Successful Family Foster Care - CiteSeerX

The Potential for Successful Family Foster Care: Conceptualizing Competency Domains for Foster Parents

Cheryl Buehler University of North Carolina - Greensboro Kathryn W. Rhodes John G. Orme University of Tennessee Gary Cuddeback University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill

This paper was supported, in part, by a grant from Casey Family Programs, Seattle, WA. We greatly appreciate their support. We also would like to thank Mary Ellen Cox and Tanya Coakley for their collaboration with us in our research on foster families. Please address comments and inquires to Cheryl Buehler, HDFS, Stone Building, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402-6170, [email protected].

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to propose that the potential to foster successfully centers around developing and supporting competency in 12 domains. These include: providing a safe and secure environment; providing a nurturing environment; promoting educational attainment and success; meeting physical and mental health care needs; promoting social and emotional development; valuing diversity and supporting children’s cultural needs; supporting permanency planning; managing ambiguity and loss for the foster child and family; growing as a foster parent; managing the demands of fostering on personal and familial well-being; supporting relationships between children and their families; and working as a team member. Each of these domains is described and relevant research is reviewed. The delineation of these domains and their attendant competencies can guide research and the assessment of applicants and practicing foster parents.

2

The Potential for Successful Family Foster Care: Conceptualizing Competency Domains for Foster Parents Foster parents provide the primary care for three-fourths of the children who are in state custody, forming the backbone of out-of-home care services in the United States (Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2002). The importance of ensuring that these children are raised in a stable, long-term family arrangement is emphasized in the Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997 (PL 105-89). Because of the compelling state interest, care provided by foster parents is regulated to prevent additional maltreatment of foster children, to help ensure a caretaking environment that can support children’s growth and development, and to encourage foster parents to support children’s permanency plans. This regulation most often takes the form of required preservice training for foster parents, licensing to care for foster children, monitoring by a child welfare agency, required ongoing training, and the assessment and provision of needed services for foster child(ren) and their birth families, and needed support for foster families. Training, assessment, licensure, support, and monitoring activities are best accomplished when there is a clear conceptualization of what it takes to foster successfully (Shlonsky & Berrick, 2001). In addition to delineating salient competency domains such as providing for children’s safety, educational needs, mental health needs, and attachment needs, Shlonsky and Berrick (S&B, 2001) also argue that foster parents are held to a higher standard of parenting and care than are birth parents because of the state’s assumption of responsibility for the child. The identification of needed competencies to foster successfully is made more compelling by these higher standards. The purpose of this article is to delineate and detail competencies needed by foster parents. We do not include kinship caregivers in this conceptualization because some of the issues might differ significantly (CWLA, 2000; Cuddeback, in press; Cuddeback & Orme, 2002).

3

We use information from the 1995 Child Welfare League of America’s (CWLA) standards, training curricula, and research on foster parent applicants and successful foster parents to develop this conceptualization of salient competency domains. In addition to these sources, the work of and leadership provided by Eileen Pasztor was influential. Pasztor (1985) suggested that foster parents should be included in the permanency planning process. She also suggested that agency goals and activities related to foster care should focus substantially on the recruitment, development, support, and retention of foster parents (Pasztor & Wynne, 1995). A third important aspect of her approach is the emphasis on the process of mutual assessment during the licensing process. This perspective of assessment, development, and support is reflected in the frequently-used preservice training programs Model Approach to Partnerships in Parenting (MAPP; Pastzor, 1987 ) and Parent Resources for Information, Development, and Education (PRIDE; Illinois Department of Children and Family Services, CWLA, 1993)1 and in the CWLA Standards for Excellence for Family Foster Care Services (1995). Foster Parent Competencies The National Commission on Family Foster Care (NCFFC, 1991), and the CWLA’s Standards (1995) have identified consistent principles that should guide foster care practice. These principles include: promoting children’s development, recognizing the importance of parents and families, valuing diversity and cultural competence, managing loss, working as a team, and clarifying foster parent roles. These principles serve as a foundation for MAPP and PRIDE. For example, there are five essential role functions for foster parents addressed in the PRIDE Model: (a) protecting and nurturing

1

PRIDE was a collaborative effort that was sponsored by 17 child welfare organizations in addition to the one in Illinois. The writing team was Joanne Mathews, Michael E. Polowy, Eileen Mayers Pasztor, Janet Watson, and Eileen E. Torpey, with Joan Langen, Maureen Leighton, and Donna Petras, contributions from Wendy Whiting Blome, Barbara Cavin, Susan A. deBrigard, Lenore Gilrane, Emily Jean McFadden, Madeline Olea, Patricia Ryan, Julie SweeneySpringwater, and Suzan Wynne.

4

children; (b) meeting developmental needs and addressing developmental delays; (c) supporting relationships between children and their families; (d) connecting children to safe nurturing relationships intended to last a life time; and (e) working as a member of a professional team (p. 4). Similarly, Casey Family Programs (CFP) identified eight important competency areas: (a) providing a safe and nurturing environment; (b) meeting developmental needs of children in care; (c) supporting birth family work; (d) promoting long-term outcomes; (e) working in partnership; (f) self-care and family life; (g) growing as a foster parent; and (h) supporting children’s cultural needs (Casey Family Programs, CFP, 1997). By integrating these four schemas (i.e., professional standards, PRIDE competencies, CFP competencies, S&B’s domains), we suggest that the conceptualization of the potential for successful family foster parenting include competencies in the following domains: •

Providing a safe and secure care environment (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE; S&B)

•

Providing a nurturing care environment (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE; S&B)

•

Promoting educational attainment and success (CWLA; NCFFC; S&B)

•

Meeting physical and mental health care needs (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE; S&B)

•

Promoting social and emotional development (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE; S&B)

•

Valuing diversity and supporting children’s cultural needs (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC)

•

Supporting permanency plans (CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE)

•

Managing ambiguity and loss for the foster child and family (CWLA; NCFFC)

5

•

Growing as a foster parent – skill development and role clarification (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC)

•

Managing the demands of fostering on personal and familial well-being (CFP)

•

Supporting relationships between children and their families (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE)

•

Working as a team member (CFP; CWLA; NCFFC; PRIDE)

The remaining portion of this paper focuses on describing the central elements of each domain and reviewing research that details its significance. We focus on parental and foster family competencies that might facilitate fostering success in each domain. At the end of each domain discussion, we also suggest criteria for success. Before proceeding, the concepts of “successful care” and “competency” are defined to create a context for the discussion of the 12 domains. Ultimately, successful family foster care results in children whose physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and familial needs are met and their growth in these areas is promoted within a safe, secure family environment. Successful care also is indicated by the actualization of permanency plans and the lack of unneeded or unplanned changes in placements. Finally, successful care is indicated by foster families who adequately manage the challenges associated with fostering such that care provision does not diminish the psychological well-being of foster family members or the quality of their interpersonal relationships. Competencies are defined as a combination of knowledge, interest, and skill needed to perform successfully the tasks of fostering (PRIDE). Rycus and Hughes (1998) suggest a useful distinction between “minimum” and “desired” standards. Based on their reasoning, a minimum level of success in a given competency domain would be expected, whereas a desired level of success in a given domain would be a goal. Additional support and training might be needed to help foster parents attain a desired level of success in a given competency domain. Time (a year or two) and experience

