Tectonic evolution of Kashmir basin in northwest

Geomorphology 239 (2015) 114–126

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Tectonic evolution of Kashmir basin in northwest Himalayas Akhtar Alam a,⁎, Shabir Ahmad b, M. Sultan Bhat a, Bashir Ahmad c a b c

Department of Geography & Regional Development, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, Srinagar 190006, Jammu and Kashmir, India Department of Geology, Sri Pratap School, M. A. Road, Srinagar 190001, Jammu and Kashmir, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 21 October 2014 Received in revised form 23 March 2015 Accepted 30 March 2015 Available online 6 April 2015 Keywords: Basin Evolution Kashmir Strike–slip Tectonics

a b s t r a c t Geomorphology has long been recognised as a key to evaluate the interplay between tectonics and landscape geometry in the regions of active deformation. We use geomorphic signatures at varied spatial scales interpreted from SRTM-DEM/Landsat-ETM data, supplemented with field observations to review the tectonic evolution of Kashmir basin in northwest Himalayas. Geomorphic evidence is persuasive of a credible NNW–SSE trending dextral strike–slip structure (central Kashmir Fault — CKF), with the strike length of ~165 km, stretched centrally over the NNW–SSE length of the Kashmir basin. As a result of the strike–slip motion and subsequent erosion, significant deformation has taken place along the CKF. In addition, broad geomorphic architecture of the basin reveals typical pull-apart characteristics. Hence, we deduce that the Kashmir basin has evolved as a pull-apart Quaternary sediment depression owing to the deformation along the central Kashmir Fault. The spatial distribution pattern of seismic events (NEIC-catalogue, 1973–2013) and GPS measurements (published), collectively substantiate our geomorphic interpretations. © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Pull-apart basins are elongated sedimentary troughs that generally evolve from tectonic activity along dextral (right lateral) or sinistral (left lateral) strike–slip faults. The San Andreas Fault is first place where strike–slip fault movement was convincingly demonstrated (Bloom, 2003). Large strike–slip faults are an important feature of actively deforming parts of continents, accumulating displacements of many kilometres, and are capable of generating large earthquakes (Walker et al., 2006). Most strike–slip faults accommodate oblique displacements along some segments or during part of the time they are active; strike–slip movements are associated with an assemblage of second-order related structures, including normal and/or reverse faults (Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985). The evolution of pull-apart basins (rhombochasms) has been widely attributed to strike–slip faulting on the basis of field and experimental data (e.g., Crowell, 1974; Aydin and Nur, 1982; Sylvester, 1988; Petrunin and Sobolev, 2008; Joshi and Hayashi, 2010). These basins are characterised by sedimentary cover above the strike–slip fault in the basement (e.g., Atmauoi et al., 2006; Nemer et al., 2008), bounded on the sides by two or more faults and on their tips by diagonal transfer faults

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9906416644. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Alam).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.03.025 0169-555X/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

(Gürbüz, 2010). All the pull-apart basins, regardless of offset geometry, evolve progressively from narrow depressions bounded by oblique–slip faults to wider rhombic basins flanked by terraced basin sidewall fault systems (Dooley and McClay, 1997). These basins differ dramatically from simple strike–slip systems: they share properties with strike–slip and extensional settings, resulting in complex basin structures (Rahe et al., 1998). Geomorphology in tectonically active regimes is a powerful tool to assist in differentiating more active segments of geologic structures and can help in establishing the structural evolution of a region (UlHadi et al., 2012). Moreover, widespread availability of the high quality, high-resolution topographic data encourages the development of simple morphological models that can be used to deduce recent tectonic evolution (Brocklehurst, 2010). The DEMs and optical remote sensing satellite images are widely used to study the tectonically emerged geomorphic anomalies (e.g., Jordan, 2003; Arrowsmith and Zielke, 2009; Wechsler et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2011), and provide new cost/time effective opportunities for a better understanding of earth surface processes (e.g., Tarolli, 2014), in the vast and inaccessible areas, where detailed field checks are difficult. Located in the Indo–Eurasian collision zone (northwest Himalayas, Fig. 1), with an area of ~15,000 km2, spread over an elevation range of ~1570–6000 m above mean sea level (amsl), the Kashmir basin is the locus of active deformation (e.g., Madden et al., 2011). The overall geomorphic configuration suggests that all the major landforms of the basin are tectonic in origin. In the present study, we use geomorphic

