The differential use of written, computer-based and ... - Science Direct

ELSEVIER

Information & Management 28 (1995) 107-121

Research

The differential use of written, computer-based and verbal ,information in an organizational context An empirical exploration Rachid Zeffane

*, Bruce Cheek

Department of Management, Faculty of Economics and Commerce, University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia

Abstract The ways in which individual characteristics and task attributes affect the use of different types of information is a pertinent issue in Organisational Analysis and in the development of Information Systems. This article reports on a study which examined and compared patterns of use of written, computer-based, and verbal information by 1300 full-time employees from the Australian Telecommunications industry. The participants in this study made much more frequent use of verbal information than either written or computer derived information. Computer-derived information was the Ileast prominent mode of communication. Patterns of information usage were found to be relatively independent of demographic characteristics such as age, tenure, job category and job rank. Nevertheless multiple regressions analysis revealed that the use of each type of information was affected by a variety of individual and organisational factors. The overall findings lend support to the suggestion that verbal information is used not as an alternative to, but in conjunction with, other forms of communication.

Keywords: Computer-‘based information; Computer usage; Demographic characteristics; Information use; Information channels; Information processing; Task characteristics; Structure; Verbal information; Written information

1. Introduction Information is vital for effective decision making; quality information channels are therefore important contributors to organizational survival and success [4]. The need for robust information channels is heightened by the dynamics and complexities of modern industrial organizations [ 171. The ways in which individual characteristics and

* Corresponding 0378-7206/95/$09.50

author.

task attributes affect the use of different types of information is therefore a pertinent issue in Organisational Analysis and Information Systems (IS) development. Many attempts have been made to define appropriate modes of information processing and to construct models that can enhance effective communication [31,36]. Previous IS research has tended to concentrate on the choice between different information sources; focusing on laboratory studies of small groups in decision-making situations. Recent research has underlined the

0 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

XSDI 0378-7206(94)100034-4

108

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

need to consider factors affecting the extent and differential usage of various information sources. Some researchers have sought to examine the effects of different information channels on decision making. Stone and Schakadle [37] examined the effects of representing alternatives numerically or linguistically. Others went a step further: Vessey [41] attempted to construct an information processing theory to explain the use of graphs and tables in decision making. A limitation of much previous research has been an assumption that different information channels are “zero-sum” alternatives; i.e., using one implies not using any other. In reality, individuals (or groups), while they place emphasis on preferred modes of communication, normally make simultaneous use of multiple channels. This study overcomes such a limitation by examining comparative use of written, computer derived information (retrieved through a computer interface) and verbal information as utilised in a large organization. Individual and organizational factors that might affect the extent of use of each type of information are explored. The empirical study featured responses from 1300 full-time employees from a large Australian Telecommunications organization. Since the study was essentially exploratory, no formal hypotheses were set up for testing, but rather we suggest some tentative relationships and research questions that may provide the basis for formal hypothesis testing in future.

2. Written, verbal and computer-based

informa-

tion

Information in organizations is distributed in many ways, including written (paper-based), computer-based and verbal. Weedman [421 studied the use of informal and formal communication patterns in three separate professions to determine whether a variety of media were used She discovered that individuals made almost equal use of all forms of formal and informal media. However when use of formal and informal channels are considered separately the issues are somewhat more complex.

