therefore the percent of educational web sites, and the quality of these sites, needs to increase. The results of this study may assist educators and web designers in more effective design and use of educational web sites and web-based materials for students. At present, one learning experience that can be enhanced in a web based learning environment is collaboration. In one study, when learners used collaborative features of a networked learning environment, they developed their reflective thinking, and they were able to make clear their misunderstandings about concepts

36 (Jonassen, 1996; Parker, 1999). Further, this can be helpful in science where students have many misconceptions. In addition web-based learning environments can influence learning behaviors like problem solving and reflection (Jonassen, 1996) .The study reported here showed that using a web-based environment helped students to begin problem solving by looking for information on a chosen plant or animal. In addition, the web-based environment also facilitated reflection for the students in this study, because they were able to author plant or animal web pages, using the information they found, and share their pages on the web. In another study, a high school science class looked at the effects of a networked environment on 9th and 10th grade ecology students’ problem-solving skills (Parker, 1999). Parker found computer network-created shared learning environments caused improvement in critical thinking and problem solving, while use of Inspiration concept map software within the intranet setting improved the reflective thinking of the learners (Parker, 1999). Since reflection is connected to problem solving (Jonassen, 1996), constructing their own representations and reflecting on them let students in Parker’s study examine their own problem solving (Parker, 1999). At present schools are not able to cover all the science areas, so we need to motivate students to learn on their own (Linn, Slotta, 2000). In this study, many students used their Science Knowledge Structures (linked web pages on plants and animals) and/or concept maps of the food chain as models for critical thinking to solve problems involving extinction, overpopulation, drought, or hunting. In addition, the students in this study chose their own plant or animal, and so were motivated to learn on their own. Presently we can motivate students by helping them solve problems on their own. In addition, problem solving, which helps students to learn on their own, involves exploration, extraction of pertinent information, simplification of information, and organization of information (Bruner, 1966, Schacter, 1997). Further,

37 students must often be involved in solving a problem before they can identify the important characteristics of the problem (Bennett, 1993). Therefore it is thought that complex problem solving includes exploration. Exploration may include looking at the issue from multiple perspectives, not forcing a central organizational scheme onto the problem, and working with several concepts inside a many scoped problem (Bruner, 1966). These are all learning characteristics that may be enhanced by collaboration and construction. In another study on environmental science by Schacter, students used a web environment to solve problems (Schacter, 1997). Schacter believed that the information rich web environment provided a “realistic problem solving context” (Schacter, p 4). In addition students gained skills in looking for and finding information, and simplifying, structuring and utilizing information. The students made concept maps about environmental science. Then they did web searches to help improve their maps. Combining an educational problem with a web-based learning environment included the student, the problem, and the resource information (Schacter, 1997). Further, a web-based learning environment that includes searching for information can measure the problem solving processes of browsing, deciding on relevant information, and using relevant information (Schacter, 1997). If students didn’t have the capability to simplify and organize the information that they found on the web, they might not have been able to use it to solve problems (Schacter, 1997). It was critical to simplify and organize information from the web so that it was meaningful to the student, and could be utilized (Schacter, 1997). In addition, there is so much information available on the web, that students may be overwhelmed and not be able to use the information that they find (Schacter, 1997). To measure browsing, the exploratory processes of students (mouse clicks, pages visited) can be recorded electronically. In addition, Schacter found that by using a web-based learning

38 environment, students’ performance on concept mapping and information seeking improved. Further, the study included a web page relevance rubric. It also simulated a WWW environment by using the Web Whacker software, IBM computers with Windows NT, and AOL. Finally the study showed that using a web based learning environment helped problem solving and learning for students (Schacter, 1997). Another project that used a web based learning environment for student learning, was the GLOBE Visualization Project. Here, the GLOBE project constructed visual representations of student data on the environment daily (De La Beaujardiere, Cavallo, Hasler, Mitchell, O’Handley, Shiri, White, 1997), and made these visual representations accessible on the web. In this way, the GLOBE Visualization Project made science information visible. The students in participating schools input data on air temperature , cloud cover, precipitation, snowfall, soil moisture, surface water temperature, PH, land cover, and species identification. In addition this data input by students was made visual and posted on the web. Students used the GLOBE visuals to learn about their environment, and how conditions in their area related to a global environment (De La Beaujardiere, Cavallo, Hasler, Mitchell, O’Handley, Shiri, White, 1997). Further, in GLOBE Visualization Project, icons were used to represent different parameters in order to benefit younger participants and international viewers, while the interface could be learned experimentally or by using the help pages. For the reference data: air temperature, soil moisture, rainfall, cloud cover, land cover, evaporation, and vegetation, a sevenday MPEG movie was created from the images (De La Beaujardiere, Cavallo, Hasler, Mitchell, O’Handley, Shiri, White, 1997). The WISE Science Project is another WWW project that made science information visible (Linn, Slotta, 2000). It made information visible by model building, interactive simulations, and students as designers (Linn, Slotta, 2000). In addition it showed animated representations of heat flow through different materials

39 like wood or glass, videos of the mosquito life cycle, or maps showing malaria incidence, to help students solve problems. In the WISE Science project, students could debate science issues, give criticisms and reflect on science web sites (Linn, Slotta, 2000). Further, in WISE, the students could design a house in the desert, a hydroponic garden, or look at a malaria cycle. They searched for relevant information on the web, got peer feedback, and published their design on the web (Linn, Slotta, 2000). Then students created a shared assessment for evaluation of their designs. WISE Project combined WWW technology with science by doing “complex, sustained problem solving.” In addition students learned how to use e-mail, word processing, spreadsheets, and the web (Linn, Slotta, 2000). The World Wide Web can give many opportunities for critical thinking (Duffy, Dueber, Hawley, 1998). Web-based instruction can also foster divergent ways of thinking and/or creativity with chat tools, concept mapping tools, conferencing and role playing (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). The WWW enables access to libraries, online museums and other collections of information which can positively influence education (Mioduser, Nachmias,Lahav, 2000), while it allows the resources for the growth of virtual learning communities (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). Further, another educational aspect of the web is its communication potential. Students can interact through e-mail or chat, and students can communicate and collaborate with other students, with experts or with teachers (Berge, Collins, 1995; Harasim, Hiltz, Teles, Turoff, 1995). Later, analysis of their chat and/or messages may help researchers identify the critical stages in their learning process . In addition the web has great potential for developing collaborative learning and involving students with experts (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000), and web based instruction can provide more student mentoring, feedback, and electronic advice which may be “individualized and timely”(Bonk, Dennen, p 4). Furthermore, a peer comment form

40 or rating for student web entries can cause shared knowledge to be created by student interaction (Bonk, Dennen, 1998). To date the web can provide scaffolding for information manipulations such as generating, processing, sending, recovering, and storing information (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Currently “WebCT “ and other existing courseware have tools like document sharing, whiteboards, asynchronous and synchronous communication, tests, grade books, and student profiles (McLellan, 1998). Instruction and whole courses can be delivered via the web (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Increasingly, the web can become a “creation environment:” authoring tools can scaffold students’ creativity and let them create and publish their own web sites (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). In addition, benefits of student learning via the web are that it can give free resources, it can make students’ work available to people world wide, it allows collaboration and accumulation of student work electronically, and students can take the responsibility for their own learning, (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). In contrast, some problems of web-based learning environments can include the anxiety of students, politics at an institution, and the changing features of technology, and the abilities of educators (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). Further, another problem is that educationally relevant web course development tools may be scarce and not easy to use (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). In addition web-based instruction may take a lot of time, the teachers may not know when and how much to intervene or help students, and computers and technology can break or slow down (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). At present, the existing, pre-made courseware tools designed for the web may limit users pre-planned activities, and therefore they may not allow users the possibility for creativity and construction (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). Also , when navigating the web, some students get lost. Another matter proposed for consideration, is that research has included curriculum issues in the context of print technology (West, Farmer, Wolff, 1991).

41 However, these models may not fit with the qualities and characteristics of the WWW (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Current curricular frameworks made for linear textual learning should not be applied to the hyper linked web, but instead need to be expanded and revised (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). At present many web educational activities seem like the behavioristic interactions of early computer aided instruction, such as multiple choice (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Currently, orientation aids and structure of most educational sites still use solutions made for linear print technology (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Therefore, if students find information on the web, they may not be able to use it or understand it (Schacter, 1997). In contrast, the students need to be able to use or do something with the information that they’ve found. In order to use what they’ve found, students, as problem solvers, must simplify and organize their information so that it can be understood (Bruner, 1966). Further, it seems visual models by nature could help students simplify and organize. Currently Mioduser, Nachmias, and Lahav have developed the Taxonomy of Web Based Learning Environments, and used it to look at 436 educational sites in the areas of math and science (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 1999). In addition, The Taxonomy looks at web site characteristics such as collaborative work, feedback, assessment, cognitive process elicited, the structure of the site, its representational means (text, still or dynamic image, interactive image, sound), communication, and its links. Mioduser, Nachmias, and Lahav found that only twenty-eight percent of the educational web sites demonstrated inquiry based learning. Further, for interactivity, a major contribution of computers to education, they found that one third of the sites had only question and answer work. In addition the major form of interactivity on most educational web sites consisted of browsing, which was included on seventy-six percent of the sites, while simple interactions like clicking and/or dragging happened in forty-two percent of the sites. In contrast only thirteen percent of the web sites

42 included interactions with experts or peers, and feedback was included in only a few sites (Mioduser, Nachmias, and Lahav, 2000). Further, help features were found in only one fourth or less of the sites. These help features included installation of helper applications, translation or glossary, or examples and explanations (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Not many sites provided a chance for students to create, invent or problem solve (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). In contrast, few sites provided opportunity for students to exercise higher order thinking skills. For example, usually sites (fiftytwo percent) called for retrieval of information, or memorizing information (forty-two percent). In addition, most of the educational web sites (ninety-two percent) included declarative knowledge, while twenty percent had procedural knowledge, and only four percent presented scaffolding for students to expand upon the knowledge (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). To date, text was the major means of conveying information on the web, while images were used less frequently than text, but were included in sixty percent of the web sites (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Fifteen percent of the sites had no visual information. Only one to four percent had sound or interactive images, and twenty percent had at least one animation loop (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Only a few of the educational web sites surveyed had any type of collaborative learning, which was all geared towards the high school level. Unfortunately, characteristics that support learning communities or workgroups were not found in any of the educational websites surveyed (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). New web-based learning environments would be presumed to use new educational strategies. However, results showed that this had not happened (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). Current teaching strategies that support optimal learning environments (collaboration, problem solving and inquiry based activity) were usually not included in the educational web sites. In contrast, the sites usually

43 (three-fourths) let the computer control the learning process, often by rote learning or information retrieval (Mioduser, Nachmias, Lahav, 2000). In the future, educational sites need to reflect new educational strategies. In addition we need templates and web-based examples of many teaching strategies (Bonk, Dennen, 1999), as well as research that shows what conditions and processes help students to solve problems (Schacter, 1997). Further, the web’s ability to provide feedback needs to be explored, while teachers need to use less lecture based methods, and act more as facilitators (Bonk, Dennen, 1999). If we consider carefully how to use web environments for teaching in the present, in the future our students’ learning can become more pertinent, influential, and exciting (Bonk, Dennen, 1999), and technology can assist educational reform.

Ethnography

The ethnographic approach has been used in many areas, including sociology, education, studies of organizations, anthropology, geography, and cultural studies (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). Ethnographies are descriptive narratives of ‘social worlds’ that occur in the context of everyday life (Deegan, 2001). Recently, ethnography has been increasingly applied to education (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994), while programs that have been funded federally in the United States have involved more and more ethnographic components (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). At present ethnography is usually characterized by an emphasis on exploring a social phenomenon, usually works with unstructured data, is usually concerned with a small number of cases (in detail), and is usually based on verbal descriptions and explanations (Alkinson, Hammersley, 1994). Further, ethnography and participant observation are characterized by a humanistic, interpretive approach, differing from “positivist” or “scientific” approaches (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994).Ethnography is

44 important here, because it is a methodology that allowed the researcher to show more about how students think. Originally ethnography was shaped by Western interest in the non-Western societies (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). Ethnographers used to be empathetic to their participants while merely documenting them, but now many ethnographers want to empower the participants and include participant input. In addition, ethnography observes and records the “textuality of social life” (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994), because it relies on “thick description” and an interpretation of cultural meaning. In this way ethnography has been used to show experiences and interpersonal and cultural intentions (Heyl, 2001). Ethnography can capture the nature of people’s social behavior, and may have an emphasis on a “detailed analysis of spoken action” (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). In addition, validity can be addressed by asking whether the ethnographer has accurately told what he/she has observed (Becker, 1994). Previously, in the Chicago School of Ethnography, sociologists analyzed the “everyday life communities and symbolic interactions” that characterized different groups (Deegan, 2001). This came partially from John Dewey’s ideas on experience (Deegan, 2001). In addition, one of the originators of the Chicago school, Park (who was John Dewey’s student), believed that a homogenous culture, a culture which functioned as a whole, where cultural and racial differences are overwritten, was ideal (Deegan, 2001). This is interesting in reference to a group of diverse students where students bond as one group that transcends cultural boundaries. This has interesting implications for the present study, which, paradoxically, represents a group of diverse students. The students studied here, although of many racial and cultural backgrounds, seemed to bond as a group in a classroom or club situation, thus functioning as a whole, and creating a new group culture. (More on this issue on p 42, 43)

45 Years ago in the Chicago school, ethnography became apparent by interactions and processes (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994), while established customs were learned in communities that relied on common symbols and language (Deegan, 2001). (Similarly, looking at modern student interactions that rely on common visual symbols could prove to be informative.) In addition, historically triangulation, a “process (that) involves corroborating evidence from different sources to shed light on a theme or perspective,” was used for validation. (p 202 , Creswell). In addition, multiple methods were used historically for validation (Deegan, 2001). In contrast, earlier quantitative research demonstrated the positivist point of view, and it did not “capture” the qualities of human social behavior because it relied on artificial settings (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). S more traditional researchers ocial research was different from physical science because it tried to understand people’s own knowledge and experience (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). In addition, ethnography in science and technology is often unique because its research sites are not usually remote, and are not disconnected from the world (Hess, 2001). Further, the ethnography of science and technology, as other types of ethnography, allows researchers and informants work together to understand what’s happening (Hess, 2001). More traditional researchers may view an ethnography of science or technology as a threat, because often scientists think of the ‘cultural’ or ‘social’ as unscientific, and they may feel it will discredit them (Hess, 2001). An ethnography that comes out of alternate perspectives has the power to look at science and technology differently (Hess, 2001), while being able to voice alternatives, gives the ethnographer the possibility of becoming a directing voice in dialogues governing community interest (Hess, 2001). Current issues in ethnography of science and technology often focus on power relationships or cultural meanings (Hess, 2001), while they may show that “the technical is the cultural and the political” (Hess, p 244).

46 Modern educational ethnography came out of cultural anthropology (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001).This study tried to record the similarities that occurred during learning for a group of diverse students. Previously, American educational anthropologists were mainly concerned with ethnic differences in groups of students (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001), thereby perpetuating the outsider status of the researcher. However, at present in research, education needs to be developed beyond concentrating on a single point of view, (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001)(such as the researcher’s or that of the status quo), and ethnography is able to present findings from multiple perspectives and meanings (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001). Therefore, in classroom ethnography ‘specifying the cultural resources used by teachers and pupils in constructing interactions with each other’ is important (Hammersley, p 93), so that learning may be studied in context. Narratives, a form of ethnography, “have the potential for advancing educational research in representing the lived experience of schooling.”(Goodson, p 89). An example of narrative in educational research is Cortazzi’s study of British primary school teachers (Cortazzi, 2001). In addition , there is a trend in educational research to develop teachers’ stories and educational narratives to let the points of view of the learners and teachers be heard (Cortazzi, 2001), while ethnographies of children have made it possible for children’s voices to be heard, when they would be unexpressed in other circumstances (James, 2001). Further, ethnographies of children are of extreme importance now in the history of ethnography (James, 2001). Furthermore, narrative is now viewed as one of the basic ways in which people, including children, establish their comprehension of the world (Cortazzi, 2001), and narrative is ‘the primary scheme by means of which human existence is rendered meaningful’ (Bruner, p 35). In addition, a narrative can include reactions, meanings, as well as feelings and images (Cortazzi, 2001), and narrative genres include logs, diaries, journals, and oral narratives (Cortazzi, 2001).

47 A narrative can function as a learning tool, it can provide context, or it can be formative to create meaning. At present, the researcher must pay attention to and record the context in which a narrative occurs, because context is important, as are the relationships of the researcher, the audience, and their relationships to a larger “social, institutional or historical” context. In addition the relationship between participants and events may be explored in terms of wider contexts (Cortazzi, p 389). Some narratives may have a problem solving purpose by allowing participants to clarify a situation (Cortazzi, 2001). Further, in a focus group, a narrative may help participants determine their points of view on a matter (Cortazzi, 2001), which can be important in learning. Also, narrative can be formative because it is a social construction process of comprehension and identity (Cortazzi, 2001). Presently, each society makes a world knowledge that uses its cultural traditions while it documents real systems (Hess, 2001), and a narrative can embody this key cultural knowledge (Cortazzi, 2001). In addition, the ethnographic interviewer should establish a true relationship with the participants which involves mutual esteem and concern (Heyl, 2001). Further, ethnographers need to be aware of the consequences of the way they represent other people (Spencer, 2001). Margaret Mead’s early (1928) stories or ethnographies of Samoa have been criticized because the people she studied did not necessarily agree with how she represented their lives (Spencer, 2001). However, at present there has been increased interest with participation and empowerment in ethnography (Spencer, 2001). It follows that readers of postmodern ethnographies need space in which to agree or disagree and make their own associations (Spencer, 2001).

Visual Ethnography

48 Another important branch of ethnography, visual ethnography, uses photographs, film, and video to record, analyze, and communicate (Harper, 1994). This visual ethnography is a good means of looking at and mapping culture or social interaction (Collier, 1967). In addition, in ethnography pictures do not inform by themselves, but the ethnographer uses pictures to analyze records of people, places, and happenings (Schwartz, 1989). While the camera in ethnography can give an accurate record of occurrences, it leaves room for interpretation (Ball, Smith, 2001). Furthermore, Collier (1967) suggests the use of photography as data collection to be used to provoke dialogue (Ball, Smith, 2001), because photographs that often seem to be the “truth”, are really the photographer’s point of view; involving his knowledge and his prejudices (Becker, 1974, Harper, 1994). Originally Elizabeth Edwards, author of Anthropology and Photography 1860 – 1920, said that photography was at first considered to be “ a simple …truth revealing mechanism”, but, in contrast, by 1920 she said that photography had become another fieldworker’s tool (Harper, p 403); but it reflects a particular vision. Previously, in early documentary photography there had not been much thought or discussion on how the relationships with the subjects influenced the photographs (Harper, 1994). Historically, one of the earliest examples of documentary photography was Riis’ 1890 view of the urban immigrant (Harper, 1994). Jacob Riis documented the poor, and precipitated reform for working conditions of urban immigrants by his work, How the Other Half Lives (Alland, 1972). Jacob Riis' photography, which helped him document the plight of poor people, was important in documentary photography’s history. Later in Malinowski’s (1922) ethnographical report on Trobiand life, Malinowski used photographs to authenticate text (Ball, Smith, 2001). Then in the 1930’s Agee and Evans documented poverty with text and photos (Harper, 1994). Later, in Balinese Character (1942) Bateson and Mead used visual ethnography because they found words alone were

49 inadequate. Bateson took the photographs of Balinese culture, and Mead directed the photography. They produced more than 25,000 photos in two years, and used 759 photos in Balinese Character (Harper, 1994). In addition, the photos were sorted into cultural categories, and Balinese Character became a model for combining images and text (Harper, 1994). The groups of photos showed several perspectives on a given subject that could be seen at the same time, or the photo groups showed sequences of a social event, and they included descriptions of the cultural meaning of the photographs on the facing pages (Harper, 1994). Currently, some question Mead’s objectivity, because the people she studied did not necessarily agree with how she represented their lives (Spencer, 2001). Documentary film and photography are made so the viewer can foster conclusions about the world (Ball, Smith, 2001); similarly, ethnographies are written so the reader can make conclusions about the culture represented. Later, documentary photography inspired many of the first visual sociologists during the 1960’s who were studying some of the same issues such as drugs, civil rights, black ghetto life, and racism (Harper, 1994). For example, in Gender Advertisements (1979), Goffman uses around 500 images which were sorted into categories (Ball, Smith, 2001). In addition, Whyte (1980) used timelapse photography to tell about life on city streets, and the photography’s meaning depended partly on the reader’s visual literacy (Ball, Smith, 2001). At present, the audience’s reaction to an ethnographic film may be an important element (Banks, 1992). Also, to include audience’s reaction is becoming popular as in Schwartz’s (1997) visual study of the Super Bowl which used a visual diary style (Ball, Smith, 2001). Furthermore, “Photographs get meaning, like all cultural objects from their context” (Becker p. 88), therefore ethnographers must give background information to allow images to be understood (Ball, Smith, 2001).

50 Film and photography have both had a major effect on our modern visual culture (Benjamin, 1973), and visual ethnography is becoming a separate distinct, varied genre in its own right (Ball, Smith, 2001). In addition, visual processes in ethnography have existed almost since the beginning of anthropology and sociology (Ball, Smith, 2001); in contrast, visual processes have not often been thought of as a means of doing ethnography (Ruby, 1976). At present, new technologies can give us tools to define our visual awareness (Ball, Smith, 2001). While the “Video Revolution” (Henley, 1998) has permitted ordinary people to record visually what previously could only be done by filmmakers, there exist new opportunities exist for participation and collaboration by the participants (Ball, Smith, 2001). In addition, new information and communication technologies have created a broad change in the nature of visual culture (Ball, Smith, 2001). Now possibilities exist for doing ethnography in a much more striking way (Slack, 1998). Extreme new ethnographic experiments are not common even though new multimedia has provided feasible means for this type of study (Spencer, 2001). Through ethnography the contemporary focus on educational technology can be changed, because ethnography supposes that the process of how students learn, not just the facts or what students learn is important to our understanding (James, 2001). In conclusion, qualitative ethnographic studies were needed to describe webbased learning environments that use visual thinking, and the connection between visual thinking and web-based learning merited study. Ethnographic studies were needed to describe the process of student involvement in the construction of science systems, and the student use of visual learning logs, as this research did. At present, we did not have ethnographic qualitative studies on problem solving in a web-based environment, or descriptions of how younger students solve problems and make models, which may be useful in understanding the science learning process. Further, it seemed that a description of visual learning might also be useful to educational

51 reform. For this reason, the researcher tried to describe what happened during learning with visual thinking. In addition, qualitative ethnographic studies were needed to address the authoring of meaningful science knowledge by students themselves, and the web-based use of images. During this study, students included images from the internet while they authored science structures (linked web pages), on plants or animals of their choice. Studies were also needed which served as practical, effective examples for teachers, as well as descriptive studies that examined the change of the student-teacher role, focusing on how the teacher becomes a facilitator, as the researcher tried to do during this study. In addition, we needed qualitative descriptive studies that looked at the learning process, and the role visual thinking could play in standards-based education. For this reason, all participants in this study were interviewed concerning their points of view on visual thinking during science learning, and they were also evaluated using a Standards-Based Rubric. Current qualitative ethnographic research might also need to focus on how visual authoring relates to and reflects students’ experience or culture. These gaps in the literature led up to this study, which was an ethnographic description of how fourth grade students used the internet and visual thinking to make web pages and problem solve. Visual ethnography, in particular, seemed to be a method suited to recording, analyzing and communicating what happened during the process of visual learning and visual thinking (Harper, 1994). That is why video was used to record the students’ points of view during the informal group interviews in this research, and why much of the data collected during this study, (Visual Learning Logs, and student web pages) were also visual in nature. Further, visual ethnography looks at and maps culture and social interaction (Collier, 1967), while recording people, places, and happenings: all components of the research reported here (Schwartz, 1989). In addition, ethnographic studies needed to examine how concepts are presented

52 visually, relating to the students’ lives and backgrounds, as well as diverse students’ feedback on the visual learning experience. Finally, if the process of how students learn can be described through students’ own voices, and assessed with the Science and Technology Standards, as opposed to merely testing what students learn, this may have implications for reform in the future.

