the malaysian consumer protection

1

COPYRIGHT Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna Dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA), 2012

Hak cipta terpelihara. Mana-mana bahagian penerbitan ini tidak boleh dihasilkan semula, disimpan dalam sistem simpanan kekal, atau dipindahkan dalam sebarang bentuk atau sebarang cara elektronik, mekanik, pengambaran semula, rakaman dan sebagainya tanpa terlebih dahulu mendapat izin daripada Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna Dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA)

Penerbitan Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna Dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA): Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna Dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA) d/a Jabatan Pengurusan Sumber Dan Pengajian Pengguna Fakulti Ekologi Manusia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor No. ISBN: 978-967-10618-2-4

2

PROSIDING SEMINAR

SEMINAR KEBANGSAAN MACFEA KE 16 ‘KELESTARIAN DAN KUALITI HIDUP’

10 – 11 Julai 2012 Palm Garden Hotel Putrajaya

Anjuran Bersama: Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna Dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA) Kementerian Perdagangan Dalam Negeri, Koperasi Dan Kepenggunaan (KPDNKK)

Jawatan Kuasa Kertas Kerja dan Teknikal Seminar MACFEA Ke 16: Norhasmah Sulaiman Nurizan Yahaya Marhana Abdul Razak Nik Aida Adibah Nik Abdul Aziz Tatiana Suhaimi 3

ISI KANDUNGAN KERTAS KERJA No. i.

Tajuk Pra kata

Muka surat 12

Sub-Tema 1: Penggunaan Lestari Kertas 1

Hierarchy of Consumer Decisions in Buying Organic Vegetables in Bandung West Java Indonesia

15

Yosini Deliana Kertas 2

Attitudinal and Behavioral Loyalty of Cardholders in Hypermarkets, Malaysia

24

Mohammed Omer Faridi, Normazalila Abu Bakar, Rapiah Mohd Zaini, Haslina Hassan & Salmi Md. Zahid Kertas 2

What Triggers Pro-Environmental Behavior? An Analysis on Perceived Values and Personal Traits

36

Jamaliah Mhd. Khalili, Shahariah Asmuni & Zahariah Mohd. Zain Kertas 4

Sustainable Mobility: Stated Preference and Demand for Public Transport

47

Nor Rashidah Zainal, Afiza Azura Mohamad Arshad and Sabariah Mohamad Kertas 5

Kesan Kejutan Luaran terhadap Harga Relatif di Malaysia: Satu Kajian Svar

53

Nazirah Mustafar, Zulkefly Abdul Karim & Mohd Azlan Shah Zaidi Kertas 6

Pola Pendapatan dan Perbelanjaan Isi Rumah Mengikut Acuan Ekonomi Islam

64

Noorhaslinda Kulub Abd. Rashid, Mohd Anuar Md. Amin, Rahmah Ismail & Aslina Nasir Kertas 7

Food Insecurity and Health Related Quality of Life among Students University Receiving Financial Assistance

74

Norhasmah Sulaiman, Zuroni Md Jusoh & Marhana Abdul Razak

4

Sub-Tema 2: Pendayaupaan Dan Kualiti Hidup Kertas 8

Personal Financial Well-Being in View of Worker’s Involvement in Comprehensive Financial Planning

83

Husniyah, A. R. & Mohd. Amim, O. Kertas 9

Quality of Life and Place Competitiveness Customers

92

Norizan Jaafar, Christoph Teller & Leigh Sparks Kertas 10

Impact of Salinity on the Socio-Environmental Life of Coastal People of Bangladesh

100

Sohela Mustari & A.H.M. Zehadul Karim Kertas 11

Assessment of Quality of Life in Libya through Estimating the Public Service Quality in Libya 2010

108

Ibrahim Noureddin Kamba & Mohd Fu’ad Sakdan Kertas 12

Amalan Pengurusan Risiko Kredit dan Kepuasan Pengurusan Risiko Dalam Kalangan Pekerja Sektor Awam

118

Kanmani S., Husniyah A. R., Zuroni M. J.,Elistina A.B. & Mohd. Fazli S. Kertas 13

A Comparative Study in Well-Being among Malaysian Households

127

Nor Fairani Ahmad & Laily Paim Kertas 14

Masakan Tradisional Ikan Air Tawar di Homestay Kg Beng, Lenggong: Ke Arah Pembangunan Pelancongan Lestari

135

Farhana C.D, Norsuhana A.H & Norfarizan Hanoon N.A. Kertas 15

Perspektif Pembeli Rumah Berpendapatan Rendah Mengenai Kebolehdiaman di Shah Alam Selangor

146

Mohd Farhan Zulkepli, Ahmad Hariza Hashim, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah & Ma’rof Redzuan Kertas 16

Gelagat dan Persepsi Pengguna Terhadap Kedai Mamak

156

Wook Endut, Norain Mod Asri & Mhd. Suhaimi Ahmad Kertas 17

Income Poverty Status And Well-Being of the Vulnerable Households in Malaysia: A Comparative Study

171

Nor Fairani Ahmad & Laily Paim

5

Kertas 18

Determinants of Employees’ Financial Well-Being: The Moderation Effect of Working Sector

181

Mohamad Fazli Sabri, Leila Falahati, Jariah Masud & Laily Paim Kertas 19

An Exploratory Model of Personal Financial Well-being among Malaysian Youth: A Gender Perspective

193

Leila Falahati, Laily Hj. Paim & Mohamad Fazli Sabri Sub-Tema 3: Pengeluaran Lestari Kertas 20

Ciri-Ciri Kertas Gentian Pisang

204

Naimah M.S., Rasmina H., Low, L. H. & Chuah, W. Z. Sub-Tema 4: Perlindungan Dan Advokasi Pengguna Kertas 21

Consumer Contracts of Sale of Goods: The Legal Dilemma

212

Sakina Shaik Ahmad Yusoff, Shamsuddin Suhor, Rahmah Ismail, Azimon Abdul Aziz, Muhammad Rizal Razman & Kartini Aboo Talib @ Khalid Kertas 22

Development of Consumer Complaints Regimes in Malaysia and Japan

221

Daisaku Morinaga & Aini Mat Said Kertas 23

Celik Undang-Undang: Sejauh Mana Kesedaran Pengguna Mahasiswa Terhadap Hak Kepenggunaan dan Hak Membuat Tuntutan

231

Azimon A. A., Naemah A. & Elistina A.B. Kertas 24

The Malaysian Consumer Protection (Amendment) Act 2010 on Unfair Contract Terms

240

Roshazlizawati Mohd Nor Kertas 25

Perlindungan Pengguna dari Perspektif Doktrinal Remedi Kontraktual

248

Sakina S.A.Y. & Ong, T.C. Kertas 26

Persepsi Pekerja Bengkel Terhadap Kepentingan Etika dan Tanggungjawab Sosial

256

Muhamat Yawasi, Elistina Abu Bakar & Syuhaily Osman

6

Kertas 27

Pemasaran Mengikut Persepktif Islam

265

Nurul Hilmiyah & Bayu Taufiq Possumah Sub-Tema 5: Kelestarian Pendidikan Pengguna Kertas 28

Pengetahuan, Sikap dan Amalan Penggunaan Lestari dalam Kalangan Pengguna Ke Arah Kesejahteraan Kewangan Pengguna

279

Norzalika Md Zaini, Zuroni Md Jusoh, Husniyah Abd Rahim, Elistina Abu Bakar, Askiah Jamaluddin & Roziah Mohd Rasdi Kertas 29

Consumer Understanding of Consumer Celebration Month 2010 Theme:“Consumer Power: 1 Consumer 1 Voice”

290

Jariah Masud & Sharifah Azizah Haron Sub-Tema 6: Globalisasi Dan Advokasi Pengguna Kertas 30

The Differences of E-Shopper Typology in Online Buying Satisfaction among UPM’s Students, Serdang

297

Syuhaily Osman, Then Sook Han & Askiah Jamaluddin Kertas 31

Pembelian Barangan di atas Talian dalam Kalangan Remaja

306

Siti Balkis B. & Naimah M.S. Kertas 32

Examining the Consumers’ Level of Satisfaction and Receptivity of Facebook’s Marketing Messages

313

Said M., Hamid A.A., Muhammad Ariff S.R., Kadir B.A. & Md Nor S. Kertas 33

User Generated Content and the Muslim Consumer in Cyberspace

322

Aznan Zuhid Saidin & Elistina Abu Bakar Kertas 34

Estimating the Wealth Effect on Consumption for Sukuk

327

Nursilah Ahmad

7

Sub-Tema 7: Pembangunan Lestari Kertas 35

Hubungan antara Latar Belakang dengan Penggunaan Barangan dan Perkhidmatan Arus Perdana dalam Kalangan Masyarakat Orang Asli Temuan di Negeri Sembilan

336

Mohd Roslan Rosnon, Ma’rof Redzuan & Sarjit S. Gill Kertas 36

Preference on Sustainable Housing towards Consumers’ WellBeing

346

Zuroni Md Jusoh, Husniyah Abd Rahim , Elistina Abu Bakar, Askiah Jamaluddin, Roziah Mohd Rasdi & Norzalika Md Zaini

8

SENARAI POSTER No.

Tajuk

Muka surat

Sub-Tema 1: Penggunaan Lestari 01

Amalan Penggunaan Lestari ‘4R’ dalam Kalangan Mahasiswa Institusi Pengajian Tinggi (IPT) di Malaysia

358

Puteri Musfirah Megat Johari, Mumtazah Othman & Normaziah Zulkifli 02

Reduction on the Usage of Plastic Bag Dilemma among Klang Valley Consumer

359

Aziella Al’Azmi, Ahmad Hariza Hashim, Syuhaily Osman & Nurhasyimah Mohammed Suadi 03

Social Dilemma on Green Product Purchasing among Urban Consumers in Johor Baharu

360

Nurhasyimah Mohammed Suadi, Ahmad Hariza Hashim, Syuhaily Osman & Aziella Al-Azmi 04

Tiada Jaminan Kedapatan Makanan Isi Rumah di Kampung Pulau Serai, Dungun, Terengganu

361

Nik Aida Adibah Nik Abdul Aziz & Norhasmah Sulaiman 05

Sumber Kewangan dan Perbelanjaan Sara Hidup dalam Kalangan Mahasiswa Institut Pengajian Tinggi Awam (IPTA)

362

Siti Marhana Abd Razak, Norhasmah Sulaiman & Zuroni Md Jusoh Sub-Tema 2: Pendayaupaan Dan Kualiti Hidup 06

Financial Stability among Public Sector Employees in Malaysia

364

Noor Diyana F.A., Husniyah A.R., Elistina A.B & Zuroni M. J. 07

Liveability From the Perspetives of Low Income House Buyer in Shah Alam, Selangor

365

Mohd Farhan Zulkepli, Ahmad Hariza Hashim & Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah

9

Sub-Tema 3: Pengeluaran Lestari 08

Keberkesanan Pengeluaran Produk Minuman Tesco dan Produk Minuman Cadbury

367

Fara Nabila Abd Hamid, Saiful Bahar Salim, NurNabihah Mohamad Nizar & ‘AmmarAinulyaqin Mohamed Sub-Tema 4: Perlindungan Dan Advokasi Pengguna 09

Malaysian’s Lifestyle May Lead to the Increasing of Counterfeit Products in the Market

369

Roslina Ramli, Saiful Bahar Salim, Zawanah Fatanah Zulkifli & Muhammad Khidir Rahim 10

Counterfeit Traditional Product Herbs in Malaysia; Study on Awareness on Pati Halia Packaging Design

370

Sity Shafiqah Ismail, Saiful Bahar Salim, Mohd Khairuddin Said & Mohd Khairul A’dli Abd Majid Sub-Tema 5: Kelestarian Pendidikan Pengguna 11

Ideologi Moral Pekerja Bengkel di dalam Industri Pembaikan Kenderaan Bermotor di Lembah Klang

372

Umi Naizirah Hamid, Elistina Abu Bakar & Husniyah Abdul Rahim 12

Halal dan Haram dalam Makanan:Keprihatinan dan Amalan Pembelian Kanak-Kanak Sekolah Rendah

373

Mumtazah Othman & Syuhaily Osman 13

Course and Effect of Single Receipt in the Environmental and Marketing Approach

374

Azwan Afandi, Saiful Bahar Salim, Muhammad Syahmi Jamaluddin & Noor Elee Ramlan 14

Juruukur Bahan Wanita pada Pengurusan Tertinggi dalam Praktis Ukur Bahan: Isu dan Cabaran

375

Norhafizah Yusop, Amira Shahida Che Shafie, Mohd Hafiz Saberi, Norbaizura Abu Bakar, Suhaila Ali & Mohmad Mohd Derus

10

15

Aspek - Aspek yang Mempengaruhi Pembentukan Kerjaya Pelajar dalam Bidang Ukur Bahan: Tinjauan Awal di Universiti Teknologi Mara (Perak)

376

Mohd Hafiz S., Norbaizura A.B., Norhafizah Y., Suhaila A., Nasruddin F. & Mohmad M.D. Sub-Tema 6: Globalisasi Dan Advokasi Pengguna 16

Sikap Terhadap Pembelian Barangan Secara atas Talian (Online) Dalam Kalangan Pelajar

378

Naimah, M.S., Siti Balkis, B. & Nurizan, Y. 17

Profiling Malaysian Young Adult Shoppers by Shopping Motives

379

Wong Yue-Teng & Syuhaily Osman Sub-Tema 7: Pembangunan Lestari 18

Consumers’ Ranking Preferences on Green Home Attributes for Sustainable Lifestyle

381

Zuroni Md Jusoh, Husniyah Abd Rahim, Elistina Abu Bakar, Askiah Jamaluddin, Roziah Mohd Rasdi & Norzalika Md Zaini

11

PRA KATA Prosiding Seminar ini mengandungi extended abstract dan abstak poster daripada peserta-peserta Seminar Kebangsaan Persatuan Ekonomi Pengguna dan Keluarga Malaysia (MACFEA) Ke-16. Seminar ini bertujuan untuk membincangkan hasil kajian ahli-ahli akademik, pelajar-pelajar siswazah, badan-badan kerajaan dan bukan kerajaan dalam bidang kepenggunaan, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan tema seminar tahun ini, iaitu ‘Kelestarian dan Kualiti Hidup’. Hasil perbincangan ini dapat menyumbang dalam pendidikan, penyelidikan dan pengubalan dasar kepenggunaan negara untuk melahirkan satu generasi pengguna dan pengeluar yang patriotik dan bertanggungjawab di masa hadapan. Sebanyak 57 kertas kerja dan 18 poster yang dibentangkan dalam seminar MACFEA Ke-16 yang merangkumi tujuh sub-tema untuk membantu mencapai objektif yang telah digariskan sebagai fokus perbincangan iaitu Penggunaan Lestari, Pendayaupayaan dan Kualiti Hidup, Pengeluaran Lestari, Perlindungan dan Advokasi Pengguna, Kelestarian Pendidikan Pengguna, Globalisasi dan ICT dalam Kepenggunaan dan Pembangunan Lestari.

Jawatan Kuasa Kertas Kerja dan Teknikal Seminar Kebangsaan MACFEA Ke-16 telah menumpukan banyak masa dan tenaga untuk mereka bentuk, menyusun dan memformat semua extended abstract yang terdapat dalam prosiding ini. Diharapkan agar, sumber ilmu pengetahuan yang terdapat dalam prosiding ini dapat digunakan secara produktif untuk manafaat bersama.

Norhasmah Sulaiman Jawatan Kuasa Kertas Kerja dan Teknikal Seminar Kebangsaan MACFEA Ke-16 12

EXTENDED ABSTRACT

13

SUB-TEMA 1: PENGGUNAAN LESTARI

14

HIERARCHY OF CONSUMER DECISIONS IN BUYING ORGANIC VEGETABLES IN BANDUNG WEST JAVA INDONESIA Yosini Deliana Faculty of Agriculture Padjadjaran University Jl. Raya Bandung Sumedang Km 21 Jatinangor Indonesia Email : [email protected] Abstract With increasing education and knowledge of the society, consumers are increasingly aware of the importance of healthy living by consuming organic products. Demand for organic products is increasing, especially after the government of Indonesia launched a program called “Go Green” in 2010 with the aim to preserve the environment. The results suggest that the reasons why consumers choose organic vegetables are clean (57.50%), easily obtained (22.50%), considered less costly for health purposes (20%). This means that consumers buy organic vegetables for the sake of their health (Deliana, 2011). Marketing of organic vegetables do not require a long marketing chain as these products are unique and have a specific market segment, thus the manufacturers not only have a selling concept but also have to make their customers satisfied with their products. The problem is that both producers and sellers do not understand the hopes, wishes, and needs of consumers for organic vegetables. This study analyzes the priority of the factors that consumers consider in deciding to buy organic vegetables in addition to finding out which vegetables are most preferred and expected by consumers. The study was conducted from April to May 2012, using the method of survey involving 35 people with a simple random sampling. The data required are primary and secondary data and analyzed using Analysis of Hierarchy Process by considering the social, economic, physical factors of organic vegetables. The results of the study are expected to be used by marketers, investors, and policy makers in marketing organic vegetables so that consumers feel satisfied and they are also loyal customers. Keywords: Analysis Of Hierarchy Process, Consumers, Organic Vegetable Purchase

1

BACKGROUND

With increasing education and knowledge, people are increasingly aware of the importance of healthy living. This can be seen from the growing number of people who are consuming organic products. Organic vegetables, especially leafy vegetables are most preferred because they are always available in supermarkets, and vegetables have become daily their necessities. There are many kinds of organic vegetables such as kale, water spinach, bokcoy (Chinese cabbage), green beans, carrots but are just produced in small amounts in accordance with the needs of consumers. In general, consumers who buy organic vegetables are those who are aware that the products purchased are safe for consumption (food safety attribute), environmentally friendly product (eco-labeling attribute), and have high nutritional content (nutritional value). As a result, organic vegetable producers are increasing. In 2012 alone there were around 80 producers who were certified and increased to 12.5% from the previous year (Institute for Organic Product Certification such as “Inofice” and “Mutu Agung Lestari”, 2012). Organic land in Indonesia 15

from 2006 – 2010 showed a significant increase and in total covered 19.783 hectares which involved 1031 groups of farmers and Tasikmalaya is recorded to have most groups of farmers. A lot of producers are interested to have organic vegetable businesses as a result of the ‘Go Green’ program launched by the government in 2010, which is expected to be “Organic Food Kitchen in the World” (Directorate Quality and Standardization, Directorate General of Processing and Marketing Agricultural Produces, Department of Agriculture, 2012). Marketing of organic vegetables do not require a long marketing chain as these products are unique and have a specific market segment, thus the producers should not only have a selling concept but also have to make their customers satisfied with their products. The problem is that both producers and sellers do not understand the hopes, wishes, and needs of consumers for organic vegetables. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW An organic farming system is run in a holistic manner starting from the input to marketing by using an eco-friendly concept (IFOAM, 2000; Gosling, 2006; Seyed, 2010). Hadriman (2004) adds that nutritional value of consumer preference is an important factor in purchasing organic vegetables in addition to the desire factor to buy, product freshness, health and taste factors. Assis and Ismal (2011) say that running an organic farming system is very complex because this system involves farmers, agro industry, traders, researchers, and government. Therefore, the most important factor in producing organic products is farmers. Hunt (2007) states that consumers also find it important to help farmers produce environmentally friendly products that suit the needs of consumers. Arnold et.al. (2005); Hawkins and Best (2007) say that consumer decision-making process is influenced by social, cultural, individual and psychological factors starting from need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and post purchase behavior. Cultural factor consists of culture, sub-culture, and social class, and social factor is composed of reference group, family, status and social role. Individual factor ranges from age, occupation, economic condition, lifestyle, personality, and other concepts of self-identity. Psychological factor includes motivation, perception, learning process, confidence and attitude. From those factors, consumers’ tendency to purchase organic vegetables is caused by social and economic factors, health factor, physical factor of organic vegetables, and packaging information. Consumers’ decision to buy organic vegetables is likely influenced by a number of reasons such as usefulness to health, vegetable quality, or simply imitating other people (trend). Motivation is an important factor in their decision to buy organic vegetables. Consumers may also have other buying motives. These motives are divided into priorities which vary from time to time depending on consumers’ needs and information they gain. 3 MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1. Research Method The method used in this study is survey involving a random sample of 35 mothers with varied levels of education and income and they are from Cibeuying Kidul District. The study was conducted from April to May 2012 in Bandung West Java. Data was obtained from mothers in Focus Group Discussion to determine the criteria and sub-criteria that play a role in any 16

consideration of their purchase of the organic vegetables. The focus group discussion showed a lot of criteria which were then divided into four criteria along with other sub-criteria. Later, an AHP based on the problem and questionnaire divided into two sections were made. The first section is related to the level of priority between two factors of the criteria, and the second one deals with finding out the priority between two factors of the sub-criteria. The data from the interview are tabulated, than the data was analyzed. Meanwhile, the data concerning the most preferred organic vegetables and respondents’ expectation are analyzed descriptively. 3.2 Basic Principle of Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) In using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) there are basic principles that must be understood which are as follows (1) decomposition is the process of starts from hierarchical structure or network from the problem investigated. AHP contains main purposes criteria, and sub-criteria. Figure 1. shows the hierarchical structure of consumers’ decision in buying organic vegetables and fixed factors based on the previous literature. After decomposition, continue to (2) compatarive judgement; (3) synthesis of priority and (4) logical consistency.