&Management

28 (1995) 107-121

2.1. Written information It is often claimed that paper-based (or written) documentation systems will eventually be replaced by computerised methods of record keeping, however organizational records are still predominantly kept on paper [ll]. A survey of 1,000 benefit managers [81 explored the use of computers in benefit communication; it showed that most firms still predominantly used traditional (written) channels for formal communication. It is argued [301 that computers will not reduce paper flow, but will produce paper containing more pertinent information. Some argue that it is only by the combined use of paper and computerised records that managers can optimise their departments or organizations. A comparison of an academic medical centre’s electronic decision support system and 12,000 paper files found that the two systems received almost equal use, providing support for the contention that information users seldom utilise only a single source [431. 2.2. Computerized information Computer technology is used extensively in most organizations. A survey of 60 human service administrators, managers, and direct service practitioners [26] found that only a very small percentage did not use computers. Another U.S. survey [12] of computer use among public housing authorities found that 73% relied extensively on computers. Computers are now important management support tools; for example Mentzer [24] when examining computer use among marketing professionals found that an overwhelming proportion used microcomputers. Perceived usefulness and ease of use seem closely related to individual intentions to use a particular means of communication. Thus perceived ease of access to computers may be as important a factor in system use as usefulness of applications. Individuals with greater access to computer facilities and those who use the facilities for a wider variety of functions may therefore be likely to favour use of computer-based information.

R Zeffane, B. Cheek/Znformation

2.3. Verbal information

The most obvious characteristics of verbal communication are simplicity, informality, flexibility, interactivity, and privacy. These characteristics guarantee that verbal communication will always be important, particularly for private and informal communication. Research conducted in the U.S. [34] clearly indicated that the communication method preferred by most employees is the one-on-one (verbal) interview. On the other hand, verbal communication may be less than optimal where quantifiable data, codified procedures, and complex principles are involved. In these cases the immediacy of verbal interaction may be less important than the opportunity for reflection and review afforded by having information available in a permanent form. Personal and demographic characteristics may have a significant bearing on preference for (and patterns of) use of verbal information.

3. Determinants

of information

use

A variety of mlechanisms are used to gather and select information. Some have argued that individuals have a preference for one particular form, and that communication can be improved by use of their preferred mode [22]. While this view is intuitively appealing, it is perhaps too simplistic; models based on it have tended to overlook the spe’cific impact of demographic characteristics, information processing constraints, nature of the task, organization structure and ease of access,, 3.1. Demographic effects Several studies have examined the impact of demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, and length of time in the position (tenure) on patterns of information usage. The majority have focussed on the demographic effects on computer derived information. Studies that have attempted to link age with use have generally indicated lower use among older people [21,28]. Gender also seems to be a significant factor. A study in

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

109

Canada and the U.S. [6] found that female workers were less comfortable using computers than male workers. A study of information-gathering strategies used by experienced, intermediate, and novice decision makers [181 found significant differences among the groups in their use of information-gathering strategies. The nature of the task, as reflected in job-position, has also been reported to affect computer usage. A 1989 study [281 reported that, of the 21.4% of top executives surveyed who used computers, 57% spent less than an hour a day at the computer. 3.2. Level of certainty /uncertainty Individuals in organizations face ill-structured problems where access to complete, appropriate, reliable, and accurate information is seldom available. A variety of organizational communication mechanisms are used to reduce the resultant uncertainty [1,3]. An ever increasing variety of sophisticated technology has been devised for information storage, communication, and presentation, however technology alone is not enough. Insufficient understanding of potential problems with management support systems often limits the effectiveness of even the most sophisticated technologies. A study of the effect of marketing information supply and distribution on managerial information use [lo] concluded that effective use of information technology involves fitting the characteristics of information supply and distribution mechanisms to user requirements. 3.3, Task characteristics Empirical research [25,39] has shown a connection between task type and information needs. Simple, routine tasks tend to involve minimal uncertainty, resulting in fewer demands for additional information. On the other hand high task variety and analysability tends to involve greater uncertainty, which in turn increases demands for information. A recent article [7] examining the relationship between task uncertainty and utilization of computers found that greater task variability was associated with the greater use of Information Systems (IS).

