Teachers' Education, Teaching Practice, and Retention: A Cross-Genre Review of Recent Research MARILYN COCHRAN-SMITH, MATTHEW CANNADY, KIRSTIN PESÓLA MCEACHERN, PETER PIAZZA, CHRISTINE POWER, AND AMY RYAN, BOSTON COLLEGE
ABSTRACT
within 5 years. IngersoU's work challenged the conventional wisdom that teacher shortages were due to an imbalance between supply and demand caused by teacher retirements, increased student enrollments, and an insufficient supply of new teachers. Instead, Ingersoll (2003) argued tbat the problem was teaching's "revolving door" (p. 11), tbrougb wbich many beginning teacber s exited because of job dissatisfaction or the desire to pursue a different career. Ingersoll concluded tbat efforts were needed to reduce demand by increasing retention through better working conditions. Tbe teacber retention problem in the United States is most severe in urban and rural schools and where there are large numbers of poor and minority students (Hanushek, Kain, & Rivkin, 2004). Although botb teaching practice and teacher retention likely depend on a combination of reasons, research has not yet established clear conclusions about the most important factors tbat influence them. With these larger issues in mind, this article presents a review of recent research that empirically examines tbe connection between teachers' education and either teaching practice or teacber retention (or botb).The analysis we present bere is a "cross-genre" review tbat analyzes a disparate body of researcb not usually included in tbe same review.
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In I the United States, there is enormous controversy about how teachers ought to be prepared and licensed. Many of the sharpest controversies stem from acute public skepticism about whether formal teacher preparation is really necessary at all given the lack of j conclusive evidence that teacher preparation has a direct impact ori students' achievement. With these larger issues in mind, this art;icle presents a review of recent research that empirically examines the connection between teachers' education and either teaching practice or teacher retention (or both). The literature in six distinct genres of research is reviewed with cross-genre conclusions and implications.
In tbe United States, there is enormous controversy about bow teachers ought to be prepared, certified, and licensed. Many of the sharpest controversies stem from acute public skepticism about whether formal teacher preparation is really necessary at all, given the lack of evidence that preparation programs have direct positive effects on students' achievement (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005; Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2001), the proliferation of[ alternative pathways into teaching, and the enduring sentiment that teachers are born, not made. Partly in response to harsh criticism and public skepticism during the last decade, teacher education has begun to shift from preparing "highly qualified teachers" to preparing "highly effective teachers" (Berry, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2010). There have been calls for "turning teacher education upside down" by prioritizing tbe school- rather than university-based aspects of preparation to ensure that all teachers are "classroom-ready" (NCATE Blue Ribbon Panel, 2010). Similarly, some teacber education leaders have argued that preparation programs have focused too much or theory and beliefs and not enough on bow well teachers engage in the "core tasks" of teaching (Ball & Forzani, 2009). i Despite this emerging focus on practice, it is clear that the quality of teachers' practice only matters if strong teachers are recruited into and retained in the profession. However, as is now well known, over tbe last two decades, tbe higb turnover rate among teachers has become a major concern (National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 2003). Ingersoll (2002) was serninal in pointing out tbat tbe attrition of beginning teachers was a problem in the United States, in part because of his initially stunnihgfindingtbat as many as 46% of new teachers left the profession
REVIEWING THE RESEARCH ON TEACHERS' EDUCATION AND PRACTICE AND/OR RETENTION To construct a review of research on teachers' education and either practice or retention, we first conducted a larger review of all the recent empirical researcb across disciplines and designs tbat connected a) one or more aspects of teachers' education or licensure in relationsbip to b) one or more post-education outcomes, results, or consequences for teachers and/or students (Cocbran-Smith, et al., in press). We included in this larger review only studies tbat explicitly connected tbe dots between a) and b), focused on tbe U.S. context, and were published since 1998 in peer-reviewed journals or by centers witb peer-review procedures. We used 1998 because of tbat year's reautborization of tbe Higher Education Act, wbicb put new teacher education reporting requirements into place (Earley, 2000). Studies were located tbrougb electronic searcbes of four major databases (ERIC, PsychlNFO, Sociological Abstracts, and EconLit), supplemented witb band searches of selected journals (Econometrica, Education Policy Teachers College Kecord, American Educational Research journal, Teaching andTeacher Education, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Education Policy Analysis Archives, Journal of Teacher Education, (^alitative Studies in Education, Educational Studies: Journal of the American Educational Studies
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Association, Teacher Education Quarterly, Journal
of Political Economy)
and the publication lists of selected policy or research organizations that met peer-review criteria (American Institutes of Research, Mathematica, and the National Center for Education Statistics). To complete the larger review, we sorted the literature according to six distinguishable research genres, which we identified through an inductive and recursive analytic process. Kennedy (1999) describes genres as "distinct categories" of research with "coherent and internally consistent" (p. 120) ways of conceptualizing particular questions or issues. We labeled the six genres of empirical research that examined connections between particular aspects of teachers' education and specific post-education outcomes related to teacher quality as follows: • Genre 1 : Teacher certification status and its correlates • Genre 2: Teachers' educational backgrounds and the teacher workforce • Genre 3 : Entry pathways into teaching and their consequences • Genre 4: Teacher preparation programs and their graduates • Genre S : Teacher preparation and learning to teach in the early career years • Genre 6: Teachers' life histories and their beliefs and practices The studies within each genre were consistent in terms of the o
questions they posed about teachers' education and outcomes.
data collection and analytic tools used, theoretical frameworks and parent disciplines, and intended purposes and audiences.