Purpose

Criteria

Sub Criteria

Purpose

Criteria 1

Criteria 2

Sub Criteria 1

Sub Criteria 2

Criteria 3

Sub Criteria 3

Criteria - n

Sub Criteria - n

Figure 1. Problem Decomposition

4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Respondent Characteristics All of the respondents are mothers and their reason for buying organic vegetables is for their family consumption. The average ages of the respondents are below 30 (17.15%), 31 – 35 (31.43%), 36-40 (22.85%) and over 40 (28.57%). The finding is in accordance with that of Niessen and Hamm (2006) saying that the age group of 35 – 69 consumed most organic vegetables. Therefore, the younger age group was found to be below average. The average education of the respondents is junior high school (14, 28%), senior high school (57.15%) college (28.57%). Several research findings reveal that organic vegetables are consumed mostly by those with higher education with various reasons (Lockie et al., 2002; Magnusson et al., 2003; Niessen and Hamn, 2006). The average income the families earn less than 4 million (14.28%), 4 - 6 million (22.86%) and above 6 million (62.85%). The average children the families have 2 children (51.42%), 3 – 4 children (45.72%), more than 4 (2.86 %). 4.2 Consumers’ Consideration Factors in Deciding to Purchase Organic vegetables 17

The hierarchical structure of the problem that looks at consumers’ decision to purchase organic vegetables is shown in Figure 2. After the hierarchy is arranged, the next step is to make comparisons between elements with respect to the influence of the elements on the level above them. Figure 2 Consumers’ Decision in Purchasing Organic vegetables. Consumer’s Decision in Purchasing Organic Vegetables

Health

Social and Economic

Physical condition

Vegetarian

Chemical

Income Diet

Trade mark

Appearance

Price

Weight

Environment friendly

Lifestyle

Packaging information

Type of vegetable

Organic Label

Figure 2. Consumer’s Decision in Purchasing Organic Vegetables

Next, weighting and priority calculation is according to AHP method, and Eigen value calculation (CR) is done to see the consistency of respondents’ evaluation. If CR is < 0.100, this means that the respondents’ evaluation is consistent, and if CR is > 0.100 this means that the respondents’ evaluation is not consistent (Saaty, 1980,1987). The first level of hierarchy with the aim of consumer decision-making in the purchase of organic vegetables are influenced by four factors; namely, social and economic factor, physical factor of the organic vegetables, health factor, and packaging information. From the AHP calculation in Table 1, consumer decisionmaking in the purchase of vegetables is mostly dominated by health factor (0.4011), followed by social and economic factors (0.3605), information in the packaging (0.1654) and physical condition of the organic vegetables (0.0727) Table 1. Weight within Criteria Criteria Social Economic Health Physical condition

Information CI=0.0897

Social and Economic 1 1/5 2 1/4

Health 5 1 4 3

Physical condition 1/2 1/4 1 1/2

Packaging Information 4 1/3 2 1

Priority Weight 0.3605 0.4011 0.0727 0.1654

2 1 4 3

CR = 0.0097

This can be understood because consumers generally buy organic vegetables for health reason. The second hierarchy, social and economic reasons, indicates that organic vegetables are relatively expensive compared to ordinary vegetables (Kuhn, 2007; Dipeolu, 2009; Reijonen, 18

2011). Packaging attribute is another factor which provides consumers with vitamin and chemical content, weight and supplier. The physical condition of vegetables is not important for consumers since they are aware that in organic farming not all vegetable pests can be eradicated. For the weighted sub-criteria, calculation similar to that of the criteria is made. Therefore, social and economic sub-criteria such as income weight (0.4000), lifestyle (0.4000), and price (0.2000) are found. Income weight and lifestyle are the same because purchasing organic vegetables has become a trend and prestige among middle to high society. Research by Willer and Yussefi-Menzler (2008) reveals that the consumption of organic products has spread worldwide and the demand is increasing. This can be seen from the increasing demand of organic products in supermarkets in Germany (Richter, 2007), and each person spends 5 Euros on organic products annually (Schaack et al., 2008). Also some research shows people’s willingness to pay for organic vegetables ranges from 32% to 50% higher than inorganic vegetables (Bond, Thilmany, 2008). Health sub-criteria are first dominated by dietary reason (0.5000) followed by vegetarian reason (0.2500) and environmentally friendly product (0.2500). Some studies do not directly state that consumers choose organic products for dietary reason even though it related to health. Generally consumers choose organic vegetables for health reason (Michaelidou and Hassan, 2008; Rashi, 2009; Kriwy and Mecking, 2012). Vegetarian and eco-friendly reasons have the same value because consumers think that these two reason are equally important. This is in line with another research saying that a person’s behavior to live a healthy life is based on ecofriendly products and tendency to consume organic products (William and Hammit 2000; Lockie et al, 2004; Michaelidou and Hassan, 2008; Kriwy and Mecking, 2011) Physical condition of organic vegetables as sub-criteria puts most emphasis on chemical content (0.5122), appearance (0.3603) and type of vegetable (0.1274). Chemical content both fertilizer and pesticide are an important factor for consumers to consider when purchasing organic vegetables without paying attention to the appearance of vegetables. Consumers say that organic vegetables are crunchy and taste sweet compared to conventional ones. This is in line with Dipeolu 2009; McEachern and McClean, 2002 although consumers admit that it is difficult to differentiate the taste of organic and conventional vegetables. Types of vegetables become consumers’ last alternative because one organic vegetable can be substituted by other organic vegetables. Information in the packaging as sub-criteria puts most weight on the organic label (0.5392), followed by trademark (0.0297) and information of weight (0.0163). Several studies reveal that organic labels are very important for consumers to convince them that the products they buy are genuinely organic. All organic vegetables have to have a logo ‘Organic Indonesia’ which has green color, but it costs a lot of money to obtain this organic certification; as a result, the vegetables in the market are simply labeled free from pesticide or free from chemical fertilizer or free from both. Trademark is also important for consumers because they are usually familiar with the trademark of the products they have been purchasing. Weight of vegetables is not too important for consumers as they can easily estimate it. Other research reveals that ecolabel is quite effective to motivate consumers in buying organic products which results in increased market share. Eco-label has had positive response from consumers who are aware of 19

environmentally friendly products, particularly in developing countries (Teisl, Roe, Hick, 2002; Grankvist et al, 2004; Loureiro and Lotade; 2005; Rashid; 2009). Woman and younger age groups also respond to this. Table 2. Partial Weight from Each Sub Criteria Criteria Income Lifestyle Price

Weight 0.1442 0.1442 0.0721

Priority 2 2 5

Type of vegetable Physical appearence Chemical content

0.0092

10

0.0262

9

0.0372

7

Criteria Diet Vegetarian Ecofriendly product Trademark

Weight 0.2005 0.1002 0.1002

Priority 1 3 3

0.0492

6

Weight information Organic label

0.0270

8

0.0891

4

Table 2 shows consumer decision-making in purchasing organic vegetables from the highest to the lowest. The highest is dietary factor, followed by lifestyle, income, vegetarian, eco-friendly product, organic label, price, trademark, chemical content, weight information, physical appearance of vegetables and type of vegetable. 4.3 Most preferred Organic Vegetables and Purchase Frequency Types of organic vegetables are limited including cabbage, bokchoy, caisim, lettuce, water spinach, spinach, celery, spring onion, carrot, green bean, and tomato. The existing organic vegetables are just free from pesticide, chemicals, or both. According to IFOAM (2009) organic vegetables are not that simple, but should follow the principles of organic farming which is oriented towards health, ecology, justice and protection. The following are vegetables according to the respondents’ preference – spinach and water spinach (8.59 %), tomato (22.85%) and lettuce (20 %). Other vegetables are carrot (34.27%) and green bean (14.29%). Organic carrot and tomato are most liked because these vegetables are often used for juice, but lettuce is mostly used for salad. Purchase frequency or repurchase decision starts from need recognition, purchase intention, purchase and outcome without involving information search. Average purchase of organic vegetables includes less than 10 times (65.71%), 10 – 20 times (20%) and daily (14.28%). Average money spent on organic vegetables is from Rp. 25.000 to Rp.50.000 for every purchase. Therefore, if purchase is done every week, the money spent on organic vegetables is between Rp.187. 500. 000 and Rp. 375.000.000 per month or around 4.86 % of the family income if a family earns around Rp. 8.000.000. The market segment of organic vegetables is from the middle to upper classes because organic vegetables are more expensive than conventional vegetables. Income has a positive correlation with the purchase of organic products (Niessen and Hamn, 2006); however, some studies reveal the opposite which says that income does not influence the purchase of organic vegetables (Zepeda and deal, 2009; Lockie et. al., 2004). 20

The purchase frequency of organic vegetables is influenced by income level education and intention of purchasing organic vegetables. Research by Dipeola et.al (2009) in Nigeria reveals that consumers are willing to pay more for organic vegetables such as cucumber (23 %) and Ugwu (flueted pumpkin), for health and good quality reasons. Reijonen (2011) added that high price of organic vegetables are caused by additional costs such as risk of failure, upkeep, cost of change, cost of usage, cost of search, and cost monitoring. 4.4 Consumer Expectation of Organic Vegetables Organic vegetables in the market do not satisfy consumers because they still doubt if the vegetables are genuinely organic. The packaging simply reads free from chemical fertilizer, free from inorganic pesticide, or free from both. Also there is no label ‘organic Indonesia’. Therefore, consumers expect that organic vegetables should be given an eco-label with “organic Indonesia logo on the packaging (37.14%), easily obtained (20%), product information in the packaging (27.71%) and affordable price (17.15%). Field research result is in line with that of the previous studies which reveal that farmers involved in organic farming have not followed the rules and regulations (Assis and Ismail, 2011). Bond, Thilmany (2008) reveal that quality and product safety are important in addition to convenience in shopping. 5. CONCLUSION Consumer decision in purchasing organic vegetables is done in stages starting from health factor, socio-economic situation, the information in the packaging, and the physical appearance of organic vegetables. Therefore, producers of organic vegetables need to consider these factors in their marketing strategy. The most preferred organic vegetables are carrot and tomato because these vegetables are widely used for juice, while lettuce is used for salad. What consumers expect most is that there should be an eco-label ‘Organic Indonesia’. The government is also expected to supervise food safety implementation for example by regulating organic logos on products so that consumers are sure that the vegetables they consume are organically cultivated. Consumers are also willing to pay higher which will result in the better welfare of the farmers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank to Erna Rachmawati and Lucyana Trimo for their useful comments on draft of this article. I am also grateful to the two anonymous reviewers. Remaining shortcomings are my own References Arnold Eric, Linda Price and George Zinkhan (2005). Consumers. International Edition. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, Nwe York Assis, K & Mohd Ismail. (2011). Knowledge, attitude and Practices of farmers towards organic farming. International Journal Economics Resourse, 2(3), 1-6 Bond, C.A., Thilmany, D.,& Bond J. K. (2008). Understanding Consumer Interest in Product and Process- Based Attrubute for Fresh Produce. Agribusiness, 24 (2) 231 – 252 21

Daftar pelaku usaha yang disertifikasi. Retrieved 12 April 2012 from The Inoffibe Web site : http://inofice.com/inedx.php

Deliana Yosini (2011). Consumer Preferences on Organic and Anorganic Vegetable in Bandung West Java, Indonesia. Research Journal of Recent Science. International Science Congress Association, 1(ISC-2011) 212 – 218 Dipeolu. A.O., Philip BB., Aiyelaaghe L.O.O., Akinbode., S.O & Adedokun., T.A (2009). Consumer awareness and willingness to pay for organic vegetables in S.W. Nigeria. Asian Journal of Food and Agro-Industry, Special Issue, S57-S65 Grandvist, G.,Dahlstrand, U., & Biel, A. The impact of environmental lebaling on consumer preference : Negative versus positive labels, Journal of Consumer Policy, 27, 213 - 230 Gosling,P., Hodge, A., Goodlass, G. & Bending, G.D (2006). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and organic farming. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 113: 17-35 Hardiman. K. (2004). Consumers’ perceptions, attitudes and willingness to pay towards chemical free vegetable in North Sumatera. Master of Science Universiti Putra Malaysia Hawkins, D., Mothersbaugh, D & Best ( 2007). Consumer Behavior : Building Marketing Strategy, 10thedition. Hunt, A. (2007). Consumer interactions and influences on farmers’market vendors. Agriculture and Food System, 22, 54-66

Renewable

IFOAM. International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement. (2000). IFOAM Basic Standards,International Federation of Organic Movement, Tholey- Theley, Germany Layanan dan sertifikasi. Retrieved 15 April 2012 from Mutu Agung Lestari Web site : http://mutucertification.com/id

Kriwy Peter and Rebecca-Ariane Mecking (2012). Health and environmental conciousness, cost of behaviour and the purchase of organic food. International Journal of Concumer Studies, 36, 30 -37 Kuhn, M., Prskawetz, A., Wrzaczek, S, & Feichtinger, G. (2007). Health, survival and consumption over the life cycle : Individual Versus Social Optimum and the Role of Externalities. Rostock Center for Study of Demographic Change, Rostock Lockie, S.,Lyons, K.,Lawrence, G. & Mummery, K. (2002). Eating “green” : Motivation behind organic food consumption in Auatralia. Sociologia Ruralis, 42, 23-40 Loureiro, M.L., & Lotade, J. (2005). Do fair trade and eco –labels in coffee wake up the consumer conscience ? Ecological Economics, 53 (1), 129 - 138 McEachern, M.G & McClean,P. (2002) Organic purchaching motivation and attitudes : are they athical ? International Joirnal of Consumer Studies, 26,85-92 22

Magnusson, M.K.,Arvola, A.,Koivisto Hursti, U,K.,Aberg, L & Sjoden, P.O. (2003) Choise of organic foods is related to perceived consequences for human health and to environmentally friendly behavior. Appetie, 40, 109-117 Michaelidou Nina and Hassan Louise M (2008) The Role of health conciousness, food safety concern and ethical identity on attitudes and intentions towards organic food. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 32, 163 - 170 Rashid Nik Ramli Nik Abdul. (2009) Awareness of eco- label in Malaysia’s green merkating initiative. International Journal of Business and Management, 4(8), 132-141 Ritchter, T. (2007). Neue Herausforderungen jenseits der Nische. Okologoe & Landbau, 141, 2931 Reijonen Satu. (2011). Environmentally friendly consumer : from determinism to emergence. International Journal Consumer Studies, 35, 403-409 Saaty , T.L. (1980). The Analitytic Hierarchy Process. Mc. Graw Hill. Saaty,T.L. (1987). The Analytic Hierarchy Process- What It is and How it Used. Mathematical Modeling, Vol 9. No 3- 5, 161-176

Journal of

Schaack, D., Engelhardt, H., Kasbohm, A., Bien, B. & Schoch R. (2008). Okomarkt Jahrbuch. Verkaufspreise im Okologischen Landbau 2006/2007, ZMP Zentrale Markt- und Preisberichtstelle GmbH, Bonn Seyed Abolhasan, S., Hosain Shabanali, F., Khalil, K., Yaser, M. & Abbas, A. (2010). Investigating effevtive factors on attitude of paddy growers towards organic farming : A Case Study in Babol Country in Iran. Reserach journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 3 (4): 362-367 Teisl, M.F.,Roe, B., & Hicks, R.L. (2002). Can Eco- labels Tune a Market ? Evidence from Dolphin Safe Labeling. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 43, 339 – 359 Willer, H.S.N & Yussel-Menzler, M. (2008). The world of organic agriculture 2008: summary, In The World of OrganicAgriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2008 (ed.by H.Willer, M.YussefiMenzler & N.Sorensen), 15-22. Earthscan, London Zepeda,L. &.,Huang, C.L.,Lin, B, B.H. & Epperson, J.E. (2008). Modeling fresh organic produce consumption with scanner data : a generalized double hurdle model approach. Agribusiness, 24, 520522

23

ATTITUDINAL AND BEHAVIORAL LOYALTY OF CARDHOLDERS IN HYPERMARKETS, MALAYSIA Mohammed Omer Faridi, Normazalila Abu Bakar, Rapiah Mohd Zaini, , Haslina Hassan & Salmi Md. Zahid Faculty of Management, Multimedia University Cyberjaya, Selangor Malaysia [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract In the hypermarket industry, marketing managers design loyalty program with the goal of customer loyalty. Nevertheless, the question remains, is the customer loyal with the program or is it a biased behavioral purchase? This study investigates the customer loyalty towards the loyalty program card in the hypermarket industry. To conduct the study, questionnaires following 5 point likert scale were distributed to 260 loyalty program cardholders in Putrajaya and Cyberjaya. The analysis of the 207 collected questionnaires indicates total mean score of 3.50 for cardholder loyalty program. This indicates the respondent’s level of loyalty is high toward the hypermarket loyalty card program. This higher level of total mean score was contributed by higher attitudinal and behavioral loyalty mean score of 3.58 and 3.41 respectively. Based on this result, it is worth for marketing managers to focus on building up the strategy for increasing attitudinal loyalty, since customers have rated attitudinal loyalty slightly higher than the behavioral loyalty. By focusing on attitudinal loyalty, it may increase the repeat purchase and loyalty towards the same hypermarket, which then lead to favorable result and sales performance. Keywords: Attitudinal, Loyalty, Behavioral, Hypermarkets and Customer 1

INTRODUCTION

Loyalty programs came into use as early as 1980s particularly in the airline and hospitality industry. The program is a small part of marketing strategies used by business to attract and retain customers, hence increase revenue and growth rate of the business. According to Omar, Musa & Nazri (2011 ), these complex strategies are believed as a key ingredient to increase profit and growth. The programs were also claimed to increase customer retention ratios in profitable segments by basically satisfying customers and by providing value to customers (Bolton, Kannan and Bremlet, 2000). Today, the program has been extended to other industries for example retail industry, services industry and trading industry. The loyalty programs can take in many forms, depending on the industry and its function. Examples of the different types of the programs are membership program, reward and points program, repeat program, store value, prepaid and gift program, and hybrid program. These programs are utilized by the organizations to initiate repurchase, to introduce a sense of loyalty and happiness and to increase involvement by introducing many different schemes to keep the customer involved which increases loyalty (Russel-Brennet, 2007 and Mudie, 2003).

24

Previous studies indicated the two elements of loyalty; attitudinal and behavioral loyalty (Day, 1969; Oliver, 1999 and Dick and Basu, 1994). Attitudinal loyalty refers to customer’s psychological tendency to repurchase from the same store or seller and also recommend the store or seller to others. The measure of loyalty is based on the intention to make repurchase on the next occasions. Behavioral loyalty represents the tangible behavioral response expressed over time and not the intention of purchase. It is based on the attitude of the customer but with actions like repurchase of product or service or actual recommendation of the store, seller and organization other than just the attention to do so as compared to the attitudinal loyalty. Behavioral loyalty is vital as it provides the real advantage to the business as the behavior is to buy repeatedly. Therefore, this paper is conducted to ascertain the level of customer loyalty, specifically examining the attitudinal and behavioral loyalty of cardholders in the Malaysian hypermarket loyalty programs.

2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY There has been extensive research conducted on loyalty programs in the recent years. Among these are research conducted by Omar, Musa & Nazri (2011), Berman (2006), Bolton (2000), Oliver (1997), Zeithaml, Berry and Parasuraman (1996), and Dick and Basu (1994). The following explains previous studies related to this area of research. However, emphasized are given to the development of the framework and questionnaire. Oliver (1997) defines loyalty programs as “a deeply held commitment to re-buy or repatronize a preferred product or service provider consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitive same brand or same brand set purchasing”. Loyalty programs are not similar to the usual sales promotion as the aim for a loyalty program is a long term relationship with the customer Omar, Musa & Nazri (2011 ). Meyer-Waarden ( 2007) claimed that a customer holds two to three loyalty program cards in retail industries. To create a successful loyalty program, a firm needs to focus on how the customer is treated, how the customer is handled instead of plainly economic outcome (Boedeker, 1997 and Smith et al., 2003). Hence, customer loyalty is vital for any long term success for an organization indicating that trust and emotions important decision makers for the customer (Tom, Doanand and Roger, 2008). Long term gains are not unapproachable when a regular stream of income from satisfied customers keeps flowing inwards (Russel- Brennett, 2000). Ehrenberg (1988), Guest (1942), Ehrenberg and Good (2000) have done ample research on the observable action of loyal customers in behavioral loyalty and also supporting the point that behavioral loyalty is the second of the preferred loyalty that any manufacturer or organization wants. Dorsch, (2000) Patterson (1997), Dick and Basu (1994), Balginger and Rubinson (1996) studied attitudinal loyalty as a major type of loyalty. In addition, supporting and claiming that attitudinal loyalty is most preferred by the organizations or manufacturers (Russel-Brennett, 2007). Importantly, it’s claimed by authors that satisfaction is the key to customers to have attitudinal loyalty, which is needed for customer to behavior loyally, also maintaining the positive relationship between the customer and the organization or manufacturer (Russel-Brennett 2007).