A. Alam et al. / Geomorphology 239 (2015) 114–126

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Fig. 1. Location of the Kashmir basin. (A) SRTM-DEM, (B) Google Earth image, (C) Google Earth terrain image of the northwest Himalayas.

parameters, obtained from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM-90 m) and Landsat-Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM-30 m, 2001) to unravel the tectonic evolution of the Kashmir basin, followed by validation of the geomorphic interpretations using seismic data (NEIC-Catalogue, 1973–2013), and published GPS data.

2. Regional setting 2.1. Regional geology The geology of Kashmir basin is diverse with the Salkhala series (Precambrian) and Dogra slates (lower Cambrian) as its

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Fig. 2. Geological cross-section of the Kashmir Himalayas (after Wadia, 1975).

basement (Wadia, 1975; Krishnan, 1982) (Figs. 2 and 3). This oldest stratigraphic basement is succeeded by a more or less full sequence of fossiliferous Palaeozoic such as Panjal volcanic series (Panjal trap and agglomeratic slate), Gneissose granite, Gondwana shale, Fenestella shale, Syringothyris limestone, Permo–Triassic rocks, conglomerate beds, and varved clays in various parts of Kashmir (Lydekker, 1883; Middlemiss, 1910; Wadia, 1975; Krishnan, 1982). However, significant

parts of the Kashmir basin are covered by fluvioglacial sediments, collectively known as Karewas (Plio–Pleistocene), which have been assigned Group status (Farooqi and Desai, 1974; Bhatt, 1989). These consist of a 1300-m-thick sequence of unconsolidated clays, sands, and conglomerates with lignite beds unconformably lying on the bedrock and are overlain by recent river alluvium (Bhatt, 1975, 1976; Wadia, 1975; Burbank and Johnson, 1982; Singh, 1982).

Fig. 3. Geology of the Kashmir Himalayas (Raza et al., 1978; Ahmad et al., 2013).


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Fig. 4. Geological structures of the Kashmir Himalayas (after Agarwal and Agrawal, 2005; Thakur et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2013).

2.2. Regional tectonics Kashmir is a Neogene Quaternary intermontane basin with distinct NW–SE asymmetric disposition, bounded by the Zanskar Mountain Range in the ENE and Pir Panjal Range in the WSW (Fig. 4). Southwest of the Pir Panjal Range is a complex pattern of faulting with the superposition of several thrusts, such as the Main Central Thrust (MCT)/ Panjal Thrust (PT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)/Murree Thrust (MT),

Riasi Thrust (RT), and Kotli Thrust (KT) (Thakur et al., 2010). These faults are considered to be imbrications of the northward-rooted basal decollement known as the Main Himalayan Thrust (Schelling and Arita, 1991; Brown et al., 1996; DeCelles et al., 2001). Besides these mountain-bounding thrust sheets, one more out-of-sequence fault (Balapur Fault — BF) has also been mapped in the Kashmir basin (Fig. 4), with an average dip of 60° NE, extending a minimum of 40 km parallel to the Pir Panjal Range, which cuts Pleistocene deposits

Fig. 5. Shaded relief (SRTM-DEM), showing approximate strike of the CKF and the subsequent (young) NE/SW bounding faults. Arrows show the consistent ridge terminations from the NE. BF denotes the Balapur Fault. The area between the NE/SW-bounding faults represents the probable fault zone of the CKF. Numbers (I, II, III, IV, V, VI) are drawn to denote the segmentwise microlevel geomorphic evidence of the CKF in the fault zone. Locations represented by numbers 1, 2, and 3 are the Quaternary sediment deposits seeming to have detached from the SW part of the Kashmir basin.

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Fig. 6. Profiles showing hypsometric variability along the strike of the CKF and associated structures (NE/SW bounding faults).