53 Chapter 3 - Methods Overall Approach and Rationale

In this study the role of visual thinking was explored qualitatively by investigating a voluntary, after school computer club, of fifteen fourth grade students. The study concentrated on the process of how students learned science facilitated by visual software tools. Because this study concentrated on studying the process of how students learn , the ethnographic approach, which employs humanistic, interpretive methods, was used (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994). Students’ science learning was documented and assessed with a standards-based rubric. Qualitative methods were chosen because the study involved rich, detailed data embedded in context , that emerged over time. The main sources of data were field notes, learning logs, student web pages, informal group interviews, and a standards-based assessment. The study focused on the following research questions: 1) How do students use visual thinking for learning science in a web-based environment? a) How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? b) How does making links between web pages help students construct Science Knowledge Structures? c) What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking? I used a purely holistic-inductive paradigm that involved naturalistic inquiry, collection of qualitative data, and content analysis. I combined the collection of qualitative data ( field notes, logs and interviews) and quantitative data (web pages scored by a standards-based rubric) (Tashakkori, Teddlie, 1998). During this study, I acted as a participant observer. As an insider in the public school system, I acted as instrument to record how science learning took place, and how fourth grade students interacted. The failure of many students in science may be partially due to the fact that the learning is not related to their lives. Therefore,

54 the researcher also recorded the points of view of the students. Accordingly, an ethnography that comes out of alternate perspectives (such as those of diverse, urban students) has the power to look at science and technology differently. It is powerful because it has the capability to see beyond traditional scientists and technicians, who are so close and so involved in what they are doing, that they cannot get back from their own points of view, and therefore see things in only one way. Further ethnography can give power to act and bring about change by showing through multiple voices, that there are other voices. Ethnography in science and technology examines social contexts, the interpretive contexts of what is “accepted as knowledge” (Hess, p 234). When I looked at the diverse, urban students’ social construction of science knowledge, and what shaped and became science knowledge for them, I uncovered interesting ways to improve science learning (Hess, 2001). Since the current trend is toward a more diverse student body, educational research needs to be developed beyond a single point of view (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001). Accordingly, ethnography is able to present findings from multiple perspectives and meanings (Gordon, Holland, Lahelma, 2001). This ethnographic narrative served to present findings on visual learning in a web-based environment from multiple perspectives. The qualitative ethnographic method is relatively informal or open-ended, so its findings cannot be quantified ahead of time. The study evolved over time, with the student participants influencing the study’s evolution (Spencer, 2001). I wanted to be able to work with the students (researcher as participant), and to have the study emerge as it went along (Creswell, 2003). I tried to understand and interpret the behavior and work of the students by using detailed, in-depth description of their actions, (Geertz, 1966) and I used this detailed description to develop themes that described the students’ learning and the visual aspect of scientific thinking. In addition, several types of visual data were collected during this study. “Visual data

55 such as photographs, drawings, and schematics played an important role in the scientific enterprise” (p.1, Klemm, Iding, 1997). During this research students searched for photographs of animals and their habitats on the internet , and they created simple drawings in their Visual Learning Logs that reflected their understanding of science concepts related to the food chain. Further, Paivio’s dualcoding theory supports making visual representations, and many experiments reported by Paivio support imagery’s importance in cognition. In addition, Paivio found that recall was enhanced by representing information both visually and verbally (see appendix). “Perception of the world is influenced by skill, point of view, focus, language, and framework” (p 46, Eisner,1998). This study tried to combine my point of view and my focus and skill with the points of view, skill, and focus of the students, thereby creating a new point of view, which hopefully contained more than the sum of its parts. By focusing on the after school computer club as a culture, discrepancies in language and background were overshadowed by the unique characteristics of the individuals, and the meaning of the group as a whole. As I am an insider in the urban public school system, the results obtained from the field notes and findings may have value for other educators in similar positions. In addition , the findings may be explored in terms of wider context (Cortazzi, p 389), and broader social, institutional or historical frameworks. Since ethnography has been used in cultural studies, it seemed an appropriate way to describe and document a body of diverse students and their actions. In this study, the everyday life and interactions of students in a voluntary, after school computer club, that is a unique self-sustaining learning culture, were described. Ethnographies study established customs learned in communities that rely on common symbols and language (Deegan, 2001). This after school computer club relied on common symbols and language (Visual Learning Logs, web pages, and

56 tapes of student informal group interviews) to establish learning, while the group’s identity asserted itself instead of the differences in background, culture, and language. A narrative was used to express the findings because a narrative can be a social construction process of comprehension and identity (Cortazzi, 2001). Being able to express alternatives gives the ethnographer a possibility of becoming a directing voice in dialogues governing community interest (Hess, 2001). Perhaps because it looked at a web-based learning environment from the students’ perspectives, the study could be instrumental in causing more inclusive (collaborative, discovery based) teaching strategies to be adapted for computer based instruction in standards-based education.

Site Selection

I decided to look at students at an urban, public elementary school in the Northeast United States. The school has a large and diverse student body, with students from many cultural backgrounds. It was the largest elementary school of its type in Philadelphia with a population targeted to be 1,150. The Emerson School was a multicultural, diverse Pre-K to grade 4 elementary school. The school was 56.1% African American, 25.5% Asian, 11.2% Hispanic, and 7.1% White. (Emerson School Improvement Plan , 2000-2002). Most students spoke English at school, although one half of the students spoke another language at home. The Emerson School students had diverse backgrounds and learning abilities. The school had some Haitian students whose families spoke Creole at home, some Arabic and a few Indian students. The Asian population varied from Chinese to Cambodian, Laotian, Vietnamese, and Korean. Some of the White students were not native to the United States, but came from Russia. Because of their language problems, some students were working below grade level, while others were more advanced. ESOL

57 teachers assisted students in learning the English language. Emerson School had a Fast Forword reading/language/computer program to help the students who were at risk in reading and language. The school was a reflection of the multicultural neighborhood. Emerson School was built in 1913 and first had a k-8 population. The community surrounding Emerson School had a rich ethnic diversity, affordable homes in a safe neighborhood, and many retail businesses with a wide variety of employment opportunities (Emerson School Improvement Plan, 2000-2002). The school had gym, science, computer, instrumental music, and art. The school had a balanced literacy program, and an ESOL program. Emerson School had five small learning communities. To provide for students who had exceptional needs there were three learning support classrooms and a resource room. Emerson had many therapeutic support service personnel who helped students who were identified to need behavior modification. Emerson had a functioning School Council, a strong Home and School Association, Parent Cooperative Nursery, socialized recess and two computer labs. The school was wired for the internet . The staff of the school had more than one hundred adults and was representative of the community. There were African-American, EuropeanAmerican, and bilingual Asian and Latino staff members. The classrooms were ethnically diverse and the students were heterogeneously grouped. Emerson School tried to use the strengths of their many cultures to help all their students reach their potential. Most of the students came to school speaking English, but one half of the students spoke another language at home, such as Cambodian, Ukrainian, Chinese, Korean, Haitian, Creole, Vietnamese, Hmong, and Spanish. Emerson School had a big ESOL (English as a second language) program for children who were learning English at school. There were 6.5 ESOL teachers. There

58 were also bilingual classroom teachers, bilingual counseling assistants and two bilingual counselors who helped students and families. There was an on site after school care program, Too-Can, for grades one to four run by the Lutheran Children and Family Services, as well as tutoring programs sponsored by the Korean Community Development Services Center and the Cambodian Association. The school had adoptive relationships with churches in the area such as Forrest Baptist Church, Forrest Presbyterian, St. Paul’s Lutheran and the United Church of Christ, as well as the Forrest Times newspaper. Emerson had evening recreation programs run by the Forrest Eagles and Emerson received support from the Fifth Street Forrest Business community. Emerson had many student teachers from local universities, and had close relationships with the 25th Police District and Councilwoman, Lillian Brino, who represented the City of Philadelphia. Students who scored in the Below Basic level were focused on the academic initiatives in math, reading, and science. After school tutoring was available for all grades from the Cambodian Association, and the Korean Center. Emerson School had two science teachers for increased science instruction, one science teacher taught grades three and four, while the other science teacher taught grades kindergarten to two. A school science fair familiarized students with the scientific method, and was an important part of the science program. Professional development was held on science curriculum, science fair orientation, and integrating science prep classes with the classroom science. In addition, Emerson school had two computer teachers, one teacher for grades one and two, and one teacher for grades three and four .The two computer labs had iMac DV computers and G4 iMacs. The fourth grade students involved in this study also had 4 computers in each of their classrooms, in the same building as the computer club.

59 The diverse nature of this voluntary , after school computer club embodied multiple perspectives and different racial backgrounds. The club consisted of African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and Whites. The perspectives which all of the members of the club brought to solving the science problems were varied, and it was interesting to see the way the students viewed visual learning. Since each society makes a world knowledge that uses its cultural traditions while it documents real systems (Hess, 2001), these diverse students constructed models of the food chain and food web in different ways based on their cultural traditions and their experience.

Student Sample

I studied fourth grade students of Emerson Elementary School in Philadelphia. I created a computer club that consisted of 15 fourth grade students. A total of 15 students were selected by using a random number table. The principal and researcher simultaneously sent introductory letters describing the study to the parents/guardians of all fourth grade students. The parents/guardians who were interested in having their children participate in the study signed and returned the letter from the researcher. The letter from the researcher stated that not all students whose parents/guardians returned the letter were allowed to participate, since participants were selected using a random number table. A student sample was obtained by using a random number table (Snedocor and Cochran in Wiersma, p 272). All students who returned the letter from the researcher signed by their parents/guardians, were given a number, and were selected to participate in this study using a table of random numbers. Twenty-eight students returned the signed letter, only 15 were selected at random. Each of the 28 students were assigned a number from 1 to 28. The first 15 numbers that appeared in the random number table determined the 15 participants. Only those students selected via the random table of numbers were given a letter of invitation to

60 participate in the study after school. These selected students also signed and returned an Assent Form for Children/Minors in a Research Study. The guardians/parents of students who returned their permission form but were not selected were sent a separate letter explaining that their child was not selected. The letter to Parents/Guardians of Students Not Selected also explained the procedure for random selection. The researcher then went over the study in detail with the subjects who were selected and the subjects who were not selected parents. This after school club was completely voluntary. Information was sent out to all fourth grade students regarding the nature of the study. Only those fourth grade students who gave their permission to participate, and whose parents gave permission to participate were considered for the study.

Data Collection

The methods of data collection included Visual Learning Logs, student web pages, videotapes of student informal group interviews, and researcher field notes with participant observation (see table on p 48). Student work was included in the final narrative ethnography to authenticate it and make it richer. Student work was also posted online on the web. The students learned about the food chain and food web by constructing web pages and by making visual models. The Visual Learning Logs documented the daily progress by using the Kid Pix computer software application. Students discussed their progress on their science web pages in their informal group interviews, and these informal group interviews were videotaped. The research questions, methods, and data analysis are shown on the next page.

61

Table 2 - Research Questions, Methods, & Analysis

Research Questions How do students use visual thinking for learning science in a web-based environment?

How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking? How does making links between web pages help students construct Science Knowledge Structures?

Methods Visual learning logs Student web pages Informal group interview Video Field notes Visual learning logs Student web pages Links between web pages

Field notes Informal group interviews Video Field notes Video Student web pages Links between web pages

Analysis Ethnographic narrative Standards-based Rubric Outside observer Standards-based Rubric Online feedback for web pages School web site with science information Ethnographic narrative Video analysis Constant comparison analysis Ethnographic narrative Edited video Science and Technology Standards-based Rubric

Field Notes The narrative, ethnographic research method was used because the study utilized exploratory research (Creswell, 2003), and the final narrative was based on field notes which were open ended, and were an expression of “deepening knowledge …and theoretical insights” (Emerson, Fretz, Shaw, 2001). First field notes were written in a journal, so as to preserve what happened during each day. Then the field notes were reviewed, studied, and reflected upon (Emerson, Fretz, Shaw, 2001). Finally, they were condensed into narrative form. Field notes were used for data collection, partially because of the insight

62 producing quality that reflective writing has. The ethnographer participated in the local activities and then immediately wrote up observations (Emerson, Fretz, Shaw, 2001). When writing and going over field notes one is able to see new connections, or patterns that weren’t obvious before. Field notes can be put together to create a vivid description of context, and can be put together to form a story or narrative. Sometimes ethnographers use original field notes as a “primary data set”, and sometimes ethnographers use the original field notes as a “jumping off” place for more in depth study (Emerson, Fretz, Shaw, 2001). Field notes can empathize with the participants and can let readers become aware of the participants’ feelings. By expressing the participants’ feelings in field notes as a narrative description, a researcher is allowing others to experience a flavor of the culture of the research site and the activities that take place within it. Writing about a given situation can clarify what’s happening in that situation. Sometimes findings expressed in a narrative can be generalized to other educational situations. Later, when incorporating the field notes into the finished narrative, I had to routinely edit them for irrelevant material and to allow for anonymity of the students involved (Emerson, 1995). Rich ethnographic description was an important element of this study. The ethnographer pictured scenes as vivid descriptions, and honestly set these down fully as permanent records of events. A main purpose was to describe people in a social world, thus, many adjectives and adverbs were involved to portray details. Field notes described observations and experiences, while the researcher acted as participant observer, participating in the activities of the voluntary, after school computer club. Field notes described from the point of view of the researcher: 1) physical descriptions of the people involved, and 2) details of the behavior of the people involved. The researcher described the research surroundings spatially, such as the school building and the computer lab. Further, physical appearances, motions, and

63 experiences of the participants were described, as well as processes that occurred in teaching and learning Ethnographic description may create a mini-community, showing interactions and exchanges between participants. In the fourth grade voluntary, after school computer club, the researcher focused on how the students were learning science visually, what their conversation was, what their social interactions were, etc. Field note writing was not a mere passive transcription of events that occur, but in contrast, it was an active method of making meaning and interpreting certain things as important, while downplaying or even omitting others. Moreover, ethnographers carefully choose and emphasize some things, to make field notes from what they remember. Rich ethnographic description included background settings, visual images, events, routines, words, interactions, happenings, sounds, gestures, and body movements.

Role of the researcher - the participant observer.

During this study, the researcher played the role of participant observer. A participant observer participates in local actions, but at the same time she observes and records them. The ethnographer cannot be expected to describe life in exactly the same way that it occurred. Rather the ethnographer remembered and portrayed, in vivid detail, authentic life during the voluntary , after school computer club, and the characteristics and actions of the students and teacher. Three elements in this portrayal were: 1) description of basic setting, 2) description of dialogue between participants, and 3) characterizing the main participants. Outside observers, a fourth grade science teacher, a fourth grade computer teacher, and second science teacher, validated the observations.

64 Description is done best when it is tied together by details that represent a definite point of view or perspective. Therefore, rich ethnographic description was a result of the ethnographer’s interest in visual thinking. Hence, description uncovered and showed the relationships and underlying principles of visual thinking in problem solving. I was born in New York, N.Y. My father was in the Army, and our family often traveled, which allowed us to experience different cultures firsthand. When I was in high school I decided to become an artist, and I attended University of the Arts in Philadelphia and received a bachelor’s degree in art. Since I was the oldest child of five, I liked children. My grandfather was a biology teacher at Amherst College and Woods Hole Marine Biology Lab, and because of him, I always had an interest in science. One summer I attended the Children’s School of Science at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. After working with children for five years as a teaching assistant, I earned a Masters degree in education, and I began teaching emotionally disturbed students in North Philadelphia. Later I taught Art. I became interested in computers as tools, and took many programming and software courses. Then I started teaching computer science in elementary school. I attended the Summer Science Content Institute given by the School District of Philadelphia at University City High School, which was an intense training program for teachers where we learned about and created standards-based science lessons. I made and presented a science lesson where the food chain was presented in a web format. Currently I teach computer science to grades one and two in North Philadelphia in a diverse multicultural area. I am interested in Eastern thought, and the holistic point of view. I like the qualitative ethnographic approach because it can explore the way people think.

65 The seeds of this study came from being an artist and a technology teacher, as well as a visual thinker. While teaching art, I became involved in computer graphics and attended several computer graphics conferences. Here I saw how technology was often used to visually represent scientific data. After studying computer science, I began to teach computer science in elementary school. As part of this process I have often used visual representation and images to help communicate with diverse students who sometimes did not speak English as their first language. I realized that many of the students who were creative and good at visual thinking were not as strong verbally. They could express themselves better through non-linguistic representation than through sequential words. I wondered what could help these students learn more effectively. Later, I attended a summer content institute on elementary school standards-based science, which taught how many students in different populations had misconceptions about basic science concepts, perhaps because they lacked visual models. Many teachers do not use non linguistic representations for problem solving, and so many students may be marginalized.

Visual Learning Logs

A Visual Learning Log was a daily journal in the form of a pictogram or simple line drawing. Each day the students made a simple pictogram to reflect on something that they learned in science. Once a week the club mentor presented a new science concept. During the last ten minutes of the club period, students drew simple pictures on their computers that summarized what they learned that day. They saved these pictures on their computers, and each student’s Visual Learning Log consisted of his/her series of simple drawings saved on the computer.

66 Students were asked to “draw a picture showing what you learned today, and what it means to you.” They did this at the end of the period. When the students looked at the learning log it reminded them of what they learned in club that day. The Visual Learning Logs helped students to express responses to lessons that could not otherwise be described with writing. Since they did not depend on text, or scientific terminology, the Visual Learning Logs gave students a way of recording their ideas at the beginning of the unit. In addition, since Visual Learning Logs did not depend upon a science vocabulary, they could be done at any point in a lesson (Klemm, Iding, 1997). Logs sometimes included words.

This is an herbivore, and it’s eating grass.

Figure 2 - Visual Learning Log - Herbivore

67 A teacher may look at the Visual Learning Logs as concrete representations of science knowledge in the students’ minds (Marsano, R. , Pickering, D., Pollock, J. (2001). The teacher and the outside observers analyzed the learning logs to see if understanding of science concepts was coming through, and what concepts must be explored further. From looking at the above learning log page, the teacher and outside observers concluded that this student is familiar with the term, herbivore, and that the student demonstrated the concept that an herbivore eats plants, since the mule deer is shown with grass in its mouth. It was unclear if this student realized that plants use the energy of the sun to make their own food, although this idea was discussed in computer club, because there was no representation of the sun on this learning log page. The learning log entry above partially described the deer in that the deer had horns, showing that it was a male. However, the markings on the deer were not shown, so it could be one of many types of species. We were not able to see where the grass got its energy, or what animal got energy from the deer (maybe a mountain lion). Similarly, the grass in the learning log appeared to be generic grass: we were not able to see many details, except that it was seed bearing. We also could not know whether the student realized that there were many other animals that also eat plants, because only one animal was portrayed. (This information was later be provided by the hyperlinks that connected the student web pages to each other , and then the students’ performance was rated with the Standards-Based Rubric). During this study, the voluntary, after school club met twice a week. Each student had a visual learning log folder on his/her workstation. Once a week we stopped club twenty minutes early, so that students could open their Visual Learning Logs and draw a pictogram or free form drawing describing the day’s learning or activity, or their feelings on what they did or learned (Klemm, Iding, 1997). They saved this by date. The application that was used for the Visual Learning Logs was Kid Pix by Broderbund. Kid Pix was a visual medium for the students to use to record

68 their Learning Logs (Klemm,E., Iding, M., 1997). This was a graphic computer software program that the students were already familiar with, and it allowed original drawing as well as pre-made stamps, which could be moved around like symbols .The Learning Log application, Kid Pix, was chosen because it was a very visual program and had drawing tools as well as built in stamps to represent common objects. It also had text, so students could label their drawings. I was able to go to a teachers’ station and collect all the work from all the students’ computers onto my desktop electronically, since we had a local area network with file sharing, and we had Network Assistant. Students used their learning logs in a reflective manner as a review of each science lesson, and to help them think back on what they learned. Sharing the learning logs with other students helped clarify misunderstandings, facilitate communication, and stimulate new ideas. In Klemm & Iding’s study, Exploring the Use of Visual Learning Logs in an Elementary Science Methods Class, preservice elementary science teachers submitted a visual learning log each week throughout a semester in conjunction with a written journal entry, however, future research is needed on the use of Visual Learning Logs in elementary science classes (Klemm,Iding, 1997).

Student Web Pages

Technology gives the opportunity to influence problem solving and reflection, and it gives students a chance to clarify their misconceptions of knowledge (Parker, 1999) The web environment allowed for the benefit of a “permanent accumulation of student work in personal portfolios“ (Bonk, 1999). By constructing web pages on the food chain, students reflected, made models, and problem-solved. Students had the chance to search the internet for visual resources to use on their pages, and the web

69 environment allowed students to seek and retrieve information, and then decide which information was relevant to their food chain model (Schacter, 1997). They drew parts of the food chain and labeled them in the Kid Pix program. Then they brought these resources into the Claris Home Page to use on their original web pages. Presentation of information in a computer-mediated environment can influence student achievement (Jannasch-Pennell, DiGangi, Yu, Andrews, Babb, 1999). Hypertext or hyperlinks allowed students to combine linear information with self-exploration. Some experts think that memory is organized more like hyperlinks, with its associations between ideas and concepts (Jannasch-Pennell, DiGangi, Yu, Andrews, Babb, 1999). In addition , using linked documents or linked pages may help learning and understanding by emphasizing the relationships between ideas and concepts (Jonassen, 1999). Saving the web pages in various stages of completion allowed students’ progress to be seen, thereby documenting the process involved in constructing the pages. Since the discovery based learning was process oriented, showing the construction of the science web pages was important. The web pages were often very visual, and visual data collection methods were used. Students had web page folders on their workstations. Each week the students saved a new version of their web page named by date in the web page folder. Saving the students’ web pages allowed the observer to actually see the progression in the students’ thinking. The different versions of the web pages in a sequential order provided simultaneous viewing of all steps (Harper, 1994). Students’ web pages later may serve as examples for other teachers and students. The finished web pages were rated by a Standards-Based Rubric, that rated each web page according to whether eight Science and Technology Standards were addressed(see Appendix for assessment rubric).

70

Assessment

The student web pages were assessed by a Standards-based rubric that addressed eight current Science and Technology Standards and Benchmarks. Included below are the relevant science and technology standards for grade four:

Grade 4 –Science and technology standards:

1.Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings 2.Identifies the basic needs of organisms 3.Draws and labels a food chain 4.Draws diagrams, and incorporates into written reports 5.Uses on-line services to get current information about scientific topics 6.Constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs and maps 7.Used technology to gather, record, store, and present data 8.Downloads data and used it in scientific presentation

The Standards-Based Rubric used the numbers, “1”, “2”, “3”, and “4” to evaluate the student web pages. The “1”, “2”, “3”, and “4” in the assessment stood for Below Basic, Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. The outside observers helped score the student web pages with the Standards-Based Rubric. The students were told at the beginning of the study that this is how they would be evaluated. The visual learning logs were part of an electronic portfolio evaluation in which students’ work was assessed according to a simple checklist . In addition, students did oral presentations on their food chain web pages. Furthermore, students

71 were asked to draw and label a food chain in Inspiration concept mapping software both before the start of the study, and at the end of the study; then before and after concept maps were compared. In the Informal Group Interviews, groups of students were asked to discuss what would happen if one link in the food chain no longer existed . What effect would that have had on the other organisms or other habitats? The food chain / food web website was assessed on line by visitors to the site with an e-mail survey form, and the students’ web pages were assessed with the Standards-Based Rubric shown on the next page.