25

Dick and Basu (1994) came up with the concept of customer loyalty as a perfect relationship between relative attitude of a customer towards a product or service and the repeat purchase. If the customer doesn’t see much difference between the alternatives, he or she has to choose from the alternatives which mean the relative attitude will be lower and true loyalty will be absent (Jan Moller, 2011). Dick and Basu’s Framework focused on two main types of loyalty; the attitudinal loyalty and behavioral loyalty. Attitudinal loyalty is a type of customer loyalty (Dick and Basu, 1994). Attitudinal loyalty matters more compared to the behavioral loyalty as behavioral loyalty may be purely out of location based shopping, instead of intentional loyalty (Dick and Basu, 1994; Gremler, 1995; Srini S, Rolph A and Kishore P, 2002). Attitudinal loyalty includes positive word of mouth which is as effective as a large marketing campaign (Dick and Basu, 1994; Tom, Doanand and Roger, 2008). Advantage of attitudinal loyalty is that customers are less sensitive to any short term fluctuations or changes. Previous researchers laid out the antecedents of attitudinal loyalty. The two main antecedents are cognitive antecedents and affective antecedents. Cognitive antecedents consist of four sub divisions which are accessibility, confidence, centrality and clarity. Affective antecedents consist of four sub divisions which are emotion, feeling status or mood, primary affect, satisfaction. Both of these antecedents are based on the perception of customer, in the reference of the study the cardholder. Behavioral loyalty is a type of loyalty which is based on the behavioral aspect of repurchasing and providing a positive word of mouth (Dick and Basu, 1994; Gremler, 1995; Srini S, Rolph A and Kishore P, 2002). Rauyruen and Miller (2007) claimed that behavioral loyalty as the customer’s willingness to repurchase and reconnect and maintain the relationship with a product or service provider. Many authors believed that the behavioral loyalty is not a correct measurement for loyalty as a customer may be purchasing based on situational based factors (Dick and Basu, 1994; Jen Muller, 2011). A very common believe is that behavioral loyalty is less preferred by the seller or organizations as it may be only causing the action but the intention is what they prefer (Dick and Basu,1994). Dick and Basu also mentioned that the advantage of behavioral loyalty is the actual behavior which is based on the attitude; however, behavioral loyalty has a disadvantage that it is more sensitive to short term fluctuation. Conative is the only antecedents of behavioral loyalty. It is the aspect of mental process or behavior directed towards the action or change. The antecedent consists of three sub divisions which are switching cost, sunk cost and expectation. Conative antecedents are based on or are related to the post purchase experience of customer, for example in the reference of the study of the cardholder.

3 METHODOLOGY This study examined the attitudinal and behavioral loyalty of the cardholders of loyalty programs card of the hypermarkets in Malaysia. Using the convenience sampling method, a questionnaire has been distributed to a sample size of 260 loyalty program cardholders. Questionnaires were distributed by hands particularly in the Putrajaya and Cyberjaya regions. Out of the distributed

26

questionnaires, acceptable complete questionnaire received and used for analysis were a total of 207 (85.19%). The incomplete or the questionnaire with response error was 36 (14.81%). The variables in the questionnaires are measured in terms of a likert scale. A likert scale is a 5 choice scale which helps the respondent to accurately identify the best answer to a question. Option to answer the question varies from question to question, ranging from lowest to highest degree. Example “not important at all” is 1, “not important” is 2, “Moderately important” is 3, important is 4 and highly important is 5. To ensure the questionnaire design, wording, explanation and the measurement scales were appropriate to the study and fit for further distribution, a pilot test was carried out and 20 responses were collected before the actual survey. The test result indicates overall internal reliability as good when Cronbach’s alpha is larger than 0.70 as it is in this study. Table 1 Alpha Test results Variable names Accessibility Confidence Centrality Clarity Emotion Feeling Status Primary affect Satisfaction Switching Cost Sunk Cost Expectation

Cronbach Alpha .655 .703 .665 .932 .821 .842 .833 .706 .769 .943 .867

No of items 5 7 4 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5

Replicating the framework developed by Dick and Basu (1994), customer loyalty model is further explained by attitudinal loyalty and behavioural loyalty. Dick and Basu (1994) described three antecedents to loyalty which are cognitive antecedents and affective antecedents that come under attitudinal loyalty and conative antecedent which comes under behavioral loyalty.

4 FINDING & ANALYSIS The questionnaires was analyzed and summarized in table, graph and pie chart forms. The first part of the analysis was describing the data, and the second part was presenting the results of attitudinal and behavioral loyalty of program cardholders of the Malaysian hypermarket. 4.1

Descriptive analysis of demographic profile

Table 2 presents the gender of the respondent, which indicates a majority of the respondents were males with a percentage of 54.1 and remaining 45.9 were females. Table 2 Gender of the respondents Male Female Total

Frequency 112 95 207

Percentage 54.1 % 45.9 % 100 %

27

Table 3 presents the age of the respondent, where a majority is between the ages of 15-24 with a percentage of 34.8%, followed by between the ages 25-34 and between the ages 35-44 with respective percentages of 25.1% and 23.7%.

Table 3 Age of the respondents

Between 15-24 years Between 25-34 years Between 35-44 years 45 years and more Total

Frequencies 72 52 49 34 207

Percentage 34.8 % 25.1 % 23.7 % 16.4 % 100

Table 4 presents a 54.6% married respondents a, and the remaining of 45.4% of single respondents. Table 4 Marital status of the respondents

Married Single Total

Frequency

Percentage

113 94 207

54.6 % 45.4 % 100

Table 5 indicates the respondent’s race. The frequencies have accumulated to a total of 143 because the question was optional and was answered by local population. Malay race are the majority of the respondents at a 65%. Table 5 Distribution of respondent race

Malay Indian Chinese Total

Frequencies

Percentage

93 20 30 143

65.0 % 14.0 % 21.0 % 100

Table 6 below indicates the current job status of the respondent. With 45.9%, the status employed is the most common reply, followed by student and Business owner at 43.0% and 11.1% respectively. Table 6 Job Status of respondents Employed Student Business Owner Total

Frequency

Percentage

95 89 23 207

45.9 % 43.0 % 11.1 % 100

28

Table 7 indicates that undergraduate is most common educational level among respondents with a 56.0%, followed by Masters and PhD at 30.9% and 7.2% respectively. Table 7 Distribution of respondent education level Frequency

Percentage

High school/SPM/O-level

12

5.8 %

Undergraduate

116

56.0%

Masters

64

30.9%

PhD

15

7.2%

Total

207

100

Table 8 indicates that the monthly income in the respondents’ answer occurring mostly is between RM 2001 to RM 4000 with 32.9% followed by Income between RM4001 to RM 7000 with 30.0%. Table 8 Distribution of respondents Monthly income Frequency

Percentage

Less than RM2000

50

24.2 %

Between RM 2001 – RM 4000 Between RM 4001- RM 7000 More than RM 7001

68 62 27

32.9% 30.0% 13.0%

Total

207

100

Table 9 indicates loyalty program cards from Tesco Hypermarket are utilized majorly among the respondents of the questionnaire. With 28.5% Tesco is followed by Jusco with 17.9%. Table 9 Hypermarket Loyalty program Card Utilization

Carrefour Giant Cold Storage Tesco Jusco Mydin Others Total

Frequency

Percentage

20 29 31 59 36 8 24 207

9.7% 14.0% 15.0% 28.5% 17.4% 3.9% 11.6% 100

29

Figure 1 Hypermarket Loyalty program Card Utilization Mydin 4%

Others 12%

Carrefour 10% Giant 14%

Jusco 17%

Cold Storage 15%

Tesco 28%

4.2 Descriptive analysis of Customer Loyalty Table 10 presents the result of customer loyalty based on the average or mean score of the data. T he analysis of customer loyalty towards the card loyalty program shows a mean score of 3.50. This indicates the respondent’s level of loyalty is high toward the hypermarket loyalty card. The customer loyalty can be divided into attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Similarly, attitudinal loyalty and behavioral loyalty mean scores were also high, 3,58 and 3.41 respectively. This result indicates respondents’ high level of loyalty towards hypermarket loyalty programs card. Besides that, respondents have rated attitudinal loyalty slightly higher than the behavioral loyalty. Table 10 Mean Score – Customer Loyalty Loyalty 1 Attitudinal Loyalty 2 Behavioral Loyalty Customer Loyalty Mean Score

Mean Score 3.58 3.41 3.50

The attitudinal loyalty mean scores were contributed by two antecedents, namely cognitive and affective antecedents of attitudinal loyalty. Cognitive antecedents refer to customer’s thoughts about the attitude object. It encompasses the content of one’s thoughts regarding beliefs in the statement of fact. Affective antecedents refer to feelings, moods, or emotional responses that can be measured by collecting verbal reports or by physiological responses (Back & Parks, 2003). Result of the study indicates high mean score for both cognitive (3.62) and affective (3.54) antecedents. Table 11 summarizes the mean scores of cognitive antecedent and the four sub-points for discussion under this antecedent. The four sub-points are accessibility, confidence, centrality and clarity. As indicated by table 11, cognitive antecedents have a high level of mean score of 3.62. Accessibility secured the highest mean score of 3.78, followed by clarity and centrality with means score of 3.71, 3.64 and 3.34 respectively. According to the respondents, accessibility is 30

favored over the other three as the drivers of cognitive antecedent for customer loyalty. Accessibility refers to the position of memory in the minds of the consumer. To the organization, this kind of information helps them to find out and emphasize on what actually influences the memory’s attitudinal accessibility. This formulates the basic of the attitude of a customer. Based on the questions used to represent accessibility, high scores were given for accessibility on redemption counter (4.00) and location of the hypermarket. In other words, respondents prefer cardholders loyalty programs that offer good access to redemption counter i.e. online redemption counter, 24 hours counters etc. They also prefer cardholder’s loyalty programs with strategic location hypermarket i.e. less hassle route, nearby housing area etc. Table 11 Mean Score - Cognitive Antecedents Cognitive Antecedents 1 Accessibility 2 Confidence 3 Centrality 4 Clarity Cognitive Antecedents Mean Score

Mean Score 3.78 3.71 3.34 3.64 3.62

Affective antecedents refer to perception of customer. It consists of four sub divisions; emotion, feeling status or mood, primary affect and satisfaction. Results in Table 12 indicate high level of mean score of affective antecedents, which is 3.54. This high score was contributed by scores from primary affect (3.68), satisfaction (3.58), feeling status (3.45) and emotion (3.43). Primary affect shown the highest scores which indicate the important of this value to the cardholders. Primary affect refers to the emotion or attitude a person feels after an interaction with the goods, or service provider. Based on the questions used to represent primary affect, high scores were given on the benefits offer by the hypermarket to the cardholders. In other words, the benefits i.e. point upon sale, discount etc. offered by hypermarket to the cardholders in comparison to the non-cardholders. Table 12 Mean Score – Affective Antecedents

1

Affective Antecedents

Mean Score

Emotion

3.43

2 Feeling Status 3 Primary Affect 4 Satisfaction Affective Antecedents Mean Score

3.45 3.68 3.58 3.54

The behavioural loyalty mean scores were contributed by only one antecedent, namely conative antecedents. The antecedent refers to the aspect of mental process or behavior directed towards the action or change. It has three sub divisions; switching costs, sunk cost and expectation. Basically, the antecedents are based on or related to the post purchase experience of customer. Results in Table13 indicate high level of mean score of conative antecedents, which is 3.41. Expectation secured the highest mean score of 3.67, followed by sunk cost and switching cost with means scores of 3.37 and respectively. Mean scores of conative antecedent expectation 31

and conative antecedents sunk cost are in the high mean score range, whereas conative antecedent switching costmean is considered to be a moderate level mean score. Expectation showed the highest scores which indicate the important of this value to the cardholders. Expectation refers to the cardholders’expectation when utilizing the card in the hypermarket and after the usage as well. Based on the questions used to represent expectation, high scores of 3.88 and 3.86 were given on the “easy in getting redemption” and “keeps the information private” questions.. Table 13 Mean Score – Conative Antecedents Conative Antecedents

Mean Score

1

Switching cost

3.18

2

Sunk Cost

3.37

3

Expectation

3.67

Conative Antecedents Mean Score

3.41

5 CONCLUSIONS This paper reports the results of a study, which examined the attitudinal and behavioral loyalty of customer cardholders programs specifically in the hypermarket industry. Using the convenience sampling method, a questionnaire has been distributed to a sample size of 260 loyalty program cardholders in the Putrajaya and Cyberjaya regions. Out of the distributed questionnaires, acceptable complete questionnaire received and used for analysis were a total of 207 (85.19%). The demographic profiles of the respondents show 54.1% of the respondents are males. About 67% of the respondents are Muslim. Respondents are 54.6% locals Malaysian and majority of the Malay race. Most of the respondents are married and are less than 35 years old. About 56% of the respondents are undergraduate degree holders. 46% respondents are employed respondents in the private sector, and approximately 33% of the respondent earning an income of less than RM 4001. 28.5% of the respondents are cardholders of the loyalty program from Tesco hypermarket. The analysis of customer loyalty towards the loyalty program shows a mean score of 3.50. This indicates the respondent’s level of loyalty is high toward the hypermarket loyalty card programs. Further, the customer loyalty can be divided into attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Result of attitudinal loyalty towards hypermarket loyalty program card revealed the mean score of 3.58. The analysis of the customer average mean score of cognitive antecedents of 3.62 indicates the respondent’s level of loyalty is high toward the hypermarket loyalty card. Similarly, the mean score of 3.54 for the level of affective antecedents can also be considered high for towards the customer loyalty program card. The analysis of the customer average means score of behavioral loyalty (conative antecedents) is 3.41 which indicates the respondent’s level of loyalty is also high toward the hypermarket loyalty card. Comparing the two types of loyalty, respondents have rated attitudinal loyalty slightly higher than the behavioral loyalty. 32

Based on this result, we can conclude it is worth for marketing managers to focus on building up the attitudinal loyalty, since customers have rated attitudinal loyalty slightly higher than the behavioral loyalty. The finding of the study indicates that focusing on attitudinal loyalty can increase the repeat purchase which is favorable to the organization. An increase in attitudinal loyalty will help the customer to have a stronger will power to say no to other brands of hypermarket loyalty programs. Building the reputation of the card with never ending membership, no expiry date for redemption period and interesting experience for cardholders will help the customer to build stronger mental image of the card. The findings and the conclusion as discussed in the previous section are subject to a number of limitations. First, it must be emphasized that the results of this study should not be generalized to other industries, since they are excluded from the population. Secondly, due to time and monetary constraints, the sample size was only 260 and further reduced to approximately 200. Distribution of the questionnaire was only in the region of Cyberjaya and Putrajaya. Hence, future study should increase the number of respondents and cover more regions. A study can also be extended by comparing the loyalty program card between hypermarkets or with other industries. References Ahluwalia, R., Burnkrant, R.E., and Unnava, H.R. (2000). Consumer response to negative publicity: the moderating role of commitment. Journal of Marketing Research, 37(2), 203-14. Alam, I., and Perry, C. (2002). A customer-oriented new service development process. Journal of Services Marketing, 16(6), 515-34. Anchor, J. R., and Kourilov, T. (2009). Consumer perceptions of own brands: international differences. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 26(6), 437-449. Anderson, E. W., and Sullivan, M. W. (1993). The antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for firms. Marketing Science, 12(2), 125-43. Anderson, E. W., Fornell, C., and Lehmann, D. R. (1994). Customer satisfaction, market share and profitability: findings from Sweden. Journal of Marketing, 58(3), 53-66. Andotra, N., and Pooja (2007). Customer value based management framework – an analysis of value, satisfaction, loyalty and switching behavior. The Journal of Human Resources and Adult Learning, 3(1), 30-40. Andreassen, W. T. (1998). Customer loyalty and complex services. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 9(1), 7-23. Aydin, S., and Ozer, G. (2005). The analysis of antecedents of customer loyalty in the Turkish mobile telecommunication market. European Journal of Marketing, 39(7/8), 910-925. Back , K and Parks, S.C (2003), “A Brand Loyalty Model Involving Cognitive, Affective, and Conative Brand Loyalty and Customer Satisfaction, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 2003 27: 419 Berman, B. (2006). Developing an effective customer loyalty program. California Management Review, 49(1). 33

Bloemer, J., and Dekker, D. (2003). Effects of personal values on customer satisfaction: an empirical test of the Value Percept Disparity Model and the Value Disconfirmation Model. Bloemer, J., Ruyter , K. D., and Wetzels, M. (1998). On the relationship between perceived service quality, service loyalty and switching costs. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 9(5), 436-453. Bolton, R. N., Kannan, R. K., and Bramlett, M. D. (2000). Implications of loyalty program membership and service experiences for customer retention and value. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(1), 95-108. 112 Dick, A., and Basu, K. (1994). Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework. Journal of Marketing Science, 22(2), 99-113. Dowling, G. R., and Uncles, M. (1997). Do customer loyalty programs really work? Sloan Management Review, 38(4), 71-82. Fuller, J., and Matzler, K. (2008). Customer delights and market segmentation: an application of the three-factor theory of customer satisfaction on life style groups. Tourism Management, Vol. 29, 11626. Fullerton, G. (2003). When does commitment lead to loyalty? Journal of Service Research, 5(4), 333-44. Gull, S., and Tariq, R. (2011). Impact of loyalty programs in grocery retailing on loyalty of local customers in Lahore, Pakistan: an empirical study of famous grocery retailers in local marketers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(3), 1007-1019. Hallberg, G. (2004). Is your loyalty programme really building loyalty? Why increasing emotional attachment, not just repeat buying, is key to maximising programme success. Journal of Targeting, Measurement & Analysis for Marketing, 12(3), 231-41. Hallowell, R. (1996). The relationships of customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and profitability: an empirical study. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 7(4), 27-42. Jensen, M. J. (2011). Consumer loyalty on the grocery product market; an empirical application of Dick and Basu‟s framework. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 28(5), 333-343. Keiningham, T. L. (2007). The value of different customer satisfaction and loyalty metrics in predicting customer retention, recommendation and share-of-wallet. Managing Service Quality, 17(4), 361-384. 113 Keiningham, T. L. (2008). Linking customer loyalty to growth. MIT Sloan Management Review, 49(4), 50-57. Khalidah, A. N. (2004). Service Quality Dimensions: A study on various sizes of grocery retailers – a conceptual paper. 633-642. Morris, T. (2004). TESCO: a case study in supermarket excellence. Coriolis Research Ltd. Oliver, R. L. (1999). Whence customer loyalty? Journal of Marketing, 63, 33-44. 34

Oliver, R. L., Rust, R.T., and Varki, S. (1997). Customer delight: foundations, findings, and managerial insight. Journal of Retailing, 73(3), 311-36. Omar, N. A., Musa, R., & Nazri, M. A. (2011), Understanding the relationships of program satisfaction, program loyalty and store loyalty among cardholders of loyalty programs, Asian Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, 21–41, January 2011 Palmer, A., McMahon-Beattie, U., and Beggs, R. (2000). Influences on loyalty programme effectiveness: a conceptual framework and case study investigation. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 8(1), 47-66. Pezeshki, V., Mousavi, A., and Rakowski, R. T. (2005). Profitability through customer relationship management. International Journal of the Computer, the Internet and Management, 13(2), 21.1-21.4. Reichheld, F. F. (1993). Loyalty-based management. Harvard Business Review, 71(2), 64-73. Reichheld, F. F., Markey, R. G., and Hopton, C. (2000). The loyalty effect – the relationship between loyalty and profits. European Business Journal, 134-139. Rosenbaum, M. S., Ostrom, A. L., and Kuntze, R. (2005). Loyalty programs and a sense of community. Journal of Services Marketing, 19(4), 222-233. Relationship quality as a predictor of B2B customer loyalty. Journal of Business Research, 60, 21.31. Online: http://www.altfeldinc.com/pdfs/Customer%20Loyalty.pdf accessed at September, 2011 http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol9/issue4/lawson_body.html accessed at September, 2011 http://www.teo-education.com/teophotos/albums/userpics/What%20customers%20really%20want.pdf accessed on September, 2011. http://www.peppersandrogersgroup.com/blog/2009/10/customer-loyalty-is-it-an-atti.html accessed, October, 2011. http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/publications/data/2007-11-01Jaiswal.pdf accessed, October, 2011 http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/marketing_introduction.html accessed, October 2011. http://www.customerloyalty.org/ accessed, January 2012. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-customer-loyalty.htm accessed, January 2012. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty_business_model accessed January 2012 http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Customer-Loyalty-Programme/224559?read_essay accessed, January, 2012.