TEACHING PRACTICE AND/OR RETENTION AS OUTCOMES OF TEACHERS'EDUCATION In the remainder of this article, we draw from the larger review described above to synthesize what recent research says about teachers' education and teaching practice and/or retention. We use "teaching practice" to include what teachers do in classrooms and their sense of preparedness or efficacy as well as how they think about their work, utihze resources, and position themselves in relation to colleagues, administrators, parents, and students. We found that teaching practice was investigated as an outcome of teachers' education in five of the six genres (all except Genre 1). We use "retention" to refer to both teacher retention and teacher attrition as well as teachers' predictions about their career trajectories, including plans to stay in or leave teaching. We found that retention was studied as an outcome of teachers' education in five of the six genres (all except Genre 6). For each genre, we describe conceptual and methodological bases as well as the larger purposes, audiences, and policy issues that have shaped it. Then we review the studies in each genre and discuss primary contributions and limitations. Figure 1 provides an
Figure 1. Six Genres of Research: Questions about Teaching Practice and Teacher Retention Research QuestionTeaching Practice
Research QuestionTeacher Retention
Aspects of Teachers' Education Studied
Outcome Studied
Research Method(s)
GENRE 1: Teacher Certification Status and its Correlates
NA
How does certification status correlate with teachers' commitment to teaching and plans to stay in the field?
Teacher certification status
Pupil test scores; Distribution of teachers
Complex statistical models, including HLM and VAM
GENRE 2: Teachers' Educational Backgrounds and the Teacher Workforce
Do degree status and/or subject matter background impact teachers' practice?
Are more "academically able" teachers more likely to leave teaching?
Teachers' academic competence
Pupil test scores; Distribution of teachers; Preparedness
Complex statistical models, including HLM and HGLM
GENRE 3: Entry Pathways into Teaching and their Consequences
How do the teaching practices of "alternately" prepared teachers compare to graduates of "traditional" programs?
Do entry pathways and/or program structures relate to how long teachers stay in the profession?
Entry pathways into teaching or program structures
Preparedness; Career trajeaories; Pupil test scores; Pedagogy and practice; Beliefs; Distribution of teachers
Complex statistical models, including GLM; Mixed methods
GENRE 4: Teacher Preparation Programs and their Graduates
To what extent do teachers implement the practices emphasized by their teacher education programs?
What program factors contribute to higher retention rates among graduates?
Curriculum or mission of particular preparation programs/pathways
Pedagogy and practice; Career trajectories; Beliefs; Preparedness; Distribution of teachers
Case studies; Observations and interviews; Surveys; Evaluation studies
GENRE 5: Teacher Preparation and Learning to Teach in the Early Career Years
To what extent do practices iearned in preservice education survive during teachers' early years?
How do early career experiences affect teachers' commitment to the profession?
Beliefs and experiences of graduates from traditional and "alternative" teacher education programs
Pedagogy and practice; Preparedness; Career trajectories
Single- and cross-case studies; Observations and interviews; Surveys
GENRE 6: Teachers' Life Histories and their Beliefs and Practices
State and national policy makers who control requirements for certification and/or accreditation, especially academic knowledge
Life histories or teachers' experiential backgrounds
Beliefs; Pedagogy and practice
Single- and cross-case studies; Self studies
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overview oF the six genres, indicating the major questions about teaching practice and retention they have addressed as well as common research designs used. Genre 1 : Teacher Certification Status and Its Correlates W|e labeled Genre 1, "teacher certification status and its correlates." Research in this genre has been used in debates about teacher education regulation and deregulation over the last two decades. The economists, public policy researchers, and sociologists whose work we classified in this genre aim to provide empirical evidence to inForm or sway Federal and state policies regarding the certification and licensure oF teachers. Researchers in this es genre search For variables that are related to teacher certification such as student achievement or the distribution oF credentialed teachers across schools. All the studies in this genre utilize complex statistical methodologies with the intention oF either determining whether there is a positive relationship between teacher certification and enhanced student achievement (e.g., Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000) or inyestigadng the extent oF and reasons For disparities in teachers' certification status across schools (e.g., Lankford, Loeb, &WyckoFF, 2002). Our analysis suggests that these studies are very sensitive to the ways categories oF teacher certification are constructed; results shiFt depending on operating assumptions about similarities and diFFerences between and among constructed groups. Teaching Practice. We Found no studies within this genre that explicitly linked certiFication to teaching practice. There were, however, tvvo studies that included an analysis oF teaching practice based on teacher certification status as a smaller part oF the study, even though the Focus was academic competency, which is discussed in G^enre 2. Smith, Desimone, and Ueno (200S) defined academic competency broadly, including one analysis that examined the correlation between teachers' certification and teaching practice that emphasized conceptual learning goals. Using selF-report data From the 2000 National Assessment oF Educational Progress, they Found no diFFerences in reported teaching practice based on math certification. In another study using the same data set. Smith, et al., (2007) investigated whether certification was related to teachers' emphases on conceptual objectives and reForm-oriented activities in science classes. Again they Found no diFFerences between certified and non-certiFied teachers in selF-reports about practice, including procedural activities, reporting and writing activities, or conceptual objectives. They did, however, find that teachers with Full certification were more likely to report the use oF hands-on activities in their classes.
expressed the highest commitment to teaching and the intention to still be teaching aFter two years. The Few studies discussed here suggest that math and science teachers with certification were more committed to teaching than non-certiFied teachers. However there was little diFFerence in the math or science teaching practices oF the two groups. Genre 2: Teachers' Educational Background and the Teacher Workforce We labeled Genre 2, "teachers' educational background and the teacher workforce." Studies in this genre have been used in debates about what kinds oF knowledge teachers should have, how teachers should obtain this knowledge, and how it should be assessed. Many oF the studies in this genre are intended to inForm policy regarding the academic competency oF teachers with the intent oF improving the perFormance oF students. Studies in this genre operationalize academic competency using a variety oF proxies (e.g., teachers' highest degree earned, courses taken, or scores on teacher tests). Most studies in Genre 2 use complex statistical procedures to examine the link between these proxies and a variety oF outcomes, including teacher distribution across classrooms and schools (e.g.. Hill, 2007), teachers' preparedness For or persistence in teaching (e.g., Podgursky, Monroe, & Watson, 2004), teaching practice (e.g.. Smith et al., 2005), and teachers' impact on student test scores (e.g., Kukla-Acevedo, 2009). A relatively small number oF studies in Genre 2 actually tested the extent oF impact oF teachers' academic competence (particularly in mathematics) on students' achievement or other desirable outcomes. However, most oF the studies took as a starting premise that teachers' academic competence aFFects students' achievement, but did not restrict this premise to the grade levels or subject areas For which this relationship had previously been empirically tested.