(Ahmad and Bhat, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2013). Palaeoseismic investigations on the Balapur Fault reveal a shortening rate of 0.3–1.5 mm/y (Madden et al., 2011). The date of the most recent slip on the Balapur Fault (BF) is probably N1 ka (Meigs et al., 2012). 3. Geomorphic interpretations 3.1. Central Kashmir Fault (CKF) The geomorphic recognition of tectonic landforms provides insight into patterns of the regional faulting and in working out the geologic history of a region (e.g., Keller and Rockwell, 1984; Keller and Pinter, 1996; Gürbüz and Gürer, 2008). Faults produce varied recognisable geomorphic features; however, some of these are typically associated with

the strike–slip faulting, such as linear trough, linear topographic discontinuity (linear terrace), chain of lakes/marshes/springs/sag ponds, and ridge/drainage offset along the fault (e.g., Wallace, 1990; Burbank and Anderson, 2011). Gravity data indicate a positive anomaly below the Kashmir basin, which is attributed to the presence of magmatic rocks at depth (Qureshi, 1969; Qureshi et al., 1974). In addition, Kaila et al. (1978) deciphered a deep-seated fault in the centre of the basin running almost parallel to the Jhelum River. The findings of previous workers produced substantial information supporting the presence of large structure(s) within the Kashmir basin. However, the exact strike of this large structure is still ambiguous, mainly because of the lack of structural data. The present work uses geomorphic parameters for establishing strike of the main structure, responsible for the development

Fig. 7. SRTM-DEM showing linear chain of the lakes, marshes, and sag ponds parallel to the TR.


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Fig. 8. Subsets of SRTM-DEM and Landsat-ETM image showing segmentwise microlevel surface signatures of the CKF (I, II, III, IV, V, VI). I — Linear ridge and river deflection, II — Linear softsediment bed, III — Stream piracy, IV — Linear valley, V — Stream piracy and upstream river braiding, and VI — Prominent long lineament and horsetail fault splays.

of the pull-apart Kashmir basin. Because the Kashmir basin floor is mostly covered by weakly consolidated sediment deposits/river alluvium, therefore we relied on various geomorphic features to look for the fault evidence (e.g., Bull and McFadden, 1977; Keller et al., 1982). Geomorphic evidence is substantial, suggesting the possibility of NNW–SSE trending subsurface structure(s) within the Kashmir basin (Figs. 5 and 6). The basin exhibits a prominent linear soft sediment terrace, stretched centrally over most of its NNW–SSE length, dividing the basin floor into two almost equal parts: [topographic rise — TR] and [topographic depression — TD] from the SW and NE, respectively (e.g., Shah, 2013). The TD hosts a continuous chain of lakes, marshes, and sag ponds, which have evolved linearly parallel to the terrace (TR)

(Fig. 7). These water bodies may be ascribed to the abrupt change in the gradient owing to the possible large structure underneath. The corresponding surface indications, i.e., large lineament and associated horsetail splays (e.g., Mouslopoulou et al., 2007; Brogi, 2011), of the credible subsurface fault are preserved at its terminating end in the southern hard rock extension of the basin. In addition to these broad topographic anomalies, several microlevel geomorphic evidences, fairly interpretable from the satellite data (Fig. 8), collectively facilitate in determining the approximate strike of CKF (~165 km), that almost equals the NNW–SSE basin length. Considering the strike length, the CKF is capable of generating an earthquake of 7.7 Mw (e.g., Wells and Coppersmith, 1994), strong enough to completely destroy the human

Fig. 9. Landsat-ETM image draped SRTM-DEM (Kashmir basin 3D: south to north view) showing possible shifting of the River Jhelum from the basin midline to extreme right (NE).