110

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

Task interdependence reflects the degree to which individuals need to work together to achieve an objective. It implies a need for greater coordination, joint decision making, and problem solving. While no precise linkages between interdependence and the use of different types of information have been identified, empirical studies [40] suggest that interdependence tends to affect both the nature and flow of communication. 3.4. Structural effects Organization structure impacts on information needs and on the ability to satisfy them. It has been argued [19] that larger unit/sub-unit size enhances demand for computer-based information. Also, the varying degree of participation (in decisions) that different structures allow could affect the nature of information processing needed. Greater participation could be synonymous with greater involvement in processing and distribution of information. The resulting high demand for access to information entails a use of reliable and flexible modes of communication. Further, greater participation could be equated with increased information sharing, and this might call for use of modes of communication that facilitate information sharing. Formalization might also improve the information channels. Greater rule usage (higher formalization) might establish a more standardised framework of interactions, encouraging the use of formal (written) information. A study of ways in which formalization is used 1201 concluded that different degrees of bureaucratization tend to encourage different types of communication. 3.5. The impact of computerization Information Technology has the potential to reduce organizational complexity by reducing the need for information intermediaries. Easy access to IS should provide the opportunity to reduce paper flow. Computers often change work patterns. It is not surprising therefore that, despite initial enthusiasm, some employees become uneasy and reluctant to use these IS. No longer

&Management

28 (1995) 107-121

being able to see, touch, and handle paper-based information may be intimidating. For example, strong negative attitudes have been reported towards use of E-Mail facilities [38]. While it appears to break down the formal systems for passing information, a consistent complaint is that it does not have the richness of more traditional media. Some studies suggest that an MIS/DSS is preferable for complex decision-making. In limited field experiments [15] positive effects on information exchange and team performance were found in meetings where electronic boards and computer-networked technology were used instead of conventional pen and paper.

4. Research methodology 4.1. Research questions

This study addresses the factors that affect the use of different modes of communication. Specifically, it attempts to address the following questions:To what extent are written, computer derived and verbal information used by individuals in organizations?What kind of individual and organizational factors might affect the extent of use of each of these forms of communication in organizations?

In contrast to previous studies, the various modes of communication are considered to be complementary. 4.2. Research setting and data The study involved a large Australian Public Sector Telecommunication Organization with 16,000 employees. Questionnaires were distributed and data collection took place between July 1989 and January 1990. The sampling procedure emphasised both randomness and stratasampling; respondents were assured of confidentiality and did not reveal their identity. 1300 completed questionnaires were returned for an average response rate of 56%. Two hundred and thirty eight were from section managers; thirty from branch managers and three from divisional managers, the remainder being from non-

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek /Information

managerial workers. 72% of the employees classified as non-managers were male and 88% of the managers who replied were male. The spread of responses is consistent with the relative divisional sizes and staff distributions. 4.3. Measures: dependent variables We have defined computer derived information as that information retrieved directly from a computer, information retrieved from paper reports (even if the report was generated by a computer system) is NOT included as computer based. The measures of information usage identify the frequency of use and extent to which these types of information were requested/obtained by individuals. The scales cater for information sought from sources at different levels, including external sources. Since the emphasis is on the nature of th.e information used rather than the source various uses were grouped to form a composite measure of the extent of use of each information type. The possible range of scores on each of the three dimensions is 4-to-20.

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

111

hierarchical position held by respondents (Divisional heads, Branch heads, Section heads, and non-managerial employees). Information processing and information characteristics

Information processing has been defined as gathering, interpreting, and synthesising information in the context of organizational decision making [35]. Several different aspects of information processing were assessed in this study; amount, timeliness, accuracy, openness, and perceived reliability. The operational measure of “amount” of information processing was taken from the scale developed by Daft and Macintosh 131.The measure of timeliness was inspired from the work of Chenhall and Morris [2]. The measures of information accuracy and openness were borrowed from the work of O’Reilly [32,33]. Perceived reliability was measured by asking respondents to rate their degree of certainty/uncertainty about the veracity of the information they receive from various sources, including their sub-unit, branch, division and outside sources.