72

Science and Technology Standards-Based Assessment Rubric - Grade 4 1

2

3

4

1. demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings

__

__

__

__

2. identifies the basic needs of organisms

__

__

__

__

3. draws and labels a food chain

__

__

__

__

4. draws diagrams, and incorporates into written report

__

__

__

__

__

__

__

5. uses on-line services to get current __ information about scientific topics 6. constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs and maps

__

__

__

__

7. uses technology to gather, record, store, and present data

__

__

__

__

8. downloads data and uses it in scientific presentation

__

__

__

__

1 = Below Basic , 2 = Basic , 3 = Proficient , 4 = Advanced

1. Below Basic - student completes less than half of the task, or does not complete any of the task satisfactorily. 2. Basic – student completes half, or more than half of the task satisfactorily. 3. Proficient - student completes the whole task satisfactorily. 4. Advanced - student does an exceptional job completing the whole task, and / or does extra work.

73 Figure 3 – Science and Technology Standards-Based Rubric

Videotaped Informal Group Interviews

Since ethnography may have an emphasis on a “detailed analysis of spoken action” (Atkinson, Hammersley, 1994), the study recorded spoken action of students in informal group interviews and analyzed these words in context of learning and visual thinking. It was important for students to talk about the process of their learning (Roth, 1996). Using the Visual Learning Logs and student web pages as stimulus for discussion, students discussed what they understood about the food chain and food web, and what more they needed to know about it before they could make accurate science web pages (Kolodner, Puntambekar, 1998). Students were given the verbal prompts to reveal understanding of the food chain and their models of it (Kolodner, Puntambekar, 1998). Some verbal prompts for the student informal group interviews were:

1.“Tell about the problem in your own words.” 2.“What do you need to know to understand the problem better?” 3.“What is interesting about your web page or log?”

(Kolodner, Puntambekar, p 234, Table 2 - prompts from version 2 and 3 design diaries, 1998).

“Culture is not merely the sum total of what we inherit from our parents and social groups; it is what we create with others in the context of our lives, with or without various technologies” (Goldman-Segall, 1998, p. 11). The videotapes of the student informal group interviews documented what students created with others.

74 They recorded students’ attitudes on visual learning, and also helped to create a club ”culture.” At the base of interviewing is an interest to understand the experiences of other people and the meaning they make of the experience. Interviewing gives access to the context of human behavior and shows a means to understand the behavior’s meaning Seidman, 1998) During interaction with other students, students learned new strategies and ways of thinking about problems (Jannasch-Pennell, DiGangi, Yu, Andrews, Babb, 1999). In order to uncover exploratory processes used in problem solving, students were interviewed about their problem solving experiences (Voss, Tyler, Yengo, 1983). The student informal group interviews allowed for students to reflect on problem solving, visual learning, and web page construction. Video was used because it could be looked at later by both researcher and participants, it could be transcribed, plus it offered rich visual contextual cues. Often many of the students got shy and did not say anything, so a group interview was less inhibiting. Also, hearing what their peers said motivated some students to think. There was one informal group interview at the beginning, and one at the end of the study. Elliot Eisner said, “the implications of exploring…new forms of representation for the conduct and display of educational research are profound”( Eisner, p 92,1988).It seems that traditional text based research may need to be challenged. Using video for this study may help more educational researchers to do visual ethnographies in the future, and for the nature of educational studies to become more visual. Using video may also change the nature of what is accepted in educational research.

75 The researcher was the only person who had access to the videotapes. The videotapes were only used for data collection, they were not used for teaching or demonstration. Parents/Guardians’ permission for their child to participate in the videotaped informal group interviews was obtained in Procedures and Duration of the Permission to Take Part In a Research Study. Students’ assent to participate in the videotaped informal group interviews was obtained in paragraph 1 of the Assent Form For Children/Minors In A Research Study. The videotapes were stored in a locked file cabinet off site. Videotapes will be stored for 7 years after the participant reaches the age of 18. Since the youngest participant was 9, videotapes will be stored for 16 years until January , 2020, when they will be shredded.

Data recording .

In these recorded informal group interviews, students were encouraged to show and describe their work, and talk about what they constructed as well as how they felt about learning visually. I edited the video using suggestions from the students to try to demonstrate how visual thinking influences learning. Descriptions let readers or viewers see what educational phenomena consist of (Eisner, 1988). The edited video showed what the visual learning process is like, both for students and teacher. “A good teacher makes an art form out of something that is already an art form.”(Goldman-Segall, 1998, p.68).

Data Analysis

76 Data analysis involved watching and re-watching the video of the student interviews, and searching for patterns and regularities (Wolcott, 1994b). After creating categories that expressed the patterns, the video was edited and a new video was created that focused on emerging patterns (Goldman-Segall, 1999). In addition, the field notes were read and reread, and used as support for the categories taken from the video. Then a narrative was written based on categories, which described the process of visual learning. Further, the outstanding web pages and Visual Learning Logs were used as illustrations to support the narrative. Then the constant comparison method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) was used to analyze that data collected from the video. Although originally created for grounded theory, the steps in the constant comparison method were altered for use here (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This alteration involved substituting the word “narrative” for the word “theory”. Therefore the steps for the data analysis in this study involved:

1.Comparing incidents applicable to each category 2.Integrating categories and their properties 3.Delimiting the “narrative” 4.Writing the narrative

The narrative described, analyzed, and interpreted the group of students as a whole, and described the research site, the school, and its neighborhood, to give background context to the study (Wolcott, 1990). The narrative involved detailed description from the field notes (Geertz, 1966), and focused on visual learning. This process involved looking at the students in action, and showed different perspectives through the views of the students. The patterns and regularities discovered in the video were included in the narrative.

77 Initial observation began with the video. Then the constant comparison method created categories that emerged from the video (see Appendix). In addition, inductive analysis allowed the categories to emerge while watching the video, rather than imposing the categories on the data before it was collected and analyzed (Patton, 1990). Further, while the researcher was viewing the video, it was time coded and notes were made which told what was happening at each point corresponding to the tape’s time code. This time coding resulted in numerical lists of times (day, hour, minute, second) with their corresponding subject matter, quote, and/or image. Further, time coding the video listed the quality of the image and sound at each point. These time coded lists made it easy to find video segments later. Since making categories is an important part in data analysis, these time coded video lists had a fourth column for category. Categories may be created by intuition, previous knowledge, inference, research questions, imagination, or theoretical issues (Dey, 1993). After some rough categories were created, it was necessary to make rules that described each category’s properties (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Each category’s meaning evolved during analysis, and flexibility was necessary to allow new observations and aspects to emerge (Dey, 1993). Accordingly, a list was made of all current categories, and their characteristics. From this list of categories, several overall main themes emerged. Next, the field notes were used as supportive data for main themes. Field notes were read and reread to find passages that support the themes. These main themes were color coded in the field note margins. At this point, a rough narrative was written around the main themes. If there were too many categories, some categories were combined to make sub categories (Schatz, Rosenberg, & Coleman, 2000). Content

78 analysis was used to analyze the video and to code the primary data patterns (Patton, 1990). The students’ food chain web pages were used as examples to support the patterns that emerge during the narrative, and the students’ Visual Learning Logs were collected electronically, searched, and sorted according to the categories. The students’ science web pages were posted on the web along with the corresponding science standards for grade 4. Web pages were assessed according to a Standards-Based Rubric that measured whether fourth grade science and technology standards and benchmarks had been addressed.

Triangulation Triangulation is one of the critical criteria in socially constructed research (Patton, 2002, p 544). Triangulation of data was used because of the different data sources : the outside observers, the field notes, participant observation, the learning logs, the video, and the student web pages. Purposive sampling determined which Visual Learning Logs and web pages were included in the final narrative. The outside observers came into the research setting, the computer lab, two times during the study to give feedback and an alternate point of view. The researcher also showed the outside observers hard copy of the visual learning log entries, and the student web pages. The outside observers were Mrs. Joann James, the science teacher for grade four, Ms.Latrice Williams, the computer teacher for grade four, and Mr.Victor Levin , a second science teacher. Mrs. James had been teaching science to grades three and four for several years. She was also the Philadelphia Federation of Teachers union representative for Emerson School, and she had attended science inservice training for the School District of Philadelphia. Mrs. James also ran an extensive school wide science fair

79 each year. She looked at the visual learning log entries, and examined them to see if they demonstrated knowledge of the science concepts that were covered. She made suggestions if she felt that certain science standards were not being addressed, or she made suggestions on things to include in the Visual Learning Logs. Also during the problem solving and web page construction portion of the study, Mrs. James looked at the progress of the web pages step by step in printed versions, and decided if they demonstrated the interdependence of living things. She also offered suggestions on how to proceed with the web pages to maximize the use of food chain information in a web site presentation. The outside observers compared the food chain concept maps made before the start of the study to the food chain concept maps made at the end of the study, and they discussed what progress they observed in the participants. They offered teaching suggestions for various science concepts (see “Grade 4 Science” chart in appendix for science concepts and terms). The multiple perspectives of diverse students were recorded through the digital video of informal group interviews throughout the study. This ensured perspectives other than those of the researcher and outside observer. I clarified my bias as a researcher from the beginning (Merrian, 1988). I commented on my past experiences as an artist, and my other points of view that probably shaped this study. The readers are allowed to make their own decisions concerning transferability, because I described in detail the students and research setting (Erlandson et al., 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988). Readers may determine whether these findings can be transferred “because of shared characteristics”(Erlandson et al., 1993, p.32)

Trustworthiness

80 I have worked in this setting for six years, and I knew most of the students in this after school club when they were younger. “Roles and relationships…emerge in the field” (Marshall, Rossman, p 87). We had time over the years to have our relationships develop. The other staff members and the principal already trusted me. Many students got used to the presence of the video camera recording question and answer sessions during other school activities. I developed relationships already with the Cambodian, Korean, and Chinese interpreters, who were instrumental in facilitating the acceptance of the permission from parents.

Political and Ethical Issues This study did not harm the students involved. Students who did not wish to participate or whose parents did not wish them to participate , were not members of this voluntary, after school, computer club. Legal permission forms were sent home to all fourth grade students’ parents before the start of the study. Those who did not return the permission form did not participate in the voluntary, after school computer club . The results of the study were reported without using any of the students’ names, so their identities remain unknown. The study was not intrusive, because I had already worked at the research site for several years, and most of the things that

81 happened in the study were normal, daily activities for the students in the computer lab. The site was chosen because I was able to gain access since I worked there. The principal of the school wrote her letter of support and permission to conduct the study. A separate permission form for the video did not have to be signed by students’ parents. Legal permission was obtained for each student participating in the video. Data was coded so students’ names were kept in another location. The permission was secured before the study began. The video recording did not harm students, because it did not list or mention their names, and it did not list the name or location of the research site. The anonymous video of the students will be kept until all students are eighteen years of age plus seven years, because the students were minors. All paper data was coded with numbers (instead of names) during the data analysis. Original student names were kept locked, off site, during the study. Later, at the end of the study, original student names were shredded, after corresponding numbers were given to each name. Further, at the end of the study, all paper data (field notes, number keys, assessment rubrics, and printouts of web pages and visual learning logs) were shredded . In addition, all digital information on all the hard drives of the computers in the lab were erased at the end of the study. As noted above, at the end of 25 years the anonymous video contained on disks and tape will be erased and burned. When writing the findings of the study, pseudonyms were substituted for the numbers, to preserve the narrative quality. When incorporating the field notes into the finished narrative, I routinely edited them for irrelevant material and for anonymity of the students involved (Emerson, 1995).

82 The students gained by participating in constructing the web pages and learning science by visual methods. The principal, parents, and school gained because the students were involved in constructivist learning activities. I depended on my own integrity as a researcher to keep the students protected. Since the study occurred after school hours, and was completely voluntary, it did not involve any risks to the students. Since none of these students were, or will be in my class, there was no possibility of coercion.

83

Chapter 4 - Results

As presented in Chapter 1, the study documented here recounts point by point how students used visual thinking to learn science in a constructivist web-based environment. The chapter is organized in terms of the three research questions: 1) How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge?, 2) How does making links between web pages help students construct science knowledge structures?, and 3) What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking? The first section focuses on how making visual representations helped students elaborate on science knowledge; the second section describes how making links between pages helped students construct Science Knowledge Structures; and the third section includes what students themselves said about problem solving using visual thinking. Site Setting

The study took place at Emerson Elementary School, a large urban elementary school for grades K to 4, located in North Philadelphia. The study lasted for ten sessions, between November 2003 and January 2004. The study took place in the primary computer lab after school. The names of all individuals participating in this study have been changed; pseudonyms have been used to protect their anonymity. Likewise, the name of the school has also been changed.

84 The neighborhood around Emerson School has row homes with small front yards and alleys in back. Some yards have grass and trees ; some yards do not. There is a park nearby called Fischer Park, maintained by the Fairmount Park Commission. People have to enter the school on the 5th Street Side. Often there is trash around the front of the school, and in the schoolyard, it is all cement with no grass . Old chicken bones can sometimes be seen on the front steps of the school. The front doors of the school are heavy and hard to open. Sometimes a few students stand around the doors and open them for teachers. When you enter the school you see a mural of about eight life - sized people of different races and nationalities, and a sign that says, “We respect the culture in all people. We respect the culture in you.” This mural looks like it might be 15 years old. There is also a sign in Cambodian that says, “Welcome”. “When you enter the school you feel a cloud of gloom coming around you,” said Ms. Williams , a computer teacher, a young African American woman. When it rains, someone always puts large pieces of cardboard boxes on the floor in the front hall, to prevent people from slipping. Immediately to the left in front is the office. One of the office secretaries is very stern, an older white woman with short, platinum hair, who recently was out because she had a massive heart attack . To the right in the office is a tired looking bulletin board with messages translated into many languages. The school was built in 1913, and it looks like it has not been painted inside for at least twenty-five years. Plaster is peeling, cracking, and dropping off. Art pictures from magazines are scotch taped over some of the school walls and doors by one of the art teachers. When she retired, the pictures were left there. The hallway floors are dirty and have white marks

85 on them from salt and snow. The teachers’ union has a grievance against the custodial staff because of the ”conditions of filth” in the building. The principal of the school, Dr. Sandler, likes to be positive. She has a doctorate from University of Pennsylvania. There is a large banner in the front hall that states that Emerson School made yearly progress on the Terra Nova Test . Dr. Sandler concentrates on reading, and also on special music programs, “Music Makes Me Move,” that Emerson School has as a result of receiving a $75,000 grant from CVS Pharmacy. She purchased the 20 computers in the computer club lab with school funds, when the previous computer teacher was unwilling to share the 31 computers purchased by the school district. The assistant principal, Mr.DiPatri , who is retiring this year, tries to be fair. He tries to help teachers out and let them leave early if they have to go to the doctor or dentist. He tries to be fair in mediating fights between the students, which is one of his main jobs, and there are usually many fights daily. He put Valentine’s candy in all teachers’ mailboxes with his daughter’s real estate card enclosed. At Christmas he gives everyone a holiday card. Also, at Christmas time Emerson School gives out turkeys, pies, bread, boxes of canned food, and toys to needy families of students. When a brother of one of the students was killed, a book was put in the Emerson School Library in memory of him. Dr. Sandler and Mr. DiPatri have scheduled two hours a day in the computer club lab to be used for a remedial reading program called Fast Forword, later adopted by the rest of the School District. Everyday students say the Pledge of Allegiance and The Emerson School Promise, which states, “ I believe that it is wrong to hurt people and it is wrong to judge people by their appearance, beliefs, color, religion, handicap, or because they

86 are different from me. I promise to resist violence and find better ways to handle conflicts without hurting others. As a peacekeeper, I promise to be kind, helpful, and considerate to everyone.” Students all signed this pledge last year by putting their handprints in paint on the wall near the lunchroom. Students also have a lunchroom pledge. The computer labs are on the second floor in the main building. The primary computer lab, where the computer club was held, has the newer computers, dark blue Apple iMac DV’s, but there are only twenty one computers in this lab. This lab is used for grades k to 2, and Fast Forword. “Our Computer Room Rules” posters say, “ No food or drink. Stay in your seat. Raise your hand to speak. Be kind to others. Do not hit the keyboard. Do not hit the mouse. Do not put anything in the CD drive. Do not push the lit up button.” Posters around the lab show students of various races, and say “Smiles are Contagious,” “Together we can create a masterpiece,” “Pull together,” We are the Future” , ”Parts of a Computer ”,”Care of Computers.” The lab next door, which is used for the older students, has thirty one older iMac computers, with less memory and slower processors . All the computers have internet access, which is not used often because to use it each student must return a long permission form signed by their parents. If some students return the form and some don’t, then the teachers have to do two lesson plans, one for the internet students and one for the students who did not return their forms. Both computer rooms are dirty. The custodial staff never cleans most of the rooms on the second floor, or anywhere else. Under the computer tables there are a lot of cords and electrical outlets, covered by dust , little pieces of paper, old tissues, and candy wrappers. Occasionally there are mouse droppings on the computer tables.

87 Ms. Williams saw a mouse in her room. Ms. Williams and Mrs. Anderson sometimes ask students to sweep their rooms. The gym teacher makes the students with bad behavior sweep the lunchroom which is also used as a gym, and an auditorium. However, there are no seats, so students have to sit on the floor during an assembly. Another problem in the school is that many things are getting stolen. The custodial staff is constantly changing, and also many workmen are walking around in the building. This year a teacher’s purse was stolen. Her keys were taken out of her purse, and her car was stolen right out of the Emerson Schoolyard. Everybody in the school heard her car alarm go off. Dr. Sandler advised everyone to lock up valuables after that. During the last two years there have been several serious incidents where students have slid on the stair railing, and fallen several flights, and had to go to the hospital. One student broke her arm. Another student was carried out of the school on a stretcher. As a result, no students in the club were allowed to go to the bathroom, unless escorted by an adult. There was no one to escort them, so they were not allowed to go to the bathroom. Also every week there are many false fire alarms. One day after some students left the club, the fire alarm went off. In order to have good discipline, it is often necessary to have a very structured assignment. When allowed more freedom, many students’ behavior deteriorates, and it becomes impossible to teach because behavior gets so bad. There are also many interruptions on the PA system. In addition, students are supposed to wear a school uniform consisting of tan or navy blue pants, skirt or jumper, and light blue shirts. If they do not wear the uniform, nothing happens. Teachers are not allowed to wear jeans (unless they pay $5 to the

88 union rep., and then they can wear jeans one Friday only, to show they supported breast cancer). Emerson school has an enclosed courtyard in the center of the main building. Inside the courtyard are grass, trees, a gazebo and some playground equipment purchased by Dr. Sandler. The school had a Math night and a Literacy night, where parents are encouraged to come in and learn math and literacy games to help their students at home. The turnout for these two events is high. Some teachers dress up like cartoon characters like Minnie Mouse, and we give out free Harry Potter glasses. On the second floor there is one wall that has large cut out colorful raised representations of the planets in the solar system. The whole wall is painted to look like stars in they sky. On the third floor, a visiting artist is commissioned to work with older students to create a tile mural called , “Philadelphia Through the Ages.” On the first floor, the students of the month routinely have their pictures taken and posted in the hall, along with a paragraph that describes their exemplary behavior. Accordingly, visual representations are used routinely throughout the school, but no one has examined how making visual representations may help students elaborate on knowledge. How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? Visual Learning Logs Making visual representations helped students clarify, and explain science concepts. As shown in Figure 1, students made pictures their Visual Learning Logs to develop and/or simplify the eight science concepts listed below: producer, consumer, decomposer, interdependency of living things, ecosystem, food chain , basic needs of

89 organisms , and groups of living things. Each concept is described in terms of the students’ representations.

Figure 4 – Mike’s Visual Learning Log - Groups of Living Things, Mammals

Producer A producer is an animal or plant that produces food or is used for food. In her learning log Judy made a picture of a swan laying five eggs, demonstrating her understanding of this science concept. Likewise Janet made a picture of a crab as a “producer” because people use crabs as food. Mike showed that he understood what a

90 “producer” was by making a picture of a fish in his Visual Learning Log, since fish are used as food. All students demonstrated a preference for using the KidPix stamps as symbols, although Judy used the circle tool to draw the swan’s eggs. All of these students chose to write the word “Producer” in their log next to the picture, although this was not required.

Consumer

Students were told that a consumer is an animal or plant that eats or uses other plants and/or animals to satisfy its own needs. Marquis explained consumer in his Visual Learning Log by making a picture of a large lion lying down with a big pile of human skulls in front of its crossed forepaws . The element of humor was a reappearing theme in Marquis’s work. Marquis used the KidPix stamps to make his picture , with no words. Likewise Russell demonstrated his knowledge of a “consumer” by using the magic eraser ( a Kid Pix tool ) to make a black and white picture of a fox. Over the top he wrote, “Consumer.” Students said that we (people) are consumers.

Decomposer

91 Students were told that a decomposer was any animal or plant that breaks down dead animals or plants into their basic components, or causes them to rot. Students were shown a picture of mold on a sandwich as an example of a decomposer. One student suggested that a corpse was a decomposer. Other students liked the concept of “decomposer” because they thought that dead and rotting animals and plants were funny. In his learning log, Marquis had created a picture of 2 people skating on ice. Below the ice are four dead whales and dolphins. The whales and dolphins are upside down to show that they’re dead and rotting. Red splotches of blood are on the side of the black and white whale. Russell’s Visual Learning Log also showed understanding of the concept, “decomposer,” as well. Russell had made a picture of a large whale. All around the dead whale were concentric rings of many , many smaller organisms, showing that the whale was being broken down by these smaller organisms. Although the types of smaller organisms that Russell used (grasshoppers, moths, bees, and spiders) would not be in water, and might not break down a dead whale, Russell still understood the basic underlying concept of “ decomposer.” Tom had a picture of a haunted house and gravestones in his learning log for “decomposer.” When asked why he drew that, Tom said,” because there are dead bodies inside the house decomposing.” All students again preferred to use the pre-made KidPix stamps rather than drawing. One student included the word “decomposers” in his log.

Interdependency of Living Things

92 The whole unit of the food chain continually reinforced the mutual dependence of living things. Blanca showed the concept that living things depend on each other in her log by making a picture of two rabbits outside sitting in a garden of carrots, grass, and leaves, showing that the rabbits are dependent on plants for their food. Blanca also depicted the sun shining in the sky to show that plants get energy from the sun. Likewise Ahmad simplified the idea of interdependence by creating a large frog sitting on a lily pad looking at some insects. Ahmad’s log showed that he knew that the frog was dependent of insects for food. Also, a fish was jumping out of the water with its mouth open ready to eat one of the insects, showing that the fish also was dependent upon the insects. Again, Wilfredo developed the concept of interdependency of living things by showing a forest of pine trees on fire, and a bobcat and snake coming out of the forest as a result of the fire. This showed Wilfredo’s understanding that bobcats and snakes were dependent on trees or forests (plants) as their habitat. If their ecosystem were destroyed, these animals would have no place to live . Wilfredo’s log also showed that a bobcat could be dependent on a snake for food.