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settlements of the Kashmir basin. Geomorphic evidence further suggests that the CKF is most likely characterised by two more parallel faults, bounding it from the NE and SW. The watershed divide ridges of the northeastern Kashmir basin diminish linearly into the basin's floodplain with lateral symmetry, perhaps terminating on the NEbounding fault. In addition, River Jhelum seems to have migrated to the extreme right (NE) from the basin midline (Fig. 9), traversing along the possible NE-bounding fault of the CKF at present. While tectonically more active, the SW basin is characterised by a recognised

structure: the Balapur Fault (BF) (Ahmad et al., 2013). We infer that the Balapur Fault is the segmented expression of the possible SWbounding fault of the central Kashmir Fault (CKF). 3.2. Paired offsetting caused by strike–slip The impact of strike–slip on large river courses in the Himalayas has been investigated and reported by many researchers (e.g., Koons, 1995; Brookfield, 1998; Hallet and Molnar, 2001). Rivers are sensitive to the

Fig. 10. Kashmir basin (A — north and B — south) showing the abrupt drainage-divide ridge deflection and complementary river offsetting along the CKF. Arrows indicate possible dextral strike–slip and solid black lines represent magnitude of the slip (~20 km from south and ~9 km from north) along the CKF. This map also shows drainage basin ridge mimicking by the Chenab and Kishanganga rivers for ~250 km from the south and ~110 km from the north, respectively.


subtle geomorphic changes induced by active tectonics (Holbrook and Schumm, 1999; Jain and Sinha, 2005; Malik and Mohanty, 2007; Turowski et al., 2009). Linear features like streams and ridges become offset along the fault and yield a clear sense of slip direction (Burbank and Anderson, 2011). Offsetting of drainage divide ridges and higher order rivers may be treated as a most reliable surface indication of the strike–slip (e.g., Devi et al., 2011; Walker and Allen, 2012). The sudden deflection expressed by the Kashmir basin's drainage divide at the terminating ends of CKF (SE and NW) is strongly complemented by the deflection of two major interbasin rivers: Chenab (south) and Kishanganga (north), corresponding approximately equal to the magnitude of deflection shown by the basin divide ridges (Fig. 10). The paired

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offsetting of drainage basin divide and the higher order rivers is suggestive of dextral strike–slip motion along CKF. Moreover, because of the strike–slip-triggered lateral stress on the drainage basin, these rivers, the Chenab and Kishanganga, mimic the basin boundary for the distances of more than 250 and 110 km respectively, reflecting the impact of strike–slip deformation (Fig. 10). 3.3. Pull-apart architecture Geometry is a most obvious character and clear indication of strike– slip pull-apart basins (e.g., Titus et al., 2002; Gürbüz, 2010). Geometric anomalies of strike–slip basins can be easily recognised by their typical

Fig. 11. Dextral strike–slip pull-apart model of the Kashmir basin. (A) Image showing elongated sedimentary trough and the probable lateral displacement along the credible dextral strike–slip structure (CKF), dashed semicircles have been used to highlight the basin-scale pull-apart dextral strike–slip, A and A′ represent the magnitude of ridge deflection (~20 km); (B) Drawing: simplified illustration of the possible dextral strike–slip; (C) drawing: three-dimensional dextral strike–slip pull-apart representation of the basin.

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Fig. 12. Spatial distribution pattern of the seismic events (NEIC-catalogue, 1973–2013) in and around the Kashmir basin.

characteristics such as drainage basin–boundary mismatch and elongation (e.g., Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985). In strike–slip faulting, a linear trough commonly forms along the principal displacement zone because structural blocks are slipping past each other along this zone and the

fractured materials are more readily eroded along the fault zone (Burbank and Anderson, 2011). The broad geomorphic configuration of the Kashmir basin suggests apparent dextral strike–slip pull-apart architecture along the fault (CKF) crossing the centre of the basin (Fig. 11).

Fig. 13. Movement-direction of the NE and SW sides of the basin as revealed by the GPS data.


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4. Supporting evidence 4.1. Spatial pattern of seismic events

Fig. 14. Digital elevation model (DEM) showing the strike–slip triggered lateral and oblique displacement along the CKF.

