The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman

The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman Research by the Bat Archaeological Project 2007–12

University Museum Monographs 143

The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman Research by the Bat Archaeological Project 2007–12

Christopher P. Thornton, Charlotte M. Cable, and Gregory L. Possehl†, editors

university of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology philadelphia

library of congress cataloging-in-publication data

© 2016 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Philadelphia, PA All rights reserved. Published 2016 Published for the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology by the University of Pennsylvania Press. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper.

To Gregory L. Possehl (1941–2011), who led the way into the Unknown

Contents List of Figures

xi

List of Tables

xix

Acknowledgments xxi 1

INTRODUCTION 1 Christopher P. Thornton and Charlotte M. Cable Between Two Civilizations 1 Chronology and Terminology at Bat 2 The Site of Bat 4 History of Excavations at Bat 8

2

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE OF BAT IN ITS ENVIRONMENT 13 Stéphane Desruelles, Eric Fouache, Tara Beuzen, Wassel Eddargach, Cécilia Cammas, Julia Wattez, Chloé Martin, and Margareta Tengberg Geology and Climate 13 Paleoclimate 14 Geomorphological Characteristics of the Wadi Sharsah 15 Materials and Methods 15 Results 16 Discussion 21 Conclusion 22

3

EXCAVATIONS AT KASR AL-KHAFAJI (TOWER 1146) 25 Christopher P. Thornton Previous Research: Danish Team (1986) 25 Recent Research: American Team (2008–10) 28 Post-Bronze Age Levels: Strata 0–3 28 Ramp Wall: A Closer Look at the Late Islamic Reuse of the Tower 33 Trenches B–G: A Better View of Umm an-Nar Period 34 Trench A: The Deep Sounding 39 Results of Three Seasons of Excavation at T. 1146 46

4

EXCAVATIONS AT MATARIYA (TOWER 1147) 49 Charlotte M. Cable Introduction and Background 49 Location 49 Previous Excavations at Matariya 49 Excavations by the American Expedition (2008–11) 53 Post-Bronze Age: The Demise and Reuse of a Tower 56

viii

contents

Tower Interior: Variations on the Tower Theme 60 The Tower Wall: A Tale of Two Walls 65 Tower Exterior: Monumentality and Mudbrick 66 Results of Four Seasons of Excavation at Matariya: The Life of a Tower 79 Conclusion 82 5

DIGITAL DOCUMENTATION OF KASR AL-SLEME (TOWER 1148) 83 Yasuhisa Kondo Introduction 83 Photogrammetric Survey of the Mound 83 Discovery of the Petroglyphs 94 Quantitative Summary 116 Discussion 120 Conclusion and Future Tasks 122

6

EXCAVATIONS AT TOWER 1156 123 Anne Mortimer Introduction 123 The Stratigraphic Sequence at T. 1156 124 Phase 1—The Tower 127 Phase 2—Abandonment 139 Phase 3—Remodeling of the Tower 141 Phase 4—Settlement Activity 142 Phase 5—Platform Construction 142 Phase 6—Funerary Activity 146 Phase 7—Post Wadi Suq 148 Phase 8—Natural Accumulation 148 Proposed Summary of Events (by Phase) 148 The Finds 149 Conclusions 152

7

SURFACE STRUCTURES AT AD-DARIZ SOUTH 155 Kristen Hopper and Yasuhisa Kondo Introduction 155 GPS Survey of ADS 1 and ADS 2 155 Ad-Dariz South 1 (ADS 1) 155 Ad-Dariz South 2 (ADS 2) 160 ADS 2: Discussion 164 Conclusions 166

8

OTHER TOWERS IN THE BAT AREA 169 Charlotte M. Cable Introduction 169 Kasr al-Rojoom 169 Husn al-Wardi 169 Al Qa’a Tower 169 Al-Khutm 170



contents

ix

Wahrah Qala 170 Summary 177 9

TYPOLOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION OF THE CERAMICS AT BAT, OMAN 179 Christopher P. Thornton and Royal Omar Ghazal Introduction 179 Ware Typology 180 Chronological and Typological Considerations 187 Hafit Period Ceramics 188 Umm an-Nar Ceramics 193 Black-on-Red Fine Wares (The Funerary Pottery) 193 Domestic Ware 195 Iranian Ceramics 200 Harappan Ceramics 204 Wadi Suq Ceramics 208 Discussion of Other Ware Types 208 Preliminary Analysis of Ceramic Typology 212