6

also might be needed for foster parents to develop certain competencies to a “desired” level of success (PRIDE). Providing a safe and secure care environment This domain includes physical and emotional safety and security. Providing a safe and secure environment for a child is an important aspect of the fostering experience for foster parents (Buehler, Cox, & Cuddeback, 2003). We suggest that both actual and perceived safety and security are important and delineate five essential aspects: freedom from abuse, freedom from neglect, a home that diminishes the chance of accidents and injury, a safe neighborhood and school or built-in protections when there are safety concerns, and an environment that promotes emotional security. Essentially, each of these aspects details protection from additional maltreatment. Freedom from abuse. Recent AFCARS data on reasons for children’s removal indicate that 15.4% of children were removed because of physical abuse and 6.7% were removed because of sexual abuse (National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect, NDACAN, 2002). An important aspect of successful foster care is to shelter children from additional abuse (Shlonsky & Berrick, 2001). Unfortunately, there is evidence that maltreatment continues for some children during their stay in family foster care. According to the Child Welfare League of America’s National Data Analysis System (http://ndas.cwla.org/), in 1999 in the United States 3,623 foster parents (kin and nonkin) were identified as responsible for the maltreatment (abuse or neglect) of a child in their care. Zuravin, Benedict, and Somerfield (1993) reported that 22% of the supervised foster homes had at least one confirmed maltreatment report during their study period, with most incidents involving only one foster child (versus multiple victims). Sexual abuse was present in 48% of the homes with a confirmed allegation. Physical abuse was present in 39% of the “maltreatment” homes and neglect was present in 29% of the troubled homes. A foster parent was the perpetrator in 64% of the sexual abuse

7

incidents and all of the physical abuse and neglect incidents, with a couple of exceptions. In addition to protecting children, foster parents need to be free from abuse and violence in their adult relationships. Berrick (1997) documents that this is not the case for a small percentage of foster families. About 6% of foster parents reported that they had been threatened in their homes with guns or knives by family members, friends, or lovers. About 3% had been threatened without weapons but with intent to do harm. In a recent study of foster family applicants, Orme et al. (in press) found that 4.0% of wives and 10.1% of husbands reported problematic levels of verbal abuse from their spouse. Foster parents also need to value and enact non-physical problem-solving and discipline strategies, as evidenced by most agency policies that prohibit the use of physical discipline with foster children (Lee, 2001; McFadden & Ryan, 1991). Orme et al. (in press) reported that 11% of the foster parents who recently had begun caring for children had problematic parenting beliefs related to the use of corporal punishment to discipline children. Spanking was the primary discipline technique used by 16% of the foster parents in Berrick’s (1997) sample of practicing foster parents. About 14% of the parents in the Buehler et al. qualitative study (2003) mentioned that positive beliefs about the usefulness of physical discipline get in the way of fostering well. An abuse-free environment is a minimal condition for quality care of children who have been maltreated (Pecora et al., 2002). Because of their increased vulnerability, maltreated children require a highly stable and nurturing environment in order to begin to heal some of the emotional and developmental damage caused by the abuse (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). As such, foster parents need to possess a variety of positive discipline strategies and non-punitive conflict resolution skills (CWLA, 1995). Freedom from neglect. AFCARS data indicate that 48.6% of the children in care have been removed from their families because of parental/caretaker neglect (NDACAN, 2002). Part of this neglect is associated with parental alcohol and drug problems

8

(Franck, 2001). AFCARS data indicate that 7.1% of children in out-home-care were removed from their homes because of their parent’s alcohol abuse and 12.8% were removed because of parent’s drug abuse (NDACAN, 2002). Foster parents must demonstrate an understanding of what constitutes neglect and structure household and family life in ways that minimize the potential for actual or perceived neglect. Because of the association with neglectful parenting (Downey & Coyne, 1990), substance abuse and the presence of chronic parental depression potentially inhibit successful fostering. Although we were unable to find reliable information on the rates of substance abuse for practicing foster parents, substantial concerns regarding substance abuse are one reason foster family applicants are denied fostering approval (Lee, 2001). However, in a study of state laws regarding the licensing of foster parents in the United States, Lee (2001) found that only 3% of states explicitly required some proof from foster parents regarding freedom from substance dependency. Because of the potential influence of nonparental adults on children, Berrick (1997) asked foster parents if they had ever been concerned about drug or alcohol use among adults who live in the home or who occasionally stay. About 6% reported having these concerns. As with the paucity of research regarding the rate of substance abuse problems among practicing foster parents, there is little known about levels of clinical depressive affect among foster parents. In a study of applicants, however, Orme et al. (in press) found that 8.3% of female and 14.6% of male foster parent applicants had high levels of depressive affect. Importantly, there is some evidence that foster parents have fewer problems with depression than that reported for adults in a normative population (Berrick, 1997; Lipton, 1997). Home physical safety. The homes of foster parent applicants are evaluated for physical safety as part of the licensing process (Lee, 2001). Because of this assessment, most foster homes should be safe physically. Based on research

9

conducted during the 1970s, Lindhom and Touliatos (1978) reported that workers judged 99% of the homes as safe and comfortable. The structural condition of most homes was good in Berrick’s (1997) sample, however, somewhere between 10% and 15% of the foster homes had identifiable physical hazards inside or outside. Over 90% of the parents in Berrick’s sample had first aid kits and knew CPR. Neighborhood safety. In general, the safety and quality of the neighborhood can shape children’s life experiences, with poor or dangerous environments placing them at risk for adjustment difficulties (Klebanov, Brooks-Gunn, Chase-Lansdale, & Gordon, 1997). As with the physical home environment for foster families, Berrick’s (1997) study provides the most recent information on neighborhood safety. About 27% of foster parents reported that they did not believe their foster children felt safe going to school unaccompanied by an adult. Many parents (33%) also had concerns about the quality of the neighborhood with regards to being a good place to raise children. About 3% felt that violence connected to drug use or drug dealing was a problem in their neighborhoods or families. Berrick’s (1997) study is one of the few that has provided detailed information about foster parents’ home environments. Because the sample was regional and fairly small, it is important that a future study with a larger, more diverse sample of foster families provide additional information on the home environment that is as detailed as that provided in the Berrick study. Emotional security. There has been very little research on the emotional security of foster children and foster parents’ behaviors that promote felt security. Bailey (2000) developed a measure of children’s perceptions of physical and emotional safety, but this measure has not been used with children in family foster care. Citing a survey conducted by Wilson Resources, Poertner et al. (2000) reported that 92% of the children in foster care felt safe. Recent research in developmental psychology illustrates the importance of emotional security for children and the role that adult anger, coparental hostility, or

10

childhood trauma can play in producing insecurity (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; Garbarino, 2002). One of the many potential consequences of witnessing adult anger for children is wariness and a hypersensitivity to stressful living. This potential vulnerability is particularly salient when caring for foster children because some have been victims of violence and abuse in their families-of-origin or have witnessed such violence. The importance of offering safety and security has been hallmarked for years in the literature on out-of-home care. Wolins (1963) believed it was important that foster care provide children with normalizing family experiences and Shlonsky and Berrick (2001) highlighted this idea and argued that providing normalizing experiences is a minimum standard for care. In a recent qualitative study of foster parents’ perceptions of successful fostering, the importance of being able to make a difference in a child’s life, the importance of creating some sense of “normality” and belonging, and the importance of providing a safe and secure environment for a child were highlighted (Buehler et al., 2003). These were responses to an open-ended question about the rewarding aspects of fostering. A minimum level of success in this area is to protect the foster child from additional maltreatment. This includes, but is not limited to, an understanding of the impact that physical discipline has on abused children and the ability to care for children using positive discipline strategies. A desired level of success is to maintain and/or increase foster children’s feelings of emotional security. Providing a nurturing environment One of the strongest correlates of positive child adjustment is feeling accepted and cared for by parents (Khaleque & Rohner, 2002). Not surprisingly, then, foster children need to feel accepted and valued by their foster parents, particularly given they are likely to feel some rejection from their birth parents (Ginsberg, 1989). Citing research

