Systems of Privilege: Intersections, Awareness ... - Wiley Online Library

Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 68, No. 1, 2012, pp. 1--10

Systems of Privilege: Intersections, Awareness, and Applications Kim A. Case∗ University of Houston-Clear Lake

Jonathan Iuzzini Monroe Community College

Morgan Hopkins University of Houston-Clear Lake

As research on privilege increased in the last two decades, a clear need for a social psychological perspective to examine the topic has emerged. In this special issue of JSI, scholars provide a framework for understanding the psychology of privilege, considering the policy implications of privilege, and imagining the future of privilege studies. The contributors emphasize multidisciplinary approaches, mixed methods, and the benefits of intersectional theory for studying privilege. What is privilege? What does it mean for an individual to acknowledge his or her privilege? How do we negotiate multiple social identities when some provide us with privilege and others place us in a disadvantaged space? How does privilege operate across the different contexts of our lives? Researchers in several areas of psychology have examined a variety of social issues and concepts related to privilege, often without touching it directly. Social psychologists, for example, contributed a long history of studies examining stereotyping, implicit and explicit forms of prejudice, and “old-fashioned” and “modern” forms of discrimination (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1986; Fiske, 1998; Nelson, 2009). Researchers also frequently examined the experiences of targets of prejudice and discrimination (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998; Swim & Stangor, 1998), but the experience of being privileged has received relatively little empirical attention from ∗ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kim Case, University of HoustonClear Lake, 2700 Bay Area Boulevard #35, Houston, TX 77058 [email: [email protected]]. 1 C

2012 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues

2

Case, Iuzzini, and Hopkins

psychologists despite the publication of Peggy McIntosh’s seminal work on privilege over 20 years ago (McIntosh, 1988). In some ways, psychologists have been somewhat slower to realize the importance of a social scientific understanding of privilege. Indeed, the term “privilege” does not appear at all in the index of the recently published, “Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination” (Nelson, 2009). Despite the relatively late start in developing a focus on this important topic, in recent years social psychologists began investigating how privilege functions and what it means for individual members of advantaged groups. These developments are particularly exciting because psychologists are uniquely situated to examine the underlying mental processes associated with privileged group membership. We can build on the great work done by scholars in sociology (Feagin & O’Brien, 2003), legal studies (Wildman & Davis, 1996) and multicultural education (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007) to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of privilege at both the group and individual levels. It should be noted that the topic of privilege also gained significant attention by antiracist writers in the popular press (Kivel, 1996; Shearer, 1994; Wise, 2005) and in the form of anthologies geared toward undergraduate college courses (Andersen & Hill Collins, 2009; Ferber, Jimenez, Herrera, & Samuels, 2008; Kimmel & Ferber, 2009; Rothenberg, 2008). Psychologists offer unique insights to this broader discussion, especially if we can harness the field’s emerging interest in intersectionality (Cole, 2009; Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach, 2008). An intersectional framework promotes extension of privilege studies beyond the domain of race, where much of the scholarly and popular work has been focused, to other important identity markers (e.g., gender, class, religion, and sexual orientation). This issue of Journal of Social Issues (JSI) features the work of several scholars who are attempting to make these extensions and connections. Thus, this is an opportune time to provide readers of the JSI with (1) a framework for understanding the psychology of privilege, (2) an understanding of the current state and future directions of the research literature, and (3) an analysis of the policy implications of this research. This initial attempt to gather the most current theoretical approaches and empirical research with regard to privilege studies focuses on the context of the United States. Undoubtedly, privilege and privileged identities function within any system of oppression, including non-U.S. settings where the forms of privilege vary according to culture, social norms, and potentially localized institutional oppression. Privilege exists globally in a wide variety of transnational and crosscultural contexts. Even though privilege functions in unique ways across social and political contexts, much of the research included in this issue will also inform privilege scholars in non-U.S. contexts.

