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Author published in "Journal of Advertising Research Vol. 48, N°3 (2008) 465-472." 12:35 ammanuscript, REVISED PROOF Page:1
The Branding Impact of Brand Websites: Do Newsletters and Consumer Magazines Have a Moderating Role? BRIGITTE MÜLLER
The internet offers both growth and loyalty opportunities for brands. To this end, over
University of Lausanne,
the recent years, companies have accelerated the development of their websites,
Switzerland
[email protected]
including richer and more interactive content as well as relationship tools such as email newsletter and consumer magazines. Using the example of a leading French
LAURENT FLORÈS CRMMETRIX
[email protected]
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
MERIEM AGREBI University Paul Cézanne, France Meriem.agrebi@iae-aix. com
manufacturer’s website, the present research demonstrates that visitors satisfied with their overall website experience are more inclined to revisit and recommend the site and in turn develop more positive attitudes toward the brand as well as higher purchase intent. These relations are stronger for consumers that are members of the website email newsletter program and those that receive the brand consumer magazine.
JEAN-LOUIS CHANDON University Paul Cézanne, France Jean-louis.Chandon@ iae-aix.com
INTRODUCTION
than product description to maximize consumer
In the first quarter of 2007, U.S. retail e-commerce
experience and branding (Overby, 2003; Rogowski,
sales totaled $31.5 billion, an increase of 18.4 per-
2007).
cent from the first quarter of 2006 and accounting
This changing environment has triggered re-
for 3.2 percent of total retail sales (U.S. Census
newed research interest regarding the importance
Bureau, 2007). Additionally, the number of com-
of branding, effective brand building, and com-
pany websites greatly increased. Today, the large
munication strategies in this new environment.
majority of companies have at least one website
Whatever the alternative is, it remains clear that
for their brands and products (image website,
the internet represents a new channel of commu-
corporate website, e-commerce website), and the
nication and distribution for brands. Its inter-
rapid growth of the internet offers compelling
active nature offers marketers new opportunities
advantages in terms of e-commerce and branding.
to create stronger brand identities with the poten-
However, as traffic to brand websites is increas-
tial to induce brand loyalty (Upshaw, 2001). The
ing, it has become critical to both researchers and
internet allows consumers to react and interact,
practitioners to have a better and deeper under-
creating a dialogue outside managerial control
standing of visitors’ navigation and experience
(Travis, 2001).
online (Peterson, Balasubramanian, and Bronnen-
In this new environment, a well-designed web-
berg, 1997). Indeed, traditional tools measuring
site is no longer sufficient. Delivering a satisfying
traffic performance such as the number of visitors
and valuable experience online is important and
to a website and page views are no longer suffi-
may be key to increase favorable brand percep-
cient specifically for brand websites (Florès, 2004a).
tions and purchase intent (Florès, 2004).
In fact, the overall use of the internet has also
The aim of the current article is twofold. First,
evolved. A website describing the technical or
we replicate findings from earlier research (Hong
functional characteristics of the products offered
and Kim, 2004; Supphellen and Nysveen, 2001)
may decrease total consumer search. But a suc-
and extend their results by demonstrating that the
cessful brand website must clearly offer more
more satisfied visitors are with the overall site
DOI: 10.2501/S0021849908080471
September 2008
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BRANDING IMPACT OF BRAND WEBSITES
experience, the more inclined they will be
The focus of attention in the literature
to revisit and recommend the website and
on internet is increasingly directed to web-
to develop a positive attitude toward the
site design and the identification and clas-
Our research focuses mainly on the re-
brand. Second, we explore how different
sification of different website dimensions,
lation between website satisfaction, loy-
relationship tools, such as newsletters and
such as entertainment, interactivity, ease
alty toward the website, brand attitude,
consumer magazines, may further in-
of use, information content, and quality
and purchase intention. Visitors’ overall
crease website experience value and its
(Chen and Wells, 1999; Cheung and Lee,
satisfaction is an indicator of “how well
impact on brand opinion and purchase
2005; Eighmey, 1997; Ghose and Dou, 1998;
customers like their experience at the site
intent.
Shankar, Smith, and Rangaswamy, 2000;
and it is probably the best indication of
Wu, 1999). One of these dimensions is
their willingness to return to the site again”
interactivity.