Ecosystem – (habitat, environment, or ecological community)

Students developed their visual concepts of “habitat” in various ways in their logs. For example, Marquis’s log showed a desert habitat that included sun, clouds, three large cacti , a small flowering cactus and a rattlesnake. Alberto chose to illustrate the habitat of his animal the Red -Tailed Hawk. Alberto used one of the paint brush options in KidPix to create a series of tall hills. Then he wrote, “The Red

93 Tail Hawk lives on really high cliffs of mountains.” He said he found that information on the internet . Shanice used another paint brush option to draw a series of pine trees of various sizes. Under the trees she put a picture of a squirrel to demonstrate knowledge of a forest environment. In Russell’s log he represented a different kind of forest community. He drew one large tree, and used a stamp for another tree shape. He used the sun as the source of light energy for the plants. On the big tree he had a large owl. On the small tree he had a small wren. Flying next to the trees was a bluebird. Under the trees were four children of various races, one of whom had her hand up to her ear to try to hear the owl’s sound. (Russell had been concerned that he was unable to download the owl’s sound from the internet). Judy, who concentrated on plants rather than animals, used stamps of a water lily to create what she labeled as, “a pond community .” One student, Ahmad showed a misconception of the idea of a sea habitat. Ahmad had drawn a blue ocean. He wrote, “ habitat in the sea.” In the sea he included nine frogs, four goldfish, and six cattail plants, which cannot survive in salt water. He also correctly included four angelfish, one octopus, four seahorses, and four bass. Also confused about the habitat of frogs, Shanequa drew an ocean ecosystem that correctly contained rain clouds, pelican, seagull, seahorse, and incorrectly contained water lilies, lilypads, and frogs. Hence, some students made no distinction between fresh and saltwater organisms. Another student, Jala, made a tropical habitat of nine palm trees, and then put a rabbit under them, and a bird that looked like a vulture flying overhead.

Food Chain

94 Although the concept of food chain was constantly reinforced throughout this unit, especially by linking the web pages, two students illustrated the food chain directly in their Visual Learning Logs. For example, in his log, Mike had a picture of a raccoon. Mike had used the line tool to draw a line from the raccoon to a picture of a snake below the raccoon. Above the raccoon he had a frog. Again, there was a straight line coming out of the raccoon that went to the frog. Accordingly, Mike’s log showed a food chain where raccoons are connected to frogs and snakes, because raccoons eat frogs and snakes. Likewise, Wilfredo also illustrated a food chain in his log. Wilfredo’s drawing had a wolf at the bottom. A straight line connected the wolf to a cat (showing that the wolf might eat the cat). Then above the cat, Wilfredo put a snake with a straight line going to the cat (because cats may eat snakes). Another student, Anna, made a beautiful detailed elaborate drawing of a food chain that included many animals and plants. However, Anna was only able to attend one club session, and then had to drop out.

Basic Needs of Organisms

Students were asked to explain the concept of basic needs of organisms in one of two ways in their Visual Learning Logs: they could either illustrate many needs of plants and animals, or they could chose only one basic need represent it. Three students illustrated more than one basic need of organisms. First, John included five basic needs in his log. John drew some clouds and wrote, “air.” He drew the sun, and wrote, “light.” Below these he had a stamp picture of an ice cream cone, with the

95 word, “food” next to it, a large light blue circle that said, “water,” and a stamp picture of a sun setting over some hills with the words, “the right temperature” written underneath. The title John wrote for his log page was , “Plants and animals need.” A second student, Shanequa, had made an incomplete list of basic needs of organisms in her log. Shanequa’s drawing contained a vertical list with the numbers one to five. Next to one, Shanequa had a picture of a small dark blue circle, and she had written, “W-a-t-e-r” in italics next to it. For number two Shanequa drew a picture of a person’s arm and wrote, “S-t-r-e-n-t-h” beside it. Number three was blank except for some pictures that looked like confetti and the word, “S-u-n-l-i-g-h-t.” Number four had a picture of an eye, and the word, “R-e-s-t.” It looked like Shanequa didn’t get finished her log, or else she did not include or know all the basic needs of organisms. In addition, “rest” and “strength” were not needs of organisms given during club. The third student, Jala, drew several blue bars one on top of another, and then a blue circular shape. Coming out of the round shape , Jala had placed a rose stamp. Jala’s log stated, “plants need water, and sun.” In contrast, Marquis chose one basic need of organisms for his log : food. In Marquis’s log we see a desert scene with red colored rock formations and a large two-armed cactus. A rattlesnake sits on top of one of the rocks. In the foreground is a large steer. A cowboy stands next to the steer wearing a bandana across the bottom of his face. The cowboy holds a canteen in his left hand and a branding iron that says, “M” in his right hand next to the steer. To the left of the cowboy a pig roasts upside down on a spit, with a fire underneath. Marquis’s picture showed that living things need food: the cowboy needs the pig and the steer for food.

96 Likewise Blanca’s log showed the basic need of food, as well. Blanca portrayed two white rabbits with a row of four carrots between them. Russell, also, showed organisms’ need for food in his Visual Learning Log. Russell’s log has a large owl to the right. Then to the left, much smaller, is a horizontal row of animals that owls eat for food, including a bird, a frog, a mouse and a squirrel. Judy’s log concentrated on the needs of plants like Jala’s, but Judy’s log had no words. Judy’s log illustrated the need of water. She drew a row of daffodils and roses with two clouds above them and many drops of rain coming down from the clouds.

Groups of Living Things

Students interpreted the idea that living things can be sorted into groups according to the animal or plant they each had chosen. During this club session, we talked about animals with backbones, and animals without backbones, as well as mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects , and fish. Most students thought insects have backbones. Students also thought spiders also have backbones. In addition, we went over plants with seeds and plants without seeds. Judy who had chosen the broadleaf plant, wrote, “My plant has no backbone. It makes more seeds so it can have more plants.” She drew a picture of cattail plants. Judy did not realize that only animals are classified in terms of having or not having a backbone . Since club time was short, we were not able to cover these topics in as much depth as I would have liked. Nevertheless, she did understand the importance of plants reproducing by seeds. Over these sentences Judy had made a picture of three cattail plants coming out of some water.

97 In contrast, Mike had used only pictures in his log to describe how animals may be sorted into groups. Mike’s log (Figure 1) had stamp pictures of a rabbit, a kangaroo rat, a small deer, a gopher, a squirrel, a tiger, and a prairie dog to show a group of mammals, because when we talked about it in club, we mentioned that mammals have fur and live babies. By mistake Mike had also included a bird in his mammal group. However, Even though he made one error, from his log it would appear that Mike basically understood the concept of the group of animals, mammals. For Mike, and the other club students as well, the visual computer application, Kid Pix, served as a tool to easily represent the above science concepts. In addition, most students used the built-in Kid Pix stamps as symbols for portraying the concepts. For example, all students took advantage of the animal stamps as symbols for animals. Many also used stamps of plants or other objects. In addition, some students used text and/or humor to reinforce their log pictures. For example, Marquis’ Visual Learning Log entries were often humorous, as described in Marquis’ log entry, “ Food – needs of organisms”. In contrast, John and Judy each used text to supplement their Learning Log pictures. Each Visual Learning Log was unique, and reflected the experience and personality of each student. This uniqueness of each Visual Learning Log showed the individuality of each student and his/her learning style. Learning has been shown to be more meaningful when students have ownership and voice in the learning process, as they did when they chose their main animal or plant, and created their own visual responses to the science concepts in their Learning Logs.

98 In addition, almost all the students made picture graphs in their logs showing what their animal or plant eats. (If they chose a plant , then they graphed where the plant gets energy). Standard 6 on the Rubric assesses whether students can “construct and interpret data from graphs.” The Visual Learning Log format was convenient, as well, because students could look back and review all the science concepts covered. Students could also look back on their Visual Learning Logs when they were making their web pages, and all students were able to export their pictures, and to use them later in their web pages. Students could have also used their Log entries as illustrations for reports or slide shows. By making the Visual Learning Logs, students were completing one of the four problem solving steps, simplifying information. In addition, when students exported selected Log entries and combined them with other information, students completed another problem solving step, organizing information. Thus making the Visual Learning Logs helped students begin to lay a foundation for problem solving, by simplifying information and later by organizing information ( see Table 1Problem Solving). Students had to think about and decide what part of the concept was important when they represented the concept in their Logs. Then, by selecting Log entries and combining them with text, and web photos, students were able to organize information around their main animal. When an observer looks at students’ Visual Learning Logs, it is obvious that making visual representations helped students develop understanding of science knowledge, and simplify information. Although there were a few misconceptions

99 included in the logs, for the main part the basic science concepts in the Logs were portrayed accurately by the students and created a foundation for problem solving.

How does making links between web pages help students construct Science Knowledge Structures ?Student Web Pages & Field Notes Making links between web pages helped students make Science Knowledge Structures. Most students made five webpages on a chosen animal or plant, and then made links between their pages , and links to other students’ pages, thus creating Science Knowledge Structures. Most students’ linked Science Structures followed the format in the figure below, although there were individual differences:

What I already know about the animal

Habits: what the animal does

Main Animal Page

Food: what the animal eats

Habitat: where the animal lives

100

Figure 5 - Science Structure Format

Besides the above links, most students also linked their science structure to one or more other students’ structures. To begin learning about links, each student received a visual handout of a four-circle concept map to fill in. On this concept map, students were asked to draw their chosen animal or plant in the center circle. The central circle had three circles around it. In the first surrounding circle students drew where their animal lives (habitat). In the second circle students drew what their animal does (habits), and in the third circle, students drew what they already knew about their animal. The surrounding circles were all connected to the main circle by lines, signifying links. The students seemed to understand that the lines on the concept map stood for links between pages. In addition, there was a large poster in the front of the room that showed the finished concept map for a whale. The correspondence between the circles on the concept map and their web pages was pointed out. If the students did not know where their animal lived or what it did, they used AskJeeves.com to look for this information on the internet . Later on, in a second club session, students stood around one computer while I did a demonstration in Claris Home Page on making links. I used Tom’s daddy long legs page as an example, and linked it with his page on daddy long legs habits. Unfortunately, almost every time that I tried to use the active browser, “connect to the internet” option in Claris Home Page, it did not work, or only worked for a minute

101 and then crashed. Therefore, it was hard to know if the students understood what the links would do. Again, on a third club day, I did a link demonstration on the large monitor connected to the teacher’s station. I used four whale pages and linked them together. Some students were out that day, and others did not pay good attention. Many students wanted to get started doing it right away without listening to the directions. They when they started doing it, some of them didn’t know what to do. On a fourth occasion I went to each student’s computer individually and showed each student how to select a word and then link it to another page. At first, students often made the mistake of linking all their key words, “habits, habitat, food, “ etc. to the same page, i.e., the food page. Later, some students corrected this. One problem in making the science structures turned out to be that many students did not have all five pages finished, either because they had been absent from club, started late, or because they hadn’t finished all their work. Alberto did not have all his pages finished, but he was still able to link his hawk page with the toad page, the robin page, the raccoon page, the snake page, and the squirrel page. Table 3 shows the steps used to make and link the pages.

Table 3 - Page Making and Linking Sequence

1. Chose plant or animal, & and drew it in middle of concept map 2. Made the main animal/plant page in Claris Home Page, and saved it 3. Filled in “What I already know about the animal/plant,” on concept map

102 4. Made the “What I already know about the animal/plant” page, and saved it 5. Looked for information on the internet (about habits and habitat of animal/plant) 6. Filled in the remaining concept map circles with the internet information 7. Made pages for all concept map circles, using internet information 8. Link Demonstration - helped students link their animal/plant page to another page 9. Each student linked all his/her pages together 10.Connected all students’ Science Structures, (according to what the animal eats) 11.Informal Group Problem Solving, using linked Science Structures

The Individual Science Structures of Six Students

This section will examine the linked web pages (Science Knowledge Structures) of six students. I chose five of these students because their Science Knowledge Structures differed from the model structure shown in Figure 5, and I chose the other student because her Science Structure was similar to the model structure. In addition, Field Notes will be used to comment on each student, to provide context. Further, context is important when considering the students’ linked science structures, because each structure was unique, and may provide insights into the way the students think, make connections, and process information. Judy. Judy was a quiet half Vietnamese and half Cambodian girl with long dark hair. I had her brother Michael in my computer class two years ago. He had also been

103 quiet. Judy’s parents did not speak English, although she had a sister who was able to translate to her parents. Judy was the first student in club to finish all her web pages. Judy chose broadleaf plants for her main web page. She had several accurate pictures of cattails in her Visual Learning Log, which she was able to export and use on her web pages . Judy was also good at using the internet , and she was able to find two maps that showed broadleaf plant distribution. She also found two good photos on the internet that showed broadleaf plants’ characteristics, as well as accurate text information on their leaves, flowers, habitat, and range. Judy’s science structure followed the format on the next page: ( an arrow going towards the page shows a link to that page, and an arrow going away from the page shows a link from that page)

104

Leaves

Broadlead Plant page

Habitat

How tall

Food

Soil

Sun

Figure 6 - Science Structure, Judy

Judy’s science structure differed from the basic design shown previously because she did not have a “Habits” page, or a “What I already know about broadleaf plants” page. Instead, Judy had a page called “How tall” which described how tall broadleaf plants could be and showed a photo from the internet, and a page called “ Leaves” which showed and described broadleaf plants’ leaves, with a picture from her Visual Learning Log. Judy had an excellent “Habitat” page that included a map from the internet , and some simplified text, also from the internet. Judy chose to not make links on her main page going out to the pages, “soil” and “sun” (where

105 broadleaf plants get energy), as did most students. Instead Judy had put her “soil” and “sun” links coming out from her “food” page, which in turn linked to the main page. Judy only had one return link, (a link returning to her main page). The return link was on her “How tall” page, returning to the broadleaf plant page. On Judy’s main page she had written, “Ants eat Broadleaf Plants.” I think that Judy had planned to link the word “Ants” to someone else’s “Ant” page, but didn’t get around to it. Even though Judy was hard working and followed most directions, she still used the internet for fun when she was supposed to be getting science information. I checked the “history” option on her Internet Explorer, and found, “Kim Possible posters” (Kim Possible is a cartoon character with red hair that the students like).When students were learning how to make links, Judy followed me around the computer room, and watched as I showed each student, one by one how to make the links. Then Shanequa told Judy that she wanted to help Judy make links, but Judy didn’t want Shanequa to help her. I think Judy realized that Shanequa often did not do the assignment correctly. Once as we were leaving club, Judy complained that Tom kept grabbing her. I told Tom that if he kept doing it, he could not come to club anymore. During the interview, Judy looked uncomfortable, and said almost nothing. I asked her if she would rather not be in the interview, but she said she wanted to participate. Judy always walked home from club alone even though it was dark.

Blanca.

Blanca was the first student to return her forms for permission to participate in the computer club. When she was asked about her nationality, Blanca said she was

106 from Brooklyn, but her mom’s parents were from Puerto Rico, and that she “spoke a little Spanish”. Blanca was light-skinned and happy looking, with curly brown hair in a ponytail. She had very good behavior, followed directions, and was always pleasant. Blanca’s science structure was very much like the Science Structure Format shown previously, except that Blanca’s structure had two extra pages, and hardly any links between pages. Here is Blanca’s Science Structure.

What I already know about rabbits

Habits

Rabbit page

Habitat

Where it lives

What it does

Broadleaf plants

Grasses and Grains

Figure 7 - Science Structure, Blanca

Blanca had not created a separate Food page, as many students had done.Instead, on her main rabbit page, Blanca made links going out to the Broadleaf

107 plant page, and the Grasses and Grains page, showing that they were rabbits’ food . These two links were the only links Blanca had in her structure. However, Blanca was one of the only students who had been able to find a map on the internet, and she included her map of the world, showing “the range of the Eastern Cottontail” on her Habitat page. Most students had trouble finding a map, and were not able to do it. Yet, Blanca’s Science Structure seemed to be redundant in that she had two Habitat pages, ( Habitat, and Where it lives ), as well as two Habits pages (Habits, and What it does). Blanca’s Habitat page included the map, and five sentences of text. The same text was repeated over again on her Where it lives page, but this time with a picture drawn in her Visual Learning Log of a rabbit’s habitat, instead of the map. Likewise, Blanca’s Habits page, and her What it does page were similar. Although she did not repeat the text from one page on the other, Blanca’s Habits page had a picture of rabbits under a rainbow from her Visual Learning Log, whereas her What it does page had a photograph of a white rabbit that she had found on the internet. The text which Blanca included was not information which she found on the internet. Rather, it was information she knew because her sister used to have a rabbit, for example, “it bites, it hops a lot. Rabbits are very nice if you be nice to them”, or “Rabbits like to be in the wild so they could be free. Rabbits like to be in a place were there is food so they would not starve. Rabbits could be a little picky.” On December 11, I made a list in the field notes of the students who were doing the best work, and Blanca was on this list. Again on January 6 , I made another list of “good” students, and Blanca’s name was here as well. I noted on January 6 that

108 I wanted to give the best students extra time to work on the computers, but I was never able to do this. Blanca was absent one of the days when we made the links between pages, which may explain why she did not have very many. Also, I am unsure why Blanca had two pages telling “What a rabbit does,” and two pages telling “Where a rabbit lives.” I think she made one page, saved it in the wrong place on the computer, couldn’t find it later, and so she made another page to replace it. Saving was a problem in club because the computers allowed at least three places for students to save their files : the hard drive, the desktop, or the user folder. Students did not realize this, and they did not pay attention to where they were saving their work. As a result , when the students went to open their work again, they sometimes could not find it. Because of the demanding nature of many of the students in the club, I was not able to help Blanca as much as I would have liked to. When she did her concept map at the beginning of club, Blanca’s was one of the only completed concept maps; most students did not finish the whole map. Also, during the interviews, Blanca answered many questions appropriately. If Blanca had not been absent the day we learned how to make links, she may have had more of them in her science structure. Blanca may have been an example of a good, well behaved student, who did not receive all the attention she deserved, because of the behavior and/or learning demands of other students. However, Blanca did not seem very adventurous or creative, and her science structure may have reflected this. After club, Blanca’s mother always came promptly in the car, to take her home.

109 Marquis.

Marquis was a light-skinned African American boy who wore glasses. Marquis said that one of his parents had been born in Jamaica. Marquis’s strong point was his humor, but even though Marquis liked to joke around, he often said intelligent things. Marquis chose the squirrel for his animal. Marquis’s science structure is shown in Figure 8, on the next page. Like Judy, Marquis had not included a page on “What I already know about the animal.” Instead Marquis had one page on “Habitat” and another page called “Territory” (teretory). Marquis’s “teretory” page contained a photo he found on the internet of several squirrels on a big rock surrounded by brush and grass. Marquis’s “Habitat” page had a bigger version of the same squirrel photo, but a close up. Marquis’s “Habitat” page had a link returning out, back to the main squirrel page. His “teretory” page had no link going in and no link going out. Marquis also found some text information on the internet about squirrels in “Rodent Performance Evaluation,” but

teretory

Habits

Broadleaf plant picture

Squirrel page

Food

Habitat

Rodent Performance Evaluation

110

Figure 8 - Science Structure, Marquis

this was not linked to anything. On the “Habits” page Marquis had included the map he found on the internet that showed where people in the United States had been attacked by squirrels. Again, Marquis’s “Habits” page included a link back to his main squirrel page. Marquis’s “Food” page shows a photo of a black squirrel holding a large nut in its mouth. Similarly, on his “Food” page, Marquis made a returning link to his main page, In addition, on his main squirrel page , Marquis had linked a small picture icon of a broadleaf plant to a larger picture of the plant that opened up in a new window. This was to show that squirrels eat broadleaf plants. Here Marquis had gotten confused about the difference between a web page, and a picture. This seemed to be a problem for many students; they did not understand the difference between a web page and a picture. Marquis’s science structure was relatively successful in that it had more return links than most of the other students. Marquis, also, wanted to play on the internet. When I wasn’t looking he would go to “Nick.com” to play games. Once he found an X-rated poster by mistake, and other students got up to see it before I was able to get it off the screen. Another time Marquis left his photo school ID in the computer room, and didn’t even know that he lost it. The high point of the club for Marquis was when he found the map of squirrel attacks. He asked about the squirrels, “You mean, like, they jump in your

111 face?” Marquis never missed club, and Marquis’s grandfather always picked him up promptly every day after club in a large dark green van, near the flagpole. Nakia. Nakia was a tall, slim, dark African American girl from a Special Education class. She started out in a regular class when she was in kindergarten. I remember

What I already know about robins

Habits

Robin Info

Robin page

Food

Robin2

Figure 9 - Science Structure , Nakia

having her in kindergarten and she would color pictures by scribbling back and forth, and become very involved in coloring. Several years ago, when we had the school fair, Nakia was sad because she didn’t have any tickets, so I gave her a few, and she was so happy . Nakia’s robin Science Structure appears above.

112 Nakia did not make a “Habitat” page. Instead she made a page called “Robin2” which stated in words what at robin eats. She also had another extra page called “Robin Info.” On “Robin Info” was more text Nakia made up about Robins, some of which was inaccurate, like ”Robins are the fastest bird in the world. And they are so cute like a baby hen.” On the page “What I already know about robins” Nakia wrote, “My sister’s name is Robin.” On the “Habits” page Nakia had found a large picture of a robin’s nest on the internet , and she wrote “They lay eggs,” and she linked the word, “They” back to her main robin page. On her food page, Nakia included a picture of a colorful bird that she had exported from her Visual Learning Log. There were small, colorful dots all around the bird, and it said , “They eat berries.” Then there was a “Home” link that connected her “Food” page back to her robin page. (The bird did not look like a robin, but more like a toucan). Once Nakia’s mother pulled her and her sister out of school for an emergency, so she missed club. Another time a boy (scheduled for a disciplinary transfer) tripped Nakia on purpose as we were leaving club. Nakia jumped up instantly and attacked him by hitting him on his chest. After that the boy was not allowed to come to club anymore. Several times in the field notes I noted that although I don’t think Nakia understood exactly what we were doing, she always acted like she knew what to do, and she always did something. I spoke with Nakia’s special education classroom teacher, Mrs.Thompson. Mrs. Thompson said, “ I really like Nakia. I can tell Nakia’s going to make it.” One morning during the time we were having club, I saw Nakia going upstairs in line to her classroom. She had a beautiful report she had made on the computer, called “Robins,” with several internet pictures printed out. This was something that she had made outside of club. It made

113 me excited to see that going to club may have influenced her. After club Nakia always walked home by herself Russell. Russell was a tall, medium dark-skinned black student. He said his parents were from Haiti, and that they could speak Creole, as well as English. Russell’s behavior in club was relatively good, considering several years ago he used to get down and crawl on the floor, and get in trouble. Also two years ago he broke one of the computers, so that he was not allowed to participate in computer class, until eventually Russell’s father came into school. Once this year Russell came to my room after school and said he didn’t want to go in the stairwell because boys were waiting down there to fight him. Although Russell was known in the school for not doing what he was supposed to do,he seemed to have grown up this year, and he did well in computer club. Russell chose the screech owl as his animal, and he made the science structure above on owls. Russell had all the regular pages, “Food”, ”Habitat”, “What I know about owls.” However instead making a “Habits” page, and calling it “Habits,” Russell created two other pages. One of these was called “ Harmless, “ and had a photo of two small owls sitting in a tree, that Russell had found on the internet, and text that Russell had written that said, “Screech Owls are harmless and find food in night time.” The other extra page Russell had was called “Where owls lives, “ but instead of telling where they live it said, “Owls is afraid of people,” and it showed a drawing from Russell’s Learning Log of people and an owl. They words, “Owls is afraid of people” was a link back to the main owl page.