Teaching Practice. Very Few studies in Genre 2 looked at the relationship between teachers' academic competency and teaching practice. OF the three studies that did, two had the same lead author and used the same data set (Smith et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2007). Deñning mathematical background in terms oF mathrelated majors/minors and/or degrees, these two studies examined the relationship between teachers' mathematical background and various teaching practices in mathematics. Neither Found a strong relationship between teaching practice and mathematical background. Paneque and Barbetta (2006) used survey data to investigate correlates oF selF-reported teacher eFficacy (Bandura, 1997) For special education teachers oF English Language Learners Teacher Retention. Only one study in Genre 1 Focused on retention with Disabilities. They Found that teachers who were proFicient in as an outcome. LaTurner (2002) used data From Baccalaureate and the first language oF their students reported higher levels oF eFFiBeyond, a nationally representative sample oF individuals in the cacy, but also that special education certification and graduate United States who earned their bachelor's degree in 1993, to idendegrees were not associated with higher eFficacy. tiFy Four separate certification routes into teaching based on diFFerehces in the number oF teachers' semester hours and whether or Teacher Retention. Four studies in Genre 2 explicitly examined how not they had a teaching credential in math or science. He Found teachers' academic competency was related to retention. The that teachers with teaching credentials in math or science assumption was that teachers who were "academically able" were
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preferred in the profession, and thus that efforts should be made to encourage their retention. Podgursky, Monroe, and Watson (2004) investigated the relationship between individuals' high school ACT scores and both the probability of the individual entering teaching, and having entered teaching, the probability of leaving. They found that individuals with higher scores were less likely to enter teaching, and of those who did enter, teachers with higher scores were more likely to leave. (Zumwait and Craig [2005] have pointed out the fiaws in using high school information as indicators of teachers' ability or plan to teach.) Attempting to determine how academic competency is related to teachers' career decisions in a different way, Strunk and Robinson (2006) used 1999-2000 School and Staffing Survey (SASS) and 2000-2001 Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS) data to build a hierarchical generalized linear model. They found that subject matter taught, specifically foreign languages, was associated with increases in the probability of leaving teaching, but advanced degrees were not predictive of attrition. Weiss (1999) used data from two SASS administrations (1987—88 and 1993—94) to examine relationships between advanced degrees and commitment to the profession in the sense of planned teacher retention. She found that teachers with master's degrees were just as committed as those with bachelor's degrees and that there were no differences in how long the two groups planned to teach. One study used qualitative methods to explore why highly academically able teachers remained in teaching (Clayton & Schoonmaker, 2007). Using constant comparative methods to analyze interview data, the researchers found that both of the two teachers who stayed in the profession had received support in their development as teacher leaders in nurturing school environments. However these researchers did not differentiate between the reasons capable teachers stayed in the profession and the reasons other teachers stayed.Thus, it is unclear whether their findings are specific to highly academically able teachers. The studies in Genre 2 define academic competency in extremely different ways, which, along with small samples, makes it difficult to generalize across the studies. These differences notwithstanding, the studies in Genre 2 offer little support for the contention that teachers with greater academic competency exhibit more desirable teaching practices or persist in the profession longer.
internship models, and professional development school (PDS) models, which focus on preparing teachers in schools where the ongoing professional development of all teachers is a major focus. Over the last two decades, studies in this genre have often been used as evidence in highly politicized controversies about "traditional" and "alternate" routes into teaching, terms which are used very inconsistently and problematically in the literature. Simplistically these terms are often used to refer, respectively, to college/university-sponsored teacher preparation programs pathways, on one hand, and non-traditional entry pathways and certification routes, on the other, including streamlined programs, special programs such as Teach for America, or test-only routes into teaching. (For clarification and helpful discussions of the problems with these terms, see: Committee on the Study of Teacher Preparation, 2010; Zeichner & Conklin, 2005). Studies in this genre examine the relationships between entry pathways and a variety of outcomes such as, student achievement (Boyd, Lankford, Grossman, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2009; Darhng-Hammond, Holtzman, Gatlin, & Heilig, 2005; Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008), sense of preparedness (Good et al., 2006), effectiveness (Miller, McKenna, & McKenna, 1998; Ridley, Hurwitz, Davis Hackett, & Miller, 2005), and retention (Reynolds, Ross, & Rakow, 2002). Although few studies in Genre 3 use qualitative approaches, most utilize complex statistical methods. Many of the studies in Genre 3 investigate the connection between teachers' pathways into teaching and students' achievement. These are not discussed in this review unless they also focus on practice or retention since that is our focus here. Our larger review (Cochran-Smith et al., in press) includes all of these studies. Readers are also directed to other related reviews of research on pathways (e.g., Grossman & Loeb, 2008; Heilig & Jez, 2010; Zeichner & Conklin, 200S).
We use the label, "entry pathways into teaching and their consequences," for the studies in Genre 3 to emphasize their focus on relationships between teachers' entry pathways into teaching and various consequences, including effectiveness, preparedness and retention.The phrase, entry pathways, captures major variations in organizational arrangements, timing, location, and sponsorship of teacher preparation programs and certification routes as well as some of the major structural variations among university-sponsored preparation programs, such as four or five year programs.
Teaching Practice. Only four studies in Genre 3 examined the relationship between entry pathway and teaching practice. Two of these studies focused on the effectiveness of PDS models and compared the experiences of teachers who completed such programs with "traditionally" prepared teachers. Ridley et al. (2005) examined the experiences of 26 first-year teachers prepared through either a PDS or a "traditional" program at the same university. Rubrics were used to evaluate teachers' lesson plans, lesson delivery, and post-lesson reflections with a general linear model multivariate analysis employed to examine differences between the two groups. PDS teachers scored higher on lesson planning, reflecting on practice, and teaching effectiveness. Reynolds et al. (2002), who analyzed open-ended phone survey responses of 39 PDS and 41 non-PDS teachers as well as written surveys of 18 PDS and 18 non-PDS teachers, found that PDS teachers were more sensitive to students' ethnic and cultural differences, more reOective, and able to balance the varied demands of teaching. Although it is not possible to generalize about the relationship between PDS models and teaching practice from only two studies, it is worth noting that the results of these two studies are congruent.
