gurus. Huczynski (1993) sees a key element of management gurus' appeal ... He/
she can not only guide but literally takes the disciple to a state of perfection and ...
‘More Thoughts about Gurus’ paper presented at the Critical Studies Management Conference Postcolonialism Stream 14 - 16 July 1999 at UMIST, Manchester, England Elisabeth M. Wilson Institute for Development Policy and Management University of Manchester Crawford House, Precinct Centre Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9QS, UK Phone: 0161 275 7443 Fax: 0161 273 8829 Email:
[email protected] Professor P. N. Mishra, Director, Institute of Management Studies Devi Ahilya University Khandwa Road Indore - 452017 India Email:
[email protected] Abstract This paper explores popular understandings of the term ‘guru’, in relation to management and the yoga tradition. It has been argued previously (Wilson, 1999) that the relationship of Western management towards yoga has been one of appropriation of techniques and concepts, and this paper examines this phenomenon. In yoga a guru may be regarded as a teacher, but also a spiritual guide. ‘Management guru’is a term used to describe authoritative, usually popular, and often populist, management theorists. The nature of the relationship between guru and follower varies on a number of counts: long term, personal instruction, versus short-term, transitory performance, for the yogic and management guru respectively. There are however similarities, for instance the primacy of verbal transmission, and the urge to be in the guru’s physical presence. The paper argues that the traditional guru’s authority derives substantially from respect for knowledge acquired through study, and instruction via a lineage of gurus. Additionally the yoga guru practices what he or she preaches, unlike the majority of management gurus. Huczynski (1993) sees a key element of management gurus’ appeal as the esoteric identification of particular ideas with an individual. However in yoga knowledge is esoteric but not exclusive. It is in the arena of spiritual versus mundane that the stark difference between the yogic guru and management guru is revealed. In yoga the aim is to abase the ego, whereas most management gurus seek self-aggrandisement. The paper ends by suggesting what lessons might be learned from the yogic tradition.
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Introduction This paper explores popular understandings of the term ‘guru’, particularly in relation to management, and compares these with the yogic tradition. After giving a brief background of the practice of yoga the authors consider broad differences between the nature of gurus in the yoga tradition with management gurus. This includes exploration of definitions and descriptions of guru and management guru, the nature of the relationship between teacher and student/follower, the teaching and learning that takes place, the basis for validity and authority, and spiritual claims. The paper ends by suggesting what lessons might be learned from the yogic tradition. To clarify discussion in the paper, a distinction will be made between gurus and management gurus, and (yoga) students and (management guru) followers.
The background of yoga Many of those unfamiliar with yoga understand it to be a series of physical exercises, with perhaps some esoteric philosophy thrown in. In fact yoga, which is related to the English word ‘yoke’, describes a ‘union’ and is a holistic system for life. It is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘yuj’ meaning to bind, join, attach; it can also mean to direct or concentrate, or use and apply (Iyengar, 1966). Hatha Yoga (physical practice) is what is popularly understood by 'yoga' and for many Western students this is their introduction to Yoga. Hatha Yoga is however more than just Asana (posture). It also includes as an integral part of practice: Mudras (gestures), Bandhas (locks), and Pranayama (breath control). Unlike many other systems of physical exercise, Hatha yoga is performed slowly, with concentration, and non-competitively. Although composed of physical practices Hatha yoga has more than physical results. In combination with other practices such as mantra (repetition of sound) and Yantra (observation of verbal images) Hatha Yoga is one route to a spiritual path, or ‘the way towards realisation through rigorous discipline' (Iyengar, 1966). Traditionally Hatha yoga was advocated as a way of preparing the body for its full spiritual awakening (Miller, 1999). Other paths of yoga are Raja, Bhakti, Jnana, and Karma Yoga; these describe paths that respectively concern: control over mind, worship or devotion, study, and selfless action. Thus yoga encompasses mind, body, spirit and relationships with others, and is fundamentally a spiritual practice. It may also be a religious practice, the closest obvious links being with Hinduism, but spiritual development can take place without adherence to specific religious beliefs. It has been argued that the relationship of Western management towards yoga has been one of appropriation of techniques and concepts (Wilson, 1999). Thus there has been a partial extraction from the whole, in postcolonial manner. An example would be the use of yogic techniques to alleviate stress, rather than a holistic examination of someone’s life circumstances. This paper looks at the appropriation of the term ‘guru’, and in particular its application to management.
