towards a sustainable whale-watching industry in the

Chapter 1

TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE WHALE-WATCHING INDUSTRY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA C. Elejabeitia1 , E. Urquiola2, P. Verborgh 3 4 and R. de Stephanis 1

Calle Fernando Barajas Vílchez, Santa Cruz de T enerife, Canary Islands, Spain 2 El Pinito, La Orotava, Canary Islands, Spain 3 CIRCE, Conservation Information and Research on Cetaceans, Algeciras Spain 4 Department of Conservation Biology, Estación Biológica de Doñana (CSIC), Américo Vespuccio, Sevilla, Spain

ABSTRAC T In the growing diversity of wildlife-encounter tourist industries, whale-watching stands out for its market success as well as for its contribution to the conservation of cetaceans and its significance to sustainable tourism. In the Mediterranean Sea, the area around the Strait of Gibraltar has become the most relevant whale-watching destination. Here, participating agents have been able to take advantage of the rich cetacean diversity, and the industry shows a growing trend towards a fairly balanced mix of quantity- and quality-driven operations. T he Mediterranean offers a unique potential to develop a sustainable high-quality whale-watching industry. Along with the advances made to protect the rich cetacean fauna and its natural habitats in Europe, the resources and expertise necessary to develop this potential are widely available. However, it must be planned and managed in accordance with precautionary principles and sustainability measures that have been widely recognized by specialists and proven effective in ensuring minimum impact on natural resources and, at the same time, high socioeconomic benefits for the local community.

Ke ywords: sustainable tourism, whale-watching, Mediterranean

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C. Elejabeitia, E. Urquiola, P. Verborgh and R. de Stephanis

1. INTRO DUC TION Wildlife watching activities have proliferated and diversified exponentially in recent years (Higham et al., 2008). Among them, birdwatching has probably been a trailblazing industry, with the UK at the head of the list of traditional and popular destinations for this type of tourism (Sekercioglu, 2002). Other wildlife tours are currently offered in many regions, including remote areas (e.g. photo safaris in African savannahs) (Akama, 1996), trekking and hiking tours in tropical rainforests (Brockelman and Dearden, 1990; Valentine, 1992), or trips to viewpolar mega-fauna (Lemelin and Wiersma, 2007; Lemelin and Maher, 2009). Morerecently, but no less importantly, the development of marine nature tourism has opened up the possibility for the general public to experience close encounters with marine wildlife and enjoy unique landscapes and environments not commonly met with in everyday life. Snorkeling and scuba diving, for instance, are increasingly common tourist activities worldwide which, according to the figures provided by the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), recruits more than 900,000 new certified divers each year (PADI, 2009). Tours to observe sharks and rays have also become common and are even regarded as an important conservation and economic stimulus in places that develop this activity (Vianna et al., 2010). Finally, whale-watching tourism has expanded internationally at an exponential rate with increasing economicimpact. Whale-watching has been defined as “ air, boat, or land tours, with som e com m ercial aspect, to see or listen to any of the 84 species of whale, dolphin, or porpoise” (Hoyt, 2007) and includes nature tours and cruises in which cetaceans are the main attraction. T he origin of whale-watching dates back to the 1950’s, when commercial tours began running off the San Diego coasts(Hoyt, 1995). By 1998, whalewatching operations had already been established in 87 countries with over 9 million whalewatchers and estimated total revenue of nearly one billion dollars. A decade later, in 2008, the numbers had risen to 119 countries, 13 million whalewatchers, 2.1 billion dollars in revenue (41.4% of which was tour ticket selling direct revenue), 13,200 employees and 3,000 related businesses (O’Connor et al., 2009). Whale-watching is associated with a high degree of engagement with scientific research and high-quality operations. Much current cetacean research is conducted using both biological and ecological approaches, with a strong focus set on conservation issues (Rose et al., 2011). Over recent years, part of this research work has yielded an extensive body of literature dealing with, among other topics, the impact of whale-watching on cetaceans and their habitat (Scarpaci et al., 2010). Furthermore, international workgroups and action programmes have been established in an attempt to build a common management framework for low impact, high-quality whalewatching, in which the International Whaling Commission (IWC) has played an important role. Notwithstanding such advances, the lack of information relating to nature tourism (Higgins, 1996) is no exception here. In addition, other key socioeconomic issues for the development of a sustainable whalewatching industry (e.g. quality tourist supply chain and demand, marketing strategies, market leverage, and socioeconomic impact at destination) have not yet been addressed in sufficient depth. Despite these drawbacks, the whale-watching industry has experienced continued