11

conducted by Wilson Resources, Poertner at al. (2000) stated that 82% of children in family foster care reported that they always felt loved by their caretakers. When asked about things that help to foster successfully, 86% of the parents in the Buehler et al. (2003) qualitative study mentioned a deep concern or love for children. About 82% mentioned a need to be tolerant and accepting, even when the child is very different from oneself or other family members. Going even further, 41% talked about accepting foster children as their own children. Supporting the idea that the provision of acceptance and nurturance are important foster parent competencies, Guerney and Gavigan (1981) conducted research on whether foster parent acceptance is a fixed social-psychological characteristic or is a characteristic that can be modified through training. They measured acceptance using three of Porter’s subscales: acceptance of the child’s feelings, acceptance of uniqueness, and recognition of the child’s need for autonomy. Post-training scores on parental acceptance were significantly higher than pretest scores after participating in the Foster Parent Skills Training Program. These increases in parental acceptance were maintained at a seven-month follow-up. Although both mothers and fathers became more accepting by participating in the skills training program, change scores were greater for mothers than for fathers. Thus, these are important characteristics that can be promoted during preservice training. Empathy and tolerance also are important foster parent characteristics that promote nurturing parent-child relationships (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). Orme et al. (in press) found that in 25% of the foster families who cared for children, at least one parent scored in the problematic range of the empathy subscale of the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI). The importance of parental tolerance in the face of child differences, demandingness, or disappointing behavior was documented in the early research by Rowe (1976) on fostering success. It is important that foster parents be able

12

to help foster children deal with the various feelings they have about their birth families, being fostered, and their future (Buehler et al., 2003). Finally, in addition to the importance of foster parent acceptance and valuing, part of providing a nurturing environment is to facilitate children’s connection with other caring adults such as grandparents, neighbors, parents of peers, teachers, and coaches (Jacobvitz, 2002). Again, this might be particularly important for foster parents given some of foster children’s social and affiliative connections are tenuous. It is helpful that many foster parents begin fostering with a deep concern and care for children because some foster children present parenting challenges that can serve as a barrier to creating positive affective attachments. For example, affective attachments sometimes are difficult to form when children have serious behavior problems or have attachment disorders. Thus, some foster parents will need to be able to accept and value children whom might be upset about being in foster care and/or might resist forming relationships while in care. Ginsberg (1989) suggests that training in filial therapeutic techniques, which focus on parents’ positive, nurturing, and accepting interactions with children, might help foster parents care more successfully for foster children who have emotional and behavioral problems. Another barrier to forming a positive affective attachment with a foster child is the temporary nature of foster care. AFCARS data indicate that the case plan goal is reunification for 44.1% of the children in out-of-home (NDACAN, 2002). Some foster parents have noted the pain involved with children leaving their families (Buehler et al., 2003; Martin et al., 1992; Twigg, 1994) and it is important that this worry and anxious anticipation not impede positive affective attachments. The experience of having a child leave care, especially when the foster parent believes the child is being sent back to a bad situation, is associated strongly with foster parent’s considering quitting fostering (Denby & Rindfleisch, 1996; Rhodes, Orme, & Buehler, 2001). Foster parents who have

13

difficulty dealing with the tenuous nature of fostering might need to seek therapeutic support to increase their competencies in this area of functioning (Molin, 1988). Thus, a minimum level of success in nurturing foster children is indicated by foster children who feel accepted and cared for by their foster parents. A desired level of success is indicated by foster children who can form secure attachments with primary caretakers and form satisfying interpersonal relationships. Promoting Educational Attainment and Success Shlonsky and Berrick (2001) and Altshular and Gleeson (1999) provide comprehensive literature reviews on the potential risks for foster children with regards to educational attainment and feelings of school-associated efficacy. Franck’s (2001) recent analysis of national data reinforces the assertion that foster children are vulnerable for poor academic outcomes. She reported that 32% of children in foster care had school-related difficulties. This vulnerability also has been documented in the research on some of the long-term outcomes of foster care. One of the more pervasive findings in this literature is that adults who experienced family foster care while growing up have lower levels of educational attainment and lower educationally-related aspirations than do adults not raised in out-of-home care (Blome, 1997; Cook, 1994; Fanshel, Finch, & Grundy, 1990; Royse & Wiehe, 1989; Stein & Carey, 1986). Although foster children clearly are at risk for educational difficulties, there is some evidence that their educational attainment is similar to that of others who have lived in chronic poverty and other disadvantaged life circumstances (Buehler, Orme, Post, & Patterson, 2000; Fox & Arcuri, 1980). Because parents’ educational attainment is correlated with children’s educational attainment, and because mothers’ educational attainment is associated inversely with children’s problem behaviors (Chase-Lansdale, Gordon, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 1997), foster parents who have relatively lower levels of formal education (e.g., those who do not graduate from high school) need to demonstrate a commitment to foster

14

children’s educational attainment and the ability to enact positive strategies to promote school success. Although being able to promote positive school outcomes and academic achievement is an important role expectancy for foster parents, specific parenting techniques that promote success in this realm have not been addressed in the fostering literature (athough see Tennyson, 1998, for a discussion of strategies for teachers and school counselors). The field could profit from research in this area and from an integration of the literatures on successful academic achievement and foster children’s particular needs. A minimum level of success in the educational domain is for foster children to attend school regularly and to receive needed school-related services. A desired level of success is for foster children to have educational aspirations that involve completing high school and consideration of advanced schooling or training. Meeting Physical and Mental Health Care Needs Physical care needs. Foster parents must attend to children’s physical and mental health needs. A fairly robust body of research demonstrates that these needs can be extensive (Altshular & Gleeson, 1999; Chernoff, Combs-Orme, Risley-Curtiss, & Heisler, 1994; Franck, 2001; Garland, Landsverk, Hough, & Ellis-MacLeod, 1996; Glisson, 1996; Pilowsky, 1995). Children often come into care with an array of physical health difficulties, many undiagnosed and untreated (Chadwick et al., 1999; Chernoff et al., 1994; Takayama, Wolfe, & Coulter, 1998). Between one and two-thirds of the children coming into care have not had physical exams within the previous year (Cain & Barth, 1990; Illinois DCFS, 1997, cited in Poertner et al., 2000). About 55% of the foster parents in Cain and Barth’s (1990) study reported that they had received training in how to meet the health care needs of foster children. Ninety-three percent of these parents also believed that it was their responsibility to get all of the care needed by their foster children and that it was the workers’ responsibility to coordinate care services.

15

Foster parents who care for medically-fragile or drug-addicted infants/children need specialized competencies. Analyzing national data, Franck (2001) reported that 33% of children in foster care had positive drug toxicologies at birth. AFCARS data indicate that 16.7% of the children in care have a diagnosed disability (NDACAN, 2002). In addition to the extra patience, time, and energy already required to address the health care needs of most foster children, foster parents who care for infants and children who are medically fragile need specialized training to develop additional competencies needed for meeting the unique needs of these children. Foster parents also must be able to negotiate with an array of health care providers to get children adequate care (see the American Academy of Pediatrocs, 2000, for a discussion of the role of pediatricians in facilitating this process). At times, they must do this when they have received little information about foster children’s current health needs or documentation of their medical history. Foster parents also need to keep good records of foster children’s medical care and forward these materials to caseworkers so that accurate medical histories can be maintained for foster children (compatible with the idea of a medical passport). Mental health care needs. Heflinger, Simpkins, and Combs-Orme (2000) systematically reviewed the research on the proportions of children in state custody with serious emotional and behavior problems. The review suggested that between 30-40% of the children in care have serious behavioral problems. There also is some evidence suggesting behavior problems worsen for children who are maltreated while in care (Benedict, Zuravin, Somerfield, & Brandt, 1996). The presence of fairly serious foster child behavior problems means that foster parents must possess a variety of effective parenting skills and competencies. In general, difficulty dealing with children’s problems is one of the major causes of placement disruptions (Stone & Stone, 1983). Many foster parents believe they are not trained adequately to handle serious behavior problems and do not receive adequate

