Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 34 (2012) 153 – 157
Languages, Cultures and Virtual Communities Les Langues, les Cultures et les Communautés Virtuelles
The effect of input enhancement in L2 listening on incidental vocabulary learning: A review Maribel Montero Perez* & Piet Desmet IBBT - ITEC - K.U. Leuven Kulak, E. Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
Abstract The development of multimedia environments for listening comprehension, together with the use of input enhancement techniques, has brought forth a number of empirical studies investigating optimal ways of presenting video material to learners. In this paper, we propose a general categorization of these empirical studies and define their central research questions. We then focus on one particular category of studies, namely those dealing with the possibility to acquire vocabulary through captioned audiovisual material. We propose a comparative analysis of the studies’ methodology in order to discover their strengths and weaknesses. © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of EUROCALL2010 Scientific © 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. under responsibility of Dominique Macaire and Alex Boulton Committee Keywords: incidental vocabulary learning; input enhancement; listening comprehension; captions
1. Introduction During the last two decades, two major evolutions have guided the development of teaching L2 listening comprehension, giving this language skill a more central role in the learning process. First, technological developments have assisted in creating multimedia environments in which rich and authentic audiovisual materials are made available for language learning purposes. Additionally, the idea that video material ‘as such’ is not enough for language learning has been reflected in the use of different enhancement techniques such as captions, subtitles, annotations, etc. The purpose of such input enhancements in multimedia listening environments is to support learners in achieving better * Maribel Montero Perez. Tel.: +32 (0) 562 460 80
[email protected]
1877-0428 © 2012 Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of EUROCALL2010 Scientific Committee doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.02.031
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comprehension and to influence, to some degree, the development of linguistic competence (Chapelle, 2003). In this paper, we first review the empirical studies on listening comprehension by proposing a general categorization. We then focus on the use of captions in the light of their impact on incidental vocabulary learning. To conclude, we analyze the studies and their research methodologies in order to find out what level of vocabulary knowledge can be achieved through these treatments. 2. Empirical studies on listening comprehension: A categorization Examination of empirical studies on listening comprehension reveals two main categories of studies according to their central research questions. The first category contains all empirical studies on listening and help options (cf. the review by Cárdenas-Claros and Gruba, 2009). An analysis of these studies shows that three major research questions can be identified: x What is the effect of help options on comprehension? (Garza, 1991; Guillory 1998; Taylor, 2005) x How can learner behaviour with help options be characterized? (Grgurović & Hegelheimer, 2007; Liou, 1997; Liou, 2000) x Is there a relationship between proficiency level and the learner’s use of help options? (Hegelheimer & Tower, 2004; Liou, 1997; Liou, 2000; Pujolà, 2002) The second category includes studies on listening comprehension and the impact of available enhancements on language learning. As Rost (2002: 91) points out, “there are two overlapping processes in L2 listening development: learning to listen in the L2 and learning the L2 through listening. The optimal goal of L2 listening development is to allow for the L2 to be acquired through listening…”. Vocabulary is precisely one of the language components that can be acquired through training in listening skills. This kind of acquisition can then be defined as incidental vocabulary learning, since the main focus of the learning activity is on the development of the listening skill itself, and vocabulary gains are merely considered a ‘by-product’ of the main listening task. Two forms of input enhancement are used as variables in the experimental design of these studies, namely annotations (Jones 2003, 2004, 2006; Xu, 2010) and captions. The results of Jones’ studies indicate that the optimal treatment consists in providing learners with both written and pictorial annotations, although the results for vocabulary learning are often mixed. In the remainder of this paper, we focus on the use of captions for listening and analyze their effect on vocabulary learning. 3. Vocabulary learning through captioned video Two major conclusions can be drawn from studies on listening comprehension, captions and vocabulary learning. Empirical evidence for the first conclusion was given by Brett (1997), whose findings are in accordance with Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis (1990), in that he found a relationship between salient language items and post-listening vocabulary gains. Secondly, a number of studies provide empirical evidence that bimodal input augments the opportunities for vocabulary learning during listening (cf. incidental vocabulary learning). Some early studies like Neuman and Koskinen (1992) found evidence in favour of captioning, which appeared to be more beneficial for vocabulary recognition and acquisition than the no-captions control condition. This finding can also be encountered in Baltova (1999), who studied vocabulary gains under three different conditions. Her results indicate that students in the bimodal condition (French subtitles and French audio) scored significantly higher than students in the reversed condition (English audio and French subtitles) and the control condition (French audio). Hernandez (2004) also concludes that students who receive video, audio and text score higher on
Maribel Montero Perez and Piet Desmet / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 34 (2012) 153 – 157