4.4. Measures: independent variables Three task characteristics Demographic /job characteristics

Age and tenure (defined as time in the job) were measured on a six item categorised scale of age-groups ranging from less than 20 years old to over 60. Scores were based on the mid-points of each category. Similarly, tenure was assessed on a five-point scale ranging from less than 1 year in the organization to over 25 years. The organization uses a formal grid for classifying employees as Administrative, Managerial, Engineering, Technical or Other (including Line Workers). This cl,assification does not however fully reflect their role within the organization. For instance, the Administrative, Engineering, and Technical categories include many employees with managerial responsibilities. To cater for this, two scales were considered. The first, job category, indicated whether the respondents were technicians (37.6%), engineers (13.8%), administrative staff (39.3%) or managers (9.3%). The second scale, job rank (status), reflects the formal

Variety, analysability, and interdependence were assessed. Task variety refers to the frequency of unexpected and novel events that occur in the conversion process. For high variety tasks, participants typically cannot predict problems or activities in advance. Analysable tasks are those for which an objective, computational procedure can be followed ‘to resolve problems. The operational measures used for variety and analysability were based on the work of Daft and Macintosh. The extent to which the nature of the task involves collective actions is generally termed task interdependence [13,161. The operational measure used for interdependence was the need for checking or working with others. Structural characteristics

Three structural aspects were assessed; size of section, degree of participation (in decisions) and degree of formalization. Section size was based on the number of full-time employees. The par-

112

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

ticipation (in decisions) construct was that defined

in the work of Hrebiniak. It provides a measure of the degree of involvement that the individual employee has in deciding about issues affecting his/her work-group or department. Formalization refers to the extent to which rules and regulations are used to guide activities and work behaviour within the organization. The operational construct of formalization was that of Oldham and Hackman [29], which focuses on work-group (section or department) levels. Computer usage

Computer usage was assessed through three factors: extent of use; frequency of use, and degree of dependence. Previous research that has attempted to develop systematic ways of assessing computer use tended to focus on the organizational level and consider the number of terminals as the unit-measure of the extent of usage at that level. This study focuses on individual end-users for whom the measure is not strictly applicable. The measure of number of terminals was therefore replaced by a Likert-scale indicating the extent of use for each of 15 functions. In line with previous research [27], overall frequency of use and dependency on computers was also considered. Frequency of use was based on the proportion of the working day respondents spent using computers. Dependency on computers refers to the degree to which the respondent’s work activities depends on availability of computer facilities. The respondents were asked to indicate how much of their daily work would be affected if the computer facilities they are using were to break down. A five point scale was used to represent the proportion of the work likely to be affected by computer-related stoppages. 4.5. Reliability tests Most of the measures used in this study were modifications of previous research and had already been tested for reliability. Nevertheless, because of the contextual difference of the present study, further analysis of internal consistency on all of these measures was undertaken. AlphaCronbach coefficients were: 0.83 for amount of

&Management

28 (1995) 107-121

information processing, 0.78 for timeliness of information; 0.72 for information accuracy; 0.75 for information openness; 0.64 for task variety; 0.74 for task analysability; 0.71 for participation; 0.68 for formalization; 0.63 for extent of computer use; 0.75 for use of written information; 0.79 for use of computer derived information and 0.81 for use of verbal information.

5. Analysis and results 5.1. Use of different types of information The responses relating to extent of use of each type of information were examined and compared, first for the overall sample and then by controlling for demographic characteristics. For the overall sample mean scores and standard deviations were: written information (mean = 12.7, std = 2.41); computer derived information (mean = 10.8, std = 7.65); verbal information (mean = 14.16, std = 2.40). These results clearly indicate a significant preference for use of verbal information, computer derived information was the least used means of communication. To verify the consistency of these differences paired t-tests were run across the three variables, for the entire sample. For written versus computer-based information the T value was 22.2 (P = 0.00); for written versus verbal information the T value was - 19.5 (P = 0.00); and for computer-based versus verbal information the T value was - 38.0 (P = 0.00). These results are quite surprising, particularly since the organization studied has in place sophisticated internal and external telecommunications networks, including Executive Information Systems, voice-mail and e-mail facilities. To further assess the validity of the above results, we ran the same tests while controlling separately for age, tenure, job category, and job status. Patterns of information usage across different demographic groups and job categories were consistent. Verbal information was consistently the most used form of communication and computer derived information the least sought after. However, significant differences were found when the extent of use of each type of informa-