(Jiang and Rosenbloom, 2005, p. 159). In
The conceptual framework of the present
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
article will review existing research on
website (Raney, Arpan, Pashupati, and Brill, 2003).
website design and its effects on satisfac-
According to Upshaw (2001), the inter-
this study, we integrate available litera-
tion and brand attitude. A conceptual
active nature of the internet offers market-
ture and replicate findings from earlier
model that highlights our research hypoth-
ers new opportunities to create stronger
research (Chang, Simpson, Rangaswamy,
esis is then presented. The analyses of
brand identities that have the potential to
and Tekchandaney, 2002; Hong and Kim,
results discuss findings and provide key
translate into brand loyalty. Berthon, Ley-
2004; Supphellen and Nysveen, 2001), ex-
research outcomes, which are further de-
land, and Watson (1996) suggest that the
tending their results by valuing the im-
scribed in the Conclusion, Managerial Im-
level of interactivity on a website is criti-
pact of word-of-mouth and intention to
plications, and Future Research section.
cal in converting visitors from interested
return to the website on both brand opin-
contacts into interactive customers.
ion and purchase intention. Therefore, we
Besides interactivity, numerous articles
verify that the visitors’ overall navigation
SATISFACTION, WEBSITE LOYALTY,
discuss the effects of websites on brand
satisfaction has a positive influence on
BRAND IMAGE, AND PURCHASE INTENT
attitude and intention variables. For
website loyalty behavior (intention to re-
Recently, marketers have had to cope with
example, website quality and design (Loi-
visit and recommend the website). More-
a changing environment concerning their
acono, Watson, and Goodhue, 2002;
over, providing further evidence of earlier
companies and brands. The underlying
Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003), overall sat-
research from Chang, Simpson, Ran-
forces of this changing environment
isfaction with the website (Hong and Kim,
gaswamy, and Tekchandaney (2002), we
namely relate to the massive develop-
2004), attitude toward the website (Kar-
will specifically look at the influence of
ment of hard discounters, the decrease in
son and Fisher, 2005; Supphellen and Nys-
loyalty toward the site on branding (change
the number of brands owned by big com-
veen, 2001), entertainment, and attitude
of opinion toward the brand and pur-
panies, and the rise of the internet. In
toward the brand (Raney, Arpan, Pashu-
chase intention). Both academics and prac-
this changing landscape, it therefore be-
pati, and Brill, 2003) were identified as
titioners alike agree that it is very important
comes increasingly difficult for compa-
having a positive effect on intentions to
to obtain customers’ willingness to revisit
nies to succeed. Establishing a dialogue
return to the website. In the same line of
a site, even though this may be difficult to
with customers, to understand and antici-
thought, purchase intention seems mainly
achieve. Fortunately, “the web is actually
pate their needs, is key to offer better
affected by similar variables, including
a very sticky space [. . . and] customers
and personalized products and services
interactivity (Wu, 1999; Yoo and Stout,
exhibit a clear proclivity toward loyalty”
(Lewi, 2005). These requirements, in fact,
2001), attitude toward the site (Jee and
(Reichheld and Schefter, 2000, p. 106).
are dramatically enhanced by the inter-
Lee, 2002), website quality and design
The importance today is to build rela-
net. Pleasant and well-designed websites
(Loiacono, Watson, and Goodhue, 2002;
tionships with customers because they buy
are no longer sufficient for attracting cus-
Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003), and atti-
the brands they know and trust. By offer-
tomers and making them want to return.
tude toward the brand (Raney, Arpan,
ing added value through newsletters or
Substantial amounts are invested nowa-
Pashupati, and Brill, 2003). Finally, some
consumer magazines, a brand website can
days to develop additional services in
research has identified determinants of
shorten this process. These tools “can place
order to deliver superior website experi-
attitude toward the brand after the web-
the brand in front of consumers on a
ences able to generate revisits and en-
site visit, such as interactivity (Macias,
monthly, weekly or even daily basis. [. . .]
hance customer relationships.