T owards a Sustainable Whale-Watching Industry in the Mediterranean Sea

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expansion with significant growth rates worldwide in the last 20 years (O’Connor et al., 2009). The United States, Canada and Australia are pioneering countries and leading destinations in terms of numbers of whale-watchers, followed by South Africa, the Canary Islands, and New Zealand. Other renowned destinations include Argentina, Scotland, Brazil and Chile, while other regions in Asia, Central America and the Caribbean show signs of development (O’Connor et al., 2009). In comparison, the Mediterranean region does not attract outstanding numbers of whale-watchers even though several traditional locations are located here. The Mediterranean Sea covers an area of 2.5 million Km2 bordered by 21 countries. Itis a dynamic tourist region with a unique mix of ancient and modern cultures and boasts valuable marine and coastal natural environments. It offers significant potential to develop a whalewatching industry that could serve as a role model for the development of sustainable tourism. In this chapter, we will address the values of whale-watching and its typology (Section 2). We will also describe the possible stages in the evolution of a whale-watching industry, with special focus on the case of the Strait of Gibraltar as an example for the rest of the Mediterranean Sea (Section 3), and will look into the potential of whale-watching in other Mediterranean areas (Section 4). The limitations and requirements for the sustainable development and management of whale-watching will also be addressed (Section 5 and 6). Lastly, final considerations, management measures and actions necessary to integrate sustainability standards in the Mediterranean whale-watching industry will be included (Section 7).

2. VALUES AND TYPES

OF W HALE-WATC HING

2.1. Values Provided by Whale-Watching The mere existence of cetaceans provides a diversity of potential values and services, among which whale-watching is just one (IFAW, 1997). With the development of a whalewatching industry, a similar wide range of values and services can be materialized: recreational, scientific, educational, financial, cultural, social, aesthetic, spiritual/psychological, political, environmental, ecological etc. (IFAW, 1997). In combination, such values and services can provide an overall impact that is worth far more than the sum of each one considered independently. T he reason behind this is that the perceived benefits are amplified and additional services crucial to sustainability are provided: continuity is supported, synergies are created, and resistance to change is minimized. For example, a whale-watching site can have greater appeal if it offers attractive landscapes combined with other environmental or cultural values. The potential contribution of a whalewatching industry to local development will be more significant if it also provides scientific research and educational services to the community; or a whale-watching industry with low environmental impact is likely to get greater support from the local community. The range of values and services mentioned means that whale-watching can be carried out with a variety of purposes, e.g. recreational, commercial, educational, or scientific. T he choice of whale-

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C. Elejabeitia, E. Urquiola, P . Verborgh and R. de Stephanis

watching operations possible and their rolein the promotion of sustainable tourism will be addressed further on.

2.2. Whale-Watching Platform Types Depending on the platform type used, whale-watching can be carried out from the air, sea or land (Hoyt, 1995). Sea-based whale-watching is by far the most extended type worldwide. Several types of vessels are used for this purpose: canoes, kayaks and different types of motorboats (rigid-hull power boats, inflatable, with submarine vision), refurbished fishing boats, antique sailing boats, modern multi-hull catamarans, and large passenger ships (Hoyt, 1995, 2001; O’Connor et al., 2009) (Figure 1). Sea-based platforms facilitate a more direct encounter with the animals and also offer added values that can enhance the thrill of an encounter with free ranging cetaceans. T hey provide an experience of travelling by sea; they can be used as a means of transport between locations and to facilitate access to environments and landscapes which would be hardly accessible otherwise. Besides, the appeal or cultural interest that a vessel itself may have can add quality to theexperience. The type used will depend on the characteristics of the target cetacean species and population, and on the materials and human resources required. Other factors can play a role, such as business strategy, market conditions, limitations imposed by regulations, or the climate and weather conditions in the area. For example, areas with favorable conditions for navigation, such as the Alboran Sea (S.E. Spain), offer the possibility of running whale-watching tours on a full-day basis using small powerboats, such as semirigid speedboats (zodiac-type) - a possibility that is of particular interest given the fairly long distance at which the animals are found off the coast (Cañadas et al., 2005). This type of boat would be less suited for areas likethe Strait of Gibraltar, where adverse weather conditions (mainly ocean swell and strong winds) are frequent, making the choice of larger and safer vessels the most appropriate option.


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Figure 1. T ype of whale-watching boat used in the Mediterranean Sea.

In other areas like the Ligurian Sea, off France, Monaco and Italy, where cetaceans are frequently found at even greater distances from the coast (Gannier, 2005; Gannier and Epinat, 2008; Praca and Gannier, 2008; Laran and Gannier, 2008; Praca et al., 2009; Panigada et al., 2011), multi-day whale-watching trips are more likely to be successfully offered. In such cases, vessels must be properly equipped for long cruises. Land-based whale-watching can be carried out either with or without the use of optical equipment, ideally from platforms with a high probability of sightings. Lookout points should be easily and regularly accessible, and should offer a direct view of cetacean residenceareas or migratory routes. T hey should also be sited in areas of natural beauty and enjoy frequent favorable weather conditions. Many coastal lookout points on the Strait of Gibraltar are suitable for watching fin whales passing during their migration, since the degree of predictability in this area is very high (Gauffier et al,. 2009; Bentaleb et al., 2011). In contrast, land-based whale-watching is barely viable in the Ligurian Sea, where cetaceans are mostly found in deep offshore waters (Gannier, 2005; Gannier and Epinat, 2