114 On Russell’s food page, he had included a food graph that he had made in his Learning Log that showed frogs, mice, birds, toads, and salamanders; all things that owls eat. Below the graph he had written, “Owls eat 18 different kinds of animals,” and he had a returning link back to his main page from the word, “Owls.” On his page “ What I know about owls,” Russell wrote, “ I know that screech owls eats mice, sparrow, frogs, earthworms, and ground beetles.” Each one of the animals that the owl eats were highlighted on the “What I know about owls” page, and each one was linked to the page of another student’s corresponding animal. For example, the word “ground beetle” had a link to Takeyah’s ground beetle page. This was different than the other

ground beetle

earthworm

frog

sparrow

What I already know about owls mice

Harmless

Owl page

Afraid of people

Food

Habitat

115 Figure 10 – Science Structure, Russell

students, since most of them made the links to each others’ pages from their main page, whereas Russell did it from his “ What I already know about the animal” page. Russell also had two returning links to his main owl page: one from the “Food” page , and one from “ What I already know about owls.” After club, Russell’s mother would always be waiting for him at the bottom of the stairs, smiling, and she always said, “Thank-you.”

John.

John was an Asian boy who had both Vietnamese and Cambodian parents, and a Chinese grandfather. His mother did not speak English, and his father was not in the household, although there was someone there who could translate for them. John chose the caterpillar as his animal. Figure 11 shows John’s science structure. John won a prize during club for having the most links. He made twelve links, all coming from his main caterpillar page. He also had three return links coming back from his “Food” page to the main page, from his “Habitat” page to his main page, and from his “Where they live” page . John’s “Habitat” page and his “ Where they live” page were identical, except that they had different pictures of caterpillars on them. In addition, Many of John’s links were going out to other students’ pages. He did not have a “Habits” page. John’s main caterpillar page was aesthetically very pleasing. It was red, with two internet photos; one of two caterpillars on a stick, and one of a moth on a leaf. On his “What I know about caterpillars” page, he included

116 two different pictures of caterpillars, which he also found on the internet. Likewise, on John’s “Food” page, he had inserted a graph showing what caterpillars eat, that he had made in his Visual Learning Log. He also typed the names of twelve types of plants that are eaten by caterpillars. Although John was good at using the internet, he did not have a map to show where caterpillars live. He seemed to be very intelligent, but distracted easily. His teacher said that he was not good at math. On the surface he seemed to be doing everything right.

117

Owl

Squirrel Toad What I already know about caterpillars

Cat Where they live Caterpillar page

Grasses & grains

Habitat

Robin Food

Racoon

Garter snake

Broadleaf plants

Figure 11 – Science Structure , John

One morning before club started, and before I knew him, John approached me as I was coming to school. He wanted to know about the club, when it would start. He was very enthusiastic. John was very interested in computers, and asked questions about computers, printers, and the internet constantly during club. The first club session John had not returned his permission papers, so I told him he could not stay for club. John said nobody was home at his house, so he could

118 not go home. It was a half hour after dismissal time, so I had to let John stay. Then after club, everyone went home, except John. We called his house and nobody was home. We went back to the computer room for half and hour, and called his mother again. Finally she answered. She was downstairs outside the school in her car. I took John out to the car. It was dark. John’s, mother was trying to talk to me from her car, but I couldn’t understand what she was saying. I think she was offering to give me a ride to my car, so I said ,”No , thank-you.” During club, John kept getting up, out of his seat and away from his computer, trying to help other students, when he hadn’t even finished his own work. He had a screen name, and sent me several emails about the computer club and web pages. We had club Thursday after school. One Friday morning, a brand new mouse was missing from the computer room. I suspected John, since he sat next to the computer where the mouse was missing, and he always got up out of his seat. I told the Assistant Principal, and he sent the School Policeman to deal with it. Mr. Clarkson, the School Policeman, went to all the students from club, and said that we want the mouse back by four PM that day. He also said that if the mouse were returned, no questions would be asked. Then Mr. Clarkson, came back and told me that John did not fit the profile of a thief. At about fifteen minutes before four, someone threw the mouse into the Assistant Principal’s office. They could not see who did it, but there was a note with the mouse that said, “ I did it and I’m sorry. I’m the Chinese American dude.” (The assistant principal thought this was really funny, and called to tell me about it, laughing). John considered himself Chinese American because his grandfather was Chinese.

119 In addition, a book of seven CD’s was also missing from the computer room. Mr. Clarkson told me to tell John that I knew he did it, and to return the CD’s before Friday. I spoke to John, and he did bring in the book of CD’s. Mr. Clarkson said that John’s teacher said he was a “clepto.” The other computer teacher, Ms. Williams said that John had stolen a mouse from her room last year, but that he brought it back when a lady from the school office talked to him. He also stole things from the ESOL teacher, and from other rooms. I liked John , and he was obviously good at computer. I went to the counselor to refer him to counseling. She acted like she knew about it already, or else like she didn’t want to know. Then she told me to talk to the Chinese bilingual counselor assistant, Ms. Tang. Ms. Tang told me John’s father used to abuse his mother, and that John witnessed the abuse. The father was gone now, but the mother , who knew little English, was trying to support John and John’s elderly grandfather, who lived with them. She worked during the evening, so that John did not see her much. John went to an after school program for four days a week. After the first computer club session, John would go home by himself, and he would often go over to another student’s house after school, since nobody was home at his house. All of the club students were very different as people, and they came to club with different backgrounds and experiences. As shown in the above science structures, each student made an individual science structure, but all the science structures had many things in common, and could be connected to each other to form a whole which was later used for problem solving.

120 In addition, as stated in Constructivism, students took primary responsibility for determining the topics or subtopics in a domain they pursued: during computer club, students chose the plant or animal they wanted, made their own web pages , and then made their own science structures by linking their web pages together ,centered on the plant or animal that they chose. Further, the way the science structures were constructed and linked , may provide insights into the way individual students think. For example, Nakia’s science structure showed her interest in aesthetic content by her elaborate decoration of her pictures, with little concern with accuracy of science information. Nakia only had 2 links in her structure, (although she was enthusiastic in her participation in club, and made a robin report on her own at home). This may reflect Nakia’s placement in a special education class. However, her web pages and science structure show her enthusiasm to learn, and this may be why her teacher said she knew Nakia was going to “make it.” Her science structure also showed how she connected information with when Nakia made a page that said, “My sister’s name is Robin,” which had nothing to do with birds, but was meaningful to Nakia. In contrast, John’s structure had 15 links, many of the links going out to other students’ pages. This may reflect the way John always was going over to other students to always help them during club. John’s work also reflects his interest in technology. As stated previously, in the definitions, a Science Knowledge Structure is a “representation of science concepts and/or science systems,” while a system is “An arrangement of things so related or connected as to form a unity or organic whole.” Making web pages was a way for students to organize their information to form a

121 unity. Further, organizing information by making pages and linking them was also a part of problem solving. After students completed their science structures ( consisting of a group of linked pages centered around their plant or animal) they were given five hypothetical problems to solve by referring to either their science structure, or to a concept map that showed the connection of all the club plants and animals . This connection concept map is shown on the following page in Figure 12.

Robin

Hawk water

caterpillar

grasses & grains soil insects - ------------broadleaf

ScreechOwl

ladybug

SUN

plants

toad

ground beetle SOIL APHID

Daddy long legs

Racoon Cat Rabbit

Figure 12 – Connection Concept Map

Squirrel Snake

122 To solve the problems, students had to think about the relationships between different plants and animals in the food chain. Their linked Science Knowledge Structures served as concrete models in the problem solving process, as they considered what might happen if there were more or less of certain plants and animals in the chain. The problems shown in the appendix were presented to students in written and verbal form during the last part of one of the computer club sessions. Students were asked to think about the problems overnight. At the beginning of the next club session, these problems were presented again. Students sat at their computers, and had their linked Science Structures as models. In addition, they had a copy of the Connection Concept Map in Figure 12. One of the problems was ,“If hunters shot most of the hawks and cats, what do you think would happen to the robins? Do you think this would be a problem, and if so, what could people do to solve it?” Students were asked to look at their linked Science Structure on their computer, and/or their Concept Connection Map, to consider the relationships between the plants and animals involved in the problem, and how these relationships might change. The problems were solved by informal group sessions, where students sat at their computers, and could see their Science Structures, but could participate in the group discussion at the same time. Also, computer club activities helped students create new frameworks by getting information and linking it with already existing knowledge structures. For example, most students made web pages about what they already knew about their plant or animal. Mike’s page on what he already knew about raccoons had a picture of a raccoon on a green background, and said, “ I seen a raccoon in a park called Lawncrest.” Thus connecting new science concepts with concepts students already

123 understand seemed to help students put new information in context, as when Mike connected this raccoon page with another page that had a picture of a raccoon at night going into a trashcan that he found on the internet. In summary, making Science Knowledge Structures (by making links between science web pages) was individual, and may provide insights into the way individual students think and process information. Also, students took primary responsibility for their own learning, while making their web pages was a way for students to organize information to form a unity. Further, organizing information, by making pages and linking them, was also a part of problem solving. Likewise, students’ linked Science Knowledge Structures served as concrete models in the problem solving process . And finally, computer club activities helped students create new frameworks by getting information and linking it with already existing knowledge structures.

Standards-Based Rubric

Students' web pages were assessed with the Standards-Based Rubric. This Standards-Based Rubric was a performance-based assessment, which rated students’ web pages on eight science and technology standards. The students’ web pages were evaluated by the researcher, as well as three outside observers (another computer teacher, and two science teachers).The first outside observer was shown each student’s pages separately on different days, and she rated the pages in a sequential manner. However, a second outside observer specifically asked to see all the

124 students’ pages together, to compare with the pages of the other club members . A student’s proficiency on ”Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings” could not be rated by the outside observers, because it was an activity that occurred during the computer club time only . Although students used their web pages as models to solve problems, their responses in the problem solving process were all verbal , and were not recorded on their pages. The rubric results were averaged and appear in the chart below. The proficiency level from 1 to 4 signifies how well the student accomplished each task: 1 = Below Basic, 2 = Basic, 3 = Proficient , 4 = Advanced.

1. Below Basic - student completes less than half of the task, or does not complete any of the task satisfactorily. 2. Basic – student completes half, or more than half of the task satisfactorily. 3. Proficient - student completes the whole task satisfactorily. 4. Advanced - student does an exceptional job completing the whole task, and / or does extra work.

125 JuanCarlos

Downloads data and uses it in scientific presentation

Judy

Marquis

Uses technology to gather, record, store, and present data

Russell

Constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs, and maps Uses on-line services to get current information about scientific topics Draws diagrams, and incorporates into written reports

Alberto

Mike Shanequa

Tom

Ahmad

Draws and labels a food chain

John

Nakia

Identifies the basic needs of organisms

Jala Blanca

Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings

Takeyah

Wilfredo 0

1

2

3

Proficiency

Figure13 - Rubric Scores

4

5

126

Figure 14 - Mean according to Standard

Standards.

1. Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings 2. Identifies the basic needs of organisms 3. Draws and labels a food chain 4. Draws diagrams, and incorporates into written report 5. Uses on-line services to get current information about scientific topics 6. Constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs and maps 7. Uses technology to gather, record, store, and present data 8. Downloads data and uses it in scientific presentation

127

Figure 14 shows the mean score according to standard .The graph shows which standards were best addressed during the computer club by this project. Figure 14 shows that the highest mean scores according to standards were for both “Draws and Labels a Food Chain” and “Draws diagrams and incorporates into a written report.” By the nature of the computer club project, all students created a food chain model that had labels, the names of the animals and plants. In addition, “Draws diagrams and incorporates into a written report” had a high mean because all students drew diagrams in their Visual Learning Logs, and all students used these diagrams in their web pages, which were considered a written report. The lowest mean score for standard was for “Identifies the basic needs of organisms.” Although we covered this concept at the beginning of club, one student started club several sessions late, when another student was suspended, so that student missed this session. Another student, Nakia was absent that day because her mother pulled her out for an emergency. Tom was also absent that day so he did not illustrate that concept in his Visual Learning Log. This show s that being absent may affect a student’s proficiency in some standards. Other students may have done it, but not saved it properly in their Logs. After several club sessions, I noticed students were not saving their pages properly, I would go to each computer after club and make sure all the work was saved. Out of the students who had an entry for “Basic Needs of Organisms” in their Visual Learning Logs, several were not exactly correct, so their scores on the rubric were lower for “Identifies the basic needs of organisms”.

128 The average mean score for standards was 2.5, or halfway between basic and proficient. Figure 15 show the mean according to student .The highest proficiency mean scores according to student were for Blanca, John, and Marquis. They all scored between Proficient (3) and Advanced (4) on the rubric. The three highest mean scores were for students of different races: one African American, one Asian, and one Latino. Only three students out of fifteen scored below basic on the rubric. These were Takeyah, Jala, and Ahmad. Takeyah scored low because she started club late.

Mean according to Student 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Student

She had

Figure 15 - Mean according to Student

been on the waiting list for club, and when one boy was suspended, Takeyah was allowed to take his place, but she had already missed at least four sessions. Jala

129 started the club at the beginning, and did a great job, but as club progressed, she dropped out, so Jala never finished her web pages or her linked science structure. Again , Ahmad missed three club sessions, although he was there at the beginning and the end . One afternoon I saw Ahmad in the stairs after school, where he was getting in trouble from his teacher for not following directions. She did not allow him to come to club that day. Ahmad scored below basic on “Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings,” “Identifies the basic needs of organisms,” and “Constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs, and maps”. On “Demonstrates how to solve a problem using charts, graphs, or drawings,” Ahmad was present, but he just made up his answers to the problems, and he did not refer to his linked science structure or to the concept map. He did not have a graph like the other students in his Visual Learning Log. Further, Ahmad did not have an entry for “Identifies the basic needs of organisms,” in his Visual Learning Log. Again, For “Constructs and interprets data from photographs, bar graphs, and maps” Ahmad, whose animal was the toad, had not found any photographs of toads on the internet. Neither had Ahmad found any maps showing where toads live. Even though he had found some information about snails and slugs, Ahmad still completed less than half the task satisfactorily. In summary, if students missed many club sessions, either because they started club late, or because they dropped out or were not allowed to come to all club sessions, this caused them to have a low mean score. The average mean score for all fifteen students was 2.5, or between basic and proficient. All students who attended most club sessions received a rubric rating of basic or higher.

130 What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking? Informal Group Interviews

Many students in the computer club reported using visual thinking to solve problems. As indicated in Table 1, problem solving can be broken down into 4 steps. Accordingly, this section will be organized as follows: 1. Looking for information (exploration), 2. Extracting relevant information , 3. Simplifying information , 4. Organizing information. In addition, the informal group interviews also focused on 5) Understanding basic concepts, and 6) How visual thinking helps.

Table 4 - Problem Solving (Bruner,1966), (Schacter, et al,1997)

Looking for

Extracting

Simplifying

Organizing

Information,

Relevant

Information

Information

(Exploration)

Information

After making their web pages, science structures, and linking them with other students’ science structures, students were given four hypothetical problems to solve while referring to their linked structures and a concept map of a food chain which showed all of their animals and plants. One problem the students tried to solve this way was, ”There are getting to be less and less daddy long legs. Scientists are afraid that daddy long legs may become extinct. Squirrels and rabbits are eating all of the

131 broadleaf plants that are the daddy long legs’ food. What could we do about this?” (see appendix, Problems).

Looking for Information, Exploration

Students recognized that exploring is important in solving problems. When asked how she would describe science learning, Shanequa said, “Exploring. Scientists go out and look for information.” Students listed “ the internet, teachers, encyclopedias, books, the information hotline, going outside, and observing nature,” as ways to get information. Having an interest in the material motivates students to begin solving a problem and looking for information. Marquis looked for information on squirrels because he said squirrels were interesting to him because, “I chase squirrels outside.” Similarly JuanCarlos worked on finding material on cats because JuanCarlos said, “I love cats; I have three cats. They throw up fur balls.” When asked how they would solve a science problem, students noted that “ I would go on the internet, go on Google and find information, do a lot of research, it takes time.” Another student , Nakia, said that to solve a problem, ”we make things, like a globe out of cement.” The concept of making things was echoed by another student, who said that to solve a science problem,” you build things.” Nakia also mentioned that she had help from several of her friends, “Kids help other kids.” John, who liked to help other students, said, “I got information from AskJeeves, Yahooligans, or Google. I looked up the animal. I put the animal’s name in, you type the animal’s name, and they show you pictures of it. I could find out

132 where the animal lives, what it eats, and how tall; like caterpillars live in woodlands and trees”. Marquis noted, “While getting information, you’re learning. I found that people hunt squirrels and squirrels can attack people.” Alberto stated ,“I go to Ask Jeeves. I typed in hawk. It gave me a lot of answers; it sent me stuff I need. I found a hawk map and a picture, but it couldn’t download.” Other students complained that “the computers went too slow.” JuanCarlos also said he had problems finding a map of where a cat lives. “I did not know what to type into the search box.” Further, Tom said “I found daddy long legs pictures and information, and Blanca stated,” The internet helped me if I go on Internet Explorer, then I would get different pictures to go with my animal.” Likewise , Nakia said, “ I got my information from the internet. I got a couple of robin pictures, the nest picture – the eggs about to crack – the mom robin trying to get a worm. I got some maps – mostly pictures.” John said, “ I liked it, looking up information,” while Wilfredo said, “ It was very hard looking for information because I never used the internet before.”

Extracting Relevant Information

Students were asked if all the information they found on the internet could be used. Several students spoke about problems finding information. For example, Wilfredo said, “ I had problems finding information. There wasn’t a lot of

133 information that was helpful, but I kept looking. I was struggling to find the right pages to go into the garter snake page.” Similarly, Ahmad said, “ Sometimes not all the information was good. The first topic would be good, and some wasn’t good. There was a lot of good (information) about snails and slugs.” Mike said, “ When I went to a page and then another, the first page was gone.” Size of text or pictures was a problem for some students. Marquis said,“The information on the internet was small and hard to read.” Also Blanca stated, “I could use some of it. Some maps you couldn’t see them that well. They were too little.” Nakia said “some pictures were too big.” Russell noted that “ on the internet they tried to sell me stuff.” He also said that “ I tried to find what owls sound like, and when I clicked on it nothing happened.” Also Shanequa related that “ I found pictures of where to get ladybug stuff.” (posters and bags) Tom pointed out that “Some things mean more than one thing. Tom said “Big Daddy is a singer. The Big Daddy page came up for daddy long legs.”” Tom had typed “big daddy long legs” into the search box. He insisted on calling his daddy long legs page, “Big Daddy Long Legs.”

Simplifying Information

134 Most students noted the same steps in simplifying information: drawing pictures of the information, typing, and making pages with and about the information. One student said, “We got information, we put it in our own words.” Russell said “I type it in, I put pictures next to it, I save it.” “On the internet you can get information and put it on a computer. You can find pictures and put them on a page.” In addition ,Ahmad said, ”After I went to the internet to see pictures that I needed ,I drew the graph of what (a toad) eats. That’s how I made a snail page” John listed the steps he took in simplifying as “…Drawing the pictures, and making the pages, …I loved all of it.” Again, Wilfredo said,” You can find pictures, and put them on a page. I drew the page, I drew where it lives. I drew what it eats. “ Alberto said, “ I typed some, I colored and drew.”

Organizing Information

Most students mentioned linking pages when asked how they set up their information . “We linked all our pages to everybody’s animals. You click on it and it will just go to that page. “ Tom said, ”I made links, links to the internet. I found pictures to connect on the page” Further , Wilfredo said,” I created a lot of links. It took time, I needed help – step by step, I had links. “ Alberto said,” I typed some, I colored and drew, I put it on Claris Home Page, linking it.” Also, Shanequa said, “I signed on. I got pictures, I exported it. We linked our pages. Similarly, Marquis said that,” You go to (user group), go to your work and click on it. I opened it, I made it. You type it, you link it, you save it.”

135 Nakia, who was the only student from a special education class, who seemed interested in the aesthetic aspect of organization said, “I put my pictures on yellow, blue, and red background. I like to add things to my background like dots. I put the pictures on a background and that’s how I made them. I did a couple more things. I put words. I put “Robin” across the top. I made some pages kind of realistic, some pages weren’t. Some were colorful. I decorated them. I found pictures of robins on the internet. They came out like I knew they would … pretty.”

Understanding Basic Concepts

Some of the concepts covered in this study were food chain, pollution, overpopulation, and extinction . At first some students showed their misconceptions of the following concepts. Shanequa said,” I didn’t know what a food chain was.” And, Nakia thought that “The food chain is the sun and planets are all connected.” She also thought that “Overpopulation is when you have a lot of animals in the house playing around and fighting because they don’t know ‘em or they gotta get a chance to know ‘em.” Mike was also initially confused about overpopulation. He thought that overpopulation was “when you can’t take animals to other countries.” At first several students were confused about pollution as well . For example, Marquis said, “I thought pollution is how many people in the state.” Also, Wilfredo said that “Pollution is like a virus when animals die.”

136 After making their pages, and solving some hypothetical problems concerning hunting, pollution, overpopulation, drought, and extinction based on their linked pages, these students seemed to have corrected their ideas on these concepts. When asked at the end of the club, “What is the food chain?” Students demonstrated understanding by giving the following answers. “The food chain is when animals eat other animals and it goes down the line. An animal eats another animal and that animal eats another animal.” Moreover, Nakia said “A food chain is how a hawk eats a daddy long legs and then a robin – I don’t like it when a hawk eats a robin because I like robins.” Again, Ahmad said, “ The food chain is what people eat and stuff that eats that person. Animals eat a cat, a cat eats a mouse .”In addition, Wilfredo said, “Animals or people eat other things, people are on the top of the chain.” Further, when students were asked about pollution at the conclusion of club, Blanca said, “Pollution is when the water and air gets dirty – animals can’t live then.” Also, Marquis stated that “ Pollution is when a motor is running and stuff is coming out of the engine.” Moreover, when talking about overpopulation , he said, “It’s like when only eight people can be there, but there’s nine.” All students understood what extinction meant. Wilfredo said,” Extinction is when the species is gone from the face of the earth, like dinosaurs are no longer here. They’re dead forever. Only fossils are still here.” Similarly, John added that “Extinction is like the dinosaurs dying out, when animals don’t have anything more to eat.”

137 Besides clarifying the concepts of food chain, overpopulation, pollution, and extinction, students changed some of their other ideas as a result of the computer club. Marquis said, “ I thought squirrels didn’t attack people.” Similarly, Shanequa said, “I thought lady bugs got eaten.” She found that no animals eat lady bugs because of their bitter taste. JuanCarlos said, “ I thought cats only eat meat – cats eat a lot.“ Likewise Blanca said, “I learned a cat can eat a lot and a hawk can eat a lot. (Students found that the links to the most animals were from hawk and cat.) Also, Ahmad stated that “ I thought toads and frogs was friends. Toads eat frogs.” Again, Wilfredo remarked, “ I was scared of snakes. I’m not so scared now. I learned where poisonous snakes live.” Further, Russell said, “Computer club helped me learn about more animals of different kinds.”

How Visual Thinking Helps

Visual thinking helps with attitude and motivation. As Nakia said, “ I like drawing the pictures because when you draw something that you never created, then that will make you feel like, well, I can do this, and I can draw something that nobody else can create.” When asked if pictures help kids learn, Shanequa said, “ Yes, major. You learn more about the animal.” Takeyah thought you could find out “the color of animals” from pictures. In addition, Marquis said that one thing he learned from a picture was that, “some squirrels could fly. They have a thick skin from their wrist to armpit.” Marquis stated that pictures help science learning because “ by looking you

138 can see what they’re (the animals) doing.” He thought “ squirrels reproduce quick because I saw a lot.” Shanequa said that a picture of many ladybugs swarming on a leaf “shows that they like to be in groups.” In addition Shanequa said she learned that “ ladybugs eat aphids and insects.” Likewise Mike said, “ I got a picture of a racoon in the trash. You could tell it goes out at night and likes going in the garbage.” Ahmad added, “You can look at it (the picture) and you know a frog is eating a bug, so you know frogs eat bugs. Snakes eats toads, toads eats snails and frogs.” Also, Russell said “I learned that an owl can eat a squirrel,” and JuanCarlos said, ”I learned cats eat caterpillars.” Wilfredo said “Yes,” pictures do help science learning. “They (the students) observe it (the picture) and the background tells where it (the animal) lives and what it eats. Pay attention, look , and better understand. By looking you learn something new.” John added that pictures “ gives you something to think about. You can learn more information about the animal you’ve got.” Several students thought maps were an example of learning through pictures. From maps students said that they learned that sometimes “squirrels attack, ” and also “where poisonous snakes live.” One student mentioned pictures as icons to help learning. Takeyah said, “Pictures help by if they want to go to a bear or tiger, go to the picture and click on it. It will come up.” When asked if she thought pictures could help kids learn science, Takeyah answered , “Yes.” “You could imagine a lot of things. I look at pictures of penguins, and I imagine they are probably drowning. I look at a picture of a ground beetle, and I be thinking of stepping on it.”