Systems of Privilege

3

Defining Privileged Identity and Structure As a concept, privilege is defined in relational terms and in reference to social groups, and involves unearned benefits afforded to powerful social groups within systems of oppression (Kendall, 2006; McIntosh, 1988). Furthermore, it challenges commonly held beliefs in the existence of meritocracy and group equality that correlate with various forms of prejudice and behavioral measures of discrimination. By focusing on macro-level systems that create and maintain unearned benefits for certain groups, this definition of privilege also runs counter to the widely held belief that only an elite few in our society are privileged (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). Social forces at the societal and institutional levels bestow privilege on groups of individuals categorized as belonging to a particular social identity such as individuals perceived to be male, White, heterosexual, or middle class. Social norms of the privileged become the generalized normative expectations for marginalized groups, providing dominant group members the option of remaining ignorant and avoidant of awareness of both privilege and oppression (Johnson, 2006; Kendall, 2006). In her landmark essay exploring connections between white1 and male privilege, Peggy McIntosh (1988) conceived of these forms of privilege as social structures that confer advantages to White people and to men (while discrimination creates disadvantages for people of color and women). McIntosh further argued that each of these forms of privilege could be viewed as an “invisible package of unearned assets” (p. 1), which is bestowed on individuals who hold these privileged identities. Theoretical advances deepening our understanding of unearned privilege provide direct connections between dominant group members and systems of oppression, and therefore prejudice and discrimination. Research on privilege brings dominant group advantages into sharp focus, making this unrecognized element of oppression and internalized domination visible. In fact, current conceptualizations of privilege challenge social constructions of specific forms of oppression such as racism, sexism, heterosexism, classism, ageism, and ableism (Johnson, 2006). Investigations of privilege confront hegemonic notions of social identity by attaching power and advantage to dominant group membership. Developing a Psychology of Group Privilege Understanding dominant group privilege as it function on a personal level is essential for individuals interested in challenging systemic oppression (Rains, 1 When referring to individuals or a group of people, “White” is capitalized in accordance with APA style guidelines. However, references to concepts such as white privilege, guilt, and identity are not capitalized in this issue.

4


1998). In addition, understanding parallel forms of privilege will broaden current perspectives on oppression based on sex, class, sexuality, age, and ability. Across the disciplines, scholarly work on privilege has historically focused on advantages associated with whiteness. The recent interest in privilege among psychologists has largely followed this trend, but there have been some empirical examinations of other forms of dominant group advantage in recent years. This section provides a brief overview of recent psychological research on multiple forms of privilege. This is not meant to be an exhaustive review, but rather is intended to orient readers of JSI to the types of processes examined in this issue’s articles. Although discrimination and privilege are divergent outcomes created by each form of systematic, institutionalized oppression, the two are inseparable as codependent structural forces. Lowery, Knowles, and Unzueta (2007) argue that self-image among Whites may be affected by explaining group disparities as disadvantage versus privilege. When presenting group inequality through a lens focusing on discrimination and disadvantage, White participants report lower levels of self-image threat compared with participants presented with the lens of white privilege. Unzueta and Lowery (2008) found that once White participants successfully achieved a positive self-image, awareness of institutional racial group inequality and white privilege increased. In their study of Whites with high in-group identification, Knowles and Peng (2005) found connections between priming white privilege and perceptions of a threat to their group’s status. Similarly, Branscombe, Schmitt, and Schiffhauer (2007) observed increased modern racist attitudes among highly identified White participants who were presented with information on white privilege. Researchers have found low racial prejudice and high awareness of white privilege were connected with greater white guilt (Case, 2007a; Swim & Miller, 1999). Powell, Branscombe, and Schmitt (2005) also found participants reported greater white guilt and less racism when presented with information about white privilege and racial group inequalities. Social psychologists more recently began expanding the psychological study of privilege beyond race to the domains of male privilege (Case, 2007b; Schmitt, Miller, Branscombe, & Brehm, 2008) and heterosexual privilege (Case & Stewart, 2010). As with their work on white privilege, the work by Schmitt, Miller, Branscombe, and Brehm (2008) on male privilege is grounded in the concept of collective guilt (Branscombe, 2004), suggesting that the psychological processes underlying motivations to deny or acknowledge one’s dominant group privilege may be quite similar across different identity domains. Other recent social psychological work has assessed the impact of undergraduate diversity courses on students’ privilege awareness and diversity-related attitudes. For example, diversity courses serve as interventions that may reduce prejudice and raise awareness of privilege. When surveyed at the start and end of the semester, students in di-


5

versity and women’s studies courses demonstrated more support for affirmative action and greater awareness of male privilege as compared to students in courses unrelated to gender and diversity (Case, 2007b). Case and Stewart (2010) also found that students in diversity courses exhibited greater awareness of heterosexual privilege and stronger support for same-sex marriage rights as compared to students in nondiversity courses. These increased studies of the psychological process related to privilege, a wider variety of forms of privilege, and interventions to raise awareness of privilege inspired this special issue of JSI.