16

support services from agencies (Henry, Cossett, Auletta, & Egan, 1991). This is an important issue because foster parents who feel competent in caring for children seem to be more satisfied with fostering (Denby, Rindfleisch, & Bean, 1999). In addition to the required pre-service training, experienced foster parents need in-service training for working with children who have adjustment difficulties and need to be competent in recognizing the need for and negotiating for specific support services that might help meet the parenting challenges (e.g., peer mentors, respite care, easy access to mental health professionals). A minimum level of success in this domain is indicated by children receiving adequate care for their physical needs and mental health problems. A desired level of success is indicated by children’s improvement in physical and mental health. Promoting Social and Emotional Development In addition to addressing children’s physical and mental health needs, foster parents must be able to promote children’s normative social and emotional development. In order to accomplish this goal, parents need to have adequate knowledge about normative development at various stages of development. Orme et al. (in press) found that 13% of the foster families who ultimately had children placed had at least one parent scored in the problematic range of the developmental expectations subscale of the AAPI. One of the few studies on normative development (excluding studies of behavior problems or maladjustment), is a qualitative study conducted by Kools (1997). She interviewed youth who spent at least two years in care about their experiences and concluded that foster care constrained positive identity development. Based on the interviews, she details a process of devaluation of self by others that results in a stigmatized self-identity, low self-esteem, social isolation, low self-confidence, and a lack of a future orientation. Kools’ (1997) findings support a perspective taken by Pecora, Whittaker, Maluccio, Barth, and Plotnick (1992) in their review of family foster and the

17

child welfare system. Citing writings from 1971 forward, they state that the tenuous status foster children find themselves in “makes it difficult for a child develop his or her identity, achieve a sense of belonging, establish meaningful relationships with people, and deal successfully with developmental tasks” (p. 329). As suggested by Kools, foster parents might need to have competencies that allow them to support and care for children who might face difficult identity issues. Palmer (1990) also highlights the importance of facilitating developmental tasks, particularly with children who have been placed in care during adolescence. Many of the developmental tasks of adolescence, such as the achievement of relational autonomy, a stable self-concept, and a sense of competence, are closely tied to experiences in the family-of-origin and relationships with parent(s) (Grotevant, 1997; Grotevant & Cooper, 1986). Foster parents need to have a good understanding of developmental tasks, potential threats to achieving these tasks for children who are in out-of-home care, and strategies that can be used to promote positive psychosocial development. Thus, as a child develops, we suggest that foster parents need to help him or her develop and refine important social skills that shape social competence with peers, teachers, and other adults the child will encounter as their social world broadens. A minimum level of success in the area of promoting foster children’s social and emotional development is indicated by the absence of debilitating emotions. A desired level of success is the presence of adequate levels of positive self-esteem and demonstrated social skills with family, peers, and adults in the child’s social environment. Valuing Diversity and Supporting Children’s Cultural Needs Although African American parents generally express greater concern, most foster parents don’t believe that same race placements are necessary (Denby & Rindfleisch, 1996). We were unable to find estimates of the number of foster parents who care for children of a different race from themselves during their fostering career. However, in 1998, about 15% of the adoptions of foster children were transracial or

18

transcultural (DHHS, 2000). Thus, the percent of foster parents who foster children of a different race than themselves probably is greater than 15%. As such, it is important that foster parents be willing and able to promote the development of foster children’s cultural and racial identity (McRoy, 1994; Steward & Baden, 1995; Vonk, 2001). This requires that foster parents be receptive to the role that culture and race play in a child’s development. We define “cultural receptivity” as the tolerance and appreciation of different cultures as manifested in the amount of effort and willingness foster parents are able to give to activities that support and enhance children’s cultural identities (Coakley, 2002). There is some evidence that cultural awareness training is useful for practicing foster parents. In a national study of current and former foster parents, those who planned to continue fostering were more likely to have received in-service training in fostering a child of a different race/culture than were foster parents who had quit or planned to quit fostering (Rhodes et al., 2001). A minimum level of success in the area of cultural sensitivity is indicated by a foster child not feeling uncomfortable with foster parents who are a different race or cultural background than him/herself. A desired level of success is indicated by a child who has a clear and well-developed cultural identity (albeit, developmentally gauged). Supporting Permanency Planning One of the important issues in foster parenting is planning for foster children’s future living arrangements and facilitating the implementation of the established plan. Some of this planning occurs within the context of identifying care goals. AFCARS data indicate that for 44.1 percent of the children in foster care reunification was the goal, for 17.8 percent adoption was the goal, for 6.9 percent guardianship or custody to a relative was the goal, for 5.5 percent emancipation was the goal, for 7.0 percent long-term foster care was the goal, and for 18.7 percent no permanency goal had been established (NDACAN, 2002). Foster parents need to participate in the permanency planning

19

process and support selected options by helping foster children prepare for their future living arrangements (Rycus & Hughes, 1998). Although many foster children seem to be relatively happy with their lives, they also tend to be fairly worried about the future (Iglehart, 1995). Foster parents can help them process these concerns. For children whose permanency goal is to reunite with birth parents, foster parents must be able to work with or support the work with birth parents and other members of a child’s birth family. Some foster parents find this aspect of fostering difficult (Corser & Furnell, 1992), particularly when they believe that a child they are caring for can’t be returned home safely (Seaberg & Harrigan, 1999). However, given the inclusive approach to partnering among the agency, foster parents, and birth parents, the ability to work with and support birth families is a needed foster parent competency (Twigg, 1994). Foster parents who care for teenagers need to be competent in promoting independent living skills (Goodman, Kam, Quinby, Banta-Green, Downs, Roark, Emerson, Nixon, & Friend, 2002; http://www.caseylifeskills.org/). Rhodes et al. (2001) found that when compared to foster parents who had quit or intended to quit, continuing foster parents were more likely to have had in-service training in teaching a child skills for growing up and living on their own. In addition to teaching specific skills, foster parents must be oriented toward the child’s future. This focus includes setting goals and having positive expectations. Berrick, Barth, and Needell (1994) asked foster parents about their perceptions of the future for foster children (i.e., their ability to form close relationships, care for self, and provide for self economically). Most reported positive perceptions regarding their foster children’ futures. A minimum level of success in supporting permanency plans is indicated by the absence of sabotaging plans. A desired level of success is the inclusion of foster parents in the planning process and the presence of active and supportive efforts by the foster parent to actualize the plan.

20

Managing Ambiguity and Loss Foster parents need to become competent at managing ambiguity and handling loss. About 30% of the foster parents in a Delaware state survey wished they had been better prepared for the difficulties that came with having children leave their homes (Tice & Suri, 1990). Concern over sending a child back to a poor care situation has been associated with quitting fostering (Rindfleisch, 1993), whereas in-service training regarding helping children with their feelings about birth parents has been associated with fostering retention (Rhodes et al., 2001). Foster parents also need to be able to manage structural ambiguity (i.e., new family members coming and going, ambiguous parenting authority). Jordon and Rodway (1984) used the Heimler Scale of Social Functioning to assess successful fostering and found that success was facilitated when parents felt secure and trusting. They noted that these characteristics are useful given that foster parents must care for children who are under the jurisdiction of another authority. These characteristics also might help parents deal with change, ambiguity, and loss. A minimum level of success in dealing with ambiguity and loss is indicated by foster parents not becoming incapacitated emotionally or relationally. A desired level of success is indicated by foster parents realistically appraising possible sources of ambiguity and loss, and demonstrating the ability to manage ambiguity and deal with loss. Growing as a Foster Parent Growing as a foster parent includes interest and effort invested in enhancing skills. Pasztor (1985; Pasztor & Wynne, 1995) was influential in formulating a model for developing and supporting foster parents that focused on partnership and capacity building. She also highlighted the importance of in-service training as one of the vehicles for skill enhancement. In his elaboration of a developmental model of foster parenting, Morrissette (1994) stated that “Individuals are at different levels of psychological