35

WHAT TRIGGERS PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR? AN ANALYSIS ON PERCEIVED VALUES AND PERSONAL TRAITS Jamaliah Mhd. Khalili, Shahariah Asmuni & Zahariah Mohd. Zain Center of Economic, Finance, Insurance & Islamic Banking Studies, Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA [email protected] Abstract This study attempts to examine the relationship between pro-environmental behavior with perceived values and personal traits. Perceived values refer to environmental perception and and religious affiliation. A total of 300 respondents consisting of college students residing around Shah Alam area were interviewed for the study. Pro-environmental behavior, environmental perception and religious affiliation are measured using likert-scale responses consisting of 20, 15 and 4 items, respectively. Factor analysis were performed and reliability test produces Cronbach’s alpha of more than 0.6. Regression analysis performed using stepwise method produces adjusted R-squared values ranging from 0.34 to 0.39 with estimates showing significant relationships between religious affiliation and environmental perception with pro-environmental behavior. However, no significant relationship can be concluded between personal traits (gender, ethnicity and region) and pro-environmental behavior based on results of study. Results of study support the notion that environmental values and religious faith are important foundations in moulding pro-environmental behavior among the young generation. Keywords : Pro-Environmental Behavior, Perceived Values, Personal Traits, Conservation

1 INTRODUCTION Environmental problems have been an important issue in the past several decades. Global warming and climate change due to the greenhouse effect, defloration and species extinction, exhaustion of fisheries and agricultural land and pollution of air and water supplies are some of the main dangers to earth’s environment (Oskamp, 2000) These environmental problems may be viewed as caused by maladaptive human behaviour (Maloney & Ward, 1973) which refer to the inability of individuals to adjust to certain situations. For pro-environmental behaviour to take place, individuals have to adjust and be wary of the environmental problems that exist. This requires some degree of environmental concern which has its root in the level of environmental perception, attitude and knowledge person has. It is assumed that environmental concern is strongly related to environmental behavior (Bamberg, 2003). 1.1

Environmental Perception, Attitude and Knowledge

Environmental perception and attitude can be related to environmental concern. Environmental concern -- the feeling of worry associated with certain beliefs about environmental problems (Schultz et al., 2004) – can be a vital stimulant for change in behavior. Thus, the study of 36

people’s level of concern is important. The focus of environmental concern studies has ranged from specific attitudes toward pro-environmental behaviours to broader and more encompassing value orientations (Fransson & Gärling, 1999). Earlier research into environmental behavior has focused on the assumption that knowledge is linked to attitudes and attitudes to behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1973; Cottrell, 1993; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1974; Maloney, Ward & Braucht, 1975). This thinking suggests that if people become more “knowledgeable about the environment and its associated issues ... they will, in turn, become more aware of the environment and its problems and, thus, be more motivated to act toward the environment in more responsible ways” (Hungerford & Volk, 1990, p. 9). More recent studies have shown relationships between attitude and behavioral well as the general to specific issue of behaviour relationships (Corral-Verdugo & Armendariz, 2000; Scott & Willits, 1994). Tudor et al. (2007) examined if there are different pro-environmental behaviour (sustainable waste management) between employee who is at work or who is at home. The study showed that there is a strong link in the behaviour of individuals between the two settings, with employees who practised recycling activities at home being more likely to practise similar behaviour at work. There was also some similarity in the level of sustainability of the behaviour between the two settings. The behaviour were strongly influenced by the underlying attitudes and beliefs of the staff towards the environment. The same situation can also be applied to a study in Malaysia analyzing sustainable consumption practices of college students. Students who came from rural background was found to exhibit more conservation behaviour (such as energy conversion, water conversion and waste recycling behaviour) than those who came from an urban background (Asmuni et al., 2012) This can be attributed to their attitude and knowledge toward pro-environmental behaviour which have been exposed from home and regular practice at other places outside home. Killbourne et al. (2001) examined the difference between environmental attitude of university students in England, Denmark, and the United States. Results indicate that there is significant relationship between attitudes toward technology, politics and economics – the elements of the so-called dominant social paradigm (DSP) -- and environmental attitudes. Specifically, as beliefs in the elements of the DSP increase, the perception of the existence of environmental problems decreases. In figure 1, Killbourne et al. (2001) suggests technological optimism, the notion that all problems regarding environmental can be solved by the application of technology (Postman, 1993; Winner, 1986). Economic attitude refer to the necessity of economic growth (Heilbroner, 1985) and progress which depicts increase in individual material-well-being (Bury, 1932), both of which have environmental consequences. Political attitude is where individuals assume that environmental problems can be resolved by passing a new law or enforcing a new one 37

Figure 1: An example of a model showing factors stimulating environmental attitudes, and perceived change

Source: Kilbourne et al. (2001)

In the survey conducted, it is demonstrated that both economic and political attitudes in the DSP affected environmental attitudes directly. As belief in these factors increases, respondents’ perception of the significance of general and specific environmental problems decreases (Killbourne et al. 2001). 1.2

Religious belief

Religion and culture are seen as connected to each other. Religious values and beliefs can be understood as ways of making sense of the world (Eliade, 1958) and finding pathways through the world (Pargament, 1997). Groups, institutions, and cultures as a whole may represent their ideals through religious beliefs and practices (Durkheim, 1915). Given this link between religion, culture and human behavior, religious values can arguably play an important role in enhancing understanding of human behavior. Studies suggest that beliefs about nature (as measured by values of protecting the environment, regarding the world as full of beauty, and seeking unity with nature) influence behavior towards the environment (Schultz & Zelezny, 1998). Also, motivational factors (for instance self-transcendence and conservation) have implications for values and behavior that are held in high esteem by a culture (Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995). The relationship of religion and environmental concern is very much arguable as literature reported is not conclusive (Dietz et al., 1998). Weak positive relationship between environmentalism and religious has been reported (Guth et al., 1995; Hand & Van Liere, 1984), while link is found for specific religious beliefs (Woodrum & Hoban, 1994; Guth et al., 1995). 38

1.3

Socio-Economy and Demography

Relevant literature indicates that socio-demographic variables are consistently used as predictors of behavior. Income, education, ethnicity and gender are popular socio-economic and demographic predictors utilized in the analysis of environmental behaviour. In Scott & Willits (1991), income was found to be positively related to pro-environmental behavior of Pennsylvania residents, showing that the more well-to-do were financially more inclined to participate in such behaviour. This is supported by a study in Dhaka where higher income residents (incomes exceeding TK15,000) are more likely to recycle their trashes compared with their lower income counterparts (Afroz et al., 2010). Van Liere & Dunlap (1980) suggest that “concern for environmental quality is something of a luxury which can be indulged only after more basic material needs (adequate food, shelter, and economic security) are met” (p. 183). The rationale for such behaviour is that higher financial status brings with it the ability to focus on aesthetic matters. Different races and cultures have been found to exhibit different levels of environmental concern and behaviour. Newell & Green (1997) examined environmental concern by interacting racial identity with income and education. While poor African-Americans were less environmentally concerned than their poor white counterparts, as income and education increased, the differences between these two groups disappeared. In another study however, it is found that poor and African-American respondents were actually more likely to be proenvironment (Uyeki & Holland, 2000). Schultz (2002) suggests that culture influences the type of environmental attitudes that people are likely to develop. For example, Johnson, Bowker & Cordell (2004) found that environmental beliefs and behaviours vary by ethnicity based on a study in the U.S. They found that the environmental behaviour (environmental reading, recycling, environmental group joining, and nature participation), of ethnic minorities (Blacks, U.S.-born Latinos, foreign-born Latinos, and Asians) differ significantly from Whites’ behaviour. Blacks and foreign-born Latinos were least similar to Whites, whereas Asians were more similar to Whites in their behavior. Much work has been done to link concern for the environment to a variety of other demographics besides race and income. The correlations between gender, age and education with concern for the environment were somewhat inconclusive. Where differences existed, males were less concerned about environmental problems than were females (Mohai & Bryant, 1998), though other research found little supporting evidence (Jones & Dunlap 1992; Van Liere & Dunlap 1980; Uyeki & Holland, 2000). In general, younger age groups are more pro-environment (Jones & Dunlap 1992; Van Liere, Mohai & Bryant 1998). The correlation between level of education and concern for the environment is decidedly mixed although most literature supports the relationship. High education has been demonstrated to correlate with pro-environment attitudes (Kanagy, Humphrey & Firebaugh, 1994; Jones & 39

Dunlap, 1992; Newell & Green 1997). Ostman & Parker (1987) found significant relationships between education and environmental awareness, environmental knowledge, and subsequent behaviours. In Scott & Willits (1991), people with more years of formal schooling have a higher incidence of pro-environmental behaviour than did less educated and lower income respondents. Hines (1985) found the relationship between incomes and pro-environmental to be slightly weaker than between education and pro-environmental. Meanwhile, Guth et al. (1995) found little correlation between education and environmental concern. In support of this, Thompson & Gasteiger (1985) found in their study of attitudinal change between Cornell students in 1971 versus 1981 that students from higher income families were more resistant to give up energy- or resource related items than were students from lower income families. In Zuroni et al. (2010) knowledge level, attitude and habit of Malaysian housewives toward recycle of waste products are found to be moderate and do not have any significant impact on recycle behaviour unless the knowledge are being exposed to them at frequent rate by the government agencies involved. Honnold (1984) studied the impact of age in determining level of concern for teh environment. Using cohort groups, decreased levels of environmental concern is evident in almost all age groups. In a study on households in Dhaka (Afroz et al., 2010), individuals in the range of 25-35 years were the ones who show positive recycling behaviour compared with other age range. 1.4

Objectives of study

This paper aims to seek for any significant relationship between pro-environmental behavior of a person with the level of environmental values or attitudes held as well as some personal traits of the person. Specifically, the study will attempt to answer the following research questions: RQ1: RQ2: RQ3:

Are there any significant relationships between demographic variables (gender, ethnicity and region) and pro-environmental behavior? Is there any significant relationship between perceived values on environment and proenvironmental behavior? Is there any significant relationship between religious values (affiliation) and proenvironmental behavior?

2 METHODOLOGY 2.1

Study Instrument

This study is based on a survey conducted during September of 2010 on a group of college students studying in a university in Shah Alam, the capital city of Selangor state in Malaysia. 300 respondents from several faculties in the university were chosen at random and were asked to fill in the questionnaire, which were handled by trained enumerators. A pre-test survey was conducted on 30 other respondents prior to the actual survey session in order to evaluate the validity of the questionnaire.

40

The questionnaire for this study consists of 4 sections. Section A looks at behavior of the students in their daily life that may relate to conservation practices. From 27-item statements on conservation behavior used in the pilot study, 20 were used for the final survey. Statements relate to respondents’ behavior and decisions in consuming goods and services, such as in dealing with waste products and in incorporating conservation practices in making purchases and their daily routines. Section B consists of 20 item statements on environmental perception and knowledge. For the final survey, 15 items were used. Statements relate to respondents’ knowledge on issues related to the environment and their perception towards environmental pactices such as noplastic-day and reduce-and-recycle programs. Section C consists of 4 item statements relating to religious activities performed such as going to the mosque or church and discussing about moral and spiritual issues. Most of statements in sections A, B and C are posed as positive statements and they take responses in the form of seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = “strongly disagree” to 7 = ”strongly agree”. The last section of the questionnaire seeks to find out socio-economic and demographic background of respondents. Personal information requested includes age, gender, ethnicity and study information such as faculty and program name the respondent is in and how long have the students been enrolled in the program. This section includes family background such as urbanrural status and state of origin of respondent. Also asked are gross income of parents and occupation and highest education level of each parent. 2.2

Economic Model

In attempting to seek for significance of relationship between pro-environmental behavior and values held by and personal traits of respondents, the study takes the form of multiple linear regression tests using step-wise regression method. The economic model for the study is as follows: ENVBHV = f (ENVATT, RELIGV, DEMOG)

[1]

Where: ENVBHV ENVATT RELIGV DEMOG

= Environmental behavior = Environmental attitude = Religious values or affiliation = A vector of socio-economic and demographic variables

Prior to the estimation, ENVBHVR, ENVATT and RELIGV variables were first analyzed using factor analysis to determine that only relevant statements were used for further analysis. For the regression analysis, responses that represent these variables are converted into mean values. Personal traits that are used for regression analysis include gender, ethnicity and region. Gender, ethnicity and region are represented by dummy variables for the male respondents, respondents who are Malays and those living in urban areas, respectively.

41

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1

Demographic Profile

From the 300 survey questionnaires collected for study, only 291 are utilized after those with missing values were dropped from further analysis. From the total of 291 respondents, 29.2 percent are male and the rest female. The students are of the age between 18 to 19 years old. Survey is conducted in the urban university setting of Shah Alam area. However, in terms of student’s strata background, 61 percent of them come from urban areas in Malaysia while the rest are from rural areas. In terms of parents’ education, fifty-six percent of parents have school education at most (meaning either attend primary or secondary education) while the remaining has tertiary education (meaning either have certificate, diploma or degree at any level). 3.2.

Reliability Test

Table 1 shows Cronbach’s alpha of all likert-scale-item variables in the study. The values are above 0.6, showing an acceptable level of internal consistency. After performing factor analysis, several items were deleted leaving a total of 20 items representing pro-environmental behavior (ENVBHV), 15 items representing environmental perception (ENVATT) and 4 items representing religious affiliation (RELIGV). Table 1: Reliability Analysis Factor Pro-environmental behaviour (ENVBHV) Environmental perception (ENVATT) Religious affiliation (RELIGV)

3.3

Cronbach’s alpha 0.705 0.698 0.638

Items 20 15 4

Regression Analysis

Multiple linear regression using step-wise regression method was performed to determine which of the independent variables could explain ENVBHV. The advantage of step-wise regression is that it takes the significant variable first and keeps the other variables in reserve. Using this method, the R2 values will be given stepwise so that one can observe the contribution of each independent variable to the model. In the first case, ENVATT, which is the first independent variable that enters the model, produces an R2 of 33.7 percent as shown in Table 2. In the second case, RELIGV enters the model, resulting in R2 value of 37.9%, an improvement of 4.2 percent to the R2 due to this variable. In the third case, GENDER enters the model and produces R2 of 39.7 percent, showing R2 improvement of only 1.3 percent. The dominant factors affecting ENVBHV are given in Table 2. In the first case, “t” value is 12.123 and significant. This “t” value is based on having ENVBHV as the dependent variable and ENVATT as the independent variable. In the second case, when RELIGV is added to the model, the resulting “t” value comes down to 10.575 and RELIGV shows a “t” value of 4.336. 42

The decrease in “t” value is due to the addition of RELIGV as an ENVBHV determining factor and the joint contribution of ENVATT and RELIGV factors. Similarly, the “t” value decrease in the third case where the “t” value for ENVATT increased to 10.860 and “t” value for RELIGV decrease to 3.796 and for GENDER, the “t” value is -0.048 which indicates that GENDER is not a significant factor in determining ENVBHV. In the last two cases, when ETNIC and REGION are added into the model, both “t” values are low and the values for R2 and adjusted R2 decrease. This suggests that the impact of the two variables is not significant. ENVATT and RELIGV coefficients show significant positive relationships of these variables with ENVBHV in all models (table 2). The relationship for the male gender is inconclusive and insignificant. ETHNIC shows consistent negative coefficients in models D and E, reflecting the tendency of individuals of the Malay race not to exhibit pro-environmental behavior. However ETHNIC is significant in only one of the two models, making the conclusion arguable. Overall result suggests that factors that significantly influence ENVBHV are ENVATT and RELIGV. Table 2 : Regression Results

Constant

ENVATT

A 2.165 (0.211) 10.270

B 1.691 (0.235) 7.209

C 1.697 (0.263) 6.464

D 2.030 (0.293) 6.931

E 2.043 (0.318) 6.426

0.514*** (0.042) 12.123

0.470*** (0.044) 10.575

0.488*** (0.045) 10.860

0.467*** (0.048) 9.826

0.448*** (0.050) 8.890

0.144*** (0.033) 4.336

0.127*** (0.034) 3.796

0.125*** (0.035) 3.575

0.128*** (0.036) 3.553

-0.003 (0.066) -0.048

0.003 (0.068) 0.045 -0.249** (0.110) -2.252

0.397 0.390 57.553 0.000

0.394 0.384 39.786 0.000

-0.026 (0.071) -0.365 -0.145 (0.125) -1.162 0.018 (0.069) 0.266 0.356 0.342 25.22 0.000

RELIGV

GENDER (male=1; female=0) ETNIC (malay=1; others=0) REGION (urban=1; rural=0) R-squared Adjusted R-squared F-statistic Prob (F-statistic) No. of Observations

0.337 0.335 146.965 0.000 291

0.384 0.379 84.457 0.000

Standard errors are reported in parentheses. t-values are in italics *, **, *** indicate significance at the 90%, 95%, and 99% level, respectively.

43

4

CONCLUSION

Result of study indicates that environmental perception depicts the strongest relationship with pro-environmental behavior and religious affiliation. However, pro-environmental behavior is not significantly related to gender. Results of the study support the notion that environmental values and religious faith are important factors in moulding pro-environmental behavior among the young generation. References Afroz R., Hanaki K., Rabaah T., Kartina A., (2010), A survey of recycling behaviour in households in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Waste Management & Research, 28(6): 552-560. Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1973). Attitudinal and normative variables as predictors of specific behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27: 41-57. Asmuni, S, Khalili, J. M & Zain, Z. M, (2012). Sustainable Consumption Practices of Students in an Urban Setting: A case in Selangor, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 36: 716-722. Bamberg, S. (2003). How does environmental concern influence specific environmentally related behaviours? A new answer to an old question. Journal of Environmental Psychology. 23: 21-32. Bury, J. B. (1932). The idea of progress. New York: Macmillan. Corral-Verdugo, V., & Armendariz, L. I. (2000). The new environmental paradigm in a Mexican community. Journal of Environmental Education, 31(3): 25-31. Cottrell, S. P. (1993). Predictors of responsible environmental behavior among boaters on the Chesapeake Bay: An exploratory analysis. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, (12A) Durkheim, E. (1915). The elementary forms of the religious life. New York: Free Press. Eliade, M. (1958). Patterns in comparative religion. New York: Sheed & Ward. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes towards objects as predictors of single and multiple behavioral criteria. Psychological Review, 81: 59-74 Fransson N. & Garling T. 1999. Environmental concern: conceptual definitions, measurement methods, and research findings Journal of Environmental Psychology, 19(4): 369382 Gigliotti, L. M. (1992). Environmental attitudes: 20 years of change? Journal of Environmental Education. 24: 15-26. Guth, J., Green, J., Kellstedt, L., & Smidt, C., (1995) “Faith and the Environment: Religious Beliefs and Attitudes on Environmental Policy,” American Journal of Political Science, 39 (2): 364-82. Hand, C.M. & Van Liere, K. D. (1984). Religion, mastery over nature and environmental concern. Social Forces. 63: 555-570. Hines, J. (1985). An analysis and synthesis of research on responsible environmental Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(3), 655A.

behaviour.

44

Honnold, J. A. (1984). Age and environmental concern some specification of effects.Journal Environmental Education, 16(1), 4-9.

of

Hungerford H. R. & Volk, T. (1990). Changing learner behavior through environmental education. Journal of Environmental Education. 21(3): 8-21. Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M. & Cordell, H. K. (2004). Ethnic variation in environmental belief and behavior: An examination in a social psychological context. Environment and Behavior, 36: 157-186. Jones, R. & Dunlap, R. 1992. “The Social Bases of Environmental Concern: Have They Changed Over Time?” Rural Sociology 5 (1): 28-47. Kanagy, C. L., Humphrey, C. R. & Firebaugh, G. (1994). Surging Environmentalism: Public Opinion or Changing Publics?” Social Science Quarterly 75 (4): 804-19.

Changing

Killbourne W.E., Beckmann S.C., Lewis A., Dam Y.V. (2001) A Multinational Examination of the Role of the Dominant Social Paradigm in Environmental Attitudes of University Students, Environment and Behavior, 33: 209. Maloney, M. P., & Ward, M. P. (1973). Ecology: let’s hear from the people. An objective scale for the measurement of ecological attitudes and knowledge. American Psychologist, 28, 583–586. Maloney, M. P., Ward, M. P. & Braucht, G. N. (1975). A revised scale for the measurement ecological attitudes and knowledge. American Psychologist, 30: 787-790. Mohai, P. & Bryant, B. (1998). Is there a race effect on concern for environmental quality? The Public Opinion Quarterly, 62(4): 475-505. Newell, S. J., and Green, C. L. (1997) Racial Differences in Consumer Environmental Concern. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 31 (1): 53-69. Oskamp. S. (2000). Psychological contributions to achieving ecologically sutainable future for humanity. Journal of Social Issues. 56(3). Ostman, R. E., & Parker, J. L. (1987). Impact of education, age, newspapers and television on environmental knowledge, concerns and behaviors. Journal of Environmental Education, 19(1): 3-9. Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, and York: Guilford.

practice.

Postman, N. (1993).Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Vintage

New

Books.