Seismicity in the Himalaya region predominantly results from the collision of the India and Eurasia continental plates, which are converging at a relative rate of 40–50 mm/y (Turner et al., 2013). Apart from the increased stress in the NW–SE loop of the Hazara–Kashmir Syntaxis (HKS), caused by the Mw 7.6 2005 Kashmir earthquake (Avouac et al., 2006; Bettinelli et al., 2006; Gahalaut, 2006; Parsons et al., 2006; Bendick et al., 2007) severe earthquakes have also been reported to have occurred in this region in the historical times (Oldham, 1883; Jones, 1885; Iyengar and Sharma, 1996; Iyengar et al., 1999; Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003; Ahmad et al., 2009; Bilham et al., 2010). While interpreting the seismic data (NEIC-catalogue, 1973–2013), we observed an interesting pattern in the occurrence of the seismic events (Fig. 12). The high density of earthquake epicentres located on NNW

Fig. 15. Google Earth images, showing active deformation drivers of the Kashmir basin. (A) Macro-driver (Indo–Eurasian collision); (B) Regional driver (SW basement complex — MBT/MCT); (C) Local driver (CKF).

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and SSE extensions of the Kashmir basin, noticeably corresponds to the direction of strike–slip along CKF. The pattern also suggests the longterm strain accumulation at the NNW and SSE extensions of the Kashmir basin. Other seismic events including moderate to high magnitude/intensity earthquakes of 1555 (Mw 7.6, Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003), 1885 (VI to X on ESI 2007, Ahmad et al., 2014), 1963 (Mw 5.5, Wakhaloo, 1963) with their epicentres within the Kashmir basin and a recent 2013 (Mw 5.4, USGS) earthquake in the Chenab Valley of Jammu and Kashmir State (India) exhibit a linear trend (Fig. 12). Given the pattern, all of these earthquakes including the seismic events of the years 1555, 1885, 1963, and 2013 can be accredited to the tectonic activity along CKF; however, surface signatures of CKF beyond Kashmir basin are inadequate. 4.2. GPS measurements Basin length is a function of stretching associated with strike–slip displacement, and increased displacement causes the width of the fault zone to increase resulting in wider pull-apart basins (Gürbüz, 2010). Strike–slip faulting may also lead to alternating areas of tension and compression, and compressed areas may reach equilibrium by vertical movement (Ollier, 1981). The GPS measurements of Schiffman et al. (2013) (data of seven permanent GPS stations located on either sides of the basin: NE-5 and SW-2) collected from 2006 to 2012, suggested that the two sides of the basin presently reveal two movements of different direction (Fig. 13). The NE stations mainly reveal southward movement while SW stations express westward movement, the former complementing the direction of dextral strike–slip along the CKF and the latter pull-apart character of the Kashmir basin. The northward strike–slip motion of the SW basin along the CKF is mostly accommodated by lateral stretching, which has resulted in development of the significant bend (Great Bend) and consequent widening from the south of the basin (Fig. 14). This is also a possible reason of less drainage basin divide offset and complimentary river deflection in the north of the basin compared to the south. However, the strike–slip triggered stress is also shared by the oblique displacement along the CKF, which is revealed by the SW basin uplift (Fig. 14). 5. Discussion The ongoing Indo–Eurasian convergence is not only concentrated on the Himalayan front, it is distributed differently across the width of central and western portions of the Himalayas (e.g., Kaneda et al., 2008; Madden et al., 2010, 2011; Meigs et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2013; Ahmad, 2014). Along the western margin of the India plate, relative motions between India and Eurasia are accommodated by strike–slip, reverse, and oblique–slip faulting resulting in the complex Sulaiman Range fold and thrust belt and the major translational Chaman Fault in Afghanistan (Turner et al., 2013). The distributed deformation in the form of several unnamed structures and active faults has also been observed within the Kashmir basin (e.g., Nakata, 1989; Yeats et al., 1992; Madden et al., 2010, 2011; Ahmad and Bhat, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2013; Shah, 2013; Ahmad, 2014), as a result, introducing a new complexity for constraining stress partitioning across the Kashmir Himalaya. The bulk of the GPS vectors with prominent clockwise rotation (strike–slip) suggest that the NW Himalaya is developing an oblique slip deficit (N175°W) along the SW edge of the Zanskar Range at 12.5 ± 1 mm/y (Schiffman et al., 2013). This gives a clear picture that the Kashmir basin, lying south of Zanskar, is accommodating an oblique–slip component along a major unknown structural unit (CKF). Moreover, the convergence rate at the Kashmir Himalayan front has been reported to be low (Seeber and Pêcher, 1998). This is further substantiated by an oblique convergence model of deformation between the Himalaya and southern Tibet (McCaffrey and Nábelek, 1998; Seeber and Pêcher, 1998; Styron et al., 2011; Murphy et al., 2013), which states that the general plate movement between the Indo–