Organization of this JSI Issue Two important features of this issue of JSI are (1) the emphasis on intersectionality of identities in relation to privilege, and (2) contributions from a multidisciplinary group of scholars. Inclusion of articles emphasizing intersectional approaches to privilege studies provide a more complex exploration of how privilege functions within the matrix of oppression. Along these lines, this collection of articles extends beyond the usual focus on white privilege to privilege of gender, sexuality, gender identity, religion, and social class. Furthermore, this issue of JSI brings together contributions from psychology, sociology, education, women’s studies, and social work for a more comprehensive examination of privilege. Although divided into three sections, the entire issue focuses on theoretical advances and the integration of science and action to extend our current understanding of privilege.

Section I: Psychological Processes The first section of the issue emphasizes fundamental social psychological processes involved with privilege and dominant group membership. Stewart, Latu, Branscombe, Phillips, and Denney (2012), who present social psychological experiments that examine the impact of raising awareness of one’s white privilege on one’s racial attitudes and behaviors. As part of their experimental designs, Stewart and colleagues also manipulate the participants’ perceived efficacy to reduce racial inequality, a variable with great potential to strengthen the effect of becoming aware of one’s group privilege. In an exploration of what they label the “half-blindness of privilege,” Pratto and Stewart (2012) assert that individuals in marginalized groups experience those group memberships as more salient. Group identity is less salient for members of privileged groups due to invisibility of privilege. This invisibility often prevents dominant group members from understanding the salience of group membership for individuals with marginalized identities.

6


Section II: Intersectionality and Context Infusing an intersectional theoretical approach in privilege studies provides scholars with avenues for exploring identity and unique social locations as they are connected to privilege (Cole, 2009; Crenshaw, 1989; Hill Collins, 1990). Comprehensive understanding of privilege calls on scholars to simultaneously consider multiple identities and intersections rather than one group membership category (Dill & Zambrana, 2009). This section includes articles that examine intersections among white privilege, male privilege, Christian privilege, and heterosexual privilege. Cole, Avery, Dodson, and Goodman (2012) utilize a thematic content analysis approach to examine news articles concerning interracial and same sex marriage and marriage legislation from three critical periods in the past 60 years. This qualitative analysis allows them to assess the extent to which essentialist ideologies have been used historically to privilege same-race marriage and heterosexual marriage as “natural.” In the second article in this section, the sociologist Abby Ferber (2012) introduces the concepts of whiteness studies, privilege studies, and intersectionality, and utilizes these perspectives in an analysis of color-blind, postfeminist, and Christonormative discourses. Ferber suggests that these three discourses are similar in how they legitimize and justify the status quo and thus preserve an array of systems of privilege. In the final article of the section, Case (2012) utilizes qualitative analyses to examine the development of ally identity and activism among the members of an antiracist discussion group for White women. Case employs critical white studies and critical race feminism as lenses to examine the intersections of these women’s privileged and oppressed identities. In addition to her observations of the group’s meetings, Case also presents analyses from semi-structured interviews conducted with the participants. Emphasizing intersectionality, Coston and Kimmel (2012) explore how disability status, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status inform men’s experiences of male privilege. The authors identify three strategies employed by men whose masculinity, and thus their privilege, is questioned as a result of their coexisting marginalized identities. Through this examination, Coston and Kimmel assert that men’s attempts to regain their male privilege reveal societal norms and traditional definitions of masculinity. Section III: Interventions and Ally Behavior Privilege studies via education, social work, and participatory action research projects provide applied perspectives with attention to interventions that raise awareness of privilege as well as strategies for increasing ally behavior. As an ally, dominant group members take action for social change to challenge their own privilege at individual, community, and institutional levels. Research designed to examine outcomes associated with interventions offers insights into the