Schultz, P. W. (2002). Environmental attitudes and behaviors across cultures.In W. J. Lonner, D. L. Dinnel, S. A. Hayes,&D.N.Sattler (Eds.), Online readings in psychology and culture (Unit 8, Chapter 4). Retrieved May 17, 2005, from http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/Schultz.htm Schultz, P.W. & Zelezny, L. C. (1998). Values and pro-environmental behavior: A five-country survey. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29(4): 540-558. Schultz, P.W., Shriver, C., Tabanico, J. J., &Khazian, A. M. (2004). Implicit connections with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24: 31-42. 45

Schwartz, S. H. & Sagiv, L. (1995). Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26(1), 92-116. Scott, D., & Willits, F. K. (1991). Environmental concern of Pennsylvania citizens: Data from a statewide survey (Technical Report, A.E. and R.S. 219). University Park: Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology. Scott, D., & Willits, F. K. (1994).Environmental attitudes and behavior. Environment and Behavior, 26: 239-260. Thompson, J. C., & Gasteiger, E. L. (1985). Environmental attitude survey of university students: 1971 vs. 1981. Journal of Environmental Education, 17(1): 13-22. Tudor, T. L., Barr, S. & Gilg, A. (2007). A Tale of Two Locational Settings: Is there a link between proenvironmental behaviour at work and at home? Local Environment, 12(4): 409-421 Uyeki, E. & Holland, L. 2000. Diffusion of Pro-Environment Attitudes? American Scientist 43 (4): 646-62.

Behavioral

Van Liere, K., & Dunlap, R. (1980). “The Social Bases of Environmental Concern: A Hypotheses, Explanations, and Empirical Evidence. Public Opinion Quarterly 44

Review (2):181-97.

Winner, L. (1986). The whale and the reactor: A search for limits in an age of high Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

technology.

Woodrum, E. & Hoban, T. (1994). Theology and religiosity effects on environmentalism. of Religious Research. 35 (3): 193-206.

of

Review

Zuroni M. J, Bukryman S., Laily P. (2010), “Tahap Pengetahuan, Sikap dan Amalan Suri Rumah Terhadap Kitar Semula Bahan Buangan Di Malaysia”, Malaysian Journal of Consumer and Family Economics, 13: 125-140.

46

SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY: STATED PREFERENCE AND DEMAND FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT Nor Rashidah Zainal1 Afiza Azura Mohamad Arshad1 and Sabariah Mohamad2 1 Faculty of Business Management and Institute of Business Excellence Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected]; [email protected] 2 Malaysia Institute of Transport and Faculty of Business Management Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia [email protected] Abstract One of the key challenges of sustainable mobility is to encourage people to use public transportation either for work or leisure purposes. Public transport patronage in all cities in Malaysia is still below full capacity and much lower than the 50 percent modal share set to be achieved by the year 2020. This paper discusses the findings from two separate surveys, a user survey and a stated preference survey, conducted on the users and non-users of public transport respectively in the city centre of Johor Bahru. The survey involved 501 commuters who were selected using the area/cluster sampling method. Issues faced by the public transport users are highlighted and the travel mode choice behavior of the private transport users was modeled. Findings from the user survey identified the critical factors that might influence people to shift towards using public transport, which are safety, accessibility, fare, information dissemination (communication), reliability and customer service. The stated preference survey revealed that reduction in public transport fare and improvement in service level alone are not sufficient to raise public transport ridership. There must also be the right amount of disincentives in place to discourage people from using private cars in moving around. Keywords: Sustainable Mobility, Public Transport, Stated Preference, Travel Mode, Choice Behaviour.

1 INTRODUCTION As nations become more affluent, usage of public transport loses out to the private cars. Cities and urban areas are facing greater challenge of rapid motorization and modernization. In Malaysia, the provision of easy ownership of private vehicles subsequently led to a higher proportion of the urban society switching to private vehicles instead. In turn, public transport utilization tend to decline drastically as evidenced by the modal share of public transport which dropped from 19.7% in 1985 to 16% in 2003 (BinaFikir, 2005). While private vehicles may provide the flexibility in mobility and travelling, it may not be sustainable in the long run due to its heavy consumption on petroleum as fuel currently, and the effects on the environment such as air pollution and acidic rain. A study by the Department of Environment showed that motor vehicles contributed more than 80% to air pollution in Malaysia (2011). A liveable city is a concept based on balancing the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability. Public transport plays a key role to ensure that cities with large population are well connected and accessible to all sections of society. More public transport use will mean fewer vehicles on the road, which will mean less emission and less negative effects on climate and health. To position public transport as a preferred mode choice, public must be encouraged to use it. This paper intends to highlight the existing state of public transport in the 47

city of Johor Bahru, Malaysia and the factors that would shift the travel mode of the public from private vehicle use to public transport.

2 AREA OF STUDY The study was done in Johor Bahru, the capital city of the state of Johor, and is one of the three largest and main urban centres in Malaysia. Development in Johor Bahru city is very much affected by the development of South Johor Economic Corridor, i.e. Iskandar Malaysia. Iskandar Malaysia has been identified by the Malaysian Government to be the economic conurbation in the southern region of Peninsular Malaysia under the Ninth Malaysia Plan. By the year 2020 the population in Iskandar Malaysia is forecasted to be 2.2 million, of which about one million will be within the Johor Bahru city area and Johor Bahru Tengah. Traffic in Johor Bahru is estimated to grow at an average rate of 4.2% per year (SJER CDP, 2006). This means that existing road network system will not be able to cope with the continuous traffic growth. Left unchecked, it will cause traffic congestion that will significantly reduce the quality of life for those people in the city besides the negative effects on the environment and its health repercussion. Increasing the rider ship of public transport seems to be a logical solution to this particular issue. Currently, Johor Bahru has an existing imbalanced modal split of about 70:30 with a bias for private transport but the government hopes to achieve 50% public transport mode share in the city centre by 2025.

3 METHODOLOGY Two separate surveys were conducted in this study: a user survey and a stated preference survey. The user survey was carried out with the objective of gauging public transport users’ opinions and response to issues relating to usage of public transport and to measure their travel behaviours. A total of 300 public transport users were surveyed during both peak and off peak hours. Face-to-face interviews were conducted on sampled respondents at housing areas, shopping malls, outdoor markets, and bus stops at various locations within the city. Although samples were selected by the convenient sampling technique, the survey locations were randomly selected using the area/cluster sampling technique, with the objective of achieving a broad spectrum of respondents. Section A of the questionnaire records data on the usage of public transport. This includes frequency of weekly public transport usage by type, distance travelled on public transport, time spent on public transport daily, and problems experienced in using public transport. Section B records user perception of various aspects of public transport. To complement the user survey, the stated preference survey was carried out to solicit the required information necessary to model mode choice behaviour of the non-users of public transport. The survey was to identify respondents’ choice of preference in using the mode of transport for the purpose of going to work in the city centre. The choice made was on the assumption that an efficient public transport service will be provided in the future. People using the private transport were interviewed to gauge their preference and threshold levels before switching to an alternative transport mode. A total of 201 respondents participated in the stated preference survey. The survey instrument consisted of three alternatives, where each alternative was described by five attributes. The attributes were petrol cost/bus fare, toll/parking charges, in-vehicle time, waiting time for public transport, and access time for public transport. The 48

selection of all attributes was done under the premise that they were relevant determinants of mode choice of individuals and the levels were set such that they implied meaningful changes in utility. Respondents were told to consider a high quality public transport (bus) service and then chose the most preferred mode of transport in each scenario. Data was analyzed using discrete choice multinomial logit estimation which allows the determination of the mode split among three possible modes: Car, Motorcycle and Public Transport. The models were estimated using the level approach to incorporate the fundamental principle that, in making choice between modes, users considered the relative levels of attributes between transport modes. A person’s choice cannot be predicted with certainty, but only probabilistically. Thus, the probability that a person chooses a car as the preferred mode is equal to the probability that the indirect utility associated with the car alternative exceeds the indirect utility associated with a bus trip. The impact of travel attributes on private and public transport demand, own price and cross-price elasticities were also estimated.

4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1

The User Survey

The highest percentage of respondents was within the age group of 18-25 years, had secondary level of education and earning between RM650 and RM2000 per month. Bus seemed to be the most popular mode of choice to move around the city followed by taxi. The regular users of public transport who commuted daily from home to workplace formed 51.3% of the respondents. About 67.5% of the respondents claimed that they required at least three transport modes to reach their destinations, while 14.9% had to change up to four modes. Respondents travelled up to 20 km daily for various purposes: 87.5% had to travel 20 km daily to go to work, 57% up to 10 km to go to school or college, 54.6% up to 10 km for hospital/clinic visits, and 60% up to 10 km for personal purposes. For the purpose of engaging themselves in social activities, 44.1% travelled more than 25 km per activity. On a weekly basis, for trips made by bus, 37.4% of the respondents spent less than RM10, 22.8% spent between RM10 & RM15, 29.6% spent RM16–RM30, 4.1% spent RM31– RM45, 3.4% spent between RM46 & RM60 and the remaining 2.7% spent more than RM60. For trips made by taxi 47.7% of the respondents spent less than RM10 per week, 18.2% spent between RM10 & RM15, 22.7% spent between RM16 & RM30, 4.5% spent between RM31 & RM45 and the remaining 2.3% spent more than RM60. Table 1 shows the scores derived from users’ stated importance and satisfaction on selected aspects of public transport. The highest importance was given to the “Safety” aspect (4.6 out of the maximum score of 5) followed by the “Fare” or price aspect (4.2). This means that users value safety of public transport the most, while indicating that aspects like “Communication” (3.9) and “Experience during a trip” (3.8) as not too relatively important. Among the seven listed aspects, users are most satisfied with “Fare”, “Accesibility” and “Communication”, i.e., scoring 3.6 on a maximum of 5. On the other hand, the “Reliability” aspect of public transport recorded a low score of 2.8. Comparison of the importance scores with

49

the satisfaction scores yield relative gaps between satisfaction and importance which range between 7.8% for “Communication Services” to 31.4% for “Safety”. Table 1 Users’ Stated Importance and Satisfaction of Selected Aspects of Public Transport Aspect

Stated Importance Mean Score (max = 5)

Stated Satisfaction Mean Score (max = 5)

4.3 4.5 4.1 4.2 4.2 3.8 4.6 4.5

3.78 3.52 3.35 2.95 2.77 3.14 3.15 3.24

Fare Accessibility Customer Service Communication/Public Relations Reliability Experience During a Trip Safety Route Flexibility

Respondents were also asked about the problems that they usually encountered while using the public transport. Highest on the list was the issue of public transport being unreliable for not keeping to schedules followed by taxi drivers who did not use the taxi meters when taking passengers to their destinations. Table 2 shows the frequency of cases against public transport as reported by respondents. Table 2 Cases against public transport None

1-2 Occasions

More than 2 Occasions

Buses/Taxi Refusing To Provide Service

57.6

29.7

12.7

Bus/Taxi Refusing to Allow Passengers to Alight at Requested Stops

79.9

15.1

5

Buses Not Following Designated Routes

72.3

20

7.7

Public Transport Not Keeping To Schedules

32.4

24.3

43.3

Taxi Not Using Meter

50.3

26

23.7

Public Transport Vehicles Breakdown

62.3

22

15.7

Public Transport Involved in Accidents

96

4

0

Problem / Number of experience

Almost 60% of the respondents reported that they were willing to keep on using public transport in two years time. The issues of not being reliable and lack of information being disseminated were highlighted to be the main reasons. In descending order, the critical factors that might influence people to shift towards using public transport are safety, accessibility, fare, information dissemination (communication), reliability and customer service.

50

4.2

Stated Preference Survey and Mode Choice Modelling

The estimation results, as shown in Table 3, indicate that the sign of the coefficients were as expected. The coefficients for “Fuel/Fare”, “Waiting + Travel Time” and “Parking/Toll” were negative implying that the proportion of trips accounted for by any mode decreased when own cost, own waiting + travel time and parking/toll charges increased. The relative impacts certainly differed across factors but conform to the fundamental economic principle that demand for a mode should varied inversely with cost/price and was positively correlated to other modes’ cost. Table 3 Estimated Multinomial Discrete Model Trip Ratio for Work Commute in Johor Bahru Variable

Coefficients

Fuel/Fare Parking/Toll Waiting & Travel Time

- 0.2668 - 0.0833 - 0.0073

Standard Error

Wald Statistics

0.0497 0.0111 0.0038

- 5.373 - 7.525 - 1.906

Table 4 shows the results of simulated mode shares under different policy options. Firstly, a reduction in public transport fare will attract more of motorcyclists compared to car drivers. If fare is reduced by 50%, the motorcycle mode share drops by 6% while the corresponding reduction in car mode share is only 3%. Secondly, an improvement in public transport service also has a more significant impact on motorcyclists compared to car drivers. If public transport travel time is reduced by 50%, the share of motorcycle mode falls from 14% to 8% (6% drop) while it barely affects the share of car mode (1% drop). Thirdly, reduction in public transport fare and improvement in service level alone are not sufficient to raise public transport ridership by a significant margin. Reducing fare and travel time by 50% will increase public transport share by only 10% from 15% to 25%. Lastly, some private transport demand restraining measure might be required to achieve a higher target of public transport ridership. For example, to achieve a 50% ridership of public transport, toll/parking charges of RM10 and RM3 should be imposed on car and motorcycle respectively. Table 4: Simulated Mode Shares under Different Policy Options Motorcycle

Reduce Fare only

Reduce Fare+Travel Time

0.2742 0.2742 0.2742 0.2742 0.2742 0.2742

15% 14% 13% 12% 11% 9%

14% 13% 12% 11% 10% 8%

Car

Reduce Fare only

Reduce Fare+Travel Time

0.1492 0.1492 0.1492 0.1492 0.1492 0.1492

70% 69% 69% 68% 68% 67%

68% 68% 68% 68% 68% 67%

Reduce Fare+Travel Time+Toll (RM3) 16% 16% 16% 16% 16% 16% Reduce Fare+Travel Time+Toll (RM10) 34% 34% 34% 34% 34% 34%

51

Public Transport

Reduce Fare only

Reduce Fare+Travel Time

0.5766 0.5766 0.5766 0.5766 0.5766 0.5766

15% 17% 18% 20% 22% 23%

23% 24% 24% 24% 25% 25%

Reduce Fare+Travel Time+Toll 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50%

5 CONCLUSION The role of public transport in providing affordable and efficient alternative to private transport is utmost importance in ensuring a sustainable environment and an improved quality of life. Ignoring the problems that are exacerbated by the increasing trend for private vehicles will result in environmental degradation which will in turn mar the efforts of sustainable development planning of a livable city. Public transport should be able to offer a safe, reliable, efficient, and effective mode of travelling, either for work, education, or leisure purposes. To encourage more people to use public transport, public transport services have to undergo major improvements. Issues highlighted by users should be seriously addressed by the transport operators and the relevant authorities. There must also be the right amount of disincentives in place to discourage people from using private cars in moving around. Only by aspiring to provide high quality of services will users consciously switch mode and make public transport their preferred mode choice. References BinaFikir Sdn Bhd. (2005). Development of Funding Plan and Depot Optimisation Study – Adviser to Rapid KL. Kuala Lumpur. Department of Environment Malaysia. (2011). Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2010. Petaling Jaya. Federal Department of Town and Country Planning. (2005). National Physical Plan Malaysia. Putrajaya. Iskandar Region Development Authority. (2008). Iskandar Development Region Urban Public Transport Policy Paper (Project Bucephalus / Dorothy). Johor Bahru City Council. (2006). Johor Bahru District Local Plan 2006-2010. Johor Bahru. Khazanah Malaysia. (2006). Comprehensive Development Plan for South Johor Economic Region 20062025. Kuala Lumpur. Perunding Trafik Klasik Sdn Bhd. (2008). A Study on an Integrated Public Transport System in Johor Bahru – Interim Report. Petaling Jaya. Johor Bahru City Council. (2011). Strategic Planning of MBJB. Johor Bahru 2011-2015. Johor Bahru. The Economic Planning Unit, (2006). Ninth Malaysia Plan. Putrajaya.

52

KESAN KEJUTAN LUARAN TERHADAP HARGA RELATIF DI MALAYSIA: SATU KAJIAN SVAR Nazirah Mustafar1, Zulkefly Abdul Karim2,3 & Mohd Azlan Shah Zaidi2 1 Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 2 Pusat Pengajian Ekonomi, Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 3 Institut Kajian Rantau Asia Barat (IKRAB), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRAK Kertas ini bertujuan mengkaji kesan kejutan luaran terhadap harga relatif di Malaysia dengan menggunakan model ekonomi terbuka kecil vektor auto regresi berstruktur (SVAR). Kejutan luaran ini berkaitan dengan kenaikan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia yang mana akan mempengaruhi Indeks Harga Pengguna (CPI) dan Indeks Harga Pengeluar (PPI) agregat dan mengikut sub-sektor di Malaysia. Kajian ini menggunakan data siri masa bulanan dari Januari 1986 hingga Ogos 2010. Secara keseluruhan, dapatan kajian menunjukkan kesan kejutan luaran iaitu peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan signifikan mempengaruhi tingkat harga agregat dan harga mengikut sub-sektor ekonomi. Harga relatif mengikut sub-sektor ekonomi yang menerima kesan yang besar akibat kejutan luaran ialah CPI makanan dan bukan minuman, PPI bahan api galian, pelincir dan lain-lain, PPI pengeluaran tempatan, PPI barang-barang keluaran kilang, dan PPI import manakala harga relatif yang tidak signifikan ialah CPI perumahan, air, elektrik, gas dan bahan api, CPI pengangkutan, dan PPI makanan. Ini menunjukkan kejutan negatif melalui peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan akan menjejaskan ekonomi domestik melalui peningkatan paras harga umum dan harga relatif. _____________________________________________________________________________________ Kata Kunci: Kejutan Luaran, Tingkat Harga, SVAR.

1 PENGENALAN Malaysia sebagai sebuah negara ekonomi terbuka kecil sudah pasti terdedah daripada kesan global misalnya peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan. Sebelum awal tahun 1970an, Malaysia sedang mengorak langkah bagi menjana pertumbuhan ekonomi dan mengekalkan kadar tingkat harga yang rendah kecuali di awal tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an akibat berlakunya gangguan kejutan penawaran negatif iaitu kenaikan harga minyak dan harga makanan yang melanda ekonomi Malaysia. Dari segi sejarah tingkat harga di Malaysia, persekitaran inflasi yang rendah sejak 50 tahun yang lalu telah diiringi oleh empat episod inflasi yang tinggi, iaitu pada pertengahan 1970-an, awal 1980-an, 1990-an dan lewat 2000-an. Pada tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an telah berlaku kejutan harga minyak global dan lonjakan harga makanan yang menyaksikan kenaikan yang ketara dalam harga tenaga dan makanan global disebabkan oleh gangguan bekalan. Harga minyak global naik mendadak pada tahun 1973 dan 1979 dan memberi kesan kenaikan inflasi dalam negeri kepada 17.3% dan 9.7%, masing-masing pada tahun 1974 dan 1981 (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2011). Manakala, pada tahun 1990-an, berlaku tingkat harga terhadap subkategori buah-buahan dan sayur-sayuran, ikan dan daging. 53

Inflasi dalam kategori pengangkutan dan komunikasi juga lebih tinggi disebabkan oleh tambang bas dan teksi serta caj perkhidmatan pos yang meningkat. Inflasi mencatat paras tertinggi sebanyak 5.3% pada tahun 1998 akibat tingkat harga diimport yang disebabkan oleh penyusutan nilai ringgit sebanyak 28.3% berbanding dengan dolar AS menjelang akhir tahun 1997, dan kerana kitaran kekurangan barangan makanan keperluan. Pada awal tahun 2000 pula, inflasi menjadi sederhana kepada paras yang sangat rendah namun mula meningkat pada tahun 2005, dan mencapai puncak sebanyak 8.5% pada bulan Julai 2008. Hal ini akibat daripada peningkatan harga minyak dan komoditi global. Pada tahun 2008, harga bahan api naik pada purata 14.5% manakala inflasi makanan naik ke paras tertinggi dalam tempoh 10 tahun sebanyak 8.8%. Selain bahan api dan barangan makanan subsidi, tarif elektrik juga telah disemak lebih tinggi (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2011). Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji pengaruh kejutan luaran iaitu kejutan harga minyak dan makanan dunia terhadap tingkat harga agregat (CPI dan PPI) dan harga relatif mengikut subsektor tingkat harga di Malaysia. Pemahaman hubungan antara kejutan luaran dengan tingkat harga/harga relatif ini mempuntyai beberapa kepentingan kepada penggubal dasar dan sektor industri. Pertama, kajian ini ingin melihat sejauhmana pengaruh/kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga mengikut sub-sektor terpilih di Malaysia. Hal ini penting kepada bank pusat bagi mengambil tindakan yang pantas dalam menggubal dasar kewangan bagi menjamin kestabilan tingkat harga dan mengawal tingkat harga supaya terkawal. Maka, BNM boleh mengawal dan melaksanakan dasar kewangan yang sesuai misalnya melakukan sekatan harga kawalan bagi barang-barang yang lebih dipengaruhi oleh tingkat harga. Kedua, memberi maklumat yang penting kepada agen ekonomi seperti pengguna dan firma Misalnya, dasar kewangan yang ketat akan meningkatkan kadar bunga di bank dan menyebabkan firma akan kurang untuk meminjam dan melabur dan seterusnya mengurangkan bekalan wang di dalam ekonomi. Kesannya, kadar tingkat harga dapat distabilkan dalam ekonomi. Kajian ini memberikan sumbangan yang signifikan kepada literatur mengenai kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga dari beberapa aspek. Pertama, kajian ini menyambung kajian lepas, khususnya di Malaysia yang kurang memberi perhatian keatas harga relatif mengikut sub-sektor. Kebanyakan kajian mengenai kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga telah dilakukan di negara maju dan negara membangun yang lain misalnya Cologni dan Manera (2005) mengkaji negara G-7 yang mana dapatan kajian menunjukkan kebanyakan negara-negara menerima kesan kejutan harga minyak tidak dijangka diikuti dengan peningkatan kadar tingkat harga dan pengurangan pertumbuhan output. Kedua, kebanyakan kajian mengenai tingkat harga di Malaysia hanya bertumpu kepada faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhinya tanpa melihat pengaruh faktor luar. Misalnya, kajian Ali Ahmed dan Wadud (2011) yang menggunakan SVAR mendapati tingkat CPI menurun dengan kejutan positif kepada ketidaktentuan harga minyak. Ini adalah hasil daripada kejutan permintaan negatif akibat penangguhan penggunaan oleh individu, isi rumah dan sector lain dalam ekonomi. Namun, kajian tersebut tidak memberi tumpuan kepada PPI dan PPI mengikut sub-sektor yang juga merupakan salah satu pengukur tingkat harga. Ketiga, kajian ini juga memberikan sumbangan kepada literatur dengan melihat kesan heterogeneous perubahan harga minyak dan makanan terhadap tingkat harga mengikut subsektor ekonomi di Malaysia.