139 Also, Tom thought that scientists “probably can’t describe it, so they show it on pictures – so they make a picture of it.” Tom said the reason they do this is “ because it helps people. Some pictures have educational stuff and educational notes.” Moreover, Wilfredo , when asked if pictures help kids learn science, said “Yes, they can be about history. You can see experiments. Pictures show inventors, materials, rocks, magnets, things attracted to magnets, what kind of iron is attracted to magnets.” Tom continued, “They put pictures on sheets that show metal. You can see magnetism.” Shanequa also mentioned watching videos to help learn science. She said, “We watch videos about famous scientists and the light bulb.” During the interviews, students spoke about three things that helped them solve problems. First, several of the students mentioned having an interest in the subject helped motivate them to learn. For example, Marquis said he was interested in squirrels because he chased them outside. Likewise, more than one student talked about construction, or making things as a way to learn science, i.e., they spoke about building things, like making a globe out of cement. In addition, Nakia emphasized social learning when she stated that “kids help other kids” to solve a problem. Also, looking for Information was viewed differently by different students. Several student liked getting information, and another student thought it was “hard”, because he did not have any internet experience. Wilfredo said , “while getting information you’re learning.” Further , when interviewed, students mentioned several problems that occurred while looking for information. For example, some information could not be downloaded, as when a student clicked on the owl sound and “nothing happened”. Others thought, “the computers went too slow,” and one student did not know what to

140 type into the search box to find a map. Further, one student complained that when he went to a page and then another, the first page was gone. Tom pointed out that “some things mean more than one thing,” for example, Big Daddy (a singer), and big daddy long legs. Also, for some animals, like dolphins, sports pages came up. Similarly, students said that extracting relevant information was often difficult. One student said ,“There wasn’t a lot of information that was useful.” Another said that the information on the internet was too small and hard to read. Moreover, one student thought that some pictures, like maps, were too little and hard to see, while another student said the pictures were too big. Shanequa said, “They tried to sell me things,” when she found pictures of ladybug tote bags and posters. Most students said that they simplified their information by drawing, typing, and/or making pages. Likewise, many students said they organized their information by linking it. Likewise, students said that visual thinking, especially pictures, helped them learn in many ways. “They (pictures) give you something to think about,” like animals’ color, habits, habitat, or food. For example, one student thought that a picture’s background could tell you where the animal lives (habitat). Another student noted that “you could see what the animals are doing” in a picture (habits), for example, the flying squirrel. Further, two students talked about maps helping students learn science, showing where poisonous snakes live, or where squirrels had attacked people. In addition, Takeyah mentioned icons, i.e., clicking on a picture of a tiger to find out about tigers. Takeyah also spoke about how she imagined what was happening when she looked at a picture . Tom thought that sometimes scientists “can’t describe it, so they show it in pictures,” and “it helps people,” said another

141 student. Shanequa spoke of videos of famous scientists, while Wilfredo expressed the value of educational pictures used to show history, experiments, inventors, materials, rocks, or things attracted by magnets. On the other hand, Nakia said visual thinking made her “ feel good; I can draw something that nobody else can create.” During the interviews students often said that the internet helped them look for information. In addition, students thought that extracting relevant information could be difficult. Further, to simplify information students listed, drawing, typing, and making pages, and many students stated that they organized their information by linking it. Finally, most students thought that visual thinking helped them learn science.

Summary

The results presented above clearly show that making visual representations helped students understand science knowledge, making links between web pages helped students construct Science Knowledge Structures, and students themselves said that visual thinking helped them learn science. First, in their Visual Learning Logs, students made visual representations to represent science concepts. Students often used stamps as symbols to portray science concepts, and some students reinforced their pictures by text or humor. In addition, each Visual Learning Log was unique and showed the experience and personality of each student. Moreover, most students made a graph in their Visual Learning Log, which addressed Standard 6. The Visual Learning Logs were convenient, as well; students could review all the concepts covered, or they could export pictures from the

142 Learning Log to use later for a web page, slide show , or report. Further, in the Logs, students simplified science information, which was part of problem solving. Finally, although there were a few misconceptions, in most Visual Learning Logs the main concepts were portrayed accurately. Second, students made web pages about plants or animals, and linked their web pages to make Science Knowledge Structures. Although linking pages was a difficult topic to teach, students were able to recognize that the concept maps represented linked pages or science structures. Again, students took responsibility for their own learning by choosing the plant or animal that they wanted to learn about. Then linking the web pages helped students create new frameworks by linking new information with already existing knowledge structures. Further, all linked science structures were individual although the structures had many things in common. At first most students made the mistake of accidentally linking all their key words to one page. However, after they corrected this mistake, making linked pages became a means for students to organize their information to form a unity or whole. Thus students organized their information, another step in problem solving. Finally, the connection and layout of the science structures may provide insights into the way individual students think and learn. Third, eight science and technology standards were addressed during this study. The average mean score for the standards was 2.5, or between basic and proficient. The standards that were best addressed by this project were, “ Draws and labels a food chain,” and “ Draws diagrams and incorporates into a written report.” The lowest standard was for “Identifies basic needs of organisms ,” which was covered on a day when many students were not present. Further, all students who

143 attended the majority of club sessions earned a mean score of basic or higher on the rubric. The highest three mean scores were for students of varied races. The lowest mean scores were all for students who missed many club sessions. The average mean score for all students was 2.5. Fourth, during informal group interviews, students stated that visual thinking helped them solve problems and learn science. For solving problems, students mentioned three factors that could help: 1) having an interest in the subject, 2) construction, or making things, and 3) social learning, or “kids help kids.” In addition, the interviews showed an improved understanding of science concepts by the end of the ten computer club sessions. Further, while some students liked looking for information, and believed that “while looking for information you’re learning,” one student said it was difficult because he had no previous experience using the internet . In addition, during the interviews students pointed out five problems that came up while they were looking for information : 1)some information could not download, 2) the computers went too slow, 3) confusion about what to type into the search box, 4) the first page was gone after student went to a 2nd page, and 5) some things mean more than one thing (when searching). Similarly , students reported that extracting relevant information was often difficult, because, 1) there was not a lot of information that was useful, 2) the information was often too small and hard to read, 3) some pictures were too small and hard to see, 4) some pictures were too big, and 5) commercial sales sites often came up instead of science information. Even so, most students said they were able to simplify their information by “drawing,” “typing,” and “making pages,” and the majority of the students talked about organizing their science information by linking

144 it. In addition, almost all students felt that visual thinking helped them learn science. Students said that from pictures, you could find out more about animals or plants, such as colors, habits, habitats , or food. Other students mentioned maps as visual learning. Also, one student gave icons as an example , while another used videos as an example for visual learning. Tom said “they can’t describe it, so they show it in pictures.”, while Ahmad thought that, “It helps people.” Likewise, Wilfredo said, “It gives you something to think about.” Wilfredo listed : history, experiments, scientists , and materials, as science ideas that can be shown visually. In contrast, Takeyah spoke about how she was able to imagine different things when she looked at pictures, while Nakia reported that visual thinking made her feel good because she could draw something that nobody else could make. In summary, although there were a few misconceptions and/or omissions in the Visual Learning Logs, for the most part the science concepts were accurately represented. Further, all students made unique Science Knowledge Structures that were meaningful to them by connecting their web pages. Moreover, making links between their pages allowed students to show connections, and helped them to organize their information in an individual manner. In addition, students felt that the internet was a good way to get information, and many students thought that visual thinking helped them learn science. In conclusion, when solving the problems, most students used their linked structures and concept maps to find solutions.

145

Chapter 5 - Summary and Discussion

This last chapter reviews the research problem and discusses the main methods used during the study. The main parts of Chapter 5 summarize the study’s findings, present the conclusions, and discuss the implications and significance. As demonstrated in Chapter 1, United States students’ standardized test scores in science are low, especially in problem solving, and traditional science instruction is not as effective as it could be. Consequently, visual thinking, construction of science structures, and problem solving in a web-based environment may be valuable instructional strategies for improving science learning. Therefore this study examined the questions: 1)How do students use visual thinking for learning science in a web-based environment ? a) How does making visual representations help students elaborate on science knowledge? b) How does making links between web pages help students construct Science Knowledge Structures? c) What do students themselves say about problem solving using visual thinking?

The study described here was an ethnographic study of an after school computer club that involved fourth grade students at an inner city school. As an ethnographic study, the viewpoint was mainly qualitative, trying to describe the

146 processes of visual thinking, construction, and problem solving in a web-based environment from the perspective of the students. This ethnographic study looked at fifteen students learning science during ten after school computer club sessions. The study depended mainly on informal group interviews, field notes, Visual Learning Logs, and student web pages. In addition a standards-based rubric evaluated students’ performance on eight science and technology standards. Visual Learning logs were simple computer drawings done by students to represent science concepts related to the food chain. Students used the internet to search for information on a plant or animal of their choice. Then they made web pages that incorporated the information they found on the internet , and the information from their Visual Learning Logs. Later students linked their pages and used these linked science structures to solve problems. Informal group interviews, examined the perspective of the students on visual thinking, problem solving, and science concepts. The results presented in Chapter 4 clearly show that making visual representations helped students understand science knowledge, making links between web pages helped students construct science knowledge structures, and students themselves said that visual thinking helped them learn science. First, in their Visual Learning Logs students made visual representations to represent science concepts. Some students reinforced their pictures with text or humor. In addition, each Visual Learning Log was unique and showed the experience and personality of each student. The Visual Learning Logs were convenient, as well; students could review all the concepts covered, or they could export pictures from the Learning Log to use later for a web page, slide show, or report. Further, in the logs, students simplified science information, which was part of problem solving. Finally,

147 although there were a few misconceptions, in most Visual Learning Logs the main concepts were portrayed accurately. Second, students made web pages about plants or animals, and linked their web pages to make science knowledge structures. Students took responsibility for their own learning by choosing the plant or animal that they wanted to learn about. Then linking the web pages helped students create new frameworks by linking new information with already existing knowledge structures. Further, all linked science structures were individual, although the structures had many things in common. Making linked pages became a means for students to organize their information, (another step in problem solving ), to form a unity or whole. Finally, the connection and layout of the science structures may provide insights into the way individual students think and learn. Third, eight science and technology standards were addressed during this study. The average mean score for the standards was 2.5, or between basic and proficient. Further, all students who attended the majority of club sessions earned a mean score of basic or higher on the rubric, while the highest three mean scores were for students of varied races. In contrast, the lowest mean scores were for students who were absent and missed many club sessions. The average mean score for all students was 2.5. Fourth, during informal group interviews, students stated that visual thinking helped them solve problems . For solving problems, students mentioned three factors that helped them: 1) having an interest in the subject, 2) construction, or making things, and 3) social learning. In addition, the interviews showed an improved understanding of science concepts by the end of the ten computer club

148 sessions. Further, while some students liked looking for information, one student said it was difficult because he had no previous experience using the internet . Also, during the interviews students pointed out five problems that came up while they were looking for information: 1) some information could not download, 2) the computers were too slow, 3) confusion about what to type into the search box, 4) the first page was gone after student went to a 2nd page, and 5) some things mean more than one thing (when searching). Similarly, students reported that extracting relevant information was often difficult, because, 1) there was not a lot of information that was useful, 2) the information was often too small and hard to read, 3) some pictures were too small and hard to see, 4) some pictures were too big , and 5) commercial sales sites often came up instead of science information. Even so, most students said they were able to simplify their information by “drawing,” “typing,” and “making pages,” and the majority of the students talked about organizing their science information by linking it. Fifth , almost all students felt that visual thinking helped them learn science. Students said that from pictures, you could find out more about animals or plants. Other students mentioned maps as visual learning. Also, one student gave icons an example, while another used videos as an example of visual learning. Tom said, “They can’t describe it, so they show it in pictures.”, while Wilfredo listed : history, experiments, scientists, and materials, as science ideas that can be shown visually. In contrast, Takeyah spoke about how she was able to imagine different things when she looked at pictures, while Nakia reported that visual thinking made her “feel good, because I can draw something that nobody else can create.”

149 In summary, although there were a few misconceptions in the Visual Learning Logs, for the most part the science concepts were accurately represented. Further, all students made unique science knowledge structures that were meaningful to them by connecting their web pages . Moreover, making links between their pages allowed students to show connections, and helped them to organize their information in an individual manner. In addition, students felt that the internet was a good way to get information, and many students thought that visual thinking helped them learn science. In conclusion, when solving the problems, most students used their linked structures and concept maps to find solutions.

Discussion

1) The first conclusion of this study is that students themselves said that visual thinking helped them learn science. For example, students stated that pictures could show plants’ or animals’ colors , habits, habitats, and food. In addition, students noted that maps showed them where “ squirrels attacked people,” or “where poisonous snakes live”. Further, two students mentioned “icons” and “videos” as visual means for learning science, while another student reported that imagining what was happening in pictures helped her learn. Students thought that educational pictures could “ help people”, and “they give you something to think about,” like “inventors,

150 materials, history, experiments, rocks, and things attracted by magnets”. Finally, the special education student asserted that visual thinking made her “feel good,” because she could make “something that nobody else could create.” 2) The second conclusion is that the way student science structures were constructed and linked may provide insights into the way individual students think and process information. Although the science structures, which students created by linking their web pages on plants and animals, had many things in common, each student’s science structure was unique, and reflected the student’s personality and experience. For example, John’s science structure had many links going out which may have mirrored the way John was always focusing away from himself and trying to help other students. In contrast, Nakia’s science structure and pages had few links, and also included some personal, unscientific information, which could reveal reasons for her placement in a special education class. However, the information that students used was meaningful to them, and they constructed new frameworks by getting information from the internet, and linking it with already existing knowledge structures, information that was familiar to them. In this way, students were making concrete models, and were laying a foundation for problem solving. Moreover, students connected their structures with those structures of other students, and formed a whole food chain linked structure, which they could refer to when solving problems. 3) The third conclusion was that the main, overall ideas of the science concepts were usually represented accurately, with a few minor misconceptions on details. Students used the KidPix computer application as a visual tool to represent science concepts in their Visual Learning Logs. (These concepts related to the fourth

151 grade science concept of the food chain). In addition, students used the built in KidPix stamps as symbols for portraying concepts. For example, they used various animal stamps as symbols for animals. Moreover, some students used text to reinforce their Visual Learning Logs, as John did in his “Needs of Organisms,” while other students used humor to reinforce the concepts, as Marquis did in his “Consumer” Log entry. In addition, the Visual Learning Logs were convenient, because students could use the Logs to review all the science concepts covered, or they could export their Log entries to use in web pages , slide shows, or reports. 4) The fourth conclusion was that looking for information on the internet, and extracting relevant information from the internet caused many problems for the students. In this way, students accomplished the first two problem solving steps, looking for information and extracting relevant information. For Wilfredo , looking for information on the internet was very difficult, because he had never used the internet before. Other students thought that the computers went too slow, and one student did not know what to type into the search box to find a map. In addition, Mike reported that when he went to a page on the internet, and then another page, the first page was gone, whereas Tom mentioned that when searching for information on the internet, some things may mean more than one thing. For example, when a student typed “dolphins “ into the search box, sports pages came up, and when Tom typed “big daddy long legs” into the search box, the results showed web pages for “Big Daddy”, a singer. Likewise, extracting relevant information from the internet was not easy for most students. One student thought , “there wasn’t a lot of information that was useful,” while another student said that much of the information “was too small and

152 hard to read.” In addition, Blanca noted that some of the pictures (maps) were “too little and hard to see,” and Shanequa remarked on the commercial aspect of the web when she said, “They tried to sell me things.” Furthermore, students were confused when pop-up adds came up that said they were winners, because the students really believed that they had won big prizes; it was hard to convince students to ignore these pop up ads. 5) The fifth conclusion was that most students said they simplified information by drawing, typing and making pages, and most students said they organized their information by exporting it, and linking it with other information. Thus students completed the second two problem solving steps. First each student organized their information to form a unity, and next , seeing their information as a whole, they used this whole as a model to help them solve problems. 6) The last conclusion was that being absent, starting late, and/or dropping out all may have negatively influenced students’ proficiency on the standards. Owing to being absent, starting club late, or dropping out of club, a few students’ performance was below basic on the Standards-Based Rubric. In contrast , all students who were present during club sessions, received at lease a score of basic, and sometimes a score of proficient or advanced on the Rubric.

Implications for Research and Practice

Based on this study alone, it is impossible to prove that visual thinking helps students learn science, although during the informal group interviews many students

153 in this study thought that it did. Research by Plotnick (1997) suggests that visual representation provides a holistic understanding which cannot be conveyed with words alone, and likewise Rieber (1994) states that problem solving is a non-linear system. Similarly the students in this study seemed to have used their visual representations and non-linear linked science structures to learn science concepts and solve problems. These findings agree with those of Puntambekar & Kolodner (1998) , who concluded that visual design activities are a good way for students to “make thinking visible”, and use critical problem solving skills. Likewise, Parker (1999) found that using visual concept maps in an intranet environment improved her students’ reflective thinking, and allowed them to examine their own problem solving skills. In addition, Finke (1990), Finke, Ward, & Smith (1992) reported that research on problem solving has accepted images as a worthwhile tool for some time. These conclusions seem to match the results of this study, which seem to show that constructing visual models of the food chain, and related science concepts, helped fourth grade students solve science problems on drought, hunting, overpopulation, and extinction. Although it is theory, and not authenticated by this study alone, the way student science structures were constructed and linked seems to provide insights into the way individual students think and process information. Research by Klemm & Iding, (1998) suggests that the construction of Visual Learning Logs, may help students with different learning styles. This agrees with the results of my study which illustrated that the construction of Visual Learning Logs, student web pages , and linked science knowledge structures were unique to each student. Further, this

154 uniqueness may have helped individual students solve problems by letting them put new information in a context that was meaningful to them, and by allowing them to relate it with information that they already knew, and was unique to their own experience. Likewise , Mevarech & Kramarsky (1997) stressed the importance of context in construction, and the importance of validating what students bring to the learning situation themselves. Also, West (1997) stated that students need to integrate knowledge with what they already know, and Brown, Collins, Duguid, (1989) found that anchoring learning in real world contexts made it meaningful. As in Constructivism, presented by Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth (1993),during this study the individual students took primary responsibility for determining the topic they pursued (their plant or animal). They were not all studying the same thing. In addition, students’ voice and ownership in the leaning process were encouraged by allowing them to construct their Learning Logs, web pages and science structures in their own individual ways, instead of telling them that it had to be a certain way, or like something else. Also (as in constructivism) , during the interviews, Nakia noted the importance of the social learning experience during club : “kids helping kids”, or collaboration between students . Similarly, during the interview, Nakia gave construction, or “making things”, and as a way students learn science. During this study, the main, overall ideas of the science concepts were usually represented accurately by the students, with a few minor misconceptions on details. Since the means for learning in this study were largely visual, this study may indicate that visual thinking helps students understand the idea behind a concept, and the relationship between concepts, as opposed to the minor details. Consequently,

155 understanding the overall idea behind a concept is something that “rote memorization” of science facts may not be able produce. This agrees with the research of Wang (1996), who concluded that computer graphics helped students understand the meaning of fractions, without using “rote memory without meaning”, and also the research of Herskowitz (2000) who used anecdotal evidence to suggest that a visual approach was helpful to college students in understanding the C programming language . This also concurs with a study by Mejia-Flores (1999), where visuals made English concepts easier for Puerto Rican students to understand, as well as a study by Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu (2001), where hypermedia in a webbased environment helped 9th grade biology students understand and retain information on excretory and circulatory systems . Hence visual thinking may allow students to see the science concept as a whole, and consequently the parts of that whole may be seen in relationship to one another. As presented by Rieber (1994) this study found that problem solving may be an non-linear system. In this study the linked web page science structures created by the students were not connected linearly. Rather they were organized differently according to the thinking of each student . Further, Bruner (1966), states that part of problem solving may include looking at an issue from multiple perspectives, (as students in this study did by viewing problems from the points of view of different animals or plants), and working with several concepts inside a many scoped problem ( as students did during this study, by working with a large food chain model that combined all of their separate, individual food chains into one to solve problems ). In addition, this study agrees with the ideas presented by Riel (1998),in which she says that learner-centered technology helps students learn how to look at information and

156 think about how to organize it to create new knowledge. Accordingly, during this study, students looked at the information they had found and simplified, and they decided how to organize it to create new knowledge that was individual and meaningful to them. Again, this study concurs with research findings by Bennett (1993) who stated that students must often be involved in solving a problem before they can identify the important characteristics of the problem, because during the interviews , students themselves noted that “ having an interest” in something helped motivate them to learn about it. Further, as in this study, research by Schacter (1997) found that the internet provided a realistic problem solving context. As discussed in research by Bonk & Cunningham (1998), a web-based environment may offer ways for changing our current ideas of learning. Likewise, this study seemed to show that a web-based environment may pose new problems and offer new advantages for learning. For example, students interviewed during this study matched research by Bonk & Dennen (1998), when they said that one problem in using the internet was that the computers, “went too slow.” In addition, this study agrees with research by Mioduser, Nachmias, & Lahav (2000) who reported that commercial web sites are increasing, because students in this study complained that when using the internet, “they tried to sell me things,” and instead of scientific information, commercial information came up during internet searches. Likewise, this study confirms findings by Schacter (1997) who said that if students find information on the web, they may not be able to use it or understand it. Similarly in the interviews in this study, some students stated that “there was not a lot of information that was useful,” on the internet, and “ some information was too hard to read.” Students in this study also complained about the ambiguity of many terms that they used in their

157 internet searches, which caused them difficulty in finding information on the desired topic. Since one student in this study had trouble finding information on the internet, it seems that internet experience or the lack of internet experience could now become a factor that might influence successful learning. In contrast, Mioduser, Nachmias,& Lahav (2000) complained that not many web sites gave students a chance to create, invent, or problem solve. However, the food chain web site in this study was created by the students , and the students used it as a model to problem solve. Further Mioduser, Nachmias, & Lahav noted that 15% of the web sites in their survey had no visual information, while on the other hand, the students’ web site created in this study was made up of mostly visual information, as was that of DeLa Beuajardiere, Cavallo, Hasler, Mitchell, O’Handley, Shire, & White (1997) where visual representations of student data were constructed, and made visible on the web. As a result of advantages in learning presented by the internet, Mioduser, Nachmias and Lahav hoped that the web could increasingly become a “ creation environment” where authoring tools could scaffold students’ creativity and let them create and publish their own web sites, as students did in this study. In addition, other advantages for learning on the web, according to Bonk & Dennen , are that students can take the responsibility for their own learning, the way students did in this study, and the web can make students’ work visible to people worldwide, the way people all over the world will be able to see the work of the students in this computer club. Further, the internet can allow the possibility of a peer comment form, or rating for student web entries, that can cause shared knowledge to be created by student

158 interaction. Hence an interactive form will be provided on the food chain website to allow students to receive feedback from other internet users concerning their work. In this study, the only students who earned ratings of below basic on the Standards-Based Rubric were students who did not attend the computer club regularly, for one reason or another. Since all students who attended most of the club sessions earned ratings of basic or above, it seems that science projects may be organized around a group of Science Standards, as this study was, and that as a result , all students who attended class and participated in the projects would earn ratings of basic, or above, by the nature of the activities in the project. This might ensure more effective science learning as measured by the standards.