21

maturity and therefore approach, interpret, and react to reality differently” (p. 236). Ongoing training and support can facilitate the developmental process that involves skill acquisition and the promotion of needed competencies State surveys of practicing foster parents document interest in continued training with the intention of enhancing skills and increasing fostering competencies. About 30% of the foster parents in a Delaware state survey wished they had been better prepared to handle complex behavior problems in children and the complexity of working with birth parents (Tice & Suri, 1990). In a recent survey of foster parents in Iowa, many parents stated an interest in receiving additional training, particularly on dealing with children’s difficulties, working with “the system” more effectively, and the important elements of good teamwork (IFAPA, 2002). A New Jersey state survey of practicing foster parents found that 50% reported participating in training and of these, 92% found it useful (New Jersey Foster Parent Association, 1997). Growing as a foster parent also includes expending effort on role clarification (Le Prohn, 1994; Molin, 1994). This need was recognized by the researchers who conducted the 1999 survey of foster parents in Connecticut (CWLA, 1999). One of their recommendations following the analysis of their information was to clarify the foster parent’s role in service delivery. Rhodes, Orme, & McSurdy (2003) also documented the need for role clarification in that foster mothers and fathers believed they had greater responsibility for parenting and working with the agency than did workers. Several recommendations were made based on the CWLA (1999) survey of Connecticut foster parents that can help address this need for role clarification. Foster parent role clarity is needed to support the identification and operationalization of salient competencies (Pasztor & Wynne, 1995). A minimum level of success in this domain is indicated by foster parents recognizing the need for and receiving additional training in needed areas. A desired level of success is indicated by an expressed enthusiasm for increased competency, a

22

clear understanding of role responsibilities and rights as a foster parent, and the receipt of additional training, as needed to increase competencies in particular domains. Managing the Demands of Fostering There are times that fostering might create tension and stress in the foster family. Foster parents need to develop competencies to manage distressed relationships and disrupted family functioning. There has been little research on this issue. The few studies on this topic have indicated that many foster parents perceive that the effects of fostering on the quality of family life are primarily positive (Dando & Minty, 1987; Seaberg & Harrigan, 1999). However, some parents in these two studies noted concerns, including financial strain, increased time demands, increased stress, changes in routines and activities, negative impact on birth children, family conflict, marital conflict, disruption due to foster children’s visits with birth parents, and a sense of loss when foster children leave. Three of these stressors are particularly salient in terms of managing spillover problems: potential marital strain, negative consequences for birth children, and family stress when foster children return from visits with birth parents. Dando and Minty (1987) highlighted the issue of potential marital strain. Although some of the participants were not married, 46% of the parents who Buehler et al. (2003) interviewed commented on the importance of having a strong, cooperative marriage when asked about things in the family that promoted successful fostering. Research in the general population documents a fairly strong relationship between marital difficulties and compromised parenting (Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000). Foster parents with birth children living at home must attend to potentially stressful effects that fostering might have on their children, recognizing that many benefits also will occur in most families (Baring-Gould, 1983; Buehler et al., 2003). In terms of potential stressors, Twigg (1994) outlines several possible losses for birth children when their family fosters: loss of parents’ time and attention, loss of family

23

closeness, and loss of position or status in the family. Foster parents need to be competent in addressing these potential concerns if they have birth children. Finally, foster parents must be skilled at addressing difficulties around foster children’s visits with birth parents. Seaberg and Harrigan (1999) asked foster parents about how visits with the birth family affected the foster family. Most parents scored in the middle of the scale, between “We are pleased” and “We are upset.” Foster parents who can garner and utilize supports might be more successful in managing the demands of fostering and minimizing potential negative effects of family relationships or family member well-being. Not receiving needed support from other foster parents is associated with quitting fostering (Baring-Gould, Essick, Kleinkaufm & Miller, 1983; Rindfleisch, Bean, & Denby, 1998) and social isolation has distinguished “best” from “worst” placements (Campbell, Simon, Weithorn, Krikston, & Connolly, 1980). A minimum level of success in this domain is indicated by the absence of negative effects, when relevant, from fostering on marital quality, on birth children’s development and well-being, on the quality of relations between foster parents and their birth children, and on relations with extended family. A desired level of success is indicated by growth in these various relationships. Supporting Relationships Between Children and Their Families Supporting relationships between foster children and their birth families is one of the most complex and potentially demanding aspects of the foster parent role. During the 1960s and 1970s, association with birth family members was not encouraged to any great extent. However, this has changed, and increasingly, birth parents are considered an important part of the permanency planning process (Corser & Furnell, 1992; Pecora et al., 1992; Rycus & Hughes, 1998). However, this inclusive approach is conditioned, in part, by the perceived potential of reunification of the child with his or her birth family.

24

Theoretically, foster parents can support reunification of the foster child with his or her birth parent(s) by providing emotional support to parents and children, teaching and modeling good parenting skills, providing information about the child’s progress and resources the foster family is using to support the child’s growth and development, and working cooperatively with the birth parents with regards to visitation (Doelling & Johnson, 1989; Ryan, McFadden & Warren, 1981; Rycus & Hughes, 1998). However, as noted by Pecora et al. (1992), this role expectation of foster parents lacks support in most agencies because “foster parents are not selected, encouraged, trained or paid to play these roles” (p. 339). Some of the difficulty that foster parents encounter in this area centers around foster children’s visits with their birth parents. Corser and Furnell (1992) examined foster parents’, community parents’, and workers’ attitudes about abusive birth parents. They found that adults in each group supported some contact between foster children and their birth parents. However, in general, foster parents were less supportive of contact and more restrictive in their conditions for contact than were workers and community parents. In an exploratory study of visitation, White, Albers, and Bitonti (1996) found that workers’ efforts to encourage visits and to engage in problem-solving with parents were infrequent. Infrequent contact also characterized the foster and birth families in Erera’s (1997) study. Seaberg and Harrigan (1999) found that many foster parents thought that foster children’s visits with birth parents were fairly upsetting to the child. Kufeldt, Armstrong, and Dorosh (1995) concluded that regular but not too frequent visitation with birth parents was the most beneficial pattern of contact. Thus, as difficult as it might be, Pecora et al. (1992) highlighted the need for foster parents to facilitate good relationships between foster children and their birth families and noted the importance of the worker’s role in supporting foster parents in their efforts. In-service training in working with birth families seems to support capacity

25

building and facilitate successful fostering (Rhodes et al., 2001) and is a competency that some practicing foster parents want to enhance (Tice & Suri, 1990). A minimum level of success in this domain is indicated by foster parents’ understanding of the importance of foster children’s continued relations with birth parents (when appropriate) and support of these relations by adequately preparing children for visits and caring for children after visits. A desired level of success is indicated by foster parents actively promoting and nurturing foster children’s relations with their birth parents (when appropriate) and by supporting the agency in their work with birth parents, as needed. Working as a Team Member Successful foster parenting involves communicating and cooperating with workers from the agency with whom the child is affiliated. Stone and Stone (1983) found that a good worker and foster parent relationship was a strong correlate of placement stability. Foster parents also might need to work in partnership with judges, therapists, teachers, and birth parents. This kind of teamwork requires good communication and problem-solving skills, as well as a strong commitment to the partnership model. In recent years, there has been a trend toward professionalizing the role of foster parent (Ekrut, 1991; Pasztor, 1985; Pasztor & Wynne, 1995; Pecora et al., 1992). Foster parents who feel valued and respected for the fostering work they do are more satisfied in their fostering role (Denby, Rindfleisch, & Bean, 1999). However, only 38% of the foster parents who participated in a regional survey felt that The Department viewed them as valued members of the foster care team (New Jersey Foster Parent Association, 1997) and the perception of low importance by others is associated with thoughts about quitting fostering (Brown & Calder, 1999). In another state survey of foster parents in Connecticut, only 54% of the parents felt that social workers treated them as part of the team (CWLA, 1999). Most of these parents (90%) wanted to participate in developing their foster children’s permanency plans.