54

Dapatan kajian menunjukkan kesan kejutan luaran iaitu harga minyak dan harga makanan secara umumnya berhubungan positif terhadap tingkat harga mengikut sub-sektor ekonomi di Malaysia. Selain itu, CPI dan PPI agregat menunjukkan hubungan yang positif kesan daripada kejutan harga makanan dunia kecuali CPI agregat menunjukkan hubungan yang tidak signifikan akibat kenaikan harga minyak. Kajian ini mengandungi beberapa seksyen iaitu seksyen kedua membicarakan kajian lepas, seksyen ketiga berkaitan metodologi kajian dan seterusnya hasil kajian di seksyen empat. Akhir sekali, rumusan dan perbincangan di seksyen lima.

2 KAJIAN LEPAS Kebanyakan di negara maju telah mengkaji kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga di mana

menunjukkan kejutan harga minyak memberi kesan terhadap tingkat harga (contohnya, Hamilton, 1983, 1996; Hooker, 1999; dan Hunt & et al., 2001). Hamilton (1996) dalam kajiannya, mendapati jika hanya menggunakan data dari 1948:I hingga 1973: III bagi regresi pertumbuhan KDNK pada konstan dan lat lapan, harga minyak, kadar bil perbendaharaan, tingkat harga dan harga import berubah, hasilnya terjejas sedikit sama ada harga minyak berubah secara sukuan atau harga minyak bersih meningkat digunakan bagi mengukur harga minyak. Manakala, Hooker (1999), menganggarkan kesan perubahan harga minyak terhadap tingkat harga AS dalam rangka kerja keluk Phillips mendapati bahawa sejak sekitar 1980, perubahan harga minyak seolah-olah memberi kesan tingkat harga hanya melalui saham langsung (direct share) dalam indeks harga, dengan sedikit atau bukan-linear melalui kepada teras ukuran, manakala sebelum kejutan minyak 1980 banyak menyumbang kepada teras tingkat harga. Manakala, di negara membangun juga telah banyak mengkaji kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga. Contohnya, kajian yang dijalankan oleh Farzanegan dan Markwardt (2007) dan Du dan et al. (2010). Du dan et al. (2010) mengkaji hubungan di antara harga siri minyak dunia dan China makro-ekonomi yang berasaskan masa bulan dari 1995:1 untuk 2008:12 menggunakan kaedah vektor multivariat autoregression (VAR). Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa harga minyak dunia memberi kesan kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi dan tingkat harga China dengan ketara dan impak yang bukan linear. Sebaliknya, aktiviti ekonomi China aktiviti gagal untuk menjejaskan harga minyak dunia, di mana harga minyak dunia masih eksogen dengan ekonomi-makro China dalam siri masa, dan China telah tidak lagi mempunyai kuasa harga minyak dalam pasaran minyak dunia. Bagi kes Malaysia pula, banyak kajian lepas yang mengkaji berkaitan dengan tingkat harga misalnya, Zaidi & et al (2011), Ibrahim dan Said (2011), Tan dan Baharumshah (1999), dan Ali Ahmed dan Wadud (2001). Zaidi & et al (2011) mengkaji kesan harga relatif kejutan polisi monetari di Malaysia dari tahun 1982:2 sehingga 2008:1 menggunakan model SVAR. Keputusan menunjukkan terdapat kejatuhan jangka pendek dalam tingkat harga agregat dengan kejutan kepada pemboleh ubah polisi monetari. Kesan yang sama dapat dilihat juga pada tingkat harga dalam makanan, pakaian dan kasut, penjagaan kesihatan dan perbelanjaan kesihatan, rekreasi, hiburan, pendidikan dan perkhidmatan kesenian. Tingkat harga dalam kumpulan produk minuman dan tembakau, perabot dan pengangkutan dan komunikasi cenderung untuk jatuh 55

selepas beberapa suku. Ibrahim dan Said (2011) hanya mengkaji kesan tingkat harga terhadap CPI agregat dan CPI harga relatif di Malaysia. Hasil kajian menunjukkan terdapat hubungan jangka panjang dan jangka pendek atau harga minyak berkointegrasi dengan hanya CPI agregat dan indeks harga makanan serta CPI mengikut sub-sektor. Berdasarkan latar belakang ini, kajian mengenai kesan kejutan luaran terhadap harga relatif kurang mendapat perhatian dan masih belum dikaji secara mendalam di Malaysia. Maka, kajian ini dapat memberi sumbangan yang bermakna kepada literatur dengan mengkaji kesan kejutan luaran terhadap harga relatif mengikut sub-sektor ekonomi di Malaysia. Kajian ini juga menyambung kajian lepas yang hanya memberi fokus kepada CPI agregat dan CPI harga relatif dan bukannya PPI agregat dan PPI sub-sektor di Malaysia. Sub-sektor ini penting dikaji kerana ingin melihat sub-sektor yang manakah yang paling dan kurang terjejas misalnya sub-sektor yang bergantung kepada bahan perantara sebagai input pengeluaran sudah pasti akan terjejas teruk.

3 METODOLOGI KAJIAN 3.1

Data dan Definisi Pemboleh Ubah

Metodologi penyelidikan kajian menggunakan data sekunder yang diperoleh daripada laporan bulanan BNM, International Financial Statistics Report. Tempoh penelitian kajian ialah dari tahun 1986:1 hingga tahun 2010:8. Kajian ini menggunakan analisis structural VAR (SVAR). Pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah yang digunakan dalam kajian terbahagi kepada dua blok iaitu blok asing dan blok domestik. Pemboleh ubah blok asing ialah harga minyak dunia dan indeks harga makanan dunia, Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK) dimana Indeks Pengeluaran Industri (IPI) Amerika Syarikat sebagai proksi bagi pendapatan negara tersebut, kadar pertukaran efektif benar (REER). Kadar pertukaran efektif benar digunakan kerana mencerminkan gelagat agregat bagi mata wang utama dagangan utama Malaysia rakan kongsi. Sebagaimana yang ditakrifkan, peningkatan dalam kadar pertukaran bermakna domestik mata wang Ringgit Malaysia (RM) menghargai berbanding dengan mata wang rakan dagangan utama. Pemboleh ubah yang sama telah digunakan oleh Abdul Karim & et al. (2011) namun Ibrahim (2005) menggunakan kadar pertukaran nominal efektif. Blok kedua mengandungi pemboleh ubah domestik iaitu KDNK Malaysia dimana IPI Malaysia sebagai proksi, Inter-Bank Overnight Rate (IR) Malaysia iaitu kadar faedah yang dikenakan ke atas pinjaman jangka pendek yang dibuat antara bank. Bank meminjam dan meminjamkan wang dalam pasaran antara bank untuk menguruskan kecairan dan memenuhi syarat-syarat yang diletakkan ke atas mereka. Kadar faedah yang dikenakan bergantung kepada ketersediaan wang dalam pasaran, pada kadar semasa dan atas terma-terma spesifik kontrak itu, seperti jangka panjang. Kemudian, Indeks Harga Pengguna (CPI) iaitu mengukur perubahan paras harga barangan pengguna dan perkhidmatan yang dibeli oleh isi rumah pada sesuatu tempoh masa yang ditetapkan. Kadar tingkat harga di Malaysia diukur menggunakan CPI. CPI mengikut sub-sektor terpilih hanya dikaji, iaitu 1) Makanan dan bukan minuman keras, 2) Perumahan, air, elektrik, gas dan bahan api, dan 3) Pengangkutan. Kajian ini menggunakan CPI tahun asas 2005=100. Seterusnya, pemboleh ubah PPI mengikut sub-sektor terpilih di Malaysia. Indeks Harga Pengeluar (PPI) adalah satu indeks yang disusun menggunakan formula 56

Laspeyres base-weighted. PPI bagi pengeluaran tempatan merupakan indeks berasaskan output, yang mengukur perubahan harga komoditi untuk jualan pasaran tempatan yang dinilai pada harga di kilang. PPI mengikut sub-sektor terpilih ialah 1) Makanan, 2) Bahan api galian, pelincir dan lain-lain, 3) Barang-barang keluaran kilang, 4) Jumlah import, dan 5) Jumlah pengeluaran tempatan. 3.2

Model SVAR

Jika teori ekonomi digunakan untuk menyediakan hubungan antara forecast dan fundamental shocks, model dikenali sebagai SVAR (Cologni dan Manera, 2005).

errors

Diandaikan ekonomi adalah dalam bentuk persamaan struktural iaitu: (Abdul Karim & et al, 2011). BYt = C + ( Γ 1L + Γ 2L2 + ......+ Γ kLk) Yt + εt (1) Di mana B ialah matrik kuasa dua yang menerangkan hubungan semasa struktural bagi pemboleh ubah ekonomi, Yt ialah vektor pemboleh ubah makroekonomi n x 1, C ialah vektor pemboleh ubah makroekonomi. Γ (L) ialah kth urutan (order) matrik polimial dalam operasi lat, L dan εt ialah vektor inovasi berstruktur yang menunjukkan syarat dimana E (ε t ) = 0

E (ε t ε s' ) = ∑ ε bagi semua t = s dan E (ε t ε s' ) = 0 sebaliknya. Pra-mendarabkan persamaan (1) dengan B-1, menghasilkan persamaan bentuk terturun VAR. Yt = B-1C + B-1 ( Γ 1L + Γ 2L2 + ......+ Γ kLk) Yt + B-1εt (2)

Yt = (LOILP, LWFPI , LGDPUS , LGDPMYR, LCPI , IR, LEER )

(3)

−1 Dimana et = B ε t ialah ralat (residual) bentuk terturun VAR yang menunjukkan syarat

E (et ) = 0 , E (ε t ε s' ) = ∑ ε ialah simetrik (nxn), matrik positive define yang boleh dimana dianggarkan daripada data. Hubungan antara matrik varian-kovarian ralat teranggar, ∑e dan matrik varian-kovarian inovasi berstruktur,

∑ε

adalah seperti berikut:

∑ ε = E (ε ε ' ) t

t

= E(Betet’B’) = BE(etet’)B’ = B ∑e B

(4)

Supaya sistem dikenal pasti, sekatan/pengbatasan harus dilakukan bagi memulihkan semua inovasi berstruktur dari ralat bentuk terturun VAR, et. Kemudian, bagi (nxn) matrik simetrik ∑ e , di mana (n2 + n)/2 tidak dikenali dan maka (n2 + n)/2 kekangan tambahan perlu dilakukan bagi mengenal pasti sistem secara tepat. 57

3.4

Model Berstruktur

Hubungan antara inovasi berstruktur εt dan ralat bentuk terturun et adalah ditunjukkan oleh Bet = εt. dalam model SVAR rekursif asal, elemen dalam B ke atas pepenjuru matrik adalah semua ditetapkan sama dengan sifar. Apabila skema identifikasi bukan-rekursif digunakan pada data Malaysia, maka model diperolehi. 0 0 0 0 0 0   LOILP    LOILP  1      b 21 1 0 0 0 0 0   LWFPI    LWFPI  b31 0 1 0 0 0 0   LGDPUS   LGDPUS       0 1 0 0 0   LGDPMYR =  LGDPMYR b 41 0    LCPI b51 0 0 b54 1 0 0   LCPI      0 0 b64 b65 1 b67   IR    IR  0    LEER b71 b72 b73 b74 b75 b76 1   LEER      (5)

3.5

Skema Identifikasi

Model (5) merupakan satu model ekonomi terbuka kecil berdasarkan beberapa andaian yang dibuat seperti berikut. Pertama, harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia adalah pemboleh ubah eksogenos. Model ini juga mengandaikan pemboleh ubah tingkat harga bertindak balas sertamerta dengan pembolehubah harga minyak dan pendapatan negara Malaysia berdasarkan faktor permintaan dan penawaran. Sebaliknya pemboleh ubah kadar bunga diandaikan akan bertindak balas secara serta-merta dengan pemboleh ubah pendapatan negara Malaysia, tingkat harga, dan kadar pertukaran. Akhir sekali, pemboleh ubah kadar pertukaran bertindak balas secara sertamerta dengan pemboleh ubah harga minyak, harga makanan dunia, pendapatan negara asing dan Malaysia, tingkat harga, dan kadar bunga.

4 KEPUTUSAN KAJIAN Rajah 1 dan Rajah 2 menunjukkan fungsi impuls respon kejutan luaran terhadap harga relatif mengikut sub-sektor terpilih di Malaysia. Dalam seksyen ini, kajian hanya fokus pada respon harga relatif kepada kejutan luaran. Seperti yang dapat dilihat, terdapat hubungan antara pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah bersandar dan pemboleh ubah bebas. Pemboleh ubah harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia menunjukkan hubungan positif di antara pendapatan negara asing, pendapatan negara Malaysia, sebahagian tingkat harga iaitu CPI dan PPI sub-sektor terpilih manakala berhubung negatif dengan kadar bunga dan kadar pertukaran efektif dengan menggunakan model SVAR bukan-rekursif. Berdasarkan Rajah 1, wujud hubungan antara kejutan luaran dengan tingkat harga yang konsisten dan selari dengan teori ekonomi. Berdasarkan teori, kejutan luaran berhubungan positif dengan tingkat harga dimana jika harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia meningkat, secara tidak langsung harga barang juga akan meningkat. Peningkatan tingkat harga yang berterusan 58

akan menyebabkan berlakunya tekanan tingkat harga. Kesan perubahan harga minyak terhadap CPI agregat adalah tidak signifikan. Namun, kesan perubahan harga makanan terhadap CPI agregat adalah signifikan Begitu juga, kesan perubahan harga minyak dan makanan terhadap PPI agregat yang menunjukkan hubungan yang positif iaitu jika berlaku perubahan (peningkatan) harga minyak dan harga makanan sebanyak 1%, maka PPI (agregat) masing-masing meningkat sebanyak 0.005% dan 0.002%. Rajah 1: Kesan Kejutan Luaran Terhadap CPI dan PPI (Agregat) LOILP

LWFPI

0.125

0.125

0.100

0.100

0.075

0.075

0.050

0.050

0.025

0.025

0.000

0.000

-0.025

-0.025

-0.050

-0.050

-0.075

-0.075 0

5

10

15

20

0

Respon LWFPI terhadap kejutan LOILP

10

15

20

Respon LOILP terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

-0.01

-0.01

-0.02

5

-0.02

0

5

10

15

20

Respon LCPIAGG terhadap kejutan LOILP

0

0.006

0.005

0.005

0.004

0.004

0.003

0.003

0.002

0.002

0.001

0.001

0.000

0.000

-0.001

-0.001

5

10

15

0

20

Respon LPPIAGG terhadap kejutan LOILP

10

15

20

Respon LCPIAGG terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.006

0

5

5

10

15

20

Respon LPPIAGG terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.010

0.010

0.005

0.005

0.000

0.000

-0.005

-0.005

-0.010

-0.010

-0.015

-0.015 -0.020

-0.020 0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

Berdasarkan Rajah 2, kesan kejutan luaran terhadap CPI dan PPI mengikut sub-sektor terpilih di Malaysia secara umumnya menunjukkan hubungan yang positif. Daripada IRF tersebut, jika berlaku peningkatan dalam harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia sebanyak 1% maka PPI bahan api galian, pelincir dan lain-lain menunjukkan hubungan yang signifikan dan 59

positif di mana apabila berlaku perubahan (peningkatan) dalam harga minyak dan harga makanan sebanyak 1%, maka PPI meningkat sebanyak 0.03% dan 0.01%. Selain itu, dapat juga dilihat jika berlaku peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia sebanyak 1% maka PPI pengeluaran tempatan masing-masing meningkat sebanyak 0.0075% dan 0.0075%. Akhir sekali, jika berlaku peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia sebanyak 1% maka PPI import masing-masing meningkat sebanyak 0.001% dan 0.001% Rajah 2: Kesan Kejutan Luaran terhadap CPI dan PPI Mengikut Sub-Sektor Terpilih di Malaysia. Respon LCPIMBMK terhadap kejutan LOILP

Respon LCPIMBMK terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.020

0.020

0.015

0.015

0.010

0.010

0.005

0.005

0.000

0.000

-0.005

-0.005

-0.010

-0.010

-0.015

-0.015 0

5

10

15

20

Respon LCPIELEKTRIK terhadap kejutan LOILP

0

5

10

15

20

Respon LCPIELEKTRIK terhadap kejutan LWFPI 0.006

0.006 0.004

0.004 0.002

0.002 0.000

0.000

-0.002 0

-0.002 0

5

10

15

5

10

15

20

20

Respon LCPIPNGGKTN terhadap kejutan LOILP

Respon LCPIPNGGKTN terhadap kejutan LOILP

0.175

0.175

0.125

0.125

0.075

0.075

0.025

0.025 -0.025

-0.025 0

5

10

15

0

20

Respon LPPIMKNN terhadap kejutan LOILP

5

10

15

20

Respon LPPIMKNN terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.07

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01 0.00

0.00

-0.01

-0.01 0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

60

Respon LPPIBHNAPI terhadap kejutan LOILP

Respon LPPIBHNAPI terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.05

0.05

0.04

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00

0.00

-0.01

-0.01

-0.02

-0.02 0

5

10

15

20

Respon LPPIBKK terhadap kejutan OILP

0

10

15

20

Respon LPPIBKK terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.010

0.010

0.008

0.008

0.006

0.006

0.004

0.004

0.002

0.002

0.000

0.000

-0.002

-0.002

-0.004

5

-0.004 0

5

10

15

20

0

Respon LPPIPT terhadap kejutan LOILP

10

15

20

Respon LPPIPT terhadap kejutan LWFPI

0.0125

0.0125

0.0100

0.0100

0.0075

0.0075

0.0050

0.0050

0.0025

0.0025

0.0000

0.0000

-0.0025

-0.0025

-0.0050

5

-0.0050

-0.0075

-0.0075 0

5

10

15

20

0

Respon LPPIM terhadap kejutan OILP

5

10

15

20

Respon LPPIM terhadap kejutan WFPI

0.008

0.008

0.006

0.006

0.004

0.004

0.002

0.002

0.000

0.000

-0.002

-0.002 -0.004

-0.004 0

5

10

15

20

0

5

10

15

20

5 RUMUSAN Kajian mengenai kesan kejutan luaran terhadap tingkat harga domestik telahpun dikaji dengan meluas di kebanyakan negara. Walau bagaimanapun, tidak banyak kajian yang telah dijalankan untuk mengkaji pengaruh kejutan luaran terhadap harga domestik di negara sedang membangun, khususnya di Malaysia. Maka, kajian ini memberikan sumbangan yang bermakna dengan menerokai pengaruh kejutan luaran daripada aspek kejutan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia ke atas tingkat harga agregat dan harga mengikut sub-sektor bagi Indeks Harga Pengguna (CPI) dan Indeks Harga Pengeluar (PPI). Kajian ini menggunakan analisis ekonomi terbuka kecil model vektor auto regresi berstruktur (SVAR). Secara umumnya, dapatan kajian menunjukkan kesan kejutan luaran iaitu peningkatan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia signifikan mempengaruhi dan berhubungan positif 61

dengan tingkat harga mengikut sub-sektor ekonomi di Malaysia. Walau bagaimanapun, pengaruh kejutan harga minyak dunia tidak signifikan mempengaruhi tingkat harga CPI agregat. Sebaliknya, tingkat harga CPI dan PPI agregat signifikan dan berhubungan positif dengan kejutan harga makanan dunia. Terdapat beberapa implikasi penting yang boleh didapati melalui kajian ini. Pertama, BNM perlu memantau pergerakan harga minyak dan harga makanan dunia dari masa ke semasa untuk melaksanakan dasar monetari yang bersesuaian bagi meminimumkan kesan negatif kejutan penawaran tersebut terhadap ekonomi negara. Misalnya, untuk mengatasi masalah inflasi akibat kejutan negatif penawaran, BNM perlulah meningkatkan kadar bunga yang bersesuaian dengan matlamat ekonomi. Kedua, dasar sebelah penawaran seperti peningkatan produktiviti pekerja melalui latihan dan aktiviti penyelidikan dan pembangunan (R&D) perlulah digalakkan untuk merangsang kegiatan ekonomi di sebelah penawaran bagi mengimbangi kejutan negatif luaran. Ketiga, untuk meminumkan kesan negatif akibat pergantungan kepada inport makanan dunia, maka negara perlulah meningkatkan aktiviti pengeluaran makanan tempatan. Langkah ini akan menjamin bekalan makanan yang mencukupi (food security) kepada negara dan tidak terlalu bergantung kepada bekalan makanan dunia yang tidak pasti (uncertainty) daripada aspek harga dan penawaran yang sentiasa berubah-ubah.