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Genre 3: Entry Pathways into Teaching and Their Consequences
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I Two studies examined the teaching practices of "alternatively" prepared teachers and those who graduated from "traditional" preparation programs. Good et al. (2006) defined "alternative" certification as completion of a university-based master's degree or: post-baccalaureate certification program and "traditional" as completion of an undergraduate program. Based on classroom observations of 300+ teachers, the researchers found that although teachers from both undergraduate and post-undergraduate pathways met school expectations, teachers from undergraduate programs were more skilled in classroom management. The researchers suggest that the "best fit" for elementary and middle school teachers is undergraduate preparation, while post-undergraduate programs are a better fit for secondary teachers. Miller etial. (1998) reported the findings of two different studies, one observational and one based on interviews, which matched 41 teachers from the same "alternative" program with three years of experience with teachers from various "traditional" programs. The otíservational study yielded no significant differences between "alternatively" and "traditionally" prepared teachers. Results from the interview study indicated that initially none of the graduates from either pathway felt well prepared for the demands of teaching. However, after three years, teachers from both pathways encountered similar issues in the classroom and were most concerned with classroom management and discipline.
with support from principals and mentors were more willing to remain in teaching. Ng and Peter (2009) used a narrative approach to explore the career decisions of five teachers enrolled in an "alternative" preparation program for urban schools. Although all five teachers indicated they planned to remain in their schools, Ng and Peter discovered during a post-study follow up that only one teacher had persisted in the same school.Three had taken teaching positions in other districts, and one was not rehired. For each teacher, personal factors were the most significant influence on their decisions to move to a new school. Several Genre 3 studies focused on retention (in particular with regard to Teach for America [TFA]) as part of larger studies of pathways into teaching. Darling-Hammond et al.'s (2005) analysis of TFA teachers and other certified teachers in Houston during a three-year period found high rates of attrition for TFA teachers with between 57% to 90% departing after their second year and between 72% to 90% after the third year of teaching. In comparison, the rates of attrition for non-TFA teachers ranged between 32% and 55% after three years. Boyd et al.'s (2006) study of pathways into teaching in New York City, which followed teachers from point of entry in 1999-2000 through 2003-2004, found significant differences in attrition rates across pathways. In the first year, the attrition rates for TFA teachers (9%) and Teaching Fellows (10%) were lower than the attrition rate of college-recomTeacher Retention. Ten Genre 3 studies examined the relationship mended teachers (14%). However, the attrition rate for TFA teachers shifted dramatically after the second (48%), third (66%), between entry pathway and teacher attrition. Two compared the and fourth (81%) years with TFA teachers less Ukely to remain in turnover rates of graduates of PDS models with those of graduthe classroom than college-recommended teachers and Teaching ates of "traditional" preparation programs. To examine the attrition Fellows. Boyd et al. (2006) predicted that fewer than 20% of TFA rates of elementary teachers, Fleener and Dahm (2007) conteachers would remain in New York City schools after four years. ducted a survival analysis on 1,959 teachers (871 PDS) while Similarly, Kane et al. (2008) examined pathways into teaching Latham and Vogt (2007) used a regression analysis controlling for in New York City from 1998-1999 through 2004-2005. In keepteacher demographics and characteristics to study 1,065 teachers ing with previous findings, they found that rates of attrition (5p6 PDS). Both studies found that participants in PDS programs increased over time and were higher for uncertified and TFA persisted longer in teaching than did their non-PDS peers. In cono trast, Reynolds et al. (2002) analyzed responses to open-ended teachers than for certified teachers. After five years, approxiquestions administered through phone and written surveys. They mately 50% of both Teaching Fellows and traditionally certified found no difference in rates of teacher persistence between PDS teachers remained in the classroom compared to 45% of uncertiand non-PDS teachers, but they noted that graduates of the PDS fied and 18% of TFA teachers. Donaldson and Johnson (2010) program felt more prepared to teach. Taken together these studies used survival analysis to analyze the relationship between teaching suggest that retention rates may be improved when teachers are assignment and retention for 2,029TFA teachers. While approxipr'epared in PDS programs. However, there are many unanswered mately half of the TFA teachers left their initial schools at the end questions about what specific aspects of this model led to these of two years, 44% continued teaching and were committed to the results. Fleener and Dahm (2007) rightly recommend additional profession.Teachers with the most challenging assignments such as research that examines key aspects of the PDS model, including responsibilities for multiple grade levels, multiple subjects, or for teachers' commitments, impact of extended experiences in the teaching out of their fields were more likely to leave. classroom, and collaboration. Across these studies the findings are consistent; TFA teachers ' Two studies in Genre 3 focused specifically on the experiences of teachers prepared through "alternative" certification programs and the factors that affected their decisions to remain in the teaching profession. Nagy and Wang (2007) surveyed 145 "alternatively" certified teachers in New Jersey. They found that school districts with access to induction support and professional development were more likely to retain teachers; teachers who were satisfied T E A C H E R S '
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are more likely to remain in the classroom initially, but the rate of attrition increases dramatically in comparison with university-prepared and other certified teachers at the end of the second year and beyond. Of course, the two-year timeframe coincides with TFA teachers' two-year commitment and may be an indication that teachers perceive the program as a mechanism for temporary community service as opposed to a career.