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Gurus and management gurus In yoga a guru may be regarded simply as a teacher, and this is probably the best known meaning. Iyengar (1966) takes a broader view and defines a guru as a ‘spiritual preceptor, one who illumines the darkness of spiritual doubt’. Wood (1959) suggests that the guru has attained ‘divine consciousness’ (p. 12) and is aware of how this has come to pass. Some of the meanings carried by the word guru in Sanskrit, depending upon the context, are as follows: teacher, the one who initiates the disciple in the Gyatri Mantra, chief of a sect, master, exponent of a new principle, old person, respectable person, important, desirable, proud, planet Jupiter, heavy, vast, long, big, necessary, intense and difficult to digest. The guru has been assigned a very important role in spiritual traditions of the East. He/she is as important as, nay, rather more important than God. In spiritual tradition guru is the person who has achieved the state of perfection and self-realisation. He/she is a living God. He/she can not only guide but literally takes the disciple to a state of perfection and self-realisation. A real guru is supposed to be at the ultimate level of self-realisation, with the capability of bringing his/her disciple to the same level. Once a disciple surrenders himself/herself to the guru, the guru becomes totally responsible for his/her spiritual growth. The disciple has to do only one job – to surrender to his/her guru, the rest is to be done by the guru. The real guru does not want anything from his/her disciple, but only the ultimate well being, that is, selfrealisation and blissful state of mind of his disciple. A guru is a selfless, egoless and realised person. Although a guru is usually thought of as another person, there is also a concept of the ‘inner guru’ discussed by Feuerstein (Miller, 1999). This is ‘our own true nature’, which may however be difficult to find without external guidance (Miller, 1999). Jackson (1996) traces the genealogy of the term ‘guru’ from its Sanskrit origins to modern usage and notes that it has appeared in business journals from the 1980s onwards. ‘Management guru’ is a term used unthinkingly by many writers and commentators to describe authoritative, usually popular, and often populist, management theorists. Contrary to the high status of a guru in spiritual parlance, a management guru can be a management consultant, a management thinker or someone who has initiated a new managerial wisdom. Huczynski (1993) suggests that management gurus can be classified as academic gurus, consultant gurus, and hero-managers. Only the latter actually practise, or have practised, what they preach. Huczynski (1993) notes that the use of the word ‘guru’ (for management gurus) is slightly pejorative, unlike its original usage. He suggests that it implies an active search for hidden secrets on the part of managers; this is mirrored by the apparently esoteric nature of knowledge which management gurus impart (Huczynski, 1993). He notes that the guru phenomenon is more prevalent in the US. An element not considered by writers on management gurus is the role of ego. A true follower of yoga attempts to abase the ego and does not indulge in self-publicity as is commonly seen in management gurus. Ego in this sense is regarded as a veil covering the spiritual self (Chapman, 1973). In yoga the aim is to abase the ego, whereas most management gurus seek self-aggrandisement. Around those manifestly self-promoting yogic gurus there is a sense of unease which surfaces from time to time.
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Recent years have seen the emergence of what we would term ‘hybrid gurus’. These are gurus from the yoga tradition who have taken on some of the activities and trappings of the management guru, a notable example being Deepak Chopra.