Significance

First, although reform can not be suggested based on results of this study alone, these results, and results of other related studies discussed earlier in this chapter, point to the inclusion of visual thinking in science learning. By using visual thinking, the ideas behind the science concepts may be better understood, as well as the relationships between the components of the concept. This study, as well as research by Puntambekar & Kolodner (1998), may show that many students’ science understanding seems to benefit by making their thinking visible. Second, this study reported that using visual thinking to understand science concepts as a whole, seems to have helped fourth grade students problem solve, which was one of the lowest scoring areas for the United States in the TIMSS

159 Performance Assessment (1995). This may imply that training students to use visual thinking as a tool , could improve their problem solving skills. Third, the results of this research, and that of Schacter (1997), may suggest that the regular use of the internet in science classes may be beneficial to science understanding and problem solving. In addition, student driven learning has been reported by this study, as well as others, to possibly improve problem solving, in that students may be more motivated to study something they are interested in and have chosen themselves. By incorporating student driven learning , science instruction would become more individualized and meaningful to the students. This study’s finding also recommend that the text and picture size of websites for children be larger, and more age appropriate so that students can easily read the text and see the graphic representations on the pages. Also we need to find ways for students to get around the ambiguity involved in searching the internet, so that they don’t try to search for one term, and come up with another that they cannot use. Fourth, this study may point to the advantage of students’ making connections during science learning : connections between new knowledge and what the students already know; as well as connections between the different parts of a science problem or concept. Making connections is another task that may be accomplished by visual thinking, although visual thinking is not the only way students can make connections or links . Fifth, this study would also suggest that attendance is crucial in science learning. It may also denote the possibility of designing science projects around a group of 8 or 9 related standards in such a way that if a student attends class and participates in the science project, the given standards are addressed, and proficient

160 science learning will take place for those students. As well as being designed around a group of science standards, the results of this study recommend that the projects be highly structured, in order to maximize the behavior of diverse, inner city students. In addition, the science understanding of diverse students may be best measured by performance-based assessments and rubrics , as opposed to tests, which often measure a student’s ability to memorize facts. Finally, as stated by Mioduser, Nachmias, & Lahav (2000), current curricular frameworks made for linear textual learning should not be applied to the web, but instead need to be expanded and revised. As was seen in this study, the students organized their science information in a non linear manner, and students also moved around in their internet activity in a non linear fashion. As internet use becomes more and more routine, during learning , educators need to consider its non linear and often visual aspect when creating new educational science units and standards.

161 References

Ahigren, A.,& Rutherford, F. 1990). Science for All Americans . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Alfonzo, J.D. (1999). The Feasibility of using HyperStudio-generated applications to accelerate learning. doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee, Nashville. Alland, A.(1972). Jacob Riis: Photographer and citizen.New York, N.Y: Millerton. Anderson, J.R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications. (3rd ed.) New York: Freeman. Arnheim, R.(1969)Visual thinking. Berkeley: Calilfornia Press. Atkin, J., Hauser, Kulm, Raizen ,S., Schmidt, W., & White, A. (1999) Six steps toward science and math literacy. Scientific American,[Electronic version]. Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000922CB-EB4A8809EC588EEDF Atkinson, P., & Hammersley, M.(1994). Ethnography and participant observation. In Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y., Handbook of qualitative research, (pp. 248 - 257 ). Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publilcations. Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J., & Lofland, L.(2001) Handbook of ethnography. Thousand Oaks , CA: SAGE Publications. Ball, M., & Smith, G.(2001). Technologies of realism? Ethnographic uses of photography and film, In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J., & Lofland, L.,(Eds.),Handbook of ethnography, (pp. 302 - 319).Thousand Oaks,CA: SAGE Publications. Banks, M. (1992). Which films are the ethnographic films? In P. Crawford and D. Turton (Eds.) Film as ethnography, (pp.371-387). Manchester: University Press in association with the Granada Centre for Visual Anthropology. Barry, A.M. (1997). Visual intelligence : Perception, image and manipulation in visual communication. Albany, NY.: State University of New York Press. Bateson, G., & Meade, M.(1942). Balinese character. Bausmith, J. L. M. (1999). Learning from text and graphics: The effects of prior

162 knowledge and explicit cueing on students’ understanding of scientific systems. doctoral dissertation, The University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA. Becker, H.S. (1974). Photography and sociology, the Anthropology of Visual Communication 1(1),3-26. Becker, H.S. ([1995]1998).Visual sociology, documentary photography and photojournalism: It’s almost all a matter of context, In J. Prosser (Ed.), Image-based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers (pp 84-96). London: Falmer Press. Benjamin, W. ([1936] 1973). The work of art in the age of mechanical Reproduction , in Illuminations. London: Fontana. Bennet, R.E.(1993) On the meanings of constructed response. In R.E. Bennett & W.C. Ward (Eds.) Construction versus choice in cognitive measurement: Issues in constructed response, performance testing and portfolio assessment,(pp. 1-27).Hillsdale:Erlbaum. Berenfeld, B. (1996). Linking students to the infosphere. T.H.E. Journal, 4, (96), 76-83. Berge, Z., & Collins, M.(1995). Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Bishop, A.J.(1989). Review of research on visualization in mathematics education. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics,11(1), 715. Bonk, C.J., & Cunningham, D.J. (1998). Searching for learner centered, constructivist, and sociocultural components of collaborative educational learning tools. In C.J. Bonk, & K.S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship and discourse (pp. 25-50). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Bonk, C.J., & Dennen, V.P. (1999). Teaching on the web: with a little help from my pedagogical friends. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 11 (1), 3-28. Bonk, C.J., & King, K.S.(1998). Electronic collaborators: Learner centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship and discourse , Mahway,NJ.:Lawrence Erlbaun Associates. Bonk, C.J., Malinowski, S. Angeli, C., & East, J.(1998). Web-based case conferencing for preservice teacher education: Electronic discourse from the field, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 19 (3), 267-304.

163

Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning [Electronic version], American Educational Research Association, Retrieved April 15, 2000, from http://www.slofi.com/situated.htm Brown, J.S., (1999). Learning, working & playing in the digital age[Electronic version], Palo Alto Research Center, Conference on Higher Education, American Association for Higher Education, retrieved April 17, 2000, from http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_edu/seelybrown/ Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA.: The Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press. Burge, K. (1999). Multimedia computer learning: An examination of gender differences in computer learning behaviors at the elementary grade level. doctoral dissertation, University of California: Irvine. Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy ,TIMSS Third International Mathematics and Science Study (1995), Boston College :MA. Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Educational Policy ,TIMSSR Third International Mathematics and Science Study Repeat (1999), Boston College :MA. Chandler, S., & Doolittle, P. (2000). Practical constructivism: Teaching multimedia with a hybrid approach. InVisual Literacy and the World Around Us , International Visual Literacy Association Proceedings (2000). Griffin,R., Gibbs, W., & Williams,V. (Eds.) pp. 13-17. ChanLin, L. (1994). A theoretical analysis of learning with graphics implications for computer graphics design. doctoral dissertation ,Fu-Jen University: Taiwan, China.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 349 966). ChanLin, L & Reeves, T. (1994) New directions for research on graphics design for interactive learning environments. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 373707). Chi, M. T. H., & Glaser,R.( 1985). Problem solving ability. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.) Human abilities: An information processing approach (pp.227-250) Clements,K.(1982).Visual imagery and school mathematics. For the Learning of Mathematics,2(3),33-38. Collier, J. Jr.(1967). Visual anthropology: Photography as a research method.

164 New York:Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Cortazzi, M. (2001). Narrative analysis in ethnography. In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J. , & Lofland, L., Handbook of ethnography , (pp. 384 - 394 ) Thousand Oaks,CA.:SAGE Publications. Crawford, P., & Turton, D. (1992). Film as ethnography. Manchester: University Press in Association with the Centre for Visual Anthropology. Creswell, J. (1994). Research design qualitative & quantitative approaches. ThousandOaks,CA.:SAGE Publications. Creswell, J., (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among five traditions, Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications. Creswell, J., (2003). Research design qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, Second Edition,Thousand Oaks,CA.: SAGE Publications. Cunningham, D., Duffy, T.M.,& Knuth, R. (1993). Textbook of the future. In C.McKnight (Ed.), Hypertext: A psychological perspective. London: Ellis Horwood Publishing. Dacey, J.S. & Lennon, K.H. (1998). Understanding creativity .San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass. DeBono, E. (1967). New think: The use of lateral thinking in the generation of new ideas. New York: Basic Books. De La Beaujardiere, J-F., Cavallo, J., Hasler, A.,Mitchell, H., O’Handley, C., Shiri, R., & White, R. (1997). The GLOBE visualization project: Using WWW in the classroom. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 6, (1). Deegan, M.J. (2001). The Chicago school of ethnography. In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J. , & Lofland, L.(Eds.), Handbook of Ethnography, (pp.11-25) Thousand Oaks,CA.:SAGE Publications. Delisio, E. (2000). U.S. Students Continue to Lag in Math, Science. Education World, electronic version. Retrieved Sept 24,2002. From http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr305.shtml. Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. Perigree Books, NY: Penguin Putnam Inc. Dey, I. (1993). Creating categories. Qualitative data analysis . (pp.94-112). London: Routledge. Dorner, D. (1983).Heuristics and cognition in complex systems. In R. Groner,M. Groner,& W.F. Bishof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 171-193)

165

Drucker, P.F. (1994, November). The age of social transformation. The Atlantic Monthly, 53-80. Duffy, T.M., Dueber, B., & Hawley, C.L. (1998). Critical thinking in a distributed environment: A pedagogical base for the design of conferencing systems. In C.J. Bonk, & K.S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship, and discourse (pp. 51-78). Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum. Dunne, D.W. (2000). Math and science achievement: It starts with better teaching[Electronic version],Education World ,Retrieved June 30, 2001, from http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr275.shtml Dye,J., Schatz, I., Rosenberg,B., & Coleman, S.(2000,January).Constant comparison method: A kaleidoscope of data , The Qualitative Report, 4,(1/2),[Electronic version].Retrieved June 2001, from http://www.nova.edu/sss/QR/QR4-1/dye.html Edwards, Elizabeth, (1992). Anthropology and photography 1860 – 1920. New Haven and London :Yale University Press. Ehly,M., Anzul,M.,Friedman, T., Garner, D., & Steinmetz, A.C.(1991). Doing Qualitative Research:Circles within circles. New York : Falmer. Eisenberg,T.,& Dreyfus,T(1989).Spatial visualization in the mathematics curriculum. Focus on the Learning Problems in Mathematics, 1(2), 1-5. Eisner,E. (1998). The enlightened eye. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Eisner, E., & Barone, T. (1988). Arts-based educational research. In R. Jaeger Methods for research in education, (2nd ed.), Washington, D.C.:AERA. Eldridge, M.(1998). Transforming experience: John Dewey’s cultural instrumentalism.Nashville, TN.:Vanderbuilt University Press. Emerson, R. Fretz, R., & Shaw, L.,(2001). Participant observation and fieldnotes, In, Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J. , Lofland, L.,Handbook of ethnography, (pp. 352-368).Thousand Oaks,CA.: SAGE Publications. Emerson, R.M.,Fretz, R.I., & Shaw, L.L.(1995).Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Erlandson, D.A., Harris, E.L., Skipper, B.L., & Allen, S.D. (1993).Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA:SAGE.

166

Finke, R. A. (1990). Creative imagery :Discoveries and inventions in visualization.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B., & Smith, S.M. (1992). Creative cognition: Theory, research,and applications .Cambridge ,MA.: The MIT Press. Flanders, N. (1970). Analyzing teacher behavior. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. Frederickson, S. (1990, March). Audiographics for distance education: An alternative technology. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Alaska Association for Computers in Education, Alaska. Freud, S. (1921). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. (J. Strachey, Trans.). New York:Bantam Books. Gardner, H. (1995). Creativity inside out: Learning through multiple intelligences. Reading, MA. : Addison-Wesley. Gardner,H.(1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York:Basic. Geertz, C. (1966). The Interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic books. Gerlic, I., & Jausovec, N.(1999). Multimedia: Differences in cognitive processes observed with EEG. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47,(3), 5-14. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A.(1967). The Discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine. Glassman, M. (2001, May), Dewey and Vygotsky: Society, experience, and inquiry in educational practice, Educational Researcher, 30, (4), 3-14. Glenn, J. (2000). Before It’s Too Late, A report to the Nation from the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century. Education Publications Center, U.S. Department of Education. Jessup: MD. Goffman, E. (1979). Gender advertisements. Basingstroke: Macmillan. Goldman-Segall, R. (1998). Points of viewing children’s thinking, A digital ethnographer’s journey. Mahwah,NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Goodson, L.F.(1995).The story so far: Personal knowledge and the political, in J.A. Hatch & R. Wisniewski (Eds.) Life history and narrative. (pp. 89-98).London: Falmer Press.

167 Gordon, T., Holland, J., & Lahelma, E. (2001). Ethnographic research in educational settings, In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J. , & Lofland, L.(Eds.). Handbook of Ethnography, (pp. 188-203). Thousand Oaks,CA.: SAGE Publications. Gottleib, D. (2000). Digital Childhood, The effects of media on kids, Voices in the family, Philadelphia: WHYY. Gray, M. (1996). Measuring the growth of the web, Retrieved July 14, 1999. From Massachusetts Institute of Technology website: http://www.mit.edu/people/mkgray/netweb-growth-summary.html/. Griffin,R., Gibbs, W., & Williams,V. (Eds.)(2000).Visual literacy and the world around us. Proceedings of the International Visual Literacy Association. Guilford, J.P., (1967). The Nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw Hill. Grimes, J.E. (1975). The thread of discourse. The Hague: Mouton. Gruber, H. (1981). Darwin on man: A psychological study of scientific creativity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hammersley, M. (1990). Classroom ethnography: Empirical and methodological essays. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Harasim, L., Hiltz, S, Teles, L., & Turoff, M. (1995).Learning networks: A field guide to teaching and learning online. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. Harper, D. (1994) On the authority of the image, Visual methods at the crossroads, In Denzin, N. Lincoln, Y.(Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research,( pp. 403-258). Thousand Oaks ,CA : SAGE Publications. Hales, P. (1984). Silver cities: The photography of American urbanization.Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Healy, J. (1990). Endangered minds. NY:Simon & Schuster. Healy, Hoyles, & Sutherland(1991).Children talking in computing environments, new insights into the role of discussion in mathematics learning. In K.Durkin ( Ed.) Language and mathematical development, pp 162-175, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Henley, P. (1998). Film-making and ethnographic research, In J. Prossner (Ed.),Image-based research: A sourcebook for qualitative researchers, pp 4259.London: Falmer Press.

168 Herskowitz, I., (2000). Using computer graphics and animation to visualize complex programming concepts, doctoral dissertation, Columbia Teacher’s College: N.Y. Hess, D. (2001). Ethnography and the development of science and technology studies, In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J., & Lofland, L.(Eds.), Handbook of ethhnography ,(pp. 234 - 243). Thousand Oaks,CA.: SAGE Publications. Heyl, B.S. (2001). Ethnographic interviewing, In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J., & Lofland,L.(Eds.). Handbook of ethnography , (pp.369 – 383). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications. Holyoak, K. (1995). Problem solving. In E.E. Smith & D.N. Osherson (Eds.) Thinking: An invitation to cognitive science(pp. 267-296).Cambridge, MA:MIT Press. Honebein, P.C. (1996). Seven goals for the design of constructivist learning environments, Constructivist learning environments, In Wilson, B.G.(Ed.), Case studies in instructional design,( pp.11-12).Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational Technology Publications. Horton, J. (1983) . Instructional design and visualization . In Performance and Instruction, 22,(8),pp.20-21, UI/AN. Howard, D.V.(1983).Cognitive psychology. New York: Macmillan. Hungwe,K.(1989). Culturally appropriate media and technology: A perspective from Zimbabwe. Tech Trends, 34, (1), 22-23. Hyerle, D. (2000). A field guide to using visual tools, Alexandria, VA.: Associaton for Supervision and Curriculum Development. ISTE Technology standards, Performance indicators for technologyliteratestudents, grades 3-5 (n.d.), Retrieved December 13, 2001, from http://cnets.iste.org/35pro.htm ISTE Technology foundation standards for all students (n.d.), Retrieved December 13, 2001, from http://cnets.iste.org/index2.html James, A. (2001). Ethnography in the study of children and childhood, In Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J., & Lofland, L.(Eds.). Handbook of ethnography, (pp. 243 - 257). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. Jannasch-Pennell, A., DiGangi,S.,Yu, A., Andrews, S., & Babb, J.(1999, February). Impact of instructional grouping on navigation and student learning in a

169 web-based learning environment. In Proceedings of selected research and developmepapers , National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, (21st, Houston,TX, February10-14,1999). Janvier,C.(1987).Translation processes in mathematics education. In C. Janvier (Ed.), Problems of representation in mathematics and problem solving, (pp. 27-31). Hillsdale, N.J:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Jausovec, N.(1994). Flexible thinking: An explanation for individual differences in Ability. New Jersey: Hampton. Johari, A.(2000).Software teaching the language of the graph, In Griffin,R., Gibbs, & W.,Williams, V.(Eds.) Visual literacy and the world around us (pp.131139). International Visual Literacy Association .ISBN 0-945829-11-11:Omnipress. John-Steiner, V. (1985). Notebooks of the mind, Albuquerque, NM.:New Mexico Press. Jonassen, D., Peck, Kyle, & Wilson, B. (1999). Learning with technology. New Jersey: Merrill, Prentice Hall. Jonassen, D.H.(2000). Computers as mindtools for schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ. : Merrill, Prentice Hall. Jonassen, D.H., & Grabinger, R.S.(1990). Problems and issues in designing hypertext/hypermedia for learning. In Jonassen, D. H. & Mandl, H. (Eds.), Designing hypermedia for learning. New York, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Kang, I. (1998).The use of computer-mediated communication: Electronic collaboration and interactivity. In C.J. Bonk & K.S. King, (Eds). Electronic collaborators, (pp. 315-337). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Khan, B. (1997).Web-based instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Educational Technology Publications. st King, Kira S., Bonk, C.J. (1998) Designing 21 - century educational networlds: Structuring electronic social spaces. In C.J. Bonk & K.S. King, (Eds).Electronic collaborators, (pp. 3- 23) New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Knuth, R.A., & Cunningham, D.J. (1993). Tools for constructivism. In T. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. Jonassen (Eds.). Designing environments for constructivist learning (pp. 163-187). Berlin:Springer-Verlag.

170

Kogan, N. (1983). Stylistic variation in childhood and adolescence: Creativity, metaphor, cognitive styles. In J.Flavell & E. Markman (Eds.) Cognitive Development, Vol.3, in P.H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology,4th ed., New York: Wiley. Kunes, M. (1991). How the workplace affects the self-esteem of the psychiatric nurse. unpublished proposal, University of Nebraska :Lincoln. Langer , S., (1972), Philosophy in a new key. Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Lee, L. D. (1999). An investigation on computer-based instructional presentation modes and perceptual learning styles in concept learning. doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin. Lesmoir-Gordon, N., Rood,W., & Edney, R., (2001). Introducing fractal geometry. Lanham, MD.:Totem Books. Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G.,(1985).Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Linn, M.C., & Slotta, J.(2000).WISE science . Educational Leadership, 58 ,(2). 29-32. Longacre, R.(1976). An Anatomy of speech notions. Lisse: Peter de Ridder. Macklin, M.C.(1997).Preschooler’s learning of brand names for visual cues. Journal of Consumer Research, 23 (3), 251-261. Malinowski, B.(1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Markman, A.,Yamacuchi, T., & Makin, V. (1997). The creation of new concepts: A multifaceted approach to category learning. In T. Ward, S. Smith, & J. Vaid (Eds.), Creative thought: An investigation of conceptual structures and processes: Emergence, discovery, and change, (pp.179-208).Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Marsano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001).Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement . ASCD. Alexandria,VA: McREL. Mayer, R.E. & Wittrock, M.C.(1996). Problem solving transfer. In D.C. Berliner & R.C. Calfee (Eds.) Handbook of educational psychology (pp.47- 62).

171

McKnight, C., Raizen, S., Schmidt,W.(1997). A Splintered Vision: An Analysis of U.S. Mathematics and Science Curricula . TIMSS International Study Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill: MA. McLellan , H.(1998).The internet as a virtual learning community. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 9 (2), 92-112. Mejia-Flores, A. A, (1999). The role of contextual visuals in second language acquistion: Puerto Rican university students learning English . doctoral dissertation, New York University, New York, NY. Merriam, S.(1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Mevarech, Z., & Kramarsky,B.(1997). From verbal descriptions to graphic representations: Stability and change in students’ alternative conceptions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 3,(2):229 – 263. Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M.(1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Mioduser, D., Nachmias, R., & Lahav, O. (2000). Web-based learning environments: Current pedagogical and technological state. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(1) 55-76. NAEP (2000). The Nation’s Report Card. National Assessment of Educational Progress. National Center for Education Statistics website. Retrieved May 11, 2003. From http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/main2000/2003453.asp Narayanan,H.N.(1999). A framework for animation-embedded hypermedia visualization of algorithms . doctoral dissertation, Auburn University. National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). A Nation At Risk. National Commission on Excellence in Education . Retrieved May 10, 2003. From http://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/risk.html Newton, (1995). Pictorial support for discourse comprehension. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 64(2), 221-229. Nisbett, R.,Choi, I., Peng, K., & Norenzayan, A.(2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 2001. 108, (2), 291-310. National science teachers association responds to NAEP science Report : Flat student achievement scores offer few reasons to celebrate.

172 November 20, 2001. Retrieved September 12, 2002, from NSTA website: http://www.nsta.org/pressroom&news_story_ID=46039 Olsen,G.(1997).Multimedia design. Cincinnati, OH.: North Light Books. Olson,J.(1992). Envisioning writing. NH.: Heinemann. O’Sullivan, C., Lauko , M., Grigg, W., Qian , J., & Zhang, J.(2003).The Nation’s Report Card: Science 2000. National Center for Education Statistics. National Assessment of Educational Progress website. Retrieved April 25, 2003 from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pubs/main2000/2003453.asp Paivio, A.(1969). Mental imagery in associative learning and memory.Psychological Review, 76, 241-263. Paivio, A.(1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Paivio, A.(1990). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New York: Oxford University Press Paivio, A., & Begg, I.(1981). The psychology of language. New York: Prentice-Hall. Paivio,A., & Csapo, K.(1973). Picture superiority in free recall : Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5, 176-206. Paivio (n.d.), Retrieved September 20, 2002 from http://tip.psychology.org/paivio.html Parker, M.J. (1999). Are academic behaviors fostered in web-based environments? In Spotlight on the future, NECC 1999. National Educational Computing Conference Proceedings (20th, Atlantic City, N.J., June 22-23, 1999). Patton, M.Q., (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. rd

Patton, M.Q., (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods, (3 Ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Plotnick, E.(1997). Concept mapping: A graphical system for understanding the relationship between concepts. Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, ERIC Digest. June 1997. Syracuse, NY.(EDO-IR-97-05). Pressley, M., Symons, S., McDaniel, M., Snyder,B., & Turnure, J.E.(1988). Elaborative interrogation facilitates acquisition of confusing facts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 268-278.