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Genre 4: Teacher Preparation Programs and Their Graduates We labeled Genre 4, "teacber preparation programs and their graduates." Tbe studies in this genre can be understood as a response by tbe teacher education community to sbifting notions of accountability from primarily inputs to primarily outcomes. Many of tbe studies in this genre are closely akin to wbat Loughran (2004) described as "institutional evaluation and could in many ways be interpreted as auditing programs in order to determine wbetber tbe espoused intentions of tbe program are in accord witb tbe practices witbin tbe program [and tbe experiences of graduates]" (p. 9). Studies in this genre investigated tbe variables related to preparation program goals, sucb as increasing teacher retention in urban schools (e.g.. Lau, Dandy, & Hoffman, 2007), carrying out a program's mission in terms of desirable teacbing practices (e.g., Atbanases & Martin, 2006), and increasing graduates' sense of preparedness (e.g.. Fry, 2007). Taken collectively, tbese studies suggest tbat teacber preparation programs influence teacbers' pedagogy and commitment to teacbing wben they are prepared for specific teaching contexts.
this genre. All 10 of the Genre 4 studies that examined tbe teacbing practices of program graduates concluded tbat scbool context was a major factor. Tbose who succeeded in exbibiting tbe desirable practices fostered by tbeir programs were able to do so partly because tbeir beliefs and practices were valued and supported by tbe scbools in wbich tbey taugbt. Wben teacbers seemed to abandon wbat tbey bad learned during preparation, as in Steele's (2001) study, it was partly because tbe scbool context did not bonor tbe teacbers' visions of ideal practice. For example. Hart's (2001) study of eigbt teacbers found it was difficult for tbem to maintain reformed matb teacbing practice because, altbougb tbey were prepared pedagogically, tbey were not prepared to work witb tbe particular population of students they found in tbeir classrooms. Likewise, van Hover andYeager (2004) found tbat inquirybased bistory instruction fell by tbe wayside as tbe three teacbers tbey studied focused on covering the information presented in tbe textbook and dealing witb pressures imposed by department beads, AP exams, and state accountability measures.
Teacher Retention. Tbere were 11 studies in Genre 4 tbat examined retention as an outcome of teacbers' education. Most of tbese Teaching Practice. Ten Genre 4 studies examined the link between studied programs witb bigber tban national average rates of teacber retention (Freedman & Appleman, 2009; Helfeldt, teacber education programs and teacbing practice in two ways: by Capraro, Capraro, Foster, & Carter, 2009; Jorissen, 2002, 2003; considering teacbers' implementation of subject-specific beliefs Lau et al., 2007; Sakasb & Chou, 2007), so tbe purpose was to and practices tbat were empbasized in programs (Biancbi & Carvaidentify program features associated witb tbese rates. Along zos, 2007; Cady, Meier, & Lubinski, 2006; Grisbam, 2000; Hart, sbgbtly different lines, some studies in Genre 4 examined reten2001; Hoffman et al., 2005; Steele, 2001; van Hover & Yeager, tion more broadly by studying tbeir graduates' career moves or 2004), and by investigating more general aspects of teacbing, sucb investigating tbe tbinking processes of graduates wbo stayed in as teacbing for social justice or teachers' visions of ideal teacbing teacbing (Costigan, 2005; Liu, Jobnson, & Peske, 2004; Malowpractices tbat were emphasized in programs (Cochran-Smith, Iroff, O'Connor, & Bisland, 2007; Olsen & Anderson, 2007; Gleeson, & Mitchell, 2010; Flores, 2007; McElhone, Hebard, Quartz et al., 2005). Scott, &Juel, 2009). Tbese studies cballenge tbe popular belief that tbe effects of teacber preparation wasb out once teacbers are in scbools. The majority of teacbers wbo were followed in these studies exbibited practices tbat aligned witb tbe teacbings of their preparation programs. For example, based on interviews and observations of more than 100 teachers over three years wbo completed an International Reading Association specialized program and 70-1- teacbers who did not, Hoffman et al. (2005) found tbat teacbers wbo participated in tbe high-quality program were more effective tban teachers in the comparison group in their ability to create engaging literacy environments. Along somewbat similar lines, based on interviews witb 12 participants, Grisbam (2000) discovered tbat the constructivist reading instruction program bad an impact on bow graduates reflected on teacbing reading and on tbeir concern for student variation. Steele's (2001) study showed less promising results for the effect of teacber preparation, bowever. Altbougb all four teacbers studied initially sbowed cbanges in their conceptions of math education and adopted the reform-based approacb tbeir program taught, four years later, only two of tbe teacbers bad sustained tbeir beliefs. This relates to another consistent finding of studies in
Like tbe Genre 4 studies tbat examined teacbing practice, researcbers investigating retention used qualitative approaches and similar data collection strategies, sucb as interviews to garner teacbers' plans for tbe future (e.g., Olsen & Anderson, 2007). A few of tbe studies utilized mixed-methods researcb designs, using survey data or scaled classroom observation scores alongside data collected from quabtative instruments to develop a more complex understanding of tbe impact of teacber education programs (e.g.. Quartz et al., 2005). Despite some variation, tbe studies in this genre came to remarkably similar conclusions. Across tbe studies, researcbers found tbat two program factors were connected to bigber tban average retention rates: selectivity in tbe recruitment of appropriate teacber candidates, focusing mainly on tbeir dispositions and commitment to teacbing; and, coursework, mentoring, and fieldwork specifically geared toward tbe contexts in wbicb tbe candidates would ultimately teacb. Another group of studies tbat investigated retention and otber career decisions once teacbers entered tbe field also focused on context. Malow-Iroff et al. (2007) used surveys to examine the career decisions of graduates of tbe New York City Teacbing Fellows
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program. They found that decisions were correlated with working conditions, such as the socioeconomic status of students (as reported by teachers), administrative support for teachers, and teachers' self-reported general teaching efficacy. Costigan (2005) used teachers' journals, interviews and focus groups to identify four themes that influenced how New York City Teaching Fellows thought about their career paths. Perceived lack of continuity between academic expectations and academic investment from students, standardized curricula that inhibited their freedom to design curriculum materials, and lack of autonomy negatively impacted teachers' career plans. The final theme, personal relationships with students, was the one influence that made it difficult for teachers to think about leaving and thus bolstered retention. Collectively, the studies in Genre 4 make an important contribution to the research on teaching practice and retention by showing that professional teacher education has the power both to shape teachers' beliefs and practices, especially when the program's focus is consistent and clear throughout course and field offerings, an'd improve retention, especially when teachers are selected and prepared for specific contexts. The major limitation to this body of work is that, with few exceptions, it does not connect teacher candidates' learning, beliefs, performance, or retention to their students' learning. While it is problematic to evaluate teacher quality solely on the basis of student learning, much of the research in this genre seems to assume that well-prepared teachers who appear to adopt a program's mission and goals and then stay in the profession necessarily enhance students' achievement gains. Genre S: Teacher Preparation and Learning to Teach in thle Early Career Years
matter area, such as grammar or writing, typically found that, although teachers reverted to traditional approaches early in their career, reform-oriented methods learned during teacher preparation eventually resurfaced in meaningful ways (Grossman et al., 2000; Grossman & Thompson, 2008; Long, 2004; Maloch et al., 2003; Pardo, 2006; Smagorinsky, Wright, Augustine, O'DonnellAllen, & Konopak, 2007; Watzke, 2007). While initially committed to reform-oriented teaching practices, these teachers felt compelled to rely on traditional methods in order to manage the many demands of their early career. As teachers became more comfortable in their schools, they began more meaningful implementation of the practices learned during preservice preparation. These research findings are helpful both in understanding why early career teachers often succumb to the status quo and also in identifying the factors that support the re-emergence of innovative practice. Most notably, studies in this genre found that beginning teachers struggled to embrace innovation largely because they were unable to find meaningful practical applications for the theories learned in teacher preparation (Grossman & Thompson, 2008; Long, 2004; Smagorinsky et al., 2007). Amidst the pressures of the early career, teachers found the bridge between theory and practice too far and, as a result, reverted to dominant, traditional teaching practices.These studies concluded that teacher preparation could be improved by expanded understandings of wbat it is like to learn to teach reform-oriented curricula within the complex contexts of today's diverse schools and classrooms. For example, studies recommended increasing mentorship for program graduates (Long, 2004) and helping students translate theory to practice by providing more opportunities to critique and adapt traditional curricula (Grossman & Thompson, 2008).