Eurasian convergence is an arc normal to the central Himalaya (Bilham et al., 1997; Jouanne et al., 1999; Ader et al., 2012), whereas showing an oblique trend to the west. This oblique trajectory with shear component in the form of dextral strike–slip motion is evident along the CKF, absorbing maximum strain of southern forefront structural units (MBT, MCT). The Kashmir basin is believed to have evolved in the late Miocene by shifting of the NE thrust complex from the base of the Great Himalayan side to the southwest forefront of the Pir Panjal Range (Burbank, 1983; Burbank and Johnson, 1983); as a result, the NE thrust complex was replaced by the existing structural system (basement complex — MBT/ MCT). This was followed by accumulation of low energy fluviolacustrine sediments that constrain initial timing of basin formation to ~5–4 Ma (Burbank and Johnson, 1983; Burbank and Reynolds, 1984). Whereas Bhat (1982) presented a rift-reactivation model to explain the formation of the Kashmir basin along two deep-seated faults, i.e., the Panjal Thrust from the west and Zanskar Thrust from the east. According to Bhat (1982), Kashmir basin took its present shape during the Pleistocene, after the Himalayan orogeny and at present forms a graben-type structure between the two horst-type structures: Panjal and Zanskar. However, the present investigation suggests that the local basement structure played a key role in shaping the Kashmir basin. Common to zones of continental convergence, this sedimentary basin (Kashmir) evolved as a result of strike–slip motion (e.g., Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Barnes et al., 2005) along the CKF, most likely embedded with the southwest complex regional thrust fault system (MBT/MCT), primarily driven by the Indo–Eurasian collision (Fig. 15). 6. Conclusion The steep slopes that initially developed along the central Kashmir Fault (CKF) as a result of the strike–slip displacement were subjected to higher rates of erosion under the influence of gravity and the thick sediment cover that accumulated in the fault zone makes the structural evidence of the CKF skimpy. Subsequent alterations incurred by the dominant erosion phase over the weakly consolidated Quaternary sediment deposits and differential sediment deposition pattern wrapped the fault traces further. However, the geomorphic signatures at different spatial scales provided enough evidence of the active dextral strike–slip subsurface structure in the Kashmir basin. The lateral and oblique displacement along the strike–slip structure resulted in development of the NNE–SSW oriented elliptical pull-apart sedimentary trough bounded by the Great Himalayan Mountain Range from the northeast and the Pir Panjal Mountain Range from the southwest: that is the present-day Kashmir basin. Acknowledgements We acknowledge the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA), and National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) for free dissemination of extensive geospatial data. The data of these agencies have been of great use for this research work. We express our sincere gratitude to the four anonymous reviewers for evaluating the research paper critically; their valuable suggestions improved the quality of this manuscript. We are also thankful to Prof. Tasawoor A. Kanth (Department of Geography and Regional Development, University of Kashmir) for important comments on the tectonics of the northwest Himalayas, which proved fruitful for deriving meaningful inferences. References Ader, T., Avouac, J.-P., Liu-Zeng, J., Lyon-Caen, H., Bollinger, L., Galetzka, J., Genrich, J., Thomas, M., Chanard, K., Sapkota, S.N., Rajaure, S., Shrestha, P., Ding, L., Flouzat, M., 2012. Convergence rate across the Nepal Himalaya and interseismic coupling on the Main Himalayan Thrust: implications for seismic hazard. J. Geophys. Res. 117, B04403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011JB009071.

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