173

Prossner, J.(Ed.), (1998). Image-based research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, London: Falmer Press Pruitt, N. (1993). Using graphics in content area subjects. Master’s thesis, Kean College of New Jersey. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 355 483) Puntambekar, S., & Kolodner, J. (1998). The design diary: A tool to support students in learning science by design. In International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Georgia Tech University, Atlanta, GA., Proceedings, 1998, Dec. 16-19. Rieber, L. (1991). Animation, incidental learning , and continuing motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83,(3),18-328. Rieber, L.(1994). Computers, graphics, and learning. Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers.

Rieber, L. (1994). Visualization as an aid to problem-solving : Examples from history. In Proceedings of selected research and development presentations at the 1994 National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology , Nashville, TN.,USA. Riel, M.(1998).Conceptual order and collaborative tools—Creating intellectual identity , In C. Bonk & K.King(Eds.).Electronic collaborators (pp. xvii xx),Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reigeluth,C. (1994). Introduction: The imperative for systemic change. In C. Reigeluth & R. Garfinkle (Eds.), Systemic change in education (pp. 3-11). Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Educational Technology Publications. J. Riis, Reformer and Photographer (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2001, from http://www.idbsu.edu/socwork/dhuff/history/gallery/Gallery-JR/BIO.htm Riis, J, (1971). How the other half lives. New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications. Riskline, (1993) USA Today, March 17, 1993, p.5D. Ritchie, D., & Gimenez, F. (1995). The influence of dominant languages on the effectiveness of graphic organizers in computer-based instruction. In Proceedings of the 1995 Annual National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), Anaheim, CA., USA. Roth, W. (1996). Art and artifact of children’s designing: a situated cognition perspective . In The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 5, (2) 129-166.

174

Ruby, J. (1976). In a pic’s eye: Interpretive strategies for deriving meaning and significance from photographs. Afterimage, 3(1),5-7 Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media cognition and learning, San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Schwartz, D. (1989). Visual ethnography: Using photography in qualitative research, Qualitative Sociology 12(2), 119-55 Schwartz, D.(1997). Contesting the Superbowl. London: Routledge. Schacter, J., Heri, H., Chung, G.,O’Neil, H. Dennis, R., & Lee, J. (1997). Feasibility of a web-based assessment of problem solving. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Chicago, IL,USA. Schatzman, L. & Strauss, A.(1973). Field research: Strategies for a natural Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Schmidt,W.(1997). A Splintered Vision: An Analysis of U.S. Mathematics and Science Curricula . TIMSS International Study Center, Boston College, Chestnut Hill: MA. Schmidt, W.(1999). Six steps toward science and math literacy. Scientific American,[Electronic version]. Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000922CB-EB4A8809EC588EEDF Seidman, Irving (1998). In interviewing as qualitative research. New York: Teachers College Press. Shepard, R. (1988). The imagination of the scientist. In K. Egan & D. Nadaner (Eds.), Imagination and education (pp. 153-185). New York: Teachers College Press. Simon,H.A.(1973).The structure of ill structured problems, Artificial Intelligence, 4, 181-201. Slack, R.S. (1998). On the potentialities and problems of a WWW based naturalistic sociology, Sociological Research Online, 3 (2).[Electronic version]. Retrieved July 1999, from http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/3/2/3.html Smith, A. (1995). Discovery learning with a computer graphics utility as a tool in investigating the characteristics of linear equations effects on student achievement and attitudes. doctoral dissertation, University of South Florida, FL. Snedocor, G.W. & Cochran, W.G.(1980). Statistical Methods ,7th Ed. Iowa State University, Iowa: Iowa University Press.

175 Snetsinger,W. & Grabowski, B. (1993). Use of humorous visuals to enhance computer-based instruction . In Proceeding of the Conference of Visual Literacy : Visual Literacy in the Digital Age, Beauchamp,D.,Braden, R., & Baca, J, (Eds.), p 262. Spencer, J. (2001) Ethnography after postmodernism, in Atkinson, P.,Coffey, A., Delamont, S, Lofland, J. , & Lofland, L.(Eds.). Handbook of ethnography (pp. 443 - 452). Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications. Tamir, P.(1985/56). Current and potential uses of microcomputers in science education. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, V (2): 18-28. Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie ,C. (1998). Mixed methodology, Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA.: SAGE Publications, Inc. Taylor ,G.R.(1979).The natural history of the mind. New York: Penguin. TIMSS (1995). Third International Math and Science Study, International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Boston College, Chestnut Hill : MA. TIMSS (1997). Performance Assessment in IEA’s Third International Mathematics and Science Study. International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Boston College, Chestnut Hill : MA. ISBN 1-889938-076. TIMSS-R(1999). Third International Math and Science Study Repeat. , International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Boston College, Chestnut Hill : MA. U.S. Department of Education . (2000). Before it’s too late, A report to the nation from the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st century. Education Publications Center, Jessup: MD.: Glenn,J.. Voss, J. F. & Means, M. L. ( 1989). In J. A. Glover, R.R. Ronning, & C.R. Reynolds (Eds.) Handbook of creativity, (pp. 399-410). NY: Plenum Press. Voss, J.F., & Post, T.A.(1988). On the solving of ill-structured problems. In M.T. Chi, R. Claser & M.J. Farr (Eds.) The nature of expertise. (pp. 261-287). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Voss, J.F., Tyler, S.W., & Yengo, L.A.(1983). Individual differences in the solving of social science problems. In R.F. Dillon & R.R. Schmeck (Eds.) Individual differences in cognition (p 204-232) New York: Academic. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press.

176

Walsh, M. (1996). Commercial domain statistics. InterNet Info. Retrieved July, 1999, from http://www.webcom.com/~walsh/stats.html WaytGibbs, W. & Fox, D. (1999) Wanted: Strong thinkers, in Scientific American.com [Electronic version].Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00099EFE-E483-ICBCB4A8809EC588EEDF Weiss, R.E.(1999). The Effect of Animation and Concreteness of Visuals on Immediate Recall and Long-term Comprehension When Learning the Basic Principles and Laws of Motion. doctoral dissertation , The University of Memphis, TN. Welch, M. (1997, April). Students’ use of three-dimensional modeling while designing and making a solution to a technical problem. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. West, C., Farmer, J., & Wolff, P.(1991). Instructional design—Implications from cognitive Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. West, T.G.(1997). In the mind’s eye. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books Wiersma, W. (2000). Research Methods in Education . Needham Heights, MA: A Pearson Education Company. Willoughby, T., Desmarias, S. Wood, E., Sims, S., & Kalra, M., (1997). Mechanisms that facilitate the effectiveness of elaboration strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89 (4), 682-685. White, A. (1999). Six steps toward science and math literacy. Scientific American,[Electronic version]. Retrieved September 15, 2002, from http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000922CB-EB4A8809EC588EEDF White, R.(1989). Visual thinking in the ice age. Scientific American (July 1989). Whyte, W.H.(1980). The social life of small urban spaces. Washington, D.C.:The Conservation Press. Wilson, B.(1996). Constructivist learning environments. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Educational Technology Publications. Wolcott, H.F.(1990).Writing up qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

177 Woloshyn, V.E., Willoughby, T., Wood, E., & Pressley, M. (1990). Elaborative interrogation facilitates adult learning of factual paragraphs. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 513-524. Xio, X., & Jones, M.(1995). Computer animation for EFL learning environments . In: Eyes on the future: Converging images, ideas, and instruction. Selected Readings From the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association, Chicago, IL. Visual thinking: Communicating better using pictures (n.d.).Retrieved July 3, 2002, from http://xplane.com/visualthinking/ Yildirim, Z., Ozden,M.,& Aksu, M.(2001). Comparison of hypermedia learning and traditional instruction on knowledge acquisition and retention, The Journal of Educational Research, March/April 2001, .94 ,(30), 207-214.

178 Appendix Grade 4 - Relevant Science & Technology Standards

Standard 1: Nature of Science - Understand the nature of science through observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating. k-4 Relevant Benchmarks 4. Demonstrate to classmates how to solve a problem using words, charts, graphs or drawings. Relevant Concepts/Skills Work in cooperative teams and share findings with others, using a variety of presentation techniques, such as Kid Pix or ClarisWorks slide shows. Use appropriate technologies to gather, record, store and present data. Standard 3: Living Environment - Develop an understanding of the characteristics and life cycles of organisms and their environments. K-4 Relevant Benchmarks 1. Identify the basic needs of organisms (e.g., food, water, air, and shelter). 3. Describe how organisms interact with the environment. 6. Understand that a great variety of kinds of living things can be sorted into groups in many ways using various features to decide which things belong to which group. Relevant Concepts/Skills Describe organisms as living objects (plants and animals) which live and interact in different surroundings. Conduct an investigation that demonstrates that for any particular environments, some kinds of plants and animals survive better than others, and some cannot survive at all.

179 Draw and label a food chain, based on the environment of the Northeastern United States. Discuss what happens if one link in the food chain no longer exists. What effect would that have on other organisms or other habitats? After discussing the issues with a partner, draw and label a new food chain, using a drawing program such as Claris Works. Draw, write, illustrate, tell and dictate regularly in science journal or log. Graph data on individual, team, and class charts. Implement Oral Presentations - with specific scoring criteria (rubric) Standard 6: Bridges To Math and Technology - Understand that science, mathematics, and technology are dependent upon and reinforce each other, promoting new and high levels of understanding, discovery, and problem solving. K-4 Relevant Benchmarks 1. Construct graphs using correct units and numbers. Compare and interpret groups of data using these graphs. 2. Demonstrate different methods of problem solving in math and technology, through written and oral communication. Relevant Concepts/Skills Construct and interpret data from photographs, table charts, bar graphs and maps. Draw diagrams, make tables and incorporate written reports. Use computer on-line services to get current information about rapidly-changing scientific topics and current issues. Download data and use it in a scientific presentation to the class.

The School District of Philadelphia Curriculum Frameworks CD-Rom, January, 1999

180

Figure 16 – 1992 International Science Test Comparison Riskline, USA Today, March 17, 1993, p.5D.

181 TIMSS 1999 Assessment Results Science Achievement of Eighth-Graders

Nation Chinese Taipei Singapore Hungary Japan Korea, Republic of Netherlands Australia Czech Republic England Finland Slovak Republic Belgium-Flemish Slovenia Canada Hong Kong SAR Russian Federation Bulgaria United States New Zealand Latvia-LSS Italy Malaysia Lithuania Thailand Romania Israel Cyprus Moldova Macedonia, Republic of Jordan Iran, Islamic Republic of Indonesia Turkey Tunisia Chile Philippines Morocco South Africa From :National Center for Educational Statistics, http://nces.ed.gov/timss/results.asp

Average 569 568 552 550 549 545 540 539 538 535 535 535 533 533 530 529 518 515 510 503 493 492 488 482 472 468 460 459 458 450 448 435 433 430 420 345 323 24

182

Average Percentage Scores by Science Performance Expectation Categories, Fourth Grade Using Scientific Procedures

Problem Solving

Scientific Investigating

Average across all tasks

International Average Slovenia United States Hong Kong Australia Portugal Cyprus Iran New Zealand Canada 0

20

40

60

80

percent correct

Figure 17 - Problem Solving, grade 4, TIMSS Performance Assessment, 1995

183

Seven Goals for the Design of Constructivist Learning Environments (Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993; Knuth & Cunninngham, 1993)

1.Provide experience with the knowledge construction process. Students take primary responsibility for determining the topics or subtopics in a domain they pursue, the methods of how to learn, and the strategies or methods for solving problems. The role of the teacher is to facilitate this process 2.Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives . Problems in the real world rarely have one correct approach or one correct solution. There are typically multiple ways to think about and solve problems. Students must engage in activities that enable them to evaluate alternative solutions to problems as a means of testing and enriching their understanding. 3.Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts. Most learning occurs in the context of school whereby educators remove the noise of real life from the learning activity. For instance, word problems in math textbooks rarely relate to the types of problems found in real life. The result is the reduced ability of the students to transfer what they learn in school to everyday life. To overcome this problem, curriculum designers must attempt to maintain the authentic context of the learning task. 4.Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process. This illustrates the student-centeredness of constructivist learning. Rather than the teacher determining what students will learn, students play a strong role in identifying their issues and directions, as well as their

184 goals and objectives. In this framework, the teacher acts as a consultant who helps students frame their learning objectives. 5.Embed learning in social experience. Intellectual development is significantly influenced through social interactions. Thus, learning should reflect collaboration between both teachers and students, and students and students. 6.Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation. Oral and written communication are the two most common forms of transmitting knowledge in educational settings. However, learning with only these forms of communication limits how students see the world. Curricula should adopt additional media, such as video, computer, photographs, and sound, to provide richer experiences. 7.Encourage self-awareness of the knowledge construction process. A key outcome of constructivist learning is knowing how we know. It is the students’ ability to explain why or how they solved a problem in a certain way; to analyze their construction of knowledge and processes. Cunningham et al. (1993) call this “reflexivity,” an extension of metacognitive and reflective activities.

185

Technology Foundation Standards for All Students http://cnets.iste.org/index2.html The technology foundation standards for students are divided into six broad categories. Standards within each category are to be introduced, reinforced, and mastered by students. These categories provide a framework for linking performance indicators within the Profiles for Technology Literate Students to the standards. Teachers can use these standards and profiles as guidelines for planning technologybased activities in which students achieve success in learning, communication, and life skills. Technology Foundation Standards for Students 1.

Basic operations and concepts Students demonstrate a sound understanding of the nature and operation of technology systems. Students are proficient in the use of technology.

2.

Social, ethical, and human issues Students understand the ethical, cultural, and societal issues related to technology. Students practice responsible use of technology systems, information, and software. Students develop positive attitudes toward technology uses that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits, and productivity.

3.

Technology productivity tools Students use technology tools to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity. Students use productivity tools to collaborate in constructing technologyenhanced models, prepare publications, and produce other creative works.

4.

Technology communications tools Students use telecommunications to collaborate, publish, and interact with peers, experts, and other audiences. Students use a variety of media and formats to communicate information and ideas effectively to multiple audiences.

5.

Technology research tools Students use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources. Students use technology tools to process data and report results. Students evaluate and select new information resources and technological innovations based on the appropriateness for specific tasks.

6.

Technology problem-solving and decision-making tools

186 Students use technology resources for solving problems and making informed decisions. Students employ technology in the development of strategies for solving problems in the real world.

187

Performance Indicators for Technology - Literate Students Grades 3-5, http://cnets.iste.org/35pro.htm All students should have opportunities to demonstrate the following performances. Numbers in parentheses following each performance indicator refer to the standards category to which the performance is linked. The categories are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Basic operations and concepts Social, ethical, and human issues Technology productivity tools Technology communications tools Technology research tools Technology problem-solving and decision-making tools

Prior to completion of Grade 5, students will: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

Use keyboards and other common input and output devices (including adaptive devices when necessary) efficiently and effectively. (1) Discuss common uses of technology in daily life and the advantages and disadvantages those uses provide. (1, 2) Discuss basic issues related to responsible use of technology and information and describe personal consequences of inappropriate use. (2) Use general purpose productivity tools and peripherals to support personal productivity, remediate skill deficits, and facilitate learning throughout the curriculum. (3) Use technology tools (e.g., multimedia authoring, presentation, Web tools, digital cameras, scanners) for individual and collaborative writing, communication, and publishing activities to create knowledge products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. (3, 4) Use telecommunications efficiently to access remote information, communicate with others in support of direct and independent learning, and pursue personal interests. (4) Use telecommunications and online resources (e.g., e-mail, online discussions, Web environments) to participate in collaborative problem-solving activities for the purpose of developing solutions or products for audiences inside and outside the classroom. (4, 5) Use technology resources (e.g., calculators, data collection probes, videos, educational software) for problem solving, self-directed learning, and extended learning activities. (5, 6) Determine which technology is useful and select the appropriate tool(s) and technology resources to address a variety of tasks and problems. (5, 6) Evaluate the accuracy, relevance, appropriateness, comprehensiveness, and bias of electronic information sources. (6)

188 Problems

1. There are getting to be less and less daddy long legs. Scientists are afraid that daddy long legs may become extinct. Squirrels and rabbits are eating all of the broadleaf plants that are the daddy long legs’ food. What could we do about this?

2. If acid rain destroyed most of the grasses and grains in Pennsylvania, would this be a problem ? What animals would be affected, and what could be done about it ?

3. A schoolyard has many caterpillars. Garter snakes have started coming into the schoolyard to eat caterpillars. The principal is afraid of snakes. What could be done?

4. If hunters shot most of the hawks and cats, what do you think would happen to robins? Do you think this would be a problem, and if so, what could people do to solve it?

5. The sun shone very bright for many weeks, and it became very hot . Water for the broadleaf plants dried up and was gone. What would happen to broadleaf plants? What animals would be affected? Is this a problem, and if so, what could be done to help these animals ?

189

190

Table 5 - Views of Knowledge

How our views of knowledge influence our views of instruction Brent G. Wilson, Constructivist Learning Environments (p 4)

If you think of knowledge as…

Then you may tend to think of instruction as…

a quantity or packet of content

a product to be delivered by a

waiting to be transmitted

vehicle

a cognitive state as reflected in a

a set of instructional strategies

person’s schemas and procedural

aimed at changing an

individual’s skills

schemas.

a person’s meanings constructed by

a learner drawing on tools and

interaction with one’s environment

resources within a rich

environment enculturation or adoption of a group’s

participation in a community’s

ways of seeing and acting

everyday activities.

191

Table 6 -Video Time Coding

Jan. 07, 2004

Subject & Image:

Quote:

Category:

00:00:01 00:00:05 00:01:02 00:01:45 00:02:06 00:02:36 00:03:01 00:03:25 00:04:10 delete 00:04:20 00:04:54

Javan talks My page is the best James points Look at his seed, the way Samantha shows page Samantha answers No, because I don’t know how Javan walks over big monitor But the way you did it Isiah looks at Tina’s I like her mouse, we could Tina disagrees I think a mouse would chair falls over laughing Essence & Tony food chain chart

Does your link work yet? This one shows the right way

food chain chart view students’ faces Brandon raises hand Brandon close up Tyronne & Brandon Sierra & Christina

But what if there were no hawks?

PS VT C,VT C PS HW HW

HW

PS 00:05:20 00:05:31 00:06:00 00:06:15 00:06:43 00:07:08 HW 00:07:09 00:07:47 00:08:14 00:08:51 00:09:10 00:09:32 00:09:58 00:10:13 VT,PS 00:11:10 00:11:21 00:11:55

I know, it would be like If the hawks were gone How could you show this on Take off the hawk link

PS VT PS PS PS,VT

Tyronne’s computer We tried it, but then we didn’t PS Sierra’s computer Well, if you do that, what will the PS Brandon points That’s not the right way to make C big poster of link tool HW Nichole Click on this, and you’ll see HW Elden hits Nichole delete students return to computers close up learning log I used the corn because 2nd learning log Tina answers Brandon points

Why did you make the Since that was all he had What do you mean

VT PS PS

192

Constant comparison method: A kaleidoscope of data Dye, J. F., Schatz, I. M., Rosenberg, B. A., & Coleman, S. T. (2000, January).http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR3-4/dye.html

193

Figure 18 - Constant Comparison Method

194

Table 7 - Grade 4 - Science

Grade 4 - Science Unit: Course Goals, Learning Experiences & Activities

Food Chain Essential Concepts, Skills, Themes, and Questions

Products, Performances, & Assessments

Standard 1, Benchmark 4 Demonstrate to classmates how to solve a problem using words, charts, graphs, or drawings Students will work in cooperative teams and share findings with others, using a variety of presentation techniques, Kid Pix or Clarisworks slides shows. Students will use appropriate technologies to gather, record, store, and present data.

Concepts:

Products:

Producers Consumers Decomposers

Food chain web pages Visual Learning Logs

Claris Home Page Kid Pix

Ecosystem Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

Slide show of food chain Food pyramid made of cartons

Kid Pix software

Extinction Overpopulation

Inspiration food chain chart

Inspiration concept map software

Standard 3, Benchmark 1 Identify the basic needs of organisms

Themes:

Materials, Technology & Formats

195 Students will conduct an investigation that demonstrates that for any particular environment, some kinds of plants and animals survive better than others, and some cannot survive at all.

Standard 3, Benchmark 3 Describe how organisms interact with the environment Standard 3, Benchmark 6 Understand that a great variety of kinds of living things can be sorted into groups in many ways using various features to decide which things belong to which group. Learning Experiences

A food chain is a simplified look at how energy is transferred from one living thing to another.

Paper chain food chain

Construction paper, pencils

Related links

Internet Explorer Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia Online World Book Online

Food chains put together make food webs.

Students combine their chains

Construction paper Claris Home Page

Plants use the energy of the sun to make their own food.

Mobile of animals and plants

Hanger, magazines, string

Skills

Assessment:

An ecosystem consists of a community of living things interacting with each other and the environment.

196

Students will: a)Draw, write, illustrate, tell and dictate regularly in science journal or log b)Graph data on individual, team , and class charts

Describe each animal or plant in chain. Describe organisms as living objects (plants and animals) which live and interact in different surroundings. Improve internet research skills

c) Do oral presentations - with specific scoring criteria (rubric)

Electronic portfolio assessment (rubric for Visual Learning Logs) Teacher made test (Vocabulary and Pictures)

Visual Learning Logs The Graph Club software

Draw and label a food chain, based on the environment of the Northeastern United States. Discuss what happens if one link in the food chain no longer exists. What effect would that have on other organisms or other habitats? After discussing the issues with a partner, draw and label a new food chain, using a drawing program such as ClarisWorks Students will present their pages to each other.

Standard 6, Benchmark 1 Construct graphs using correct units and number. Compare and interpret groups of data using these graphs Standard 6, Benchmark 2

Construct and interpret data from photographs, table charts, bar graphs and maps. Draw diagrams, make tables

Electronic feedback on web site

Internet Explorer Graph Club

197 Demonstrate different methods of problem solving in math and technology, through written and oral communication.

Download data and use it in a scientific presentation to the class

Student web page

Understand the interdependency of living things.

Videotaped Informal Group Interviews rated by rubric for understanding of relevant science standards and benchmarks

Internet Explorer Student oral presentation s and Videotaped Informal Group Interviews

198

Figure 19 - Dual Coding Theory

199

Vita

Jean M. Plough 350 W. Mt. Airy Ave. Philadelphia, Pa. 19119 (215) 248-2350 Education: University of the Arts Temple University Drexel University Drexel University

Lowell School N. 5th St. & Nedro Ave Philadelphia, Pa. 19120 (215) 276-5878 [email protected] BFA M Ed

1970 1974 1989-95 2004

PhD

Experience: Fourth Street Academy Lewis Middle School Huey Elementary School Lea Middle School Leidy Elementary School Alcorn Elementary School Hackett Elementary School Hackett Elementary School Lowell Elementary School

Content Institute, MLK School

Art Education math, computer Educational Leadership & Learning Technologies

Teacher, Special Education Teacher, Special Education Teacher, Art Teacher, Art Teacher, Art Teacher, Art Teacher, Art, Teacher, Computer Technology Teacher Leader Teacher, Computer Teacher, Fast Forword Technology Committee Staff Development, Technology Workshops: Adobe Photoshop Elements, Web page design, On-line report cards Technology Facilitator Staff Development

Exhibitions: National Museum of Women in the Arts Third Street Gallery Foundry Gallery Pleiades Gallery Rossler Gallery

Washington, D.C. Philadelphia, Pa. Washington, D.C. New York, N.Y. Munich, Germany

1975-1980 1980-1981 1981-1982 1982-1983 1983-1984 1984-1985 1985-1989 1989-1998 1998-2004

1999

2003 2004 2003 2003 2000

200