We use the phrase "teacher preparation and learning to teach in the early career years" to categorize analyses of learning to teach during and soon after the teacher preparation period. Studies in Genre 5 are often called upon as evidence in controversies regarding the preparation and on-the-job development that best nurture the creation of competent, committed educators. Primarily qualitative. Genre 5 studies commonly gather data through semi-structured interviews, focus groups and participant observations. Data are analyzed using constant-comparative analyses of interview and observation data or other forms of analytic induction that are common to qualitative research.
These studies are also helpful in identifying why innovative approaches reemerged in teachers' practice. In particular. Genre 5 studies found that critical reflection was central to teachers' transformation from traditional to innovative instruction (Grossman et al., 2000; Maloch et al., 2003; Pardo, 2006). Grossman et al. (2000) noted that teacher preparation should afford opportunities for candidates to practice critical reflection on teaching practice. Similarly, Pardo (2006) and Maloch et al. (2003) noted that collaborative learning communities, both during and after preservice preparation, were central in helping teachers learn about and negotiate their school contexts and to work within and around mandated curricula to best meet students' needs.
Teaching Practice. Sixteen studies in Genre 5 asked questions about the factors in teachers' preparation or school contexts that influerlced teaching practice and sense of preparedness. Using qualitative case study approaches, many studies worked from sqcio-cultural perspectives (e.g., Ar tiles, Barreto, Pena, & McClafferty, 1998; Grossman & Thompson, 2008; Pardo, 2006), which view teacher learning in iterative and dynamic interaction with social contexts. Two trends dominated the findings related to teaching practice. First, studies that investigated teachers' efforts to engage in re:form-oriented approaches to instruction in a particular subject-
As with Genre 4, studies in Genre 5 focused on the transition from preparation to teaching in terms of more general teaching practices such as developing a reflective stance or teaching for social justice. Using data collection and analysis methods similar to those described above, these studies typically found that the Stressors common to the early career period often prevented teachers from engaging in innovative practice (Artiles et al., 1998; Athanases & de Oliveira, 2007; Bergeron, 2008; Dormell, 2007; Lyons, 1998; Trumbull, 2001). Studies found, for example, that teachers did not engage in self-critique (Trumbull, 2001) and tbat they did not make connections between their values and beliefs
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about schooling and their classroom practice (Lyons, 1998). Studies also Found that teacher education did not provide teachers with tools to apply the knowledge base oF culturally responsive teaching to meet students' needs (Artiles et al., 1998), and that Fear oF proFessional risk and inadequate administrative support systems oFten prevented teachers From advocating For improved learning conditions For their students (Athanases & de Oliveria, 2007; Bergeron, 2008). The research here identiFies potential avenues to support nonsubject-specific innovation in teaching practice. Artiles et al. (1998) noted that teacher education programs should continue to find ways to make social justice issues relevant to the concrete, daily realities oF teaching, and Athanases and de Oliveria (2007) called on teacher education programs to pay more attention to preparing teachers to be advocates. Donnell (2007), meanwhile, argued that to support teacher learning beyond the preservice period, teacher education should better prepare teachers to learn From their students and engage in mutual learning and knowledge generation about the instruction that best meets their needs.
teacher retention did so independently oF measures oF the quality oF the teachers who stayed in or leFt the proFession. Thus the insights generated by studies in Genre 5 about the preparation and learning experiences that best Foster the development oF competent, committed educators are incomplete. Genre 6: Life Histories and Teachers' Beliefs and Practices Genre 6 includes studies that explore teachers' individual liFe histories and belieFs and the impact oF these on teaching. Here, hFe histories include experiences in a particular teacher preparation pathway or a teacher's overall socialization and development. As such, this genre provides perspectives on teaching not captured within the other genres such as the impact oF teachers' age, race/ethnicity, gender, and social class on teaching practice.