10

THE BAT CHIPPED STONE ASSEMBLAGE 217 Gabrielle Choimet Introduction 217 Methods 217 Débitage and Raw Material 218 Preliminary Observations 218 Synthesis 225 Metric Data 225 Conclusion 227

11

METAL 229 Benedict Leigh The Bat Collection 229 Methodology 229 Typology 230 Summary 235

12

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON GROUND STONE ARTIFACTS FROM BAT 239 Teresa Ramos da Costa Introduction 239 Definitions and Methodology 239 Archaeological Contexts and Artifacts 240 Artifacts Technology 253 Contexts of Consumption and Discard 256

13

CONCLUSION 259 Charlotte M. Cable and Christopher P. Thornton Between Two Civilizations (redux) 259 The Uniqueness of Bat 260

x

contents

APPENDIX I: ARCHAEOBOTANICAL STUDIES AT BAT. A SHORT SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 263 Margareta Tengberg Introduction 263 Results of the Analysis of Samples Collected in 2008–11 263 Discussion 266 APPENDIX II: FALAJ AL-SHARSAH (ISLAMIC PERIOD): HOW TO STUDY AND EXCAVATE ANCIENT WATER SYSTEMS IN OMAN 269 Julien Charbonnier General Description of falaj al-Sharsah 269 Conclusion 283 APPENDIX III: ASSESSMENT OF MUDBRICKS FROM TOWER 1147 289 Anne Mortimer Introduction 289 Comments on the Bricks 289 Conclusions 297 APPENDIX IV: RADIOCARBON DATES FROM BAT 299 Christopher P. Thornton Radiocarbon Dates from Bat 299 APPENDIX V: EXCAVATION OF THE WADI SUQ TOMBS AT TOWER 1156 303 Kimberly D. Williams and Lesley A. Gregoricka Context 303 Excavation 303 Features A and B 303 Feature C 305 Feature D 305 Features E and F 306 Architectural Description 306 Summary 308 APPENDIX VI: LIST OF FIELD STAFF (2007–12) 309 BIBLIOGRAPHY 311 AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES 329

Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13

The main polities of the 3rd millennium BCE in the “Middle Asian Interaction Sphere” 2 A typical Hafit tomb assemblage of the Omani interior color insert A typical Umm an-Nar collective tomb assemblage from Bat color insert A typical Early Wadi Suq tomb assemblage from Bat color insert Topographic map of the Oman Peninsula showing key 3rd millennium sites 5 Map of Bat, showing the location of the towers and other key areas 6 A schematic topographic profile of the Bat Valley 6 The Bat Valley in 2012, as seen from the top of the Settlement Slope 7 Magnetometry plan of Operation A and B 9 Map of the main wadi system from Bat to ad-Dreez, showing the known tower locations 10 Location of the Wadi Sharsah in north-western Oman color insert Past and present anthropogenic features and hydrography of the Wadi Sharsah color insert Geomorphology of Bat area near Tower 1146 color insert Stratigraphy of “S1” section near Tower 1146 color insert Radiocarbon and OSL dates taken from “S1” section and Deep Sounding in Trench A of Tower 1146 16 Stratigraphy of the Deep Sounding of Trench A in Tower 1146 17 Thin sections of samples coming from S1 19 Archaeobotanical and malacological analyses 20 Hypothetical reconstruction of relationship between the tower and S1 23 Plan of Frifelt’s test trenches from her 1986 season at T. 1146 26 The western section of Frifelt’s “Trench 1” 27 Tower 1146 seen from the north in 2008 28 The excavation grid for T. 1146 established in 2010 28 Small stones laid along the north side of the tower wall to retain the “rocky fill” layer (“Stratum 2”) 30 Trench 46189 before the complete removal of Stratum 3 31 The rocky fill (Stratum 2) overlying the tower wall in Tr. 46154 32 The southern and western sides of the tower wall were the best preserved with large tower stones intentionally laid in a chaffy mud packing 32 On the south side of the tower wall (in Trs. 46188–46189), small stones were laid on top of large tower stones and packed into chaffy mud 33 Third millennium BCE stone walls underlie the Ramp Wall 34 Plan of T. 1146 showing the trench layout of the 2009 sondages 35 The southern profile of Trench B, showing the relationship between the Extension Wall and the Tower Wall 35 Structures 1 and 2 in Trenches B–G as excavated in 2009 36