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

I-OVerb,aJ

mwritten

EElComouter-Based

IANGT Job Category

TECH

Fig. 1. Comparisons of information usage between job categories

tion was compared across different job categories using categorised scales rather than discrete variables. The most interesting findings are those relating to job category, job rank, tenure and frequency (time> of use of computers. Figure 1 shows the frequency distributions of each type of information use by job category (ADM = Administrative Staff; ENG = Engineering Staff; MANGT = Managerial Classifications; TECH = Technicians). While supporting the consistent patterns of use, these results show that administrative and managerial staff are relatively higher users of computer derived information. Managerial and engineering staff sieem to be relatively greater users of written information. Use of verbal information is comparable across the four job categories. To investigate these differences, we ran frequencies focusing on comparisons based on the job rank scale. We split the sample between managers (i.e all employees at section-head level or above) and non-managers (all other non supervisory employees) and ran frequencies for each of the three types of information. The results, shown in Figure 2, show that while both managers and non-managers make: almost equal (and low) use of computer derived information; managers tend

& Management

28 (1995) 107-121

113

to be much greater users of the other two types of information (i.e., written and verbal). Since previous studies did not systematically control for the nature/type of the job it is difficult to relate the differences to previous research. Nevertheless there have been some previous indications that job status tends to affect the extent of use of computer-based means of communication. It is important to note that the notion of information-usage, as considered in this study, cannot be equated with the notion of computer usage as defined in previous studies, see for example [451. To explore differences related to work experience we ran a series of C Plots [44]. Figure 3 shows these for each type of information usage. While verbal information is used consistently across different tenure groups, the use of computer-based information diminishes significantly for those respondents with greater tenure (i.e over twelve years experience in the organization). This reduction in use of computer derived information is consistent with age patterns (results are not shown here), where the older age groups made less use of computer derived information. These findings are consistent with the research reported by Kirschenbaum, where significant differences were found between more experienced

1

ElComputer Based

Manager

Non Manager Job Rank

Fig. 2. Comparisons of managerial and non-managerial ployees

em-

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

114

5.2. Multiple regression analysis

E] “‘. .. . .. . _

, _

-

.

\

-

.

_

-

-

,

/-

IA I

,

11

101

__

I 0.5

-_

I He

,

. . -.

.I

’

’ ’

\

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

\

\ \

- _- _

12 12.5 over 15 2.5 7.5 8 Tenure (Mid-pointsof Tenure Ranges)

Fig. 3. Patterns of information use by tenure

and less experienced groups in their use of information gathering strategies. These results are also similar to the many studies indicating a reluctance of older employees to interface with computerised systems, (see, for example, [211X To further investigate the underlying reasons for greater use of computer derived information separate C Plots were produced controlling for extent of functional use, frequency of use of computers and dependency on computer facilities. These showed that the greater the extent of use and dependency on computers, the greater the tendency to use computer derived information. While this might appear to be obvious, the relationships found were not ,smooth and continuous; e.g., see frequency of use (Figure 4). As would be expected, individuals with greater frequency of computer use were also greater users of computer derived information, however even amongst the highest users, verbal information was the most prevalent means of communication sought and used. This is surprising, given the availability of sophisticated communication mechanisms. Some other studies have also indicated that high computer-use may not imply more frequent users of sophisticated means of communication, such as E-mail [91.