Teaching Practice. The Four studies within this genre share a similar research purpose in that they all seek to understand how teachers' identity and lived experiences influence teaching practice. Although united in this goal, some oF the studies Focused on Teacher Retention. Four studies in Genre 5 examined the influence aspects oF identity, such as age (Brown, 2005) or ethnicity/heroF aspects oF the process oF learning to teach on retention and itage (Skerrett, 2008; Urrieta, 2007), while others investigated other career decisions. These studies generally identified teacher the larger gestalt oF teachers' identities and their developmental agency as an important Factor that contributes to teacher retention experiences (Levin, 2001). For example. Brown (2005) explored during the transition period From preparation to teaching. When the development oF teacher perceptions in older teachers by investeachers Felt that they had active, meaningFul roles in their schools tigating the experiences oF two early career teachers who were in (Goode, Quartz, Barraza-Lyons, & Thomas, 2004), were able to their Forties. Levin (2001), on the other hand, investigated the approximate their ideals For classroom practice (Hammerness, cumulative aspects oF a single teacher's development over a period 2008), and/or when they Felt supported by empowering mentors oF ten years in an eFFort to understand how a broad array oF per(Johnson & Birkeland, 2003;Worthy, 2005), they were more likely sonal and proFessional influences impact a teacher's understanding to stay. These studies, then, suggested reForms to teacher educaand development oF pedagogy over the proFessional liFespan. tion programs, school organizations, and educational policy that In most oF these studies, the size oF the sample was small (Fewer would emphasize the Factors that strengthen beginning teachers' than three teachers) with the exception oF Urrieta's (2007) study sense oF agency. Focusing on the identity development oF 24 Chicana/o educator Research in Genre 5 oFFers two primary contributions to our activists, which included six undergraduate education majors, six understanding oF teachers' education and teaching practice graduate education students, six K—12 teachers, and six teacher and/or retention. First, the studies highlight important ways educators. Data collection methods were Fairly consistent across teachers' education programs can better prepare graduates to the Four studies, utilizing identity- or developmental theory-based incorporate reForm-oriented teaching practices into their instrucinterview protocols and structured classroom observations. One tion. In this way, the studies in this genre can be understood as a exception was Skerrett's (2008) selF-study, which is a retelling oF response to a web oF critiques, suggesting that university-based her "remote and current biography" (p. 144), or, reflections on the teacher education adds little value to teachers' eFFectiveness. Secelements oF her past and present that influenced her teaching. ondly, the studies in this genre contributed to a more nuanced understanding oF the complexities oF teaching. By viewing teachTeacher Retention. Although none oF the studies in Genre 6 directly ing practice in dynamic relationship with teachers' school context, explored relationship oF teachers' socialization and development these studies provided greater insight into how preparation proand retention, some studies provide ancillary inFormation about grams, oF all kinds, can help to improve teacher quality. teachers' career trajectories as part oF discussion oF context. For example, in her selF-study oF the influence oF biography on her In spite oF these contributions, important limitations prevent practice as a teacher educator, Skerrett (2008) reflected briefly the studies in Genre 5 From oFFering deeper insight into teacher upon the reasons she leFt K—12 teaching to enter academia. learning. A Few studies examined teaching practice with a sort oF snapshot approach oFten taken during the first year oF a teacher's With just Four studies in this genre and small sample sizes, the career (e.g., DiFfily & Perkins, 2002). As a result, these studies are Findings cannot be generalized. However, looking across the studunable to oFFer useFul insight into the complexity oF teacher learnies, there are some interesting insights about the experiences all ing and development over time. Additionally, studies that examined the teachers shared, including some similarities in teacher prepa-
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ration and classroom routines. That said, the studies suggest that teachers' reaction to classroom experiences vary widely because every teacher is influenced by the unique mosaic of his or her socialization and life history experiences. It is these life histories that seem to differentiate a teacher's practice in the classroom and fundamentally influence all aspects of a teacher's work including pedagogy (Levin, 2001), interaction with students (Urrieta, 2007), interaction with school culture and expectations (Brown, 2005), and teacher education (Skerrett, 2008). As such, the studieS| in this genre highlight the need of teacher education programs to I acknowledge the influence of individual life histories on teacher practice and move beyond a 'one size fits all' model of teacher preparation.
CONCLUSIONS: TEACHERS' EDUCATION, PRACTICE, AND RETENTION As our discussion has shown, differing genres of research frame research problems related to teaching practice and/or retention as desirable outcomes of teachers' education in quite different ways. Each is also differently positioned in terms of larger policy and political controversies. Studies in Genres 1 and 2 and some of those in Genre 3 were conducted by social scientists, generally using quantitative designs with large databases with the intention of ¡informing state and federal policies. In contrast, some studies in 'Genre 3 and most of those in Genres 4, S, and 6 were conducted by researchers interested in the processes of learning to teach, some of whom are also teacher education practitioners. Generally qualitative, these studies aim to understand the contexts and conditions that shape beginning teachers' work to inform research as well as policy and practice in professional teacher education organizations, accreditors, and institutions/ patJiways that prepare teachers. Sniall Numher of Studies with Practice and/or Retention as Outcomes One conclusion from this review is that we know relatively little about either teaching practice or retention as outcomes of teachers' education, and in almost every area of work, further research is needed.There continues to be a relatively small number of peerreviewed teacher education studies that empirically connect teachers' education with post-education outcomes. This is no doubt a consequence of many of the same conditions named in the report of the AERA Panel on Research andTeacher Education (CochranSmith & Zeichner, 2005): lack of funding and infrastructure, few reliable data bases or established measurement instruments, and lirnited research expertise. Since 1999, however, federal Teacher Quality Enhancement grants and private initiatives such as Carnegie Corporation's "Teachers for a New Era" project invested heavily in the improvement of selected university-sponsored teacher education programs. Thus we had anticipated more outcomes studies over the last decade. The still small number Of teacher education studies may reflect the fact that both the federal grants and the Carnegie project were initially conceptualized as
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reform projects, not research studies, and thus yielded primarily local knowledge about particular programs. The Ahsence of Studies Linking Retention and Practice We found no studies linking teaching practice with retention as outcomes of teachers' education. This is a concern but not a surprise. Syntheses of the teacher retention/attrition research (e.g., Guarino, Santibanez, & Daley, 2006; Johnson, Berg, & Donaldson, 2005) conclude that retention studies have generally not made the connection to teacher quality, whether defined in terms of students' learning, teaching practice, or teacher performance. Likewise in research on teachers' career trajectories and work Uves, there have been almost no studies that connect career trajectory with teaching practice (Rolls & Plauborg, 2009). More recently, however, some studies have examined the connection betw^een attrition and teacher quality, indicating that less effective teachers are more likely to leave teaching (Boyd et al., 2009; Goldhaber, Gross, & Player, 2011 ; Hanushek et al., 2004; Krieg, 2006). However, these studies do not address teaching practice; rather they define effectiveness in terms of value added to students' test scores, which is a limited and somewhat crude indicator of teaching quality. Cross-Genre Findings ahout Teachers' Education, Teaching Practice and/or Retention Teachers' Education and Teachinq Practice. Although there are rela-