The nature of the relationship A guru in the yogic tradition is a teacher, but one who waits for the student to appear with the question rather than proselytising. However rather than the recipient of the teaching being called a student or pupil, they may be called a disciple (Miller, 1999). It is likely that the delegates at a management guru seminar would balk at being called disciples. It would imply a combination of subordinate position and a devotion unacceptable to Westerners. A spiritual guru works for the ultimate well being of his/her disciple, and he/she does not want anything in return. A management guru gives his/her advice in exchange for material benefit. A spiritual guru appears when there is a need and a mature disciple is available, whereas a management guru appears when he/she is paid for the job. There is a saying that when the student is ready the teacher appears (Chapman, 1973). A management guru sells his/her wisdom, while a spiritual guru gives his knowledge only when a worthy disciple is available. Substantial sums can be earned by management gurus, through a variety of media: books, videos, and seminars (Clark and Salaman, 1998). Indeed Huczynski (1993) considers that it is essential for the management guru’s thoughts to be conveyed in a number of forms, in order to attain the critical mass necessary for guruhood. Both Iyengar and Sivananda, two forms of yoga that are known by their founder’s name and have spread in the West, have been propagated by modern marketing methods; the Sivananda foundation was among the first to use the Internet, with an ‘Om’page. The relationship of guru to student may be perceived as close as mother and child (Reymond, 1972). Indeed the guru may give of him or herself in transferring some of his or her vitality to the disciple (Wood, 1959). For the management guru, Clark and Salaman (1998) suggest that, contrary to conventional opinion, followers are an important component in the genesis and maintenance of the management guru. Although they do not use phrase social construction, this is what they appear to be implying, in suggesting that the management guru is a purveyor of management fashion who does not unilaterally impose meaning (Clark and Salaman, 1998). The management guru would not exist of course without a band of followers. Curiously Reymond (1972) suggests that a guru’s disciples are necessary for the guru. This appears to imply that for both guru and management guru there is a symbiotic relationship with adherents. Feuerstein suggests that one should follow one’s instinct in selecting a guru (Miller, 1999). However the selection of a management guru usually follows the crowd. Management gurus are generally dogmatic, and advocate the ‘one best way’ solution. Whilst Jackson (1996) identifies that gurus are authoritative, this is, as he suggests, predicated on a willing surrender by the student. Yoga originates from India, a country where there is relatively high power distance (Hofstede, 1991), and the relationship between guru and student may appear authoritarian to those from other countries. However this is based upon a willing surrender by the student to his or her chosen guru. For speedy progress to occur, many advocate total obedience to the guru in thought attitude and action (Reymond, 1972). Although guidance on method is provided, in yoga there is also emphasis on the student finding his or her own path, rather than relying on a ready-made formula. Many gurus acknowledge that there are many paths to the same end. Jackson (1996) discusses the
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authoritative and potentially authoritarian nature of the relationship with the management guru, pointing out that while the original guru-manager relationship is voluntary, the subordinates on whom the guru’s theories are subsequently implemented may experience them as authoritarian. Whilst a minority of yogic gurus of the twentieth century live in splendid surroundings, relatively remote from the ordinary adherent, for many students of yoga the relationship allows more access and dialogue with the guru. Thus the relationship may resemble that of mentor-menthe. The management guru cannot offer this degree of intimacy. A further key difference, omitted from Jackson’s (1996) analysis, is the long-term versus short-term relationship of the yogic and management guru respectively. For the yoga student, it is a personal, long-term relationship; however, the relationship with a management guru, with some notable exceptions, appears to be relatively transitory and one-way (Clark and Salaman, 1995), although invested with emotion. A notable exception to the short-term relationship is the role of Deming in relation to Japan, which was long term. This is not to say that the guru encourages prolonged dependence. When the student reaches sufficient spiritual awareness, then the guru may encourage him or her to leave, taking the seed of teaching that can be spread further (Reymond, 1972). Some gurus recognise that their disciples can exceed their own achievements (Werner, 1977). This can be contrasted with the management guru who does not expect followers to exceed him/her intellectually or practically.