7

most effective approaches to promoting both privilege awareness and ally behavior. In the first article in this section, Sanders and Mahalingam (2012) utilize correlational methods and thematic content analysis across to examine the relationship between context, privilege, invisibility, and social class consciousness. Blumenfeld and Jaekel (2012) (scholars in multicultural education) extend McIntosh’s (1988) conceptualization of white privilege and male privilege to a discussion of Christian privilege. After laying that theoretical foundation, they employ a mixed quantitative and qualitative method to examine the development of Christian privilege awareness and acknowledgment in a sample of preservice teacher education students. Case, Kanenberg, Erich, and Tittsworth (2012) report on a project involving student-led, faculty supported activism for transgender inclusion in their university’s nondiscrimination policies. The authors begin with critical liberatory feminist pedagogy as their theoretical foundation, and they extend our thinking about privilege to the domain of gender-conforming privilege. Montgomery and Stewart (2012) employ archival methods (with samples of heterosexual women collected between 1951 and 1992) and correlational analyses (with a contemporary sample of male and female college students) in two studies examining resistance to heteronormative attitudes and ally behavior in lesbian and gay rights activism. The final article in this section by Stoudt, Fox, and Fine (2012) presents a theoretical framework built on Morton Deutsch’s idea of the dialectics of oppression. Stoudt and colleagues integrate Deutsch’s theorizing with ideas from the epidemiologists Wilkinson and Pickett and from Harvey’s writings on neo-liberalism, and they present two participatory action research projects: one focused on male culture and violence in an elite all-boys school, the other a largescale city-wide examination of negative relations between youth and police. Toward the Future of Privilege Studies The issue closes with a concluding commentary by Peggy McIntosh (2012), in which she reflects on each of the issue’s articles and considers the influence of her ideas on shaping the development of privilege studies over the past 20 years. Since Peggy McIntosh’s (1988) signature essay linking male and white privilege, researchers from a variety of disciplines investigated the theoretical implications of dominant group privilege, the impact of privilege awareness, and practical solutions for incorporating privilege into training programs. She also offers her predictions for the future of privilege studies across disciplines. This issue of JSI explores conceptualizations of various forms of privilege and the psychological and behavioral consequences of privilege. As Kurt Lewin noted, “there is nothing so practical as a good theory” (Lewin, 1951, p. 169). In the spirit of Lewin’s call to connect theory and practice for effective social action, this issue of JSI includes not only foundational studies of the social psychological processes operating to reinforce privilege and intersectional theory as it informs

8


current understanding of privilege, but also contextual and applied articles calling for effective interventions that make privilege visible and increase ally behavior among the privileged. References Adams, M., Bell, L. A., & Griffin, P. (2007). Teaching for diversity and social justice (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Andersen, M. L., & Hill Collins, P. (2009). Race, class, and gender: An anthology (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Blumenfeld, W. J., & Jaekel, K. (2012). Exploring levels of Christian privilege: Awareness among pre-service teachers. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 128 – 144. Branscombe, N. R. (2004). A social psychological process perspective on collective guilt. In N. R. Branscombe & B. Doosje (Eds.), Collective guilt: International perspectives (pp. 320 – 334). New York: Cambridge University Press. Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Schiffhauer, K. (2007). Racial attitudes in response to thoughts of white privilege. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 203 – 215. Case, K. (2007a). Raising white privilege awareness and reducing racial prejudice: Assessing diversity course effectiveness. Teaching of Psychology, 34, 231 – 235. Case, K. A. (2007b). Raising male privilege awareness and reducing sexism: An evaluation of diversity courses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 426 – 435. Case, K. A. (2012). Discovering the privilege of whiteness: White women’s reflections on anti-racist identity and ally behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 78 – 96. Case, K. A., Kanenberg, H., Erich, S., & Tittsworth, J. (2012). Transgender inclusion in university nondiscrimination statements: Challenging gender-conforming privilege through student activism. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 145 – 161. Case, K. A., & Stewart, B. (2010). Changes in diversity course student prejudice and attitudes toward heterosexual privilege and gay marriage. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 172 – 177. Cole, E. R., Avery, L. R., Dodson, C., & Goodman, K. D. (2012). Against nature: How arguments about the naturalness of marriage privilege heterosexuality. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 46 – 62. Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64, 170 – 180. Collins, P. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge. Coston, B. M., & Kimmel, M. (2012). Seeing privilege where it isn’t: Marginalized masculinities and the intersectionality of privilege. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 97 – 111. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989, 139 – 167. Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. (4th ed., pp. 504 – 553). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Dill, B. T., & Zambrana, R. E. (2009). Critical thinking about inequality: An emerging lens. In B. T. Dill & R. E. Zambrana (Eds.), Emerging intersections: Race, class, and gender in theory, policy, and practice (pp. 1 – 21). New Brunswick: Rutgers. Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.). (1986). Prejudice, discrimination, and racism. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Feagin, J., & O’Brien, E. (2003). White men on race: Power, privilege, and the shaping of cultural consciousness. Boston: Beacon Press. Ferber, A. L. (2012). The culture of privilege: Color-blindness, Post-feminism and Christonormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 63 – 77. Ferber, A., Jimenez, C., Herrera, A., & Samuels, D. (Eds.). (2008). The matrix reader: Examining the dynamics of oppression and privilege. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology: Vol. 2. (4th ed., pp. 357 – 414). Boston: McGrawHill.