The statistical significance of the differences in degrees and patterns of usage do not explain extent of use of each type of information. For that purpose we ran separate multiple regressions taking each of the three types of information as a dependent variable (Tables l--6). A number of factors were shown to affect the extent of use of written information, the most significant being nature of task and type of subunit structure. Task variety and task interdependence tended to increase use of written information. Increased participation in decisions and sub-unit formalization also tend to increase use of written information. While we have no knowledge of previous research examining these linkages, the results seem intuitively sensible. It is not surprising that people working on a wide variety of tasks and/or on tasks that affect (or are affected by) other functions would have a greater and more frequent need to document their findings in writing. The positive impact of the extent of computer usage on written communication is particularly interesting. This finding strongly suggests that the various communication methods are complementary, i.e. that use of one encourages use of the

Verbal Written -Computer Based

I

15

14 3

l3

;

12

P

11

...

,..-_/

I

.,

I

-

/

10

/

91 /. 0

4.5 0.5 3 2.5 Frequency of Use of Computers

6.5

over 7

Fig. 4. Type of information use versus frequency of computer type of information usage

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek /Information

Table 1 Results of multiple regressions (dependent R = 0.16 Variables

Coefficient

Constant 5.76 Demographic/Job Characteristics 0.02 Age * Gender (Mascul) - 0.50 0.01 Tenure 0.07 Job Category Job Rank (Status) - 0.03 Dimensions of Informahon Processing Amount 0.01 Accuracy 0.01 0.10 * Openness * Timeliness 0.06 Uncertainty 0.04 Task Characteristics 0.14 * Variety Analyzability - 0.00 0.22 * Interdependence Sub-Unit Structure * Participation 0.05 * Formalization 0.05 Section Size - 0.00 Aspects of Computer Usage 0.02 * Extent of Use Frequency (Time) - 0.05 0.02 Number of Terminals Dependency - 0.09

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

115

variable: use of written information) N = 1,300 Multiple R = 0.41 Squared Multiple Stand Error

Stand Coeff

Tolerance

T Value

Prob (2-Tail)

0.96

0.00

_

5.98

0.000

0.01

0.19 0.01 0.07 0.16

0.03 -0.10 0.04 0.03 - 0.01

0.62 0.69 0.55 0.68 0.65

1.02 - 2.84 0.74 0.96 -0.16

0.30 0.01 0.46 0.33 0.87

0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05

0.01 0.01 0.12 0.05 0.02

0.88 0.72 0.68 0.88 0.92

0.40 0.23 3.75 1.88 0.83

0.69

0.03 0.02 0.07

0.17 - 0.01 0.08

0.70 0.66 0.91

5.54 -0.16 3.14

0.00

0.01

0.16 0.07 -0.00

0.51 0.72 0.78

4.41 2.45 - 0.05

0.00

0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.07

0.07 - 0.05 0.02 - 0.04

0.83 0.54 0.73 0.62

2.46 - 1.44 0.81 - 1.17

0.01 0.15 0.42 0.24

others. Providing support for the research findings of Giallourakis and Taylor. Effects of information processing characteristics (or constraints) should also be noted. The extent of openness and the timeliness of information positively correlate with the use of written information. Indeed, openness or availability of information would be expected to stimulate wide ranging discussion and debate through all communication methods. Timeliness also positively

Table 2 Table 1 continued ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Source

Sum-ofSquares

DF

MeanSquare

F-Ratio

P

Regression Residual

1271.99 6294.55

20 1279

63.56 4.92

12.92

0.00

0.82 0.00 0.06 0.41

0.88 0.00

0.01 0.96

affected use of written information, which seems surprising since it is not the best way to achieve speed! The significance of the result may not, however, be great compared with others. The moderate negative effect of gender (toward femininity) on use of written information is worth noting. Computer usage and information characteristics are the only factors which seem to affect the use of computer derived information, this underlines the idea that computer derived information tends to provide better fulfilment of the information requisites of high computer-users and to those individuals with high information processing requisites (openness) and constraints (timeliness). Use of verbal information is mainly affected by gender (in the direction of femininity) and tenure. A higher proportion of the respondents with “below-median” tenure were among the higher users of verbal information. The data does not suggest