26

One of the barriers to productive team relationships is caseworker shortages. This can result in foster parents who become frustrated over time because their telephone calls have not been returned or they are left out of the decision-making process regarding permanency planning options and services for children (Ekrut, 1991; New Jersey Foster Parent Association, 1997). Another barrier to strong foster parent-worker team relationships is foster parents’ perceptions of agency “red tape.” Difficulty with agency regulations, having to work with multiple workers, and negative worker-foster parent relationships are associated with foster parent dissatisfaction (Denby et al., 1999; Downs, 1986), and fostering discontinuation (Brown & Calder, 1999; IFAPA, 2000; Rindfleisch, Bean, & Denby, 1998). Local surveys conducted to assess foster parents’ needs and concerns indicate that foster parents want responsive agencies and workers (CWLA, 1999; IFAPA, 2000; New Jersey Foster Parent Association, 1997; Watson, 1996). Clearly, this is an issue that agencies and workers must attend to in addition to foster parents. In terms of foster parent competencies, dealing with workers and agencies often requires that foster parents have good communication and conflict resolution skills, and an engaged, flexible, and tolerant attitude about working with institutions. A minimum level of success in working with agencies is indicated by a lack of animosity or disrespect evidenced by foster parents or workers and by the foster parents feeling valued for the work they do. A desired level of success is indicated by foster parents feeling part of the professional team, and being part of the decision-making process regarding the foster child’s needs, the ways in which those needs are met, and the child’s future living arrangements. Discussion Foster care agencies and workers are charged with making critical decisions to recruit, screen, train, develop, support, monitor, and retain foster families. They also must decide how to match, place, and maintain foster children in family foster homes.

27

The ultimate goal in these decisions is to have foster families who will provide safe havens in which the well being of these vulnerable children can be enhanced without disruption, while maintaining appropriate connections with their families-of-origin. Decisions concerning foster families are increasingly crucial and difficult for many reasons, but they are made all the more difficult without a clear understanding of the necessary foster parent and family competencies. In this paper, we proposed that the potential to foster successfully involves developing, supporting, and maintaining competencies in 12 domains. We also suggested indicators of success in each of these areas. The delineation of these competency domains and possible success indicators should help agencies assess, develop, and support foster families. In addition to suggesting competency domains and indicators of success, two salient issues emerged from this review. One is the confirmation of Shlonsky and Berrick’s (2001) assertion that a lot is expected from foster families, perhaps more than from birth parents in the general population. The second is that although foster parents are an important part of the service delivery system for foster children and their birth families, agencies and foster care workers also are important and play a role in shaping the quality of care provided to foster children and their families. With reference to the first issue, it is clear that as a society we expect a lot from foster families. In many important ways we ask more of foster parents and families than we do of birth, adoptive, or stepfamilies. In part, these demanding expectations exist because children who are cared for by foster families often have special needs and require a great deal of skill to care for. These expectations also exist because foster families are caring for children for whom the state has legal responsibility (Shlonsky & Berrick, 2001). Because of these high expectations, foster parents must be skilled, competent, and well trained in a variety of domains. This highlights the importance of preservice training and assessment, continuing education and ongoing assessment, and the

28

provision of support services. It also highlights the importance of recruiting and retaining foster parents with such competencies. However, given the challenges faced by foster families, and the competencies required to fulfill this role successfully, it is not surprising to anyone who knows about family foster care that it is difficult to recruit new foster families and difficult to retain successful foster families. As suggested by Rycus and Hughes (1998, p. 838), we must be careful not to be trapped by a “super family” paradigm. Many good foster families will not have highly developed competencies in all 12 domains. The 12 domains are proposed to serve as a framework to guide development and support, not as a rigid, exacting assessment framework. The second issue raised by this review is that foster parents need support and development to facilitate success when caring for foster children. Although this paper focused on foster parents, the addage that it takes a village to raise a child is especially true for foster children, and it is important to remember that successful family foster care involves more than just competent foster families. We cannot expect foster parents and families to alleviate completely problems experienced by many foster children who have been chronically maltreated. Supports need to be commensurate with expectations, and our expectations should not be unduly unrealistic. The standards and approaches adopted by agencies and the competencies needed by foster care workers also play a role in the success of care, and although beyond the scope of this paper, should be delineated thoroughly to understand fully the factors that shape successful family foster care. The paradigm presented in this paper can serve as a foundation for a variety of practice and policy implications. However, before some of these implications are delineated, it is important to recognize that this review did not address specifically competencies needed by kinship caregivers. Clearly, some if not all of the proposed competency domains are relevant for kinship caregivers. However, the experience of caring for a relative is different from that of caring for an unfamiliar child. Some of these

29

differences are represented in the variations discussed in the CWLA’s Standards of Excellence for Kinship Care (2000). These issues and their implications for competency domains need to be discussed thoroughly in a paper that proposes competency domains for kinship caregivers and indicators of successful kinship care. Implications and Recommendations Considerable practice wisdom exists concerning the desirable characteristics of foster parents and families. For the most part, though, published measures with demonstrated psychometric properties are not available to assess these competencies in practice or research. Furthermore, as is evident in this paper and in previous reviews (Orme & Buehler, 2001), very little evidence exists concerning the extent to which prospective or practicing foster parents possess such competencies, the extent to which widely used training programs such as MAPP or PRIDE impart these competencies, or the extent to which these competencies lead to successful outcomes for the children placed in the care of foster families. This is a remarkable gap in our knowledge given the millions of children placed in family foster care over the last century. Two assessment protocols for use with foster parent applicants recently have been developed and can be used to examine competencies across the proposed 12 domains. The Casey Foster Applicant Inventory (CFAI) is a paper-and-pencil tool that is completed by applicants and workers about 3/4ths of the way through the licensing process. The Casey Home Assessment Protocol (CHAP) includes applicant-completed questionnaires and worker-administered situational vignettes. The CFAI and CHAP can be obtained for free at http://utcmhsrc.csw.utk.edu/caseyproject/. These assessment tools should help promote future research on applicants and fostering success. Research also is needed to examine the utility of the competency domain paradigm presented in this paper. Do foster families need to document a minimum level of success in each competency domain to provide good care? Are some domains more important than others? What combination of minimum and desired levels of success

30

denote good care? What kinds of training and supports facilitate the development of competency in the various domains? Is there a developmental progression to becoming competent in the various domains? In terms of possible policy implications, our recommendations focus primarily on agency practices and state legislative initiatives, rather than on federal legislative initiatives. We suggest that agencies use a competency domain perspective as the basis of their assessment. This would require that foster parent applicants and foster parents who are being re-licensed demonstrate at least a minimal level of competence in most domains. Using this type of an assessment structure will signal workers to gather additional information when the level of competency is unclear or cannot be determined using their information gathering procedures. We also suggest that agencies use a competency domain perspective as the basis for the identification of needed supports for developing foster parents. Most urgently, the use of this perspective will help identify domains in which minimal levels of competency are not evident. For applicants who are licensed, supports to strengthen specific competencies will be needed before the family begins caring for foster children. Using this framework to shape information gathering and assessment also will help identify domains in which applicants and practicing foster parents are striving to achieve a desired level of success. These recommendations would be facilitated by the inclusion of these principles in state licensing regulations. Although this inclusion adds an additional regulatory component that might be demanding when first implemented, it also might provide support for agencies and workers who are attempting to offer excellent services to foster children and their birth families