2003; Wu, 1999) and attitude toward the
The brand goes from being something
WEBSITE DESIGN AND ITS EFFECTS ON
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The importance today is to build relationships with
The more consumers become voluntarily involved with a brand through relation-
customers because they buy the brands they know and
ship tools (such as newsletters or consumer magazines), the more they will be
trust. By offering added value through newsletters or
interested in recommending and revisiting the website and in turn will favorably
consumer magazines, a brand website can shorten this
change their opinion and intention toward the brand.
process. We summarize the overall research model
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
in Figure 1. consumers only think about periodically
ness of those services are rarely tested or
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
when shopping, to a trusted, daily source
analyzed. Our research directly addresses
As stated, the main purpose of this study
of category information” (Florès, 2004a,
this need and investigates the impact of
is to evaluate brand website impact on
p. 27). In addition, Richard and Chandra
relational tools, such as newsletters or
brand opinion and purchase intention. The
(2005) argue that the reasons a customer
consumer magazines, on consumer behav-
electronic environment of this research pro-
has to visit a website are positively re-
ior. Customer behavior in terms of loyalty
vides the opportunity to achieve this tar-
lated to prepurchase intentions. In conse-
and purchase intention tends to vary ac-
get by asking people about their opinions
quence, companies invest large amounts
cording to the degree of involvement and
immediately after a particular website visit.
of money developing programs and man-
interest that is expressed toward a brand
Using the SiteCRM威 methodology (www.
agement tools in order to offer additional
by subscribing to one of the relational
crmmetrix.com) (see Figure 2), visitors
services that should develop relationships
tools developed by the company. We there-
are invited to respond to a survey when
with their customers. But the effective-
fore suppose that:
leaving the website of a specific brand in
Figure 1 Overall Research Model September 2008
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BRANDING IMPACT OF BRAND WEBSITES
and events of the group, and interesting online games. The website loyalty index is a composed construct of faithfulness to the website (intention to revisit the website) and word-of-mouth (intention to recommend the website). Finally, the brand impact index is a measure composed of change of opinion concerning the brand upon website visit and purchase intention. All the constructs are measured on 5-point Likert scales.
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS We first present our sample and the results of the overall model by exploring
Figure 2 SiteCRM姞 Methodology
the effects of a website visit on loyalty toward the site and brand impact. Then, we analyze the impact of the two relation-
the food industry. Using exit invitations,
sumer magazine sent out every three
ship tools, the biweekly newsletter and
people were randomly asked to partici-
months. The first subgroup makes a dis-
the consumer magazine, on the Brand Im-
pate in the study. Information is available
tinction between magazine subscribers
pact Index.
in real time through the “EZViews” plat-
(N ⫽ 639) and nonsubscribers (N ⫽ 231).
Our sample is largely made of female
form. This dashboard makes it possible to
The second division consists of separat-
visitors (90.6 percent), aged mainly be-
track website performance in terms of qual-
ing newsletter subscribers who systemat-
tween 25 and 44 (66.8 percent). Most visit
ity of website experience and brand im-
ically open the newsletter (N ⫽ 584),
the website regularly: 29.7 percent declare
pact. In addition, SiteCRM威 normative
subscribers who do not systematically open
visiting the website once a week or more
benchmarks offer relative performance
it (N ⫽ 91), and nonsubscribers (N ⫽ 195).
often and 27.4 percent every two or three
As shown in Figure 1, the proposed
weeks. 92.5 percent are responsible for
metrics able to guide website improvements over time.
model structure is made of eight ob-
grocery shopping in the household.
The data collection was conducted over
served variables related to the brand web-
The hypothesized relationships were
a two-month period, and a total of 870
site and three latent constructs that are
tested using structural equation model-
surveys were analyzed. The question-
satisfaction index, website loyalty index,
ing. Chi-square, CFI, GFI, AGFI, and Root-
naire lasts about 10 minutes and aims at
and brand impact index.