The nature of teaching and learning There are both similarities and dissimilarities between the nature of the teaching of gurus and management gurus respectively. For both gurus and management gurus Jackson (1996) records the importance and esoteric nature of verbal transmission from teacher to student. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (sayings or aphorisms) are perhaps the best known typology of the practices of yoga (Prabhvananda and Isherwood, 1953). A Sutra means a thread or bead, and in a time before the printing press, students were expected to remember the sayings by heart. As a verbally transmitted tradition the Sutras are necessarily brief. With the advent of mass literacy the modern student can become acquainted with them by reading one of the commentaries which further explains each saying (e.g. Prabhavananda and Isherwood, 1953). However in the personal experience of the authors this cannot substitute for a teacher. A preference for direct contact is also manifested in relation to management. Crainer (1996) reports that although three-quarters of personnel directors buy four management books a year, only a small proportion of these are read, and that ideas are absorbed instead at conferences and seminars. In both relationships embodiment, or being in the presence, has special significance. The yogic or religious guru offers Darshan, an audience, although he or she may also have many followers who are unable to come into the presence (Chapman, 1973). Darshan can be translated as being in the presence of the guru, being seen by him, and also the transmission of a current between guru and student (Reymond, 1972). For the manager, there is particular investment (in time, money and emotion) in attending a live seminar, rather than learning just through books or videos, though many have to content themselves with the latter. This brings us to one of the key points, that of performance. A view of the management guru as performer is discussed and developed in Clark and Salaman (1995) and Jackson (1995). Clark and Salaman (1996) cite a number of aspects associated with a successful performance
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by a management guru: a powerful physical presence, commitment and passion, and utter certainty in the correctness of their proposals. This is combined with a risky strategy of challenging the audience, involving participants and conveying mysterious insights (Clark and Salaman, 1996). The management guru’s success thus appears contingent upon showmanship, whereas the guru relies on example and instruction without seeking to impress. Communication between a guru and a student can take place without words being spoken (Reymond, 1972), whereas the management guru’s communication is built on verbal and written utterances. Huczynski (1993) examines the use of ‘claptraps’, such as the ‘list of three’. This can be contrasted with the use of silence by the guru. However in both repetition can play a part. There is a similarity to mantra (Wilson, 1997) in Clark and Salaman’s (1998 p.12) description of ‘verbal utterances, whose meaning lies in the act of repetition’. Whereas gurus use symbols, management gurus stand accused of manipulating them (Clark and Salaman, 1998). Management gurus are proselytising and evangelising, whereas the opposite is the case with the yogic guru; the latter does not need to indulge in propaganda (Chapman, 1973). There may be a different approach both to problem solving. Chapman (1973) writes that in the West we assume that knowledge and understanding are equivalent, and therefore that if there is a problem we have to acquire more information. Management gurus provide instant solutions, commodified ideas, whereas gurus do not necessarily provide solutions at all, but rather focus on process. It has been suggested that US management gurus tend to focus on content, whereas UK management gurus focus on process (Huczynski, 1993). Yogic gurus impart both, with probably more emphasis on process. However the guru teaches by example, and is him or herself a leading exponent of the practices advocated, rather than exhorting other to implement what may not have been personally undertaken. The guru does not practise in order to exhibit, but because self-practice is the foundation upon which the teaching of others is founded.
The validity of teaching and source of authority Both gurus and management gurus claim validity for their ideas and practices. Whereas the guru relies on continuity as a hallmark of acceptability, the management guru trades on novelty. Despite this Huczynski (1993) suggests that there have only been six big ‘management idea families’ (p. 3) in the twentieth century. Management guru ideas tend to follow a life cycle bell curve (Clark and Salaman, 1998), with new ideas being in fact recycled old ideas (McGovern, 1995). Management guru ideas may be accepted as valid, even though they avoid fundamental questioning (Huczynski, 1993), and invite doubts about their efficacy in many cases (Clark and Salaman, 1998). McGovern’s (1995) account of the testing of Peter Scott-Morgan’s ‘Unwritten Rules of the Game’ is one of the few attempts to assess the value of an idea and associated technique. The epistemology of yoga is essentialist but also syncretic, that is, as new ideas have come along they have been absorbed without the previous ideas being discarded, even when conflicting (Worthington, 1982). Yogic teaching can appear contradictory and chaotic, but underneath is a single simple purpose. On the other hand management is often written and spoken about as if it were rational and logical. Superficially this is the appeal of the management guru’s offering, although models underlying management range from the essentialist to post industrial notions of social constructionism. To seek to understand yoga intellectually will not work. Chapman (1973) describes this as an intuitive and spiritual journey