31

References Altshuler, S. J., & Gleeson, J. P. (1999). Completing the evaluation triangle for the next century: Measuring child "well-being" in family foster care. Child Welfare, 78, 125-147. American Academy of Pediatrics. (2000, November). Developmental issues for young children in foster care. Pediatrics, 106(5), 1145-1150. Bailey, K. (2000). Movement in residential care and adolescent well-being. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Tennessee. Baring-Gould, M., Essick, D., Kleinkauf, C., & Miller, M. (1983). Why do foster homes close? Arete, 8(2), 49-63. Benedict, M. I., Zuravin, S., Somerfield, M., & Brandt, D. (1996). The reported health and functioning of children maltreated while in family foster care. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20(7), 561-571. Berrick, J. D., Barth, R. P., & Needell, B. (1994). A comparison of kinship foster homes and foster family homes: Implication for kinship foster care as family preservation. Children and Youth Services Review, 16(1), 33-63. Berrick, J. D. (1997). Assessing quality of care in kinship and foster family care. Family Relations, 46(3), 273-280. Berrick, J. D. (1998). When children cannot remain home: Foster family care and kinship care. The Future of Children, 8(1), 72-87. Blome, W. W. (1997). What happens to foster kids: Educational experiences of a random sample of foster care youth and a matched group of non-foster care youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14(1), 41-53. Brown, J., & Calder, P. (1999). Concept-mapping the challenges faced by foster parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 21(6), 481-495. Buehler, C., Cox, M.E., & Cuddeback, G. (2003). Foster parent’s perceptions of factors that promote or inhibit successful fostering. Qualitative Social Work, 2(1), 61-83. Buehler, C., Orme, J. G., Post, J., & Patterson, D. (2000). The long-term correlates of family foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 22(8), 595-625. Cain, C. E., & Barth, R. P. (1990). Health beliefs and practices of foster parents. Social Work in Health Care, 15(2), 49-58. Campbell, S. B., Simon, R., Weithorn, L., Krikston, D., & Connolly, K. (1980). Successful foster homes need parent-child match. Journal of Social Welfare, 6, 49-60. Casey Family Program. Ansell-Casey Life Skills Assessment. Available: http://www.caseylifeskills.org/. Casey Family Programs, Tacoma Division (January, 1997). Partnership agreement. Author. C11-C13.

32

Chadwick, D. L., Hallisey, J., Landsverk, J., Miller, S., Pierce, E., & Zinser, J. (1990). The Health of Children in out of home care. The Casey Family Program Symposium on Children and Youth in Long-term Out-of-home Care. Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Gordon, R. A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1997). Neighborhood and family influences on the intellectual and behavioral competence of preschool and early school-age children. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. Duncan, & J. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood Poverty (pp. 79-118). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Chernoff, R., Combs-Orme, T., Risley-Curtiss, C., & Heisler, A. (1994). Assessing the health status of children entering foster care. Pediatrics, 93, 594-601. Child Welfare League of America. (1999). 1999 foster parent satisfaction survey report for Connecticut Association of Foster and Adoptive Parent, Inc. Washington, DC: Author. Child Welfare League of America. (1995). Standards of excellence for family foster care services (Revised ed.). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America. Coakley, T. (2002). Foster parent’s cultural receptivity. Unpublished manuscipt. Universtiy of Tennessee. Combs-Orme, T., Chernoff, R. G., & Kager, V. A. (1991). Utilization of health care by foster children: Application of a theoretical model. Children and Youth Services Review, 13, 113-129. Cook, R. J. (1994). Are we helping foster care youth prepare for their future? Children and Youth Services Review, 16(3/4), 213-229. Corser, A. S., & Furnell, J. R. G. (1992). What do foster parents think of the natural parents? A comparative study. Child: Care, Health, and Development, 18, 67-80. Cuddeback, G. S. (in press). Kinship family foster care: A methodological and substantive synthesis of research. Children and Youth Services Review. Cuddeback, G. S., & Orme, J. G. (2002). Training and services for kinship and nonkinship foster families. Child Welfare, 81(6), 879-909. Cummings, E. M., Vogel, D., Cummings, J. S., & El-Sheikh, M. (1989). Children’s responses to different forms of expression of anger between adults. Child Development, 60, 1392-1404. Dando, I., & Minty, B. (1987). What makes good foster parents? British Journal of Social Work, 17, 383-400. Davies, P. T., Harold, G. T., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2002). Child emotional security and interparental conlifct. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 2002, 67 (3, Serial No. 270). Denby, R., Rindfleisch, N., & Bean, G. (1999). Predictors of foster parents' satisfaction and intent to continue to foster. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23(3), 287-303.

33

Denby, R., & Rindfleisch, N. (1996). African Americans' foster parenting experiences: Research findings and implications for policy and practice. Children and Youth Services Review, 18(6), 523-551. Department of Health and Human Services (2002) ‘Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS)’, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau, http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/publications/afcars/report7.pdf Doelling, J. L., & Johnson, J. H. (1989). Foster Placement Evaluation Scale: Preliminary findings. Social Casework, 70(2), 96-100. Downs, S. W. (1986). Black foster parents and agencies: Results of an eight state survey. Children and Youth Services Review, 8, 201-218. Downey, G., & Coyne, J.C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50-76. Erera, P. I. (1997). Foster parents' attitudes toward birth parents and caseworkers: Implications for visitations. Families in Society, Sept-Oct, 511-519. Erkut, S. (1991). Professionalization of foster parenting. Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women. Fanshel, D., Finch, S. J., & Grundy, J. F. (1990). Foster children in a life course perspective. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Fox, M., & Arcuri, K. (1980). Cognitive and academic functioning in foster children. Child Welfare, 59(8), 491-496. Franck, K. (2001). The characteristics of kinship and nonkinship care children and their families of origin. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Tennessee. Garbarino, J. (2002). Forward: Pathways from childhood trauma to adolescent violence and delinquency. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 6(1), xxvxxxi. Garland, A. F., Landsverk, J. L., Hough, R. L., & Ellis-MacLeod, E. (1996). Type of maltreatment as a predictor of mental health service use for children in foster care. Child Abuse and Neglect, 20(8), 675-688. Gebel, T. J. (1996). Kinship care and non-relative family foster care: A comparison of caregiver attributes and attitudes. Child Welfare, 75(1), 5-18. Ginsberg, B. G. training parents as therapeutic agents with foster/adoptive children using the finial approach. In C. E. Schaefer & J. M. Briesmeister (Eds.), Handbook of parent training: Parents as co-therapists for children’s behavior problems (pp. 442-478). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons. Glisson, C. (1996). Judicial and service decisions for children entering state custody: The limited role of mental health. Social Service Review, 70(2), 257-281.

34

Goodman, N., Kam, B., Quinby, R., Banta-Green, C., Downs, C., Roark, C., Emerson, J., Nixon, R., Friend, B. (2002). It’s my life: A framework for youth transitioning from foster care to successful adulthood. Seattle, WA: Casey Family Programs. Grotevant, H. D. (1997). Coming to terms with adoption: The construction of identity from adolescence into adulthood. Adoption Quarterly, 1(1), 3-27. Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1986). Individuation in family relationships: A perspective on individual differences in the development of identity and roletaking skill in adolescence. Human Development, 29(2), 82-100. Guerney, L. F., & Gavigan, M. A. (1981). Parental acceptance and foster parents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 10(1), 27-32. Heflinger, C. A., Simpkins, C. G., & Combs-Orme, T. (2000). Using the CBCL to determine the clinical status of children in state custody. Children and Youth Services Review, 22(1), 55-73. Henry, D., Cossett, D., Auletta, T., & Egan, E. (1991). Needed services for foster parents of sexually abused children. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 8(2), 127-140. Iglehart, A. P. (1995). Readiness for independence: Comparison of foster care, kinship care, and non-foster care adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 17(3), 417-432. Illinois Department of Children and Family Services. (1993). PRIDE: Parent resources for information, development, and education. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America. Iowa Foster and Adoptive Parents Association. (2002). 2000 Iowa Foster Family Satisfaction Study: Retention analysis. Jacobvitz, D. (2002). Promoting resiliency in children and youth living in low-income families. Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Council on Family Relations, Houston, TX. Jordan, A., & Rodway, M. R. (1984). Correlates of effective foster parenting. Social Work Research & Abstracts, 20(2), 27-31. Keller, T. E., Wetherbee, K., Le Prohn, N. S., Payne, V., Sim, K., Lamont, E. R. (2001). Competencies and problem behaviors of children in family foster care: Variations by kinship placement status and race. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(12), 915-940. Khaleque, A., & Rohner, R. P. (2002). Perceived parental acceptance-rejection and psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis of cross-cultural and intracultural studies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(1), 54-64. Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Gordon, R. A. (1997). Are neighborhood effects on young children mediated by features of the home environment? In J. Brooks-Gunn, G. Duncan, & J. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood Poverty (pp. 119-145). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