9

Johnson, A. G. (2006). Privilege, power, and difference (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Kendall, F. E. (2006). Understanding white privilege: Creating pathways to authentic relationships across race. New York: Routledge. Kimmel, M. S., & Ferber, A. L. (Eds.). (2009). Privilege: A reader (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Kivel, P. (1996). Uprooting racism: How white people can work for racial justice. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers. Knowles, E. D., & Peng, K. (2005). White selves: Conceptualizing and measuring a dominant-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 223 – 241. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers. New York: Harper & Row. Lowery, B. S., Knowles, E. D., & Unzueta, M. M. (2007). Framing inequity safely: Whites’ motivated perceptions of racial privilege. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(9), 1237 – 1250. McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies (Working Paper No. 189). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley Centers for Women. McIntosh, P. (2012). Reflections and future directions for privilege studies. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 194 – 206. Montgomery, S. A., & Stewart, A. J. (2012). Privileged allies in lesbian and gay rights activism: Gender, generation, and resistance to heteronormativity. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 162 – 177. Nelson, T. D. (Ed.). (2009). Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination. New York: Psychology Press. Powell, A. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Schmitt, M. T. (2005). Inequality as ingroup privilege or outgroup disadvantage: The impact of group focus on collective guilt and interracial attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(4), 508 – 521. Pratto, F., & Stewart, A. L. (2012). Group dominance and the half-blindness of privilege. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 28 – 45. Purdie-Vaughns, V., & Eibach, R. P. (2008). Intersectional invisibility: The distinctive advantages and disadvantages of multiple subordinate-group identities. Sex Roles, 59, 377 – 391. Rains, F. V. (1998). Is the benign really harmless? Deconstructing some “benign” manifestations of operationalized white privilege. In J. L. Kincheloe, S. R. Steinberg, N. M. Rodriguez, & R. E. Chennault (Eds.), White reign: Deploying whiteness in America (pp. 76 – 101). New York: St. Martin’s Press. Rothenberg, P. S. (Ed.). (2008). White privilege: Essential readings on the other side of racism (3rd ed.). New York: Worth. Sanders, M. R., & Mahalingam, R. (2012). Under the radar: The role of invisible discourse in understanding class-based privilege. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 112 – 127. Schmitt, M. T., Miller, D. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Brehm, J. W. (2008). The difficulty of making reparations affects the intensity of collective guilt. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 11, 267 – 279. Shearer, J. M. (1994). Enter the river: Healing steps from white privilege toward racial reconciliation. Scottsdale, PA: Herald Press. Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance. New York: Cambridge University Press. Stewart, T. L., Latu, I. M., Branscombe, N. R., Phillips, N. L., & Denney, H. T. (2012). White privilege awareness and efficacy to reduce racial inequality improve White Americans’ attitudes toward African Americans. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 11 – 27. Stoudt, B. G., Fox, M., & Fine, M. (2012). Contesting privilege with critical participatory action research. Journal of Social Issues, 68, 178 – 193. Swim, J. K., & Miller, D. L. (1999). White guilt: Its antecedents and consequences for attitudes toward affirmative action. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(4), 500 – 514. Swim, J. K., & Stangor, C. (Eds.). (1998). Prejudice: The target’s perspective. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Unzueta, M. M., & Lowery, B. S. (2008). Defining racism safely: The role of self-image maintenance on White Americans’ conceptions of racism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1491 – 1497.

10


Wildman, S. M., & Davis, A. D. (1996). Privilege revealed: How invisible preference undermines America. New York: New York University Press. Wise, T. (2005). White like me: Reflections on race from a privileged son. Brooklyn, NY: Soft Skull Press.

KIM A. CASE, Ph.D. is Associate Professor of Psychology and Women’s Studies, Director of the Teaching-Learning Enhancement Center, and Women’s Studies Program Chair at the University of Houston-Clear Lake. She also directs the Psychology Master’s program Social Issues sub-plan. Her research on prejudice confrontation and ally behavior focuses on dominant group responses to prejudice in social contexts. She also studies strategies for raising awareness of heterosexual, gender-conforming, male, and white privilege in educational and community settings. JONATHAN IUZZINI is Coordinator of the Teaching Creativity Center and the Honors Institute at Monroe Community College. His research has been published in the Journal of Personality & Social Psychology; Journal of Experimental Social Psychology; New Directions for Teaching & Learning; and To Improve the Academy. He has previously served the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues as co-editor of the society Newsletter and as Chair of the Graduate Student Committee. MORGAN HOPKINS is a Master’s student in the University of Houston-Clear Lake Psychology Program with specialization in Social Issues. Her research explores male privilege awareness among college men and women as well as the impact of racial cues on resume evaluation. In her organizing and activism, she focuses on reproductive justice, public policy, and community outreach.