R. Zeffane, B. Cheek /Information

116

Table 3 Results of multiple regressions (dependent Multiple R = 0.20 Variables

Coefficient

Constant 4.04 Demographic/Job Characteristics Age 0.00 Gender (Mascull 0.21 Tenure - 0.02 Job Category 0.09 Job Rank (Status) -0.10 Dimensions of Information Processing Amount 0.02 Accuracy - 0.04 * Openness 0.13 * Timeliness 0.12 Uncertainty - 0.08 Task Characteristics Variety 0.01 Analyzability 0.04 Interdependence 0.11 Sub-Unit Structure Participation 0.02 Formalization - 0.02 Section Size - 0.01 Aspects of Computer Usage * Extent of Use 0.05 * Frequency (Time) 0.13 Number of Terminals 0.03 * Dependency 0.46

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

variable: use of computer based infomration) N = 1,300 Multiple R = 0.45 Squared

Stand Error

Stand Coeff

Tolerance

T Value

Prob (ZTail)

1.04

0.00

-

3.89

0.00

0.01 0.19 0.01 0.08 0.17

0.01 0.03 - 0.03 0.04 - 0.02

0.62 0.69 0.55 0.68 0.65

0.19 1.12 - 1.01 1.19 - 0.58

0.85 0.27 0.31 0.23 0.56

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05

0.02 - 0.04 0.14 0.09 -0.04

0.88 0.72 0.68 0.88 0.92

0.82 - 1.43 4.50 3.19 - 1.59

0.41 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.11

0.03 0.02 0.07

0.01 0.05 0.04

0.70 0.66 0.91

0.47 1.46 1.54

0.64 0.15 0.12

0.01 0.02 0.01

0.04 - 0.03 - 0.04

0.51 0.72 0.78

1.22 - 0.84 - 1.22

0.22 0.40 0.22

0.01 0.04 0.02 0.08

0.18 0.12 0.05 0.19

0.83 0.54 0.73 0.62

6.57 3.58 1.61 5.85

0.00 0.00 0.11 0.00

a significant linkage between use of verbal information and the different job categories. The information characteristics affecting the use of verbal information are extent of openness of information (at the sub-unit level) and extent of uncertainty. This probably reflects the need to check/recheck veracity. Greater task variety and greater participation (in decisions) also seem to increase use of verbal information. The impact of computer-use on the use of verbal information is interesting. Apparently high Table 4 Table 3 continued ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Source

Sum-ofSquares

DF

MeanSquare

F-Ratio

P

Regression Residual

1811.64 7307.69

20 1279

905825.71

15.85

0.000

computer users do not confine their information processing to computer derived facilities and often need to recourse to verbal information. 5.3. Analysis of variance An analysis of variance was also performed using the Systat package producing both T-Tests and F-Tests, comparing variable means between two-groups of categorical variables; see [14]. The two methods point to similar results, however the T-Tests show not only the strength but also the direction (positive or negative) of the differences. The variables were split by denoting each type of information on their population medians and creating sub-samples of low and high users of each type. Dummy variables were introduced and assigned a value of 1 for low users and 2 for high users. The results of the analyses of variance are shown in Table 7.

R Zeffane, B. Cheek/Information

Table 5 Results of multiple regressions (Dependent R = 0.13 Variables

Coefficient

Constant 10.60 Demographic/Job Characteristics 0.00 Age * Gender (Mascul) - 0.43 * Tenure - 0.04 Job Category 0.01 Job Rank (Status) 0.17 Dimensions of Information Processing Amount 0.00 Accuracy - 0.04 * Openness 0.11 Timeliness 0.03 * Uncertainty -0.15 Task Characteristics * Variety 0.07 Analyzability -0.00 * Interdependence 0.31 Sub-Unit Structure * Participation 0.05 Formalization 0.01 Section Size -0.00 Aspects of Computer Usage * Extent of Use 0.03 Frequency (Time) - 0.02 Number of Terminals 0.02 Dependency 0.00