vocabulary learning, although the results were not statistically significant. In fact, Hernandez’s results show that students’ vocabulary gains depend more upon their verbal abilities than on the treatment. The impact of the order in which students have access to the captions may also influence vocabulary gains (Winke et al., 2010). Their results indicate that learners who receive captions when first viewing the video show higher gains on the aural vocabulary post-test than students who activate captions during the second exposure to the video. Sydorenko‘s results (2010) show that captions facilitate recognition of word forms and recall of word meaning. Generally speaking, these studies all suggest that incidental vocabulary learning occurs in one form or another. However, an important question that arises when looking at all these studies concerns the methodological aspect, namely the tests used to measure vocabulary learning. What vocabulary knowledge do these tests propose to measure? This question subsequently evokes another very complex issue, tackled by Nation (2001): “What does it mean to know a word? According to Nation (2001), knowing a word involves three general levels: form, meaning and use, each of them subdivided into different components that additionally consist of receptive and productive knowledge (cf. Table 2). When analyzing the type of vocabulary knowledge that is measured, it is crucial to look at both pre-test(s) and post-test(s). We then distinguish between recall of form and meaning and word recognition (aural and written). Results of this analysis are represented schematically in Table 1. Table 1. Comparative analysis of vocabulary knowledge measured in empirical studies
Author
Vocabulary Pre-test(s)
Vocabulary Post-test(s)
Vocabulary knowledge measured (cf. Nation, 2001)
1. Neuman & Koskinen (1992)
checklist (120 items) with nonwords in order to prevent learners from guessing
word recognition
written form recognition
sentence anomaly test (learners indicate if word is used properly in a sentence/context)
recall of meaning
multiple choice on word meanings 2. Baltova (1999)
recognition pre-test
video C-Cloze test
recall of written form
vocabulary knowledge scale (cf. Depth of vocabulary knowledge)
vocabulary knowledge scale
recall of meaning
3. Markham (1999)
multiple choice comprehension test with listening word recognition
recognition of aural form
4. Hernandez (2004)
fill gap with correct word (multiple choice)
recall of meaning
vocabulary test 1: translate written word forms to English
recall of meaning
dictation test
5. Winke, Gass & Sydorenko (2010)
prior knowledge test (after vocabulary post-test, before comprehension test) half of words in written form, half in aural form
6. Sydorenko (2010)
written and aural recognition and translation tests.
vocabulary test 2: translate aural word forms to English Written and aural word recognition test (with nonwords)
recognition of written and aural word forms
translation test (nonwords not included)
recall of meaning
word knowledge test
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If we replace the studies in Nation’s table (Table 2), we see that only a very small part of vocabulary knowledge measured by the pre- and post-tests can be attributed to the treatment. It is clear from these tables that incidental vocabulary learning covers different levels of vocabulary knowledge in the abovementioned studies. Comparing results from one test with another without taking into account these methodological differences could therefore lead to erroneous generalizations of the benefits of captioning for vocabulary learning. Most of the tests focus either on a formal aspect, or on meaning. Mostly receptive types of knowledge are tested, as is the case for studies 1, 3,4, 5 and 6. Study 2 focuses on a productive type of vocabulary knowledge. Table 2. “What is involved in knowing a word?” (Nation 2001: 347) Form
Spoken Written Word parts
Meaning
Form and meaning Concepts and referents Associations
Use
Grammatical functions Collocations Constraints on use (register, frequency…)
R P R P R P R P R P R P R P R P R P
Study 3 Study 1
Studies 1, 4, 5, 6 Study 2
What does the word sound like? How is the word pronounced? What does the word look like? How is the word written and spelled? What parts are ecognizable in this word? What word parts are needed to express the meaning? What meaning does this word form signal? What word form can be used to express this meaning? What is included in the concept? What items can the concept refer to? What other words does this make us think of? What other words could we use instead of this one? In what patterns does the word occur? In what patterns must we use this word? What words or types of words occur with this one? What words or types of words must we use with this one? Where, when, and how often would we expect to meet this word? Where, when and how often can we use this word?
4. Conclusion Comparative analysis of various research studies on captioning reveals that the concept of incidental vocabulary learning covers different levels of vocabulary knowledge. Not only do these studies address different levels of incidental vocabulary learning, but other variables, such as the proficiency level of the test participants, are also not the same. Additionally, the results are often not statistically significant which, together with the abovementioned elements, makes it hard to generalize findings and results. Although the benefits of captions, or more generally speaking, input enhancement techniques seem at first sight convincing for vocabulary learning, an in-depth analysis shows that caution is required when generalizing these findings. Further experimental research should focus on gaining greater insight into the benefits of input enhancement for vocabulary learning, and should be carefully designed according to a well-defined methodology, so that findings and limitations of previous studies can be taken into account.
References Baltova, I. (1999). The effect of subtitled and staged video input on the learning and retention of content and vocabulary in a second language. PhD dissertation, University of Toronto. Brett, P. (1997). A comparative study of the effects of the use of multimedia on listening comprehension. System, 25(1), 39-53.
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