tively few studies about teaching practice, the evidence is fairly consistent across genres. There are no studies that focus explicitly on the link between teacher certification and teaching practice; in the few studies that tangentially consider this link, neither certification status nor academic competency (e.g., advanced degrees or coursework) influenced teachers' reported practices. There is some evidence that PDS participation influences teachers' practice, including the quality and delivery of lessons, reflection, handling multiple teaching tasks, and sensitivity to students' differences. And there are almost no studies that examine the impact on teaching practice of "alternative" entry pathways in comparison with more traditional pathways. One consistent finding across the studies that examine teaching practice is that participation in particular university-based teacher preparation programs does seem to shape teaching practices, with teachers demonstrating in their classrooms the practices they learned,during the preparation period. However these studies also show that school context is a powerful mediating influence on practice at all levels. Across a number of studies, it is clear that the graduates of university-recommended programs who are able to act on the beliefs and practices emphasized in their programs are effective because their programs focus on the school context as a fully integrated part of preparation and partner closely with schools. When teachers are unable to implement the practices they learned, on the other hand, it is often because of unsupportive administrators, the constraints of curriculum requirements, or the lack of like-minded colleagues. A number of studies indicate that
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teachers are more able to implement subject-specific teaching practices (e.g., in reading or math) than they are to engage in practices consistent with general stances promoted in programs (e.g., advocacy for students or teaching for social justice). There is also some evidence that some practices not present in the first years of teaching re-emerge later when teachers have gained a stronger sense of agency. Teachers' Education and Retention. Across the genres, two major
questions about retention were addressed: "Who stays in or leaves teaching?" and, "Why do they do so?"Again, the evidence was fairly consistent. There is little evidence that more academically able teachers are more likely to leave teaching, even though this is sometimes claimed in policy debates. However, there is some evidence that participation in particular programs, such as PDSs, with close links between universities and schools, is associated with higher rates of retention. There is also consistent evidence across a number of studies that teachers who enter through "alternative" pathways, particularly TFA, have higher rates of retention than other teachers at the end of the first year of teaching, but after two years and beyond, university-prepared teachers and other certified teachers have significantly higher rates of retention than TFA or non-certified teachers. Across a number of the genres, there is evidence that both teacher characteristics (including entry programs and pathways) and school workplace conditions influence retention. Preparation programs with retention rates well above national averages concentrate on the selection and recruitment of teachers disposed to hard work and strongly committed to teaching, and then prepare those teachers in coherent programs geared for the contexts (especially urban schools) where they will work. The evidence also suggests that whether entering teaching through "alternate" routes, PDSs, or university-sponsored programs, teachers' decisions to leave or stay in teaching are remarkably consistent. Teachers make decisions based on how their expectations mesh with their experiences in schools, influenced in many cases by mentoring opportunities, principal support, collaboration with colleagues, appropriateness and difficulty of teaching assignments/ responsibilities, and opportunities for professional development and leadership roles. As we have shown in this review, although both quality of teaching practice and teacher retention are important aspects of improving overall teaching quality in the nation's schools, there is limited empirical research about either of these as outcomes of teachers' education. We need to know much more about the connection between teachers' education and whether and why new teachers persist in teaching and for how long. We need to know more about the connection between teachers' education and the kinds of teachers they become, including what opportunities they create for students, what roles they assume, and how they think about their work. We also need more information about how teaching practice and retention are connected to one another as outcomes of teachers' education. Finally, as we have tried to do in
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this cross-genre review, we need to learn from multiple genres of research about teachers' education and the outcomes of teaching o
practice and retention since all of these provide valuable, although partial, insights. References
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Authors' Note
Urrieta, L. (2007). Identity production in figured worlds: How some Mexican Americans become Chicana/o activist educators. The Urban \ Review, 19(2), 117-144.
The authors of this paper worked as a team led by Marilyn CochranSmith; members collaborated extensively and contributed equally to the work.
vail Hover, S. D., &Yeager, E. A. (2004). Challenges facing beginning history teachers: An exploratory study. International Journal of Social EduMarilyn Cochran-Smith is Cawthorne Professor of Teacher Education and
cation, ¡9(\),%-2e. Watzke, J. L. (2007). Longitudinal research on beginning teacher develI opment: Complexity as a challenge to concerns-based stage theory. I Teaching andTeacher Education, 23, 106—122.
Director of the Doctoral Program in Curriculum and Instruction at Boston Col-
Weiss, E. M. (1999). Perceived workplace conditions and first-year teachers' morale, career choice commitment, and planned retention: A secondary analysis. Teaching andTeacher Education, /5(8), 861—879. Wilson, S., Floden, R., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2001). Teacher preparation research: Current knowledge, gaps, and recommenc/ations. Washington, DC: j Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy.
Matthew Cannady is Quantitative Research Specialist at the Center for Research, Evaluation, and Assessment at the University of California, Berkeley. E-mail: mcannady(^gmail.com
Worthy, J. (2005). "It didn't have to be so hard": The first years of teachI ing in an urban school, international Journal of Qualitative Studies in ¡Education, ¡8(3),
lege Lynch School of Education. E-mail: cochrans(§bc.edu
Kirstin Pesóla McEachern, Peter Piazza, and Christine Power are doctoral candidates in Curriculum and Instruction at Boston College Lynch School of Education. E-mail: kirstin.mceachern(^bc.edu;
[email protected];
[email protected]
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Zeichner, K., & Conklin, H. (2005). Teacher education programs. In M. j Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education: The \ report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education. Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Amy Ryan is Associate Director for Mentoring and Induction at Boston College Lynch School of Education. E-mail: amy.ryan.2(§bc.edu
Zumwalt, K., & Craig, E. (2005). Research on preparing teachers for I diverse populations. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), I Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA pane¡ on research ' and teacher education (pp. 477—548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum i Associates.
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