6

PENGHARGAAN

Sumber pembiayaian data dibiayai oleh geran penyelidikan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Kod:UKM-GGPM-PLW-016-2011. Rujukan Ali Ahmed, H. J. & Wadud, M. 2011. Role of oilp price shocks macroeconomic activities: An SVAR approach the Malaysia economy and monetary responses. Energy policy. Bank Negara Malaysia. (2011). Laporan tahunan 2011. www.bnm.gov.my/files/.../cp01_004_rencana.pdf. [05 Mei 2012]. Bank Negara Malaysia. (Pelbagai tahun). Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Bank Negara Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Cologni, A. & Manera, M. (2005). Oil prices, inflation and interest rates in a Structural Cointegrated VAR model for the G-7 countries. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.42.6203. [29 Mac 2012]. Cunado, J & Gracia, D. P. F. (2005). Oil prices, economic activity and inflation: Evidence for some Asian countries. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 45, 65-83. Du, L., He, Y. & Wei, C. (2010). The relationship between oil price shocks and China’s macro-economy: An empirical analysis. Energy Policy 38, 4142–4151. Farzanegan, M. R., & Markwardt, G. (2007). The effects of oil price shocks on the Iranian economy. www.ecomod.org/files/papers/600.pdf. [05 Mei 2012].

62

Hamilton, J. D. (1996). This is what happened to the oil price - macroeconomy relationship. Journal of Monetary Economics 38 (1996) 215 220. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_cid=271711&_user=6470374&_pii= S0304393296012822&_check=y&_coverDate=1996-10-01&view=c&wchp=dGLzVltzSkzV&md5=c270dabdf1baf4b8323c600d57cbbf76&pid=1-s2.0-S0304393296012822-main.pdf. Hooker, M. A. (1999). Are oil shocks inflationary?. Asymmetric and nonlinear specifications versus changes in regime. Federal Reserve Board. Hamilton, J. D. (1983). Oil and the macroeconomy since World War II. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 91, No. 2, pp. 228-248. Hunt, B., Isard, P., & Laxton, D. (2001). The macroeconomic effects of higher oil price. IMF Working Paper. Ibrahim, M. (2005). Sectoral effect of monetary policy: evidence from Malaysia. Asian Economic Journal , 219-231. Ibrahim, M. & Said, R. (2011). Disaggregated consumer prices and oil prices pass-through: Evidence from Malaysia. Prosiding Persidangan Kebangsaan Ekonomi Malaysia Ke-VI 2011, Jilid 1. University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor. International Financial Statistics. (Pelbagai tahun). International Financial Statistics Report. Tan, H. B. & Baharumshah, A. Z. (1999). Dynamic Causal Chain Of Money, Output, Interest Rate And Prices In Malaysia: Evidence Based On Vector Errorcorrection Modelling Analysis. International Economic Journal 103. Volume 13, Number 1. http://147.46.167.195/~Kiea/Iej/Vol13_1/S8.Pdf. [30 Mei 2012]. Zaidi, M. A. S., Abdul Karim, Z., & W.N.W, Azman-Saini. (2011). Relative price effects of monetary policy shock in Malaysia: A SVAR study. http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/38768/. [30 Mac 20012].

63

POLA PENDAPATAN DAN PERBELANJAAN ISI RUMAH MENGIKUT ACUAN EKONOMI ISLAM Noorhaslinda Kulub Abd. Rashid1, Mohd Anuar Md. Amin2 & Rahmah Ismail3 & Aslina Nasir4 1,2,4

Jabatan Ekonomi, Fakulti Pengurusan Ekonomi, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT) Email:[email protected], [email protected], Tel: 09-6684152 3 Pusat Pengajian Ekonomi,Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. Email: [email protected], Tel: 03-89213742

Abstrak: Pendapatan dan perbelanjaan merupakan indikator utama dalam menentukan kualiti hidup sesebuah institusi kekeluargaan itu. Berdasarkan Laporan Tahunan Bank Negara 2010, hutang isi rumah sehingga akhir tahun 2010 adalah sebanyak RM581 bilion ataupun sebanyak 76% daripada Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK). Ini bermakna dalam pengurusan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan isi rumah, sebahagian besar pendapatan dihabiskan untuk membayar hutang berupa pinjaman terhadap komponenkomponen perbelanjaan seperti perumahan, kenderaan, pendidikan mahupun pinjaman peribadi. Menurut Laporan Tahunan Bank Negara (2004) dalam Azrina Sobian & Siti Fatimah Abdul Rahman (2010), mendapati bahawa pinjaman (pinjaman untuk pembiayaan gadai janji rumah, pembelian kenderaan penumpang dan kad kredit) terkumpul sektor isi rumah meningkat sebanyak 14.4 peratus pada tahun 2004 berbanding 12.8 peratus pada tahun 2003. Justeru itu, objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menganalisis pola pendapatan dan perbelanjaan isi rumah mengikut acuan Ekonomi Islam. Islam menggariskan pelbagai saranan yang baik untuk diikuti bagi memastikan kemaslahatan umatnya di dunia dan akhirat. Berdasarkan kajian rintis yang dijalankan terhadap 45 responden bagi kawasan bandar dan luar bandar bagi daerah Kuala Terengganu, mendapati bahawa mereka yang mempunyai kefahaman agama yang baik cenderung untuk memiliki pola pendapatan dan perbelanjaan yang lebih baik berbanding mereka yang tidak mempunyai kefahaman agama. Kata Kunci: Pendapatan, Perbelanjaan, Ekonomi Islam

1 PENDAHULUAN Isu pendapatan dan perbelanjaan isi rumah merupakan satu aspek yang perlu dititikberatkan dalam memenuhi keperluan hidup terutamanya dalam penyediaan perancangan pembangunan masyarakat. Pengetahuan mengenai corak perbelanjaan isi rumah amat penting untuk difahami ke arah mencapai kualiti hidup yang sihat dan sejahtera. Matlamat penggunaan (perbelanjaan) isi rumah adalah bagi memenuhi keperluan-keperluan asas seperti makanan, pakaian, tempat tinggal, pengangkutan, pendidikan dan sebagainya (Wan Sabri, 1996). Corak perbelanjaan akan dipengaruhi oleh jenis barangan dan kuasa beli seseorang individu itu melalui peningkatan ekonomi sama ada perbelanjaan untuk barang mewah, barang biasa ataupun barang bawahan (Noraini, 1996). Menurut Berita Nasional Malaysia (BERNAMA), 26 Oktober 2010 yang lalu, Institut Penyelidikan Ekonomi Malaysia (MIER) menyatakan kebimbangan mengenai peningkatan paras hutang isirumah daripada Keluaran Dalam Negara Kasar (KDNK) yang meningkat kepada 76.6 peratus bagi 2009 berbanding 63.9 peratus pada 2008. Manakala dalam akhbar yang sama turut menyatakan bahawa terdapat tiga faktor utama penyumbang kepada 64

peningkatan kadar hutang isirumah adalah pendapatan isirumah yang tidak mencukupi, gaya hidup mewah dan pengurusan kredit yang lemah (Amir Baharuddin, 2010). Menurut Laporan Tahunan Bank Negara (2004) dalam Azrina Sobian & Siti Fatimah Abdul Rahman (2010), mendapati bahawa pinjaman (pinjaman untuk pembiayaan gadai janji rumah, pembelian kenderaan penumpang dan kad kredit) terkumpul sektor isi rumah meningkat sebanyak 14.4 peratus pada tahun 2004 berbanding 12.8 peratus pada tahun 2003. Senario yang dinyatakan di atas sebenarnya dapat memberikan gambaran jelas bahawa masyarakat Malaysia sememangnya suka mengamalkan budaya berhutang. Apatah lagi sekiranya budaya berhutang itu tidak berlandaskan tuntutan syarak dan dibuat secara sia-sia. Kajian oleh Ariffin Md Salleh et al. (2002) mendapati bahawa tabungan isi rumah sangat dipengaruhi oleh pendapatan. Manakala pendapatan amat berkait rapat dengan hutang yang mana hutang yang banyak akan menjejaskan pendapatan boleh guna seseorang isi rumah itu dan akhirnya akan mempengaruhi tabungan isi rumah. Seterusnya keadaan ini akan melahirkan generasi yang tidak seimbang dari aspek jasmani, rohani, emosi mahupun intelek. Adakah hutang piutang dalam corak perbelanjaan isi rumah seseorang itu bertujuan untuk memenuhi keperluan yang mendesak ataupun sekadar untuk memuaskan kehendak manusia yang tidak terbatas? Dalam menganalisis corak perbelanjaan dan pendapatan rakyat Malaysia, pemerhatian yang mendalam adalah perlu terutamanya dalam melihat aspek-aspek yang diambilkira dalam sesuatu perbelanjaan. Ini dapat dilihat dari segi peruntukan perbelanjaan yang dilakukan seperti makanan, pendidikan, kesihatan, pengangkutan, perumahan, tabungan serta pembayaran balik pinjaman. Indikator-indikator inilah yang sebenarnya akan mempengaruhi corak perbelanjaan dan pendapatan seseorang individu itu. Justeru itu, penekanan kepada penerapan nilai Islam dalam ekonomi dilihat sebagai satu perspektif yang cukup penting bagi memastikan bahawa seseorang individu itu dapat mencapai kesejahteraan hidup dunia dan akhirat. Melalui pengurusan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan secara berhemah dan berlandaskan ajaran Islam, maka seseorang individu itu akan dapat membentuk peribadi yang mulia dan mengamalkan konsep kesederhanaan dalam kehidupannya.

2 PERMASALAHAN KAJIAN Berdasarkan kajian lepas dalam bidang pemasaran, mendapati bahawa gelagat berbelanja seseorang individu itu dipengaruhi oleh budaya yang ditunjukkan oleh gaya hidup mereka (Thompson dan Tambyah, 1998). Chang (2005) turut menyokong bahawa budaya akan mempengaruhi kehidupan individu dalam membuat pilihan dan keputusan ketika berbelanja. Perbezaan corak atau gelagat berbelanja banyak ditunjukkan oleh agama yang merupakan elemen terpenting dalam budaya, seterusnya mempengaruhi tingkahlaku dan keputusan untuk berbelanja (Hirschmann, 1981; Delener, 1990a). Perbezaan tahap kefahaman agama turut dikaitkan dengan gaya cara hidup yang berbeza antara seseorang itu. Pandangan oleh Wilkes, Burnett dan Howell (1986) mendapati bahawa individu yang mempunyai tahap kefahaman agama yang lebih baik cenderung untuk mengamalkan gaya hidup secara tradisional dan cukup berpuashati dengan kehidupan mereka. Manakala dapatan oleh McDaniel dan Burnett (1990) mendapati bahawa individu yang mempunyai tahap kefahaman agama yang lebih baik akan lebih mesra dan mudah bersosial dan memberikan kerjasama berbanding dengan individu yang kurang beragama. Mokhlis,S. (2009) 65

meletakkan nilai agama sebagai faktor budaya yang terpenting kerana ianya merupakan faktor universal dan institusi sosial yang berpengaruh yang akan memberi kesan kepada sikap individu, nilai dan gelagat seseorang itu dan tahap masyarakatnya. Selain itu, dapatan kajian oleh Essoo & Dibb (2004) ke atas individu pengguna Hindu, Muslim dan Katolik mendapati bahawa pengguna yang mempunyai kefahaman agama yang berbeza bagi agama yang sama menunjukkan gelagat berbelanja yang luar biasa. Berdasarkan senario di atas dan melihat kepada pengaruh kebendaan yang semakin melanda masyarakat Malaysia mutakhir ini, maka corak perbelanjaan berlandaskan syariat Islam begitu penting untuk diperbahaskan. Walaupun matlamat seseorang individu itu dalam aktiviti kepenggunaan (perbelanjaan) untuk mencapai kepuasan sebagaimana yang dikemukan dalam Teori Utiliti iaitu pengukuran subjektif bagi kepuasan yang diperolehi oleh pengguna (Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob, 1991), namun pengukuran tersebut berlandaskan kepada kehendak material semata-mata. Perbelanjaan isi rumah seringkali berubah mengikut struktur ekonomi semasa, lebih-lebih lagi apabila Malaysia dilanda kegawatan atau krisis ekonomi sepertimana yang pernah berlaku pada tahun 1986, 1997, 1998 dan 2008 yang lalu yang mana sedikit sebanyak telah merencatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi dan mempengaruhi gelagat isi rumah dalam ekonomi. Berdasarkan Laporan Kualiti Hidup Malaysia (2004), terdapat sebelas komponen Indeks Kualiti Hidup yang bersifat konvensional, namun Indeks Keagamaan dan Kerohanian tidak dimasukkan dalam Indeks Kualiti hidup Malaysia yang digunapakai sehingga kini. Justeru itu, dalam kajian ini, penekanan akan diberikan kepada sejauhmanakah faktor keagamaan dan kerohanian mampu mengubah corak pendapatan dan perbelanjaan isi rumah dalam mengatur kehidupan yang sejahtera dan sempurna agar tercapainya maksud kualiti hidup itu sendiri. Islam sebagai agama yang syumul ekonomi Islam jauh lebih unggul berbanding ekonomi kapitalis dan komunis yang mana dapat dilihat dari segi konsep menabung. Islam mengajar umatnya untuk berbelanja secara sederhana serta mengurangkan kecenderungan untuk menggunakan barang keperluan agar lebihkan menabung untuk kesejahteraan dan kedamaian. Inilah petanda bahawa seorang Muslim yang baik akan sentiasa mematuhi panduan syariah dengan mengamalkan tiga keutamaan berbelanja iaitu ‘Ad-Dharuriyat’ (keperluan asas), ‘Haajiyat’ (perbelanjaan sampingan seseorang) dan juga ‘Tahsiniyat’ / ‘Kamaliyat’ (keperluan yang menyempurnakan atau pelengkap kehidupan). Maka, seharusnya setiap individu Muslim itu khususnya menyedari hakikat bahawa kesederhanaan berbelanja itu sesuatu yang disukai Allah. Jelas sekali bahawa sebenarnya masih terdapat kekurangan dalam menilai corak perbelanjaan isi rumah agar seiring dengan anjuran Islam. Oleh itu, kajian yang dicadangkan ini dirasakan begitu penting sebagi satu kajian permulaan bagi melihat sejauhmana faktor agama dalam pengurusan ekonomi Islam dapat menjamin corak perbelanjaan yang diredhai Allah di samping tidak menjurus kepada masalah pembaziran. Namun permasalahannya sejauhmana individu yang mempunyai tahap kefahaman agama yang baik akan melahirkan sikap berbelanja yang baik? Inilah persoalan yang akan cuba diterokai dalam kajian ini nanti.

3 OBJEKTIF KAJIAN (1) Mengenalpasti tahap kefahaman isi rumah terhadap pengurusan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan yang dianjurkan Islam.

66

(2) Mengenalpasti gaya perbelanjaan isi rumah terhadap keutamaan berbelanja iaitu mengikut daruriyyat (asas), hajiyat (keperluan) dan tahsiniyyat (pelengkap) dengan tahap pendapatan isi rumah. (3) Menganalisis hubungan antara keutamaan berbelanja, pendapatan isi rumah dan Indeks Keagamaan.

4 PENGUKURAN DIMENSI KEAGAMAAN DAN DIMENSI GAYA BERBELANJA Kajian ini menggunakan analisis deskriptif (objektif pertama dan kedua) dan juga analisis korelasi (objektif ketiga) bagi menerangkan hubungan antara pembolehubah. Bagi mencapai objektif kedua dan ketiga, Indeks Keagamaan dan Indeks Gaya Berbelanja telah dibentuk bagi menggambarkan dimensi tahap keagamaan dan dimensi gaya berbelanja masing-masing. Persamaan umum berikut boleh digunakan untuk pengiraaan Indeks bagi setiap komponen (Rahmah Ismail et al., 2010) dan dapat ditunjukkan seperti berikut: ~ ~ 1 X i = nilai sebenar − nilai min I ij = ∑ X ik dengan nilai maks − nilai min lk ~ X ik = penormalan jumlah nilai skor individu i bagi setiap konstruk dalam indikator k I ij = indeks komponen ke-j bagi individu i yang diperolehi secara purata setelah dibahagikan dengan bilangan indikator l k = bilangan indikator yang terdapat dalam setiap komponen ke-j Berdasarkan kajian lepas, Naziruddin & M.Shabri (2003) menggunakan Indeks Keagamaan bagi mengukur tahap keagamaan terhadap gelagat tabungan di kalangan pelajar UIA. Indeks Keagamaan tersebut mengambil kira perbuatan wajib, sunat dan haram dengan wajaran masing-masing pada nilai 0.64, 0.01 dan 0.35. Namun, dalam kajian ini, nilai wajaran diletakkan sebagai 1 melalui pengaplikasian konsep Maqasid Syariat yang mempunyai kepentingan yang lebih kurang sama. Mohamad Akram Laldin (2010) mendefinisikan konsep Maqasid Syariat sebagai meletakkan manusia terus berada dalam kebaikan dan kesejahteraan yang meliputi keperluan membangunkan dunia dan memelihara keseimbangannya melalui pemeliharaan kelima-lima aspek dalam Maqasid Syariat. Dimensi gaya berbelanja turut diberikan wajaran 1 yang mengambilkira aspek daruriyyat, hajiyat dan tahsiniyyat sebagai pengukur kepada keutamaan berbelanja dalam Islam. Komponen (I) Nilai Keagamaan

Komponen (I)

DIMENSI KEAGAMAAN Indikator (k) Bilangan konstruk a. Menjaga agama 8 b. Menjaga nyawa 5 c. Menjaga akal 5 d. Menjaga harta 7 e. Menjaga keturunan 8 DIMENSI GAYA BERBELANJA Indikator (k) Bilangan konstruk

67

Gaya Berbelanja

a. Keutamaan daruriyyat b. Keutamaan hajiyat c. Keutamaan tahsiniyyat

8 5 7

Kajian Rahmah Ismail et al. (2010) mengukur daya saing pekerja dalam sektor pendidikan melalui pembentukan nilai Indeks Daya Saing, Indeks Kebolehan Kerja dan Indeks Prestasi Kerja. Sehubungan dengan itu, kajian ini cuba mengaplikasikan pengukuran nilai indeks tersebut melalui pembentukan nilai indeks baru yang dapat menggambarkan dimensi keagamaan dan dimensi gaya berbelanja. Ini dapat dianggarkan seperti berikut: Z iy =

Dengan

I ij adalah

m

∑w j =1

j

I ij

indeks komponen ke-j yang diperolehi melalui persamaan di atas,

manakala m adalah bilangan komponen yang terdapat dalam dimensi ke-y. Sementara w j adalah nilai wajaran mengikut kepentingan masing-masing seperti yang diterangkan di atas. Memandangkan dalam kajian ini pengiraan Indeks Keagamaan dan Indeks Gaya Berbelanja dikira secara berasingan dan tiada perkaitan antara satu sama lain, maka pembentukan indeks komposit tidak perlu dilakukan sebagaimana yang disarankan oleh Rahmah Ismail. Nilai indeks akan berada pada nilai 0 hingga 1 dengan nilai yang menghampiri 1 menunjukkan bahawa nilai keagamaan atau gaya berbelanja mengikut anjuran Islam berada pada tahap yang amat baik manakala nilai yang menghampiri 0 adalah sebaliknya. Skala indeks dapat diringkaskan seperti berikut: Nilai indeks Kurang daripada 0.2000 0.2001 hingga 0.4000 0.4001 hingga 0.6000 0.6001 hingga 0.8000 Lebih daripada 0.8001

Skala Amat lemah Lemah Sederhana Baik Amat baik

5 PERSAMPELAN Kajian ini merupakan kajian rintis yang mengambilkira seramai 45 orang responden dengan bilangan responden iaitu Ketua Isi Rumah (KIR) lelaki adalah seramai 43 orang manakala KIR perempuan adalah seramai 2 orang sahaja kerana kematian suami. Lokasi kajian tertumpu di kawasan bandar (32 orang) dan luar bandar (13 orang) bagi daerah Kuala Terengganu. Jika diperhatikan dari segi umur, kebanyakan KIR berumur di antara 20-an hingga 60-an. Umur yang paling muda di kalangan KIR adalah pada umur 25 tahun manakala umur yang paling tua adalah pada umur 69 tahun. Dari segi taraf pendidikan pula, kebanyakan KIR mempunyai latarbelakang pendidikan SPM ke bawah iaitu seramai 28 orang. Ciri-ciri demografi yang lain dapat ditunjukkan seperti Jadual 1 berikut:

68

Jadual 1: Profil Isi Rumah Bil.