35

Kools, S. M. (1997). Adolescent identity development in foster care. Family Relations, 46(3), 263-271. Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family Relations, 49, 25-44. Kufeldt, K., Armstrong, J., & Dorosh, M. (1995). How children in care view their own and their foster families: A research study. Child Welfare, 74(3), 695-715. Lee, W. Y. (2001). Process and criteria of selecting foster parents: A national comparative study of state foster care systems. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Hartford. Le Prohn, N. S. (1994). The role of the kinship foster parent: A comparison of the role conceptions of relative and non-relative foster parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 16(1/2), 65-84. Lindholm, B. W., & Touliatos, J. (1978). Characteristics of foster families. Social Thought, 4(1), 45-56. Lipton, M. (1997). The effect of the primary caretaker's distress on the sexually abused child: A comparison of biological and foster parents. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14(2), 115-127. Martin, E. D., Altemeier, W. A., Hickson, G. B., Davis, A., & Glascoe, F. P. (1992). Improving resources for foster care. Clinical Pediatrics, 31(7), 400-404. McCoy, J. (1962). The application of the role concept to foster parenthood. Social Casework, 43, 252-256. McFadden, E. J., & Ryan, P. (1991). Maltreatment in family foster homes: Dynamics and dimensions. Children and Youth Services Review, 15(2), 209-231. McRoy, R.G. (1994). Attachment and Racial Identity Issues: Implications for Child Placement Decision Making. Journal of Multicultural Social Work. Mietus, K. J., & Fimmen, M. D. (1987). Role ambiguity among foster parents: Semi professionals in professionalizing organizations. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 14(1), 33-41. Molin, R. (1994). Foster families and larger systems: Image and identity. Community Alternatives: International Journal of Family Care, 6(1), 19-29. Molin, R. (1988). Treatment of children in foster care: Issues of collaboration. Child Abuse and Neglect, 12(2), 241-250. Morrissette, P. J. (1994). Foster parenting: A developmental model. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11(3), 235-246. National Commission on Family Foster Care (NCFFC). (1991). A blueprint for fostering infants, children, and youths in the 1990s. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.

36

National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect (2002). Adoption and Foster Care Reporting System (AFCARS), Fiscal Year 1999, NDACAN Dataset 91. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. New Jersey Foster Parents Association. (Spring, 1997). Connections 4(1). Orme, J. G., & Buehler, C. (2001). Foster family characteristics and behavioral and emotional problems of foster children: A narrative review. Family Relations, 50(1), 3-15. Palmer, S. E. (1990). Group treatment of foster children to reduce separation conflicts associated with placement breakdown. Child Welfare, 69(3), 227-238. Pasztor, E. M. (1987). Model Approach to Partnerships in Parenting (MAPP program guidebook). Atlanta, GA: Child Welfare Institute. Pasztor, E. M. (1985). Permanency planning and foster parenting: Implications for recruitment, selection, training, and retention. Children and Youth Services Review, 7, 191-205. Pecora, P. J., Whittaker, J. K., Maluccio, A. N., Barth, R. P., & Plotnick, R. D. (1992). The child welfare challenge: Policy, practice, and research. New York: Aldine deGruyter. Pecora, P. J., Williams, J., Downs, A. C., White, J., Schockner, L., Judd, B. M., & Stenslie, M. (2002). Assessing key results in family foster care uing multiple measurement approaches. In T. Vecchiato, A. N. Maluccio, & C. Canali (Eds.), Evaluation in child and family services: Comparative client and program perspectives (pp. 24-40). New York: Aldine deGruyter. Pilowsky, D. (1995). Psychopathology among children placed in family foster care. Psychiatric Services, 46(9), 906-910. Poertner, J., McDonald, T. P., & Murray, C. (2000). Child welfare outcomes revisited. Children and Youth Services Review, 22(9/10), 789-810. Rhodes, K. W., Orme, J. G., & McSurdy, M. (2003). Foster parents' role performance responsibilities: Perceptions of foster mothers, fathers, and workers. Children and Youth Services Review, 25(3), 935-964. Rhodes, K. W., Orme, J. G., & Buehler, C. (2001). A comparison of family foster parents who quit, consider quitting, and plan to continue fostering. Social Service Review, 75(1), 85-114. Rindfleisch, N. (1993). Summary and conclusions of final report, Family Foster Home Retention Project. Unpublished manuscript, Ohio State University. Rindfleisch, N., Bean, G., & Denby, R. (1998). Why foster parents continue and cease to foster. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 25(1), 5-24. Rowe, D. C. (1976). Notes on policy and practice: Attitudes, social class, and the quality of foster care. Social Service Review, 50(September), 506-514.

37

Royse, D., & Wiehe, V. R. (1989). Assessing effects of foster care on adults raised as foster children: A methodological issue. Psychological Reports, 64, 677-678. Rycus, J. S., & Hughes, R. C. (1998). Field guide to child welfare: Placement and permanence (Vol. 4). Washington, D.C.: CWLA. Scannapieco, M., Hegar, R. L., & McAlpine, C. (1997). Kinship care and foster care: A comparison of characteristics and outcomes. Families in Society, 78(5), 480-488. Seaberg, J. R., & Harrigan, M. P. (1999). Foster families' functioning, experiences and views: variations by race. Children and Youth Services Review, 21(1), 31-55. Shlonsky, A. R., & Berrick, J. D. (2001). Assessing and promoting quality in kin and nonkin foster care. Social Service Review, 75(1), 60-83. Stein, M., & Carey, K. (1986). Learning care. New York: Basil Blackwell. Stone, N. M., & Stone, S. F. (1983). The prediction of successful foster placement. Social Casework, 64, 11-17. Takayama, J. I., Wolfe, E., & Coulter, K. P. (1998). Relationship between reason for placement and medical findings among children in foster care. Pediatrics, 101(2), 201-207. Tennyson, S. (1998). Counseling children from foster families: Challenges for school. In L. L. Palmatier (Ed.), Crisis counseling for a quality school community: Applying Wm. Glasser’s choice theory. Philadelphia: Accelerated Development. Terling-Watt, T. (2001). Permanency in kinship care: An exploration of disruption rates and factors associated with placement disruption. Children and Youth Services Review, 23(2), 111-126. Tice, V. E., & Suri. (1990). Foster parent satisfaction survey: Final report. Unpublished report. Twigg, R. C. (1994). The unknown soldiers of foster care: Foster care as loss for the foster parents' own children. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 64(3), 297312. Vonk, M. E. (2001). Cultural competence for transracial adoptive parents. Social Work, 46(3), 246-255. Watson, P. (1996). An analysis of the Foster Home Needs Assessment. John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. Unpublished report submitted to Department of Social Services, Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Weinstein, J., & LaFleur, J. (1990). Caring for our children: An examination of health care services for foster children. California Western Law Review, 26, 319-349. White, M., Albers, E., & Bitonti, C. (1996). Factors in length of foster care: Worker activities and parent-child visitation. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 23(2), 75-84.

38

Wolins, M. (1963). Selecting foster parents: The ideal and the reality. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Zuravin, S. J., Benedict, M., & Somerfield, M. (1993). Child maltreatment in family foster care. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(4), 589-596.

39