xii

3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28

figures

Hearth 090307 found amongst Middle Umm an-Nar ceramics on the surface 37 The complex sub-phases of Structure 2 38 The Hafit stone wall bases discovered at the bottom of Trenches B and G 39 The south and east sections of Trench A 40 The north and west sections of Trench A 42 The Hafit period walls at the base of Trench A 44 Important evidence of small-scale copper metallurgy was found in the Hafit levels of Trench A color insert The bottom of the Deep Sounding of Trench A showing the sandy, cobble-strewn sediment (Stratum 12) 45 Photomosaic of Kasr al-Khafaji (T. 1146) after the 2010 season 47 Location of Matariya relative to the modern school at Bat and the remains of Tower al-Qa’a 50 Matariya tower (1147) seen from the south, before renewed excavations began in 2008 50 Digital elevation model (DEM) of Tower 1147 51 Plan of Frifelt’s 1989 trenches at Matariya 52 The northwest side of Tower 1147 during excavations in 2008, showing the stone ring walls that at least partially encircle the tower 54 The trench grid overlying Matariya, with the tower walls indicated 55 The large tower wall rockfall on the east side of the tower 56 A selection of diagnostic ceramics found in tower wall rockfall 57 Iron Age and historic period ceramics found in pits dug into the rockfall layer 58 Bead cache (lot 090804) from the medieval layers on top of T. 1147 59 Miniature jar (lot 090834) found in mudbrick slump on top of the tower 60 Photomosaic showing the mudbrick compartments inside the tower wall in relation to the stone well 61 Locations of sondage 470573 and mudbrick compartment AL 62 Interlocking mudbrick layers in the tower interior 63 Eastern section of sondage 470573 64 Looking westward at the central well of Matariya, with an associated stone wall to the South 65 Two flat stones, set at an angle into packed mud, associated with a wall stub and the central well 66 The dissection of the inner tower wall: two views 67 Photogrammetric plan of excavations 68 Frifelt’s original section drawing from Trench 2 69 Frifelt’s original plan and section of Trench 5, where it meets the tower wall 70 A view of Frifelt’s Trench 5 from the east, after reopening her sondage in 2010 72 The northern profile of Trench 5, bounded on the left by the tower wall and on the right by the retaining wall 73 Looking northeast at Matariya 74 Two views into mudbrick compartments 75 The stone ring walls encircling the tower in plan 76 Photomosaic plan view showing the adjustment to the retaining wall on the northeast side of Tower 1147 77 Close-up of the northeast side 79



4.29 4.30 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 6.1

figures

xiii

The stone tower outer wall, northern side 80 Northern profile of Trench 470491, showing the light grey, compact soil on top of dark, mudbrick slump 80 Mound of Kasr al-Sleme (Tower 1148), as seen from the south 84 Northern façade of Kasr al-Sleme, as seen from the northeast 84 Workflow of the photogrammetric survey 85 Ideal overlap of overhead photographs and transects 86 Layout of ground control points (GCPs) and transects at Kasr al-Sleme 87 TIN surface model of Kasr al-Sleme 89 Photomosaic overlapped by 0.2-meter-contour 90 Georectification of image 91 Photomosaic of Kasr al-Sleme 92 Northern façade of Kasr al-Sleme, pictured with shift lens 93 Collapsed wall in the northwest quarter of Kasr al-Sleme 94 Scheme of the petroglyph database 95 Management of the petroglyph data by means of GIS 95 Location and specifications of the petroglyphs at Kasr al-Sleme 97 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 1 98 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 2 99 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 3 100 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 4 101 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 5 102 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 6 104 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 7 105 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 8 106 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 9 107 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 10 108 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 11 109 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 12 109 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 13 110 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 14 112 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 15 113 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 16 113 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 17 114 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 18 114 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 19 115 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 20 116 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 21 117 Physical appearance and possible reconstruction of Petroglyph 22 118 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 23 119 Physical appearance of Petroglyph 24 119 Iconographical classification of the petroglyphs at Kasr al-Sleme 120 Typology of petroglyphs at Kasr al-Sleme 121 Tower 1156 during the 2011 field season, with Tower 1145 (Kasr al-Rojoom) in the background 124