Mean-Square Error Approximation were
identifying visitor profile (sociodemo-
The satisfaction index is a composed
used to measure goodness of fit. Results
graphic information), motivations for visit,
measure of overall website satisfaction re-
for the proposed model revealed a Chi-
source of visit (online advertisements,
flected in eight constructs (a ⫽ 0.82). Web-
square/df value of 3.198, GFI of 0.968,
search engines, website partners), evalu-
site visitors were asked to evaluate their
AGFI of 0.952, CFI of 0.956, and a RMSEA
ation of website content, design and qual-
satisfaction on a 5-point Likert scale (from
of 0.050 ( p ⬍ 0.46), indicating that the
ity of navigation, intention to buy, and
1 ⫽ “not at all satisfied” to 5 ⫽ “very
model fits well and is acceptable. All re-
overall perception of the brand following
satisfied”) concerning the attractiveness
lationships were positive and significant
a website visit.
of the website according to the following
( p ⬍ 0.01), confirming prior research. As
To evaluate the added value of addi-
items: ease of navigation, interesting con-
such, satisfaction may not be sufficient for
tional communication and relationship
tent, information update, daily help in
website loyalty, but it remains key in driving
channels, the data collected were sorted
managing food habits, interesting promo-
and enhancing it, acting as a necessary con-
into segments. The relationship tools stud-
tional offers, personalized service/advice,
dition. In addition, loyalty toward the website
ied are a biweekly newsletter and a con-
providing information about the brands
does have an impact on brand image and
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Loyalty toward the website does have an impact on brand
brand and its history or recent developments more than toward the website it-
image and purchase intent that favorably speaks to
self. As the website loyalty index measures the intention to return to the website and to recommend it, the effect is weak.
interactive marketing investments.
Overall, results suggest that additional services, which are offered to consumers
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
in order to develop more involving and purchase intent that favorably speaks to inter-
CONCLUSION, MANAGERIAL
enduring relationships, can be effective in
active marketing investments.
IMPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH
terms of driving purchase intention and
To test the hypothesis regarding the
The aim of this research was first to dem-
brand opinion change. By providing higher
impact of the different customer relation-
onstrate that the more satisfied visitors
satisfaction to consumers, “companies have
ship management tools, multigroup analy-
are with the overall site experience, the
the opportunity to start building relation-
sis with Amos was conducted. First, a
more inclined they are to revisit and rec-
ships with them, strengthening the brand
model in which all paths were con-
ommend the website and the more they
further and making it more difficult for
strained to be equal in different groups
develop a positive opinion toward the
competitors to imitate” (Ibeh, Luo, and
was estimated. Then, an unrestricted model
brand and purchase intention. Results
Dinnie, 2005, p. 357).
was tested. Comparison between the two
show a positive and significant relation-
By and large, and from a pure mana-
models makes it possible to identify the
ship between all these variables. Clearly,
gerial standpoint, results are encourag-
importance and relative effect of each an-
although the overall perceived value of a
ing and support current management
tecedent in different groups (Banerjee, Iyer,
website may not be sufficient, it remains
practices of increasing investment in on-
and Kashyap, 2003). Results in Table 1
critical for inducing repeat visit behavior
line spending as well as in website de-
show a significant difference between those
and positive word-of-mouth.
velopment and support. Indeed, at a time
who subscribe to the consumer magazine
The second objective was to measure
where ROI for any marketing activity
2 ⫽ 70.07, p ⬍ and those who do not (x26d.f.
whether consumers who are more in-
needs to be justified, it is specifically ben-
0.000). The same difference may be ob-
volved with the brand were more dis-
eficial for interactive brand managers to
served on the newsletter. In fact, we ob-
posed to positively change their opinion
be able to “value” the branding returns
serve a significant difference between three
toward the brand. Their involvement is
of their interactive brand websites strat-
⫽ 141.88, p ⬍ 0.000): those
measured by the subscription to a maga-
egies. As stated in the introduction, web-
who are not subscribed to the newsletter
zine or newsletter. By comparing different
site traffic and the number of visits/
(N ⫽ 195), those who are subscribed, but
groups of respondents relative to their
visitors are no longer sufficient to value
who do not systematically open it (N ⫽
subscription to one of the relationship
the true return of brand websites. This is
91), and those who systematically open it
tools, significant differences are observed.
particularly true when a website mainly
(N ⫽ 584).
Results indicate a main and strong differ-
supports branding efforts with only indi-
groups
2 (x52d.f.