Profil Lokasi

Bilangan

(a)

Bandar

32

Luar Bandar

13

Jumlah

45

Jantina KIR (b)

Lelaki

43

Perempuan

2

45

Umur KIR

(c)

20-30

2

31-40

8

41-50

13

51-60

15

61-70

7

45

Tahap Pendidikan KIR

(d)

Tidak bersekolah

1

PMR/SRP dan ke bawah

11

SPM

16

STPM/Diploma/Sijil Kemahiran

7

Ijazah dan ke atas

10

45

Status Perkahwinan (e)

Berkahwin

44

Duda/Janda/Balu

1

45

6 DAPATAN KAJIAN Berdasarkan Rajah 1, dapat diperhatikan bahawa sebanyak 51.0 % responden setuju dan 49.0 % lagi sangat setuju bahawa tahap kefahaman Islam yang jelas mendorong mereka untuk menguruskan perbelanjaan mereka secara baik dan berhemah. Ini bermakna bahawa semua responden yang terlibat menyedari akan kepentingan menguruskan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan mereka secara berhemah dan dianjurkan Islam.

69

Rajah 1: Tahap kefahaman isi rumah terhadap pengurusan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan yang dianjurkan Islam

22; 49.0%

23; 51.0%

Setuju Sangat setuju

7 GAYA PERBELANJAAN MENGIKUT TAHAP PENDAPATAN Jadual 2 di bawah menunjukkan analisis deskriptif bagi tahap pendapatan mengikut min skala perbelanjaan. Hasil kajian mendapati bahawa tahap pendapatan RM4001 ke atas menunjukkan nilai min yang tertinggi di antara ketiga-tiga tahap pendapatan dengan sisihan piawai sebanyak 0.702. Manakala tahap pendapatan RM2000 ke bawah menunjukkan menunjukkan nilai min yang paling rendah dengan sisihan piawai iaitu 1.007. Jadual 2: Analisis deskriptif tahap pendapatan mengikut min skala perbelanjaan Tahap Pendapatan

Frekuensi

Peratus

Min

Sisihan piawai

RM2000 ke bawah

17

37.8

2.53

1.007

RM2001 - RM4000

11

24.4

3.27

0.905

RM4001 ke atas

17

37.8

3.65

0.702

Total

45

100.0

3.13

0.991

Hasil ujian ANOVA pula menunjukkan bahawa, wujudnya nilai yang signifikan antara kumpulan bagi tahap pendapatan pada aras keyakinan 0.05 ( p = 0.002 ) dengan nilai F=7.087. Ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapatnya perbezaan antara min skala perbelanjaan bagi tahap pendapatan.

70

Jadual 3: Ujian ANOVA untuk membandingkan perbezaan skala perbelanjaan mengikut tahap pendapatan Tahap Jumlah Kuasa Darjah Min Kuasa Pendapatan dua Kebebasan dua F p Antara 10.901 2 5.450 7.087 0.002 Kumpulan Dalam 32.299 42 0.769 Kumpulan Jumlah 43.200 44

Ujian Post Hoc LSD (Jadual 4) menunjukkan perbezaan min yang paling tinggi di antara tahap pendapatan RM4001 ke atas dan RM2000 ke bawah sebanyak 1.118 dengan nilai signifikan 0.002 diikuti tahap pendapatan RM2001 - RM4000 dengan RM2000 ke bawah dengan perbezaan min sebanyak 0.743 (p=0.085). Manakala perbezaan min yang paling rendah dicatat oleh tahap pendapatan RM4001 ke atas dan RM2001 – RM4000 sebanyak 0.374 dengan nilai p yang tidak signifikan iaitu 0.518. Jadual 4: Ujian Post Hoc LSD bagi skala perbelanjaan dan tahap pendapatan Perbezaan Tahap pendapatan min I RM2001 - RM4000

J RM2000 ke bawah

I-J 0.743

p 0.085*

RM4001 ke atas

RM2000 ke bawah

1.118

0.002**

RM4001 ke atas

RM2001 – RM4000

0.374

0.518

* signifikan pada aras keyakinan 0.10 ** signifikan pada aras keyakinan 0.05

Merujuk kepada Jadual 5, jelas menunjukkan bahawa terdapat hubungan antara gelagat berbelanja yang dikategorikan mengikut daruriyyat, hajiyat, tahsiniyyat dengan Indeks Keagamaan. Indeks Keagamaan adalah berhubungan secara positif dengan kategori gelagat berbelanja iaitu paling tinggi dicatat oleh perkara tahsiniyyat iaitu sebanyak 0.568 diikuti oleh perkara daruriyyat sebanyak 0.557 dan yang paling rendah ialah perkara hajiyyat sebanyak 0.315.

71

Jadual 5: Korelasi antara Indeks Keagamaan terhadap gelagat berbelanja mengikut daruriyyat, hajiyat, tahsiniyyat Indeks Perkara Daruriyyat Hajiyat Tahsiniyyat Keagamaan Daruriyyat Korelasi Pearson 1 0.551 0.537 0.557 p 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** Hajiyat Korelasi Pearson 0.551 1 0.547 0.315 p 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.035*** Tahsiniyyat Korelasi Pearson 0.537 0.547 1 0.568 p 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** Indeks Korelasi Pearson 0.557 0.315 0.568 1 Keagamaan p 0.000*** 0.035*** 0.000*** *** korelasi adalah signifikan pada aras 0.01

Jadual 6 menunjukkan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan mempunyai hubungan positif (nilai p adalah signifikan) dengan Indeks Keagamaan dengan nilai korelasi masing-masing iaitu 0.374 dan 0.318. Perbelanjaan pula menunjukkan nilai korelasi yang tinggi dengan pendapatan iaitu sebanyak 0.731. Jadual 6: Korelasi antara Indeks Keagamaan, Pendapatan dan Perbelanjaan

Indeks Keagamaan Pendapatan

Korelasi Pearson p Korelasi Pearson p Perbelanjaan Korelasi Pearson p

Indeks Pendapatan Perbelanjaan Keagamaan 1 0.374 0.318 0.011** 0.034** 0.374 1 0.731 0.011** 0.000*** 0.318 0.731 1 0.034** 0.000***

*** korelasi adalah signifikan pada aras 0.01 ** korelasi adalah signifikan pada aras 0.05

8 KESIMPULAN Kesimpulannya, terdapat hubungan yang positif antara gelagat berbelanja yang dikategorikan mengikut daruriyyat, hajiyat, tahsiniyyat dengan Indeks Keagamaan. Begitu juga dengan pendapatan dan perbelanjaan, yang turut berhubungan secara positif dengan Indeks Keagamaan. Maka, jelaslah bahawa mereka yang mempunyai kefahaman agama yang baik cenderung untuk memiliki pola pendapatan dan perbelanjaan yang lebih baik berbanding mereka yang tidak mempunyai kefahaman agama.

72

Rujukan Ariffin Md Salleh et.al (2002). Gelagat Tabungan Pengguna Malaysia: Kajian Kes di Negeri Melaka, Journal of Consumer and Family Economics, 5. M.s. 42-53. Chang, L.C. (2005), The Study of Subculture and Consumer Behaviour: An Example of Taiwanese University Students’ Consumption Culture, Journal of American Academy of Business, Vol.7, No.2, pp. 258-265. Delener, N. (1990a), An Examination of The Religious Influences As Predictors of Consumer Innovativeness, Journal of Mid West Marketing, Spring, Vol.5, pp. 167-178. Essoo, N. & Dibb, S. (2004), Religious influences on shopping behaviour: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Marketing Management, 20, 683-712. Hirschmann, E.C. (1981), American Jewish Ethnicity: Its Relationship to Some Selected Aspects of Consumer Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, Summer, Vol. 45, pp. 102-110. Laporan Tahunan Bank Negara Malaysia. 2004. Kuala Lumpur: Bank Negara. McDaniel, S.W and Burnett, J.J. (1990), Consumer Religiosity and Retail Store Evaluative Criteria, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 18, No.2, pp. 101-112. Mokhlis,S. (2009), Relevancy and Measurement of Religiosity in Consumer Behavior Research, International Business Research, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 75-84. Naziruddin Abdullah & M. Shabri A.M (2003). The Influence of Religiosity, Income and Consumption On Saving Behavior: The Case of IIUM. Iqtisad Journal of Islamic Economics. 4(1):37-55. Ahmad Mahdzan Ayob (1991), Teori Mikroekonomi. Dewan Bahasadan Pustaka. Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur. Nooraini Hj. Khaironi (1996), Peranan Mahasiswa Sebagai Pengguna Yang Bijaksana, Kertas Kerja Seminar Kepenggunaan Institut Pengajian Tinggi, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 14 Ogos 1996. Wan Sabri Wan Hussin & Mohamed Yusoff Sanusi (1996), Perlakuan Isi Rumah Sebagai Yang Bijaksana di dalam Membuat Keputusan Perbelanjaan Isi Rumah. Kertas Kerja Seminar Kepenggunaan Institut Pengajian Tinggi, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 14 Ogos 1996. Amir Baharuddin (2010), Berita Nasional Malaysia (BERNAMA), 26 Oktober 2010. Laporan Kualiti hidup Malaysia (2004).

73

Mohamad Akram Laldin (2010), Maqasid Syariah Sebagai Dasar Sistem Ekonomi Berkeadilan. Kertas Kerja dibentangkan di Seminar Maqasid Syariah: Menggagas Model Ekonomi Berkeadilan , 7 Ogos 2010. Rahmah Ismail et al. (2010), Analisis Status dan Penentu Daya Saing Pekerja dalam Sektor Pendidikan di Malaysia, Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia 44 (2010) 83-91.

FOOD INSECURITY AMONG PUBLIC UNIVERSITY STUDENTS RECEIVING FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE IN MALAYSIA 1

Norhasmah Sulaiman1,2, Zuroni Md Jusoh1 2 & Marhana Ab Razak1 Department of Resource Management and Consumer Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2 Center of Excellence for Sustainable Consumption, Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Email: [email protected]; Tel: 03-89467106; Fax: 03-89436157

Abstract The objectives of the study were to determine the prevalance and the consequences of food insecurity among public university (IPTA) students receiving financial assistance in Peninsular Malaysia. Four Public Universiti in peninsular Malaysia were randomly selected namely University Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP) (131 respondents), Universiti Malaya (UM) (120 respondents), Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) (115 respondents) and University Sultan ZainalAbidin (UNiSZA) (118 respondents). A total of 484 respondents were selected through multi-stage random sampling. Respondents were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to obtain information on their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, food security status, dietary intake and health-related quality of life. Results indicates that 73.7% of the respondents reported that the amount of financial assistance receiving from the agencies was not sufficient. Approximately 67.1% of the respondents had some kind of food insecurity .Two types of coping strategies apply by respondents to prevent food insecurity i.e. food related coping strategies and non-food coping strategies. About 17.4% and 8.1% of respondents were overweight and obesity, respectively. Lack of micronutrients intake (i.e. vitamin and mineral) is the major findings identified in this study. Domains related to the mental health status show relatively lower compared to physical health status among the respondents. In conclusion, university and related agencies should provide meal plan for their students who have problem to buy food due to financial problems. Keywords: Food insecurity, Consequences, Public University, Students

1 INTRODUCTION Food insecurity is defined as ‘access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life (World Bank, 1986). On the other hand, food insecurity occur whenever the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or the ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain. Risk factors of food insecurity include any factor that limits resources such as money, time, information, health or the proportion of those resources available for food acquisition. Other risk factors include those that limit employment opportunities, wage and benefit scales and social assistance benefits, or that increase non discretionary nonfood expenditure such as the cost of housing and utilities, health care, taxes, 74

child care and the likelihood of emergencies (Campbell, 1991). However, food insecurity primary results from inadequate income (Tarasuk, 2001; Bickel et al., 2000). Food insecurity affects dietary intake, nutritional status and physical well-being of individuals (Wolfe and Frongillo, 2001). Poor health and nutritional outcomes of food insecurity have been reported for elderly persons. Food insecurity among elderly persons has been shown to contribute to fewer number of servings of major food groups, lower intakes of energy, protein, carbohydrate, saturated fat, niacin, riboflavin, vitamins B-6 vitamin B-12, vitamin A, calcium magnesium, iron and zinc, as well as lower skinfold thickness and physiological and social obstacles to obtain a healthful diet (Guthrie and Lin Biing-Hwan, 2002). Several studies have reported the relationship between food insecurity and health and nutritional status among women (Tarasuk and Beaton, 1999). Women from food insecure households have been reported to have low intakes of nutrients including energy, protein, thiamin, riboflavin, folate, phosphorus, magnesium, zink and vitamins A, E, C, and B-6 (Kirkpatrick and Tarasuk, 2008). Several studies have also shown that food insecure women had lower frequency of fruits and vegetables consumption and higher scores indicative of disordered eating patterns (Gulliford et al., 2003). Other consequences of food insecurity among adult women include increased body weight (Olson and Strawderman, 2008), poor overall health (Stuff et al., 2004), poor mental health (Chilton and Booth, 2007), adverse social repercussions and social capital (i.e., perceived social trust and community reciprocity) (Walker et al., 2007) and higher rates of chronic disease (Stuff et al., 2007). Food insecurity affects dietary intake, nutritional status and physical well-being of individuals (Wolfe and Frongillo, 2001). The various studies on adverse consequences of food insecurity for children can be grouped into three broad areas of health consequences, psychosocial and behavioral impacts, and learning and academic outcomes (Wilson, 2005). Several studies have also indicated that children from food insufficient households do not perform well on certain academic achievement tests (i.e., reading and mathematics) as do children from food sufficient households (Frongillo et al., 2006). While there is little studies on food insecurity reported among university students. Inadequacy of the student loan system (Ferguson, 2004; Meldrum and Willows, 2006), increase in cost of living and rise in tuition and compulsory fees suggest that university students experience food insecurity. In Malaysia, there is no study has been carried out on food insecurity among university students. Thus, this research proposes to determine the prevalance and the consequences of food insecurity among public university (IPTA) students receiving financial assistance in Peninsular Malaysia.

2 2.1

METHODOLOGY Location and Study Design

This study was conducted in Peninsular Malaysia. Four Public University involved in this study namely, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin 75

(UNiSZA), Universiti Malaya (UM) and Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP). A cross sectional study was utilized to assess food insecurity among the university students.All respondents were undergraduate students.

2.2 Sampling Procedure A multistage random sampling was utilized for sample selection. Prior to data collection, Peninsular Malaysiawas divided into for zone i.e, Southern (Johor, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan), Northern (Perlis, Pulau Pinang, Kedah), Eastern (Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang) and Central (Perak, Selangor, Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur). From that, one state for each zone was randomly selected, namely Melaka (Southern), Perlis (Northern), Terengganu (Eastern) and Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur (Central). After that, one public university was randomly selected from the selected state for each zone. Finally, a total of four public universities were involved in this study, i.e. UTeM in Melaka, UniMAP in Perlis, UNiSZA in Terengganu and UM in Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur. The inclusion criterion for this study was respondents among undergraduate students at least in second semester or above and receiving financial assistance or students loan from various agencies such as Perbadanan Tabung Pendidikan Tinggi Nasional (PTPTN), Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam (JPA), Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA), State Governments, Pusat Zakat, Baitulmal and Non-Government Agencies. 2.3 Instruments The respondents were face to face interviewed using a structured questionnaire to obtain information on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, food and non-food expenditure, food security status, food and non-food coping strategies related to food insecurity, dietary intake,activity physical, self-rated health and academic performance. The interviews were conducted at the respondents’ hostel and cafeteria in their universities. The anthropometric measurements such as waist and hip circumferences, weight and height were obtained by the researchers. 2.4 Data Analysis The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) for window was utilized to analyse the data. First, the data was presented descriptively using frequency, means, ranges and standard deviation.

3 RESULTS 3.1 Backgroud of the Respondents In total, 484 respondents participated in this study. Four Public Universiti in peninsular Malaysia were randomly selected namely University Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP) (131 respondents), Universiti Malaya (UM) (120 respondents), UniversitiTeknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) (115 76

respondents) and University Sultan ZainalAbidin (UNiSZA) (118 respondents). Majority of the respondents were females (53.9%), Malay (68.7%) and stay in college (86.6%). About 81.6% of the respondents are receiving financial assistance from PTPTN, 8.3% from JPA, 3.3% from Yayasan Negeri, 0.8% from MARA, 0.2% from TNB, 0.2% from Zakat and 0.4% from YayasanKerajaan. The mean income of the respondents was RM 2500.42/semester. Approximately 73.7% of the respondents reported that the amount of financial assistance receiving from the agencies was not sufficient. 3.2 Food Security Status The prevalence of food insecurity among the respondents is presented in Table 1. A majority of the respondents (67.1%) had some kind of food insecurity with 44.4% assigned to low food insecurity and 22.7% were very low food insecurity. Approximately 10.1% and 22.7% of the respondents assigned to high food secure and marginal food security, respectively. High food security and marginal food security categorized as food security while low food insecurity and very low food insecurity categorized as food insecurity (United States Department of Agriculture, 2008). Table 1: Prevalence of Food Security Status of the Respondents Food Security Status

n

%

High food security

49

10.1

Marginal food security

110

22.7

Low food insecurity

215

44.4

Very low food insecurity

110

22.7

3.3 Coping strategies Related to Food Insecurity There are two types of coping strategies apply by respondents to prevent food insecurity i.e. food related coping strategies and non-food coping strategies. The examples of food related coping strategies used such as using less expensive food (83.3%), cutting the portion size or number of dishes for meals (78.9%), Reducing the number of meals eaten in a day (73.8%), cooking on his own in the college or house rental to reduce the expenditure on food (48.1%), borrowing money to buy food from friends (35.0%), skipping meals for the whole day (35.0%), receiving food assistance from friends (18.0%) and purchasing food on credit (6.3%). Meanwhile, several non-food related coping strategies applied by respondents such as being thrifty in using money (95.9%), reducing personal expenditure such as telephone bill, reload cards, clothing and cosmetics (92.5%), planning for expenditure (86.8%), requesting money from relatives or friends (68.1%), engaging in odd jobs (23.1%) and steal (1.1%). Table 2 presents coping strategies in relation to food insecurity applied by respondents.

77

Table 2: Coping Strategies in relation to Food Insecurity

Coping Strategies Food related coping strategies Eating food that the price cheap Example: instant noodle, biscuit, sardine Reduce/lessen dish type that eaten Example one dish type only Reduce the number of meals per day. Example a meal once or twice a day Cook on his own in college / rented house to reduce cost food Share of food with friends Borrow money with friend to buy food Not eating all day, or fasting Receiving food assistance from friends Buy food on credit. Non- Food Coping Strategies Save the expense Reducing personal expenses Make financial planning Requesting financial assistance from family or friends Do part-time work Forced to steal

(Total=484) n (%) 400 (83.3) 381 (78.9) 354 (73.8) 228 (48.1) 171 (35.8) 168 (35.1) 144 (30.4) 85 (18.0) 30 (6.3) 462 (95.9) 443 (92.5) 413 (86.8) 322 (68.1) 109 (23.1) 5 (1.1)

3.4 Anthropometric Measurements The results determined that 16.5% of the respondents were underweight, followed by 58.1% were normal weight,17.4% of respondents were overweight and 8.1% obesity. Literature reported that people who had experiencingfood insecurityhaveexcess weightand obesity. Overweightand obesityoccurs when arespondentdoes not control theintakeof carbohydrates andfat, such as riceand breadtocause theaccumulation ofadipose(excess fat) in the body. These types of food are cheaper compared to food that consist high protein (i.e. fish, chicken), vitamin and mineral (i.e. vegetables and fruits). 3.5 Dietary Intakes The energy and nutrient intakes of the respondents were compared to the Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Malaysia (RNI) (NCCFN, 2005). Three categories (i.e. acceptable (≥ 66% RNI), marginal (50%-66% RNI), low (