xiv

6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38

figures

Frifelt’s original plan of her long sondage through T. 1156, juxtaposed with the southern profile of the sondage as drawn in 2010 by the American expedition 125 Trench grid established at Tower 1156 in 2010, with the 0,0 point located next to the easternmost Umm an-Nar tombs in the Bat cemetery 126 Outer wall, middle wall, and inner wall, showing the stepped formation of the tower wall 127 Outer and middle walls showing the stone construction methods 128 Outer and middle walls on the south side of the tower 129 The outer wall on the south side of the tower 129 The outer, middle, and inner walls on the northwest side of the tower 130 The northern section of the tower wall was originally built onto a rib of natural protruding limestone bedrock 131 Features 525 and 533 in the east-facing section of Frifelt’s sondage 132 Paved surface 528 from the north, seen from the outer face of the inner wall of the tower within Frifelt’s sondage 133 Excavated section of the inner ditch in relation to outer tower wall; cross wall 527 in foreground and firepit 153 in the background 134 Inner ditch terminal with partial view of the ‘cistern and later backfill deposits on top 134 Revetment wall 529 and section through inner ditch 152, as seen from the outer tower wall 135 Revetment wall to the northwest of the tower sits directly on top of unaltered bedrock 135 Revetment wall in relation to inner ditch, cistern and cross wall 136 West facing section through inner ditch deposits to the east of cistern 137 Eastern edge of floor 542 (of cistern 543) in relation to cut 270 138 Cut 270 in relation to cistern slab wall 541 139 Causeway on southern side of Tower 1156 140 The test sondage dug into trench SS1135 to the south of retaining wall 140 Wall seen from the northwest, with Tower 1156 in the background 141 Photomosaic showing the Phase 4 walls overlying Tower 1156 143 Phase 4 wall as seen from the east 144 Feature 532, a stone-lined circular pit (now semi-circular due to Frifelt’s sondage) 144 Feature 533, with earlier firepit 198 to the left 145 The firepits associated with Feature 533 145 The “hard core” deposit over Tower 1156 146 The upper “hard core” deposit in trench SS0911 147 Wadi Suq tomb adjacent to Frifelt’s sondage 147 Wadi Suq tomb over the infilled inner ditch on the northwest side 148 Copper/bronze arrowheads (lots 101303, 101305–101306) discovered in Wadi Suq tomb collapse on the north side of Tower 1156 in 2010 149 A ceramic jar neck from lot 12SS171 is the only diagnostic pottery found in Phases 1–3 (Early Umm an-Nar levels) 150 Crucible fragments from various contexts at Tower 1156 150 Zoomorphic clay figurine fragment, lot 1255261, probably depicted an oryx or antelope 151 Incised Umm an-Nar rim sherd from surface deposit lot 1255232 152 Etched carnelian bead found in upper fill deposits (Phase 4?) of the inner ditch 152 Photomosaic of Tower 1156 combining the results of the 2010–13 seasons 153



7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 10.1

figures

xv

Location of ADS 1 and ADS 2 (Imagery from Google Earth) 156 A view of ADS 1, seen from the south 157 Photomosaic of ADS 1 created in 2009 158 Ground control point layout at ADS 1 in the 2012 season 159 Photomosaic of ADS 1 created in 2012 160 Ten cm contour and hillshade of ADS 1 based on the 2012 survey results 161 View of ADS 2 towards the southeast showing the construction material of the large enclosure 161 Location of ADS 2 transects, and ground control points 162 Plan view of ad-Dariz South 2 created in ArcMap 163 Architectural features in and to the west of the large enclosure, facing towards the mudbrick structure 164 Total Station survey of visible surface features with topography 165 Photograph of petroglyph located on the south-east portion of the ring wall 166 Topographic maps of ADS 2 with 10 cm contours 167 Kasr al-Rojoom (T. 1145) as seen from the Settlement Slope to the east 170 A consolidated plan of Tower 1145 171 The circular central well of Kasr al-Rojoom (T. 1145) 172 Bat village, looking southwest toward Husn al-Wardi 172 The base of Husn al-Wardi sits directly on top of natural conglomerate rock (similar to T. 1148) 173 Stone tower wall of al-Qa’a tower, buried under rockfall and debris from Wadi Suq tombs 173 Tower wall at al-Qa’a from the south, with the stone revetment wall located downslope 174 Tower al-Khutm from the north, after excavations by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture in 2009–10 174 Plan of the tower at al-Khutm after excavations by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture in 2009–10 175 Stone foundation of Wahrah Qala, built on a natural stone outcrop that towers over the modern village of Wahrah 176 Wahrah Qala 176 Hafit period wares from Matariya 191 The most complete “Hafit Ware” sherd (lot 090827) from Tower 1147 color insert Bat funerary wares 194 Umm an-Nar pottery from 1146 196 Umm an-Nar pottery from 1147 197 Umm an-Nar pottery from 1156 198 Iranian fine-ware pottery from Bat 202 Harappan pottery from Bat 205 Harappan ceramics from lot 101004, found amongst the tower rockfall at Matariya 207 Wadi Suq pottery from Bat 209 Medium-coarse Wadi Suq pottery tempered with copper slag from Operation A (lot 070401) 210 Iron Age pottery from Bat 211 Early-Middle Islamic wares from Bat 213 Late Islamic wares from Tower 1146 214 Main lithic categories at Kasr al-Khafaji (1146), Matariya (1147) and Operation A 219

xvi

10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 12.1 12.2 12.3

figures

Distribution of tools from the three main sites Lithics from Operation A Lithics from Tower 1146 Lithics from Tower 1147 Lithics from Tower 1156 Distribution of blank types Blanks length/width ratio Types of cores Metal and metallurgical artifacts from T. 1146 Metal and metallurgical artifacts from T. 1147 Metal and metallurgical artifacts from T. 1156 Metal and metallurgical artifacts from Operation A/B Hammerstones (lots 070305 and 071000) from Operation A Quern (lot 080310) found in the tower wall fill of T. 1146. Quern (lot 090132) from the Hafit period levels found underneath Tower 1146 in Trench A 12.4 Multipurpose hammerstone/anvil (lot 090139) from the Hafit period levels found underneath Tower 1146 in Trench A 12.5 Multipurpose hammerstone/anvil (lot 090319) found inside Structure 1 amongst Middle Umm an-Nar fill in Trench B at Tower 1146 12.6 Whetstone (090324-A, left) and possible chert core (090324-B, right) found inside Structure 1 amongst Middle Umm an-Nar fill in Trench B at Tower 1146 12.7 A selection of querns (lot 092201) found on or near the surface amongst tower rockfall around Tower 1147 12.8 Hammerstones (lot 100807and lot 101613) found amongst the tower rockfall outside of Tower 1147 12.9 Quern (lot 101417) found as part of the inner tower wall at T. 1147 12.10 Mortar stone (lot 101406) found as part of the inner tower wall at T. 1147 12.11 Quern (lot 091808) found next to Hafit period mudbrick walls along with an imported Mesopotamian sherd at T. 1147 12.12 Quern fragments (lot 093202) found inside T. 1147 within a pit of likely prehistoric date 12.13 Groundstone tool (lot 080825) found inside a mudbrick compartment outside Tower 1147 12.14 Hammerstone (lot 101301) and anvil (lot 101307) found among surface debris and rockfall at T. 1156 12.15 Fossilized coral(?) mortar (lot 11SS101) found among surface debris at T. 1156 I.1 Impressions of cereal chaff on mudbrick (T. 1147, lot 101206) I.2 Open thorn woodland near Bat with ghaf trees (Prosopis cineraria, front left) and acacias II.1 General map of Bat area II.2 Map of falaj al-Sharsah II.3 The subterranean gallery of falaj al-Sharsah from flj040 II.4 Five access shafts of falaj al-Sharsah II.5 The access shaft flj006 from above II.6 Plan of access shaft flj094 at the ground surface II.7 The sharī‘a flj040 from the southwest II.8 The dike flj019 from the northwest

219 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 231 234 236 238 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 264 267 270 271 273 274 275 275 276 277



II.9 II.10 II.11 II.12 II.13 II.14 II.15 II.16 II.17 III.1 III.2 III.3 III.4 III.5 III.6 III.7 III.8 III.9 III.10 III.11 III.12 V.1 V.2 V.3 V.4 V.5

figures

The dike flj039 from the east The sounding 1 (flj095): plan and view from the west The sounding 1 (flj095): west and east sections Covering slabs from the east at flj095 The sounding 2 (flj096): plan, sections and view from the north Sluice supports in the sounding 2 (flj095) from the south-east The primary canal of falaj al-Sharsah from the east The northern secondary canal crossing a tributary wadi at flj098 from the south Corona image of the wadi al-Sharsah showing how the falaj was abandoned long before modernization began in the 1980s Example of a fragment of a plano-convex mudbrick showing mold edge (lot 110262) Full-sized mudbrick with handprints (lot 110261) A complete one-third mudbrick (lot 110274) Traditional mudbrick making at Maneh (2010) showing the prepared clay mixed with water and vegetable matter Traditional mudbrick making at Bahla (2009) showing the re-kneading of the clay and water mix by foot Example of mold edges on a brick (lot 110267) Wooden mold in use at Maneh (Dhakhiliyah Province) for modern restoration of mudbrick structures Plant impressions on one side of a mudbrick from placing the mudbricks on the ground to dry (lot 110257) Plant impressions on one side of a mudbrick (lot 110242) suggesting the intentional flattening of the brick within a mold Unusual depressions seen on one side of a mudbrick (lot 110273) A number of handprints were found on mudbricks from Tower 1147, including this brick from lot 110268 Tally marks were found on a few examples in which the original surface of the brick was preserved (lot 110249) Wadi Suq features on top of the northeast side of T. 1156 Example of human remains recovered from Feature B Late Umm an-Nar ceramic found at the bottom of (likely pre-dating) Feature C The exterior wall of Feature A was built to meet the exterior wall of Feature B Detail of exterior wall of Feature A built to meet the exterior wall of Feature B

xvii

278 279 280 282 284 285 285 286 287 290 290 291 291 292 293 293 294 294 295 296 297 304 305 306 306 307

Tables Table 1.1 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 9.3 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 11.3 Table 11.4 Table 11.5 Table I.1 Table I.2 Table I.3 Table IV.1

Periodization of the Omani Bronze Age used in this volume, compared to the Hili and Mesopotamian sequences All ceramics excavated at Ts. 1146, 1147, and 1156 from 2008–12 Cleuziou’s periodization of Hili-8 Chronological table Typology of metal and metallurgical artifacts Metal and metallurgical artifacts found at Tower 1146 Metal and metallurgical artifacts found at Tower 1147 Metal and metallurgical artifacts found at Tower 1156 Metal and metallurgical artifacts found at Operation A/B Plant impressions found and studied at Bat Identifiable seed/fruit remains from Bat Charcoal identified from Bat Radiocarbon dates from the Bat settlement

3 181 193 215 230 230 233 235 237 264 265 265 301

Acknowledgments

A

s with any large multi-year project, the list of acknowledgments can be truly daunting. First and foremost, we must thank the Ministry of Heritage and Culture of the Sultanate of Oman, without whose support and enthusiasm for this project we could never have accomplished everything presented in this volume. Similarly, we must express our deepest appreciation to the kind people of Bat, who allowed us into their lives and each winter welcomed us back with a smile and a wave. The archaeological site of Bat is a focal point not only for Oman’s past, but also for its future. Working with the Omani government and researchers, modern members of the Bat community and their close neighbors, it is clear that all are committed to the archaeological heritage for which they are stewards. Together, we are working to bridge the gap between the ancient past and the rapid development of modern Oman. The opportunity to do so is as unique and richly important as the origins of the site itself, and has the potential to act not only as an engine for growth in interior Oman, but also as a model for the interactions between research specialists, community members, and government ministries in the face of modern development. Needless to say, this project could never have happened without the generous support of a number of donors and funders in addition to the Ministry of Heritage of Culture. The University of Pennsylvania and the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum) provided equal support for the Bat Archaeological Project from 2007–11. The National Geographic So-

ciety’s Committee for Research and Exploration provided Gregory Possehl a grant in 2006 to buy a total station for his Oman research. A number of private donors, including members of Greg’s family, provided crucial stop-gap funds when needed. Many devoted members of the excavation team, including David and Leslie Bosch and Yasuhisa Kondo, donated expensive equipment to the project which was greatly appreciated. Dr. Paul Rissman, a former student of Greg’s, donated not only his time and experience to the Bat Project as an excavator, but donated financially to the project as well. It was Paul’s generosity that allowed the Bat Archaeological Project to move forward after Greg’s untimely death in October 2011 (just before the 2012 field season). For stepping up when we needed him most, we and all of the Ph.D. students whose degrees depended on the Bat Archaeological Project are eternally grateful to Paul. This monograph was commissioned and supported by the Ministry of Heritage and Culture, most notably by His Excellency the Undersecretary for Heritage Mr. Salim Mohammed Al Mahruqi; the former Director General for Archaeology and Museums, present Adviser of His Highness the Minister of Heritage and Culture for Special Projects, His Excellency Mr. Hassan Mohammed Al Lawati; Prof. Maurizio Tosi, the advisor for archaeology to His Highness the Minister; the former Director of Excavations Mrs. Biubwa Ali Al Sabri; and the present Additional Director General for Archaeology and Museums Mr. Sultan Saif Al Bakri. From the Penn Museum, Dr. Jim Mathieu, Head of Publications, provided excellent guidance and facilitated peer review, and

xxii

acknowledgments

Dr. Page Selinsky copy edited the entire volume and brought it to publication. A number of illustrators contributed to the completion of the plates, including Reilly Jensen, Kimberley Leaman-Insua, Guenever Thaarup, and numerous members of the excavation teams over the years. Many of the maps and photogrammetric images in this volume were produced by our stellar GIS team, including Robert Charles Bryant, Kristin Hopper, Hannah Hunt, Yasuhisa Kondo, Sutapa Roy, and especially Stefan Smith, who worked most directly on this monograph. Darius Salimi edited most of the text and collected the references. Our friends and colleagues provided a number of images and information for this volume, and we would like to thank them all for their generosity and support. Last but not least, a word of deep appreciation must be given to the late Prof. Gregory L. Possehl, who initiated the Bat Archaeological Project, provided years of mentorship to both of us, and allowed for a veritable army of students and colleagues to carry out research in one of the few calm pockets of the Middle East for many years. Greg loved to provide pithy sayings for any occasion, many of them derived

from Sir Mortimer Wheeler and other esteemed predecessors, but three sayings in particular have stuck with us over the years: 1. Go from the Known to the Unknown. 2. Go Out, not Down. 3. Archaeology is a series of Mistakes; the Key is to make sure you Document those Mistakes. This volume is very much a product of those three rules. We summarize what is known about Bronze Age towers of Oman in Chapter 1 and then spend the rest of the volume explaining what is still unknown. This volume goes out broadly to multiple periods and subjects, without diving too deeply into any one. Finally, there are undoubtedly numerous mistakes documented in this volume, but if so, that is the nature of archaeology and we hope future scholars will make it their mission to document their own mistakes in the exciting world of Bronze Age Arabia. C.P.T. and C.M.C. Washington, D.C. September 2015