Data clearly support our hypothesis stating
ence between subscribers and nonsubscrib-
rect sales effects because it does not sup-
that relationship tools enhance website loyalty
ers on purchase intention and brand
port any direct e-commerce activities. To
and eventually brand image and purchase
opinion change and a limited effect on
that end, it is clearly reassuring that brand
intent. Indeed, both consumer magazines and
the path concerning website loyalty be-
website exposure has a branding impact
newsletter subscribers are more inclined to be
havior. Regression coefficients suggest that
value through purchase intent and brand
website loyal and show more favorable atti-
those who subscribe to a newsletter or
opinion change. Along the same lines,
tude toward the brand.
consumer magazine are more inclined to
the impact of satisfaction and loyalty to-
purchase the brand and change their opin-
ward the site on branding effects also
ion concerning the brand.
speaks in favor of interactive brand man-
Mean differences for analyzed variables (see Table 2) give us more detailed results concerning the impact of the rela-
The main explanation for these results
agers’ goal to make their brand websites
tionship tools and confirm that the more
is that subscription to relationship tools
more “sticky” with higher revisit and rec-
involved consumers are the better and
(e.g., newsletter and consumer magazine)
ommendation rates. As such, these first
the greater the website impact.
reflects the interest of the consumer in the
results show the contribution and impact
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BRANDING IMPACT OF BRAND WEBSITES
TABLE 1 Standardized Parameter Estimates and Summary of Results Model Description Satisfaction r Loyalty Loyalty r Brand Model Difference ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Global model 0.66 (10.23)** SMC: 0.44 0.90 (9.75)** SMC: 0.82 — ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Consumer magazine Yes (639)
0.66 (8.59)** SMC: 0.43
2 26d.f. = 70.07
0.95 (7.32)** SMC: 0.91
No (231) 0.68 (4.97)** SMC: 0.46 0.75 (5.32)** SMC: 0.56 p = 0.000 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Newsletter No (195)
0.67 (5.78)** SMC: 0.45
0.77 (4.64)** SMC: 0.60
Yes (91), no opening
0.59 (2.59)* SMC: 0.36
0.99 (3.95)** SMC: 0.98
2 52d.f. = 141.88
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
p = 0.000 Yes (584), opening 0.67 (7.88)** SMC: 0.45 0.96 (7.36)** SMC: 0.92 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ **p ⬍ 0.001, *p ⬍ 0.05; coefficients are standardized. Numbers in parentheses represent t-values. SMC ⫽ squared multiple correlations.
TABLE 2 Mean Differences between Variables within Groups
General
Magazine ................................................................................... Yes No
Newsletter ...................................................................................................... No Yes (91) Yes (584)
Mean (639) (231) F, p (195) No Opening Opening F, p ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Revisit 4.73 4.79 4.58 31.565 4.55 4.55 4.82 30.674, p = 0.000 p = 0.000 a,b ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Recommend
4.27
4.34
4.07
19.143
4.08
3.99
4.37
15.875,
p = 0.000 p = 0.000 a,b ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Loyalty
4.50
4.56
4.32
29.810
4.32
4.27
4.59
26.458,
p = 0.000 p = 0.000 a,b ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Purchase intention
2.88
2.95
2.67
32.802
2.85
2.79
2.89
1.282,
p = 0.000 p = 0.278 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Opinion change
3.55
3.54
3.56
0.079
3.51
3.38
3.58
3.386,
p = 0.779 p = 0.034 a ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ Brand impact
3.21
3.25
3.12
10.742
3.18
3.09
3.24
3.784,
p = 0.001 p = 0.023 a ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ a
Significant between systematic and nonsystematic opening. Significant between systematic opening and not receiving. c Significant between nonsystematic opening and not receiving. b
of relationship tools (the newsletter and
better understanding what types of spe-
• What should be the right mix and fre-
consumer magazine) and also offer ini-
cific content may be or less effective at
quency of promotional (i.e., coupons) and
tial support to interactive brand manag-
engaging consumers over time. For ex-
relational contents offered to consumers?
ers. Furthermore, those initial results also
ample, questions that need answers re-
• Which relationship tools (newsletters
suggest additional research in the area of
late to:
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September 2008
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Both consumer magazines and newsletter subscribers are
Business and Economics of the University of Lausanne, specializing in marketing communications,
more inclined to be website loyal and show more favorable
brand management, and e-marketing. Her work has previously been published in such journals as the International Journal of Internet Marketing and Adver-
attitude toward the brand.
tising, Electronic Markets, and the Journal of Marketing
sic_00410598, version 1 - 21 Aug 2009
Communications.
pushing either promotional or rela-
velop higher affinity toward the brand?
tional contents or a mix of the two?
How does the brand website complement
LAURENT FLORE` S (Ph.D., University of Grenoble II,
................................................................................................
and support other marketing activities to
France) is the founder of CRMMETRIX, a company that
Some limits to this research have to be
develop true brand loyalty over time? Fi-
specializes in measuring websites effectiveness. Dr.
underlined. First, the measurements of the
nally, from a more tactical standpoint, fu-
Florès is an associate professor of marketing at the
loyalty and brand impact indexes are only
ture research should also investigate how
Université Paris II (Pantéon-Assas) and a research
based on two items. Moreover, due to the
website elements drive higher satisfaction
fellow of Laboratoire Inseec. His work has been pub-
context of the data collection, the brand
that in turn leads to higher website loy-
lished in journals such as Marketing Science, Déci-
impact index is composed of two differ-
alty and thus branding impact. To that
sions Marketing, Revue Française du Marketing and
ent concepts that should not be associ-
end, it is and will be particularly interest-
received industry recognition winning the Esomar
ated. This limit has to be nuanced because
ing and useful for managers to pinpoint
Fernanda Monti Award and being nominated for the
by analyzing the models with two sepa-
the particular variables and website tac-
2008 ARF Recognition Award. He sits on the Esomar
rate concepts, the stability of the results
tics that have the biggest impact on brand-
and Adetem boards of directors.
could be verified. Second, this research
ing. In other words, it would be very
................................................................................................
does not take into account the length of
valuable to equip managers with an ade-
MERIEM AGREBI is a Ph.D. student in marketing at the
consumer affiliation to the relationship
quate tool for measuring and valuing web-
IAE Graduate School of Management, University Paul
programs like newsletters and consumer
site features that may bring the biggest
Cézanne, France. Her work relates to website perfor-
magazines. Third, we have to underline
ROI. In fact, some early practical research
mance and customer relationship management.
an implicit self-selection bias because the
findings and modeling show encouraging
................................................................................................
sample includes only those who choose
results as they provide managers with
JEAN-LOUIS CHANDON (Ph.D., Northwestern University)
to respond to the popup message. Finally,
such a predictive model able to value and
is a professor of marketing at the University Paul
some other characteristics should be taken
measure the ROI impact of their brand
Cézanne Aix - Marseille, specializing in media plan-
into consideration, like trust or involve-
websites (Florès, 2004b).
ning, internet marketing, and consumer behavior. Dr.
ment with the product category, and other types of websites should be analyzed.
Empowered by such approaches and
Chandon is a media consultant for Mediametrie,
models, interactive brand managers will
Nielsen, and Socio Logiciels. His work has previously
As briefly highlighted earlier, future re-
therefore have a powerful tool for pilot-
been published in such journals as the Journal of
search should not only look at expanding
ing website investment, growth, and busi-
Marketing Research, the Journal of Marketing, the
the present research limitations, but should
ness impact. We encourage academics and
Journal of Advertising Research, Recherches et Applica-
also look at demonstrating the ROI of
practitioners alike to further investigate
tions en Marketing, and Décisions Marketing, as well
brand websites in different product cat-
this direction of research as the internet
as in many books
egories, for different types of brands (new
will continue to grow in importance, and
versus established brands), and for differ-
we welcome future joint collaboration to
ent types of website contents (promo-
expand industry knowledge and further
tional, informative, entertaining; Dou and
support the internet and brand website
Banerjee, S. B., E. S. Iyer, and R. K. Kashyap.
Krishnamurthy, 2007). Furthermore, fu-
specifically as a viable and powerful mar-
“Corporate Environmentalism: Antecedents and
ture research should also look at measur-
keting channel.
Influence of Industry Type.” Journal of Market-
ing the long-lasting effect of the brand
................................................................................................
website exposure and relationship over
BRIGITTE MüLLER (Ph.D., IAE Graduate School of Man-
time. In other words, how quickly and
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Berthon, P., P. F. Leyland, and R. T. Watson.
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