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compared with an intellectual journey, and one could add emotional journey. Yoga is experiential; there is no yoga without practice; management is also experiential but is often explained through idealised theoretical models, particularly those reducible to an overhead slide or handout (Huczynski, 1993). There is a belief that the guru has absolute knowledge and truth, unavailable otherwise (Jackson, 1996). Whereas part of the guru’s authority derives from the fact that the guru remains a seeker of higher knowledge (Reymond, 1972, it is a minority of management gurus who actually run businesses (Crainer, 1996), the hero-managers in Huczynski’s (1993) parlance. Huczynski (1993) sees a key element of management gurudom as the esoteric identification of particular ideas with a particular individual. This is a further difference from the classical guru role, where knowledge imparted is esoteric but not exclusive. One can however cite Iyengar (1966) and Sivananda (1991) as gurus who have lent their names to particular styles of yoga. Both gurus and management gurus may be prescriptive. This is leads to students and followers respectively being prepared to carry out the directions given without criticism (Huczynski, 1993). However for the yoga student this proceeds from the foundation of a willing and conscious surrender to the authority of the guru. Jackson (1996) suggests that the guru’s authority is derived from his charismatic qualities, which are also evident in the management guru’s presentation. It is suggested that some gurus can divine the thoughts of their students (Wood, 1959). This paper argues that the traditional guru’s authority derives not only from his or her charismatic personality, but also from respect for knowledge acquired through study of the sacred texts and instruction via a lineage of gurus. The invoking of myths and stories can be seen in the management guru (Clark and Salaman, 1998), and may be an attempt at authentication.
The nature of the appeal Huczynski (1993) suggests that there are a number of pre-requisites for success as a management guru. First the idea should be timely, and second brought to the attention of the potential audience. Third it should be apposite to organisational needs, and be perceived as meeting individual managers’ needs, with both cognitive and affective components, offering reassurance. Last there should be an engaging and inspirational presentation (Huczynski, 1993), which has been discussed earlier. The appeal of the guru tends to be motivational and inspirational in a quietly inspiring manner, rather than surrounded by the razzmatazz of the management guru. The ideas imparted may in both cases appear to be esoteric, for instance some yogis advocate that the student should not speak about what has been learned (Reymond, 1972). However for the management guru herein lies a paradox. The management guru has to imply that his or her ideas are exclusive and novel, to make a unique appeal to followers. However at the same time in the absence of widespread dissemination (Huczynski, 1993) the management guru would not gain sufficient credence to be in a position to propagate; the necessary actions include branding, advertising and product development (Huczynski, 1993). Management consultants are also hugely ambitious, promising nothing short of organisational transformation (Clark and Salaman, 1998). However the guru merely offers personal
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transformation. Clark and Salaman (1998) suggest that there is an unspoken mutual understanding between the management guru and the follower. The guru manages meaning in his or her utterances, and in combination with the willing assent of the immediate managers/followers, but the message for managers is that they in turn should manage meaning for their subordinates (Clark and Salaman, 1998). A series of these messages purveyed by management gurus easily comes to mind such as: Management by Objectives, Total Quality Management, and Business Process ReEngineering. However, the latest fad always seems to be just that; in management the espousal of new ideas is something akin to serial monogamy. At times management practitioners seem to be seeking the philosopher’s stone, ironic when new ideas often resemble old ones (Huczynski, 1993). Other sources of appeal have been suggested as the metaphors of heroism that are conveyed, complete with epic tales (Clark and Salaman, 1998); magical transformation which offers a technique for control (Clark and Salaman, 1996); predictability (Huczynski, 1993); and reassurance (Crainer, 1996). In yoga control of the emotions is achieved as the ego is sublimated with the aim of nonattachment to the material world; the emotions are however fully acknowledged. In the practice of management, emotions are often denied and their expression limited to prescribed forms and places. Paradoxically the management consultant offers ideas in a highly charged emotional atmosphere. Whereas the aim of the student is to control mind and body, and in particular the flow of Prana (life force, spiritual energy) the concern of the manager is to control organisational performance (Huczynski, 199 )
Spiritual aspects Jackson’s (1996) analysis links the term guru solely to Hinduism (without references to the yogic or other religious traditions). Comparing Hinduism to management he states both have key foundational texts and sects with mantras. Yoga and management, it need hardly be said, have very different underlying philosophies. The guru advises the student on spiritual matters, whereas the management guru advises his/her clients (not disciples) on mundane matters. The yogic philosophy is ultimately one of spiritual development and enlightenment. Many who begin yoga practice as a form of physical exercise develop unexpected spiritual awareness. Yoga has one ultimate aim, the union of Atman (the individual soul) with Brahman (the collective soul), but without subgoals; all practice of whatever nature is a step along the way. On the other hand, the spirituality of organisations is a minority interest (e.g. Snell et al, 1991). Management in the private sector is about the free market, acquisition, and growth at the expense of other companies. Even in the not-for-profit and mutual sectors management is about the accomplishment of tasks, predominantly in a competitive environment. Everything else ultimately is assumed to be for this purpose, including the furtherance of relationships. Huczynski (1993) calls this the ‘capitalist imperative’(p.7). There is a paramount attachment to doing, and the fruits of doing. Paradoxically the management guru imparts ideas that are supposed to give competitive advantage, but does so contemporaneously and successively to managers who themselves may be competitors.
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It has been suggested that there is an unrecognised but important spiritual element in the management guru’s discourse (Jackson (1996), just as some write about the spirituality of organisations. Certainly there is a fascination with what the spiritual or alternative world may offer. Referring to New Age Training as a 90s phenomenon, Huczynski (1993) considers that this is supposed to be ‘placing the mental and spiritual enrichment of employees alongside the pursuit of profit as a valid enterprise goal’ (p. 56). However the depth of spiritual development offered by the consistent practice of yoga cannot be compared with what remains a side offering in the organisational world. Discussion To summarise, despite superficial similarities, there are significant dissimilarities between the guru and the management guru. The management guru can be compared to the guru in the primacy of verbal transmission, and the premium put upon physical presence. There is a analogous reference to authority, although derived from different bases. Both use charisma; for the management guru it is a tool, whereas for the guru it is an outcome of an integrated and realised personality. In both cases there is a management of meaning. For the guru this is the transmission of ancient meaning into which the student is initiated, whereas the management guru is at least partly dependent upon the interactive social construction within the managerial/consultant community. There are areas where the comparison becomes unclear or ambiguous, for instance in the area of commercialisation and financial reward. Although traditionally the guru has not become involved, some have become drawn into this. Both offer an all-encompassing answer, but with different foci: personal and organisational respectively. The line between being authoritative and dogmatic can be unclear for both. Content is emphasised more by management gurus, and process more by gurus, but neither deals with one aspect exclusively. Whilst there are equivalencies in the relationship of teacher and taught, the guru–student relationship is personal and built upon a long-term commitment, and the entrusting of the holistic development of one person to another, whereas the management guru–follower relationship is often founded upon a short-term manipulation of emotions. The starkest difference between the guru and the management guru is the spiritual as opposed to material focus. This is allied to the contrast between the guru‘s control of ego and self-interest, and the management guru’s narcissistic concern with self-aggrandisement. Whereas the guru emphasises continuity, the management guru must present sufficient discontinuity to meet the demands of novelty, although ironically there may be more continuity than is acknowledged. Gurus always practise what they advocate, but only a minority of management gurus do this. Why then the use of the term guru? Morgan (1986) reminds us that the use of metaphor can both illuminate and obscure. While this usage indicates some interesting parallels, there are also fundamental disjunctures. The metaphorical use of the word guru in relation to those involved in management consultancy is enlightening in terms of aspirations, but misleading in terms of deliverables. Thus, the concept of a spiritual guru of the east and that of a management guru are in essence diametrically opposed to each other. What advice can the authors then offer? A management guru, if he/she imbibes in himself/herself some of the great human qualities of a spiritual guru, will probably do his/her
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job better as a management guru. Some of the great qualities of a spiritual guru are selfless, deep love and concern for the disciple, a personal state of highest consciousness and perpetual bliss, perfect mastery over his/her own senses, a peaceful unagitated mind, ultimate knowledge of his/her own existence and no material interest of any kind like name, fame and honour. These qualities make a person highly loveable and respected. If a management guru inculcates at least some of these qualities, he/she may be highly successful in his/her own venture.
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