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

117

variable: use of verbal information) N = 1,300 Multiple R = 0.36 Squared Multiple Stand Error

Stand Coeff

0.98

0.00

0.01 0.18 0.01 0.07 0.16

0.02 - 0.07 -0.10 0.01 0.04

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05

T Value

Prob (ZTail)

10.79

0.00

0.62 0.69 0.55 0.68 0.65

0.46 - 2.32 - 2.91 0.19 1.07

0.65 0.02 0.00 0.85 0.29

0.01 - 0.04 0.13 0.03 - 0.08

0.88 0.72 0.68 0.88 0.92

0.17 - 1.40 4.09 0.91 - 2.97

0.87 0.16 0.00 0.37 0.00

0.03 0.02 0.01

0.09 -0.00 0.12

0.70 0.66 0.91

2.84 - 0.07 4.39

0.95 0.00

0.01 0.020.0

0.14 0.02 - 0.02

0.51 0.72 0.78

3.80 0.62 - 0.52

0.53 0.60

0.01 0.03 0.02 0.07

0.10

0.83 0.54 0.73 0.62

3.59 - 0.54 1.05 0.01

-0.02 0.03 0.00

These results reinforce the multiple regression findings. They show that older age groups have a positive bias towards the use of verbal information, while that bias is reversed for computer derived information. Individuals with greater experience tend to make more use of written information, while those with less tenure tend to make more use of verbal information. The results show that job status affects use of written and verbal information. Individuals in higher positions (i.e

Table 6 Table 5 continued ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Source

Sum-ofSquares

DF

MeanSquare

F-Ratio

P

Regression Residual

960.34 6532.38

.20 1279

48.02 5.11

9.40

0.000

Tolerance

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.59 0.30 1.00

managers) tended to make greater use of both of these types of information. The higher users of written information are those with greater requirements for volume and accuracy. This tendency was not observed for computer derived information. This behaviour may be linked to a greater belief in the veracity of the more conventional means of communication such as paper-based. The results related to openness and timeliness of information confirm the findings of the multiple regression analysis. The moderate finding suggesting greater use of verbal information in situations of uncertainty is interesting. This points to the tendency for checking (by verbal means) and rechecking, in situations where the veracity of the information received is doubtful. There was a tendency for high users of all three types of information to hold positions with more varied tasks and greater interdependence.

* * 0.001< P < 0.05 P n T. =

*** pr Information Science, Vol: 43, Iss: 3, pp: 257-267. [43] Wells, Janet H and Novakovich, Elisabeth., (1989) Bringing the Paper Files into the Fami1y.w Records Management Quarterly, Vol: 23, Iss: 1, pp: 22-24. [44] Wilkinson, Leland., (19901 Systat : The System for Statistics. Evanston, Ill: !iystat Inc. [45] Zeffane, Rachid M., (1992) Patterns of Structural Control in High and Low Computer User Organizations. Information and Management, Vol: 23, No: 2, pp 159-170. I&chid M. Zeffane is a Senior Lecturer in Organizational Behaviour and Human Resource Management at the University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia. He received his Masters De;gree (Msc) and Doctorate (Ph.Dl in iManagement and Organizational Analysis from the University of Wales t’cardiff, U.Kl. Rachid has research interests in the areas of organization structure and design; participative management; the organizational and behavioural effects of information technology; environmental management and cross-national comparative management. He has published several articles in these areas and contributed to a number of books and monographs.

& Management 28 (1995) 107-121

121

Bruce Cheek is a Senior Lecturer in Information Systems and Head of the Department of Management at the University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia. He holds a Master degree in Mathematics from the above University. Bruce is interested in all aspects of information systems development and methodologies, particularly those aspects relating to user involvement and the behavioural effects of computerization. He holds extensive professional experience in the areas of information systems applications in administration and human resource management. He has co-authored several articles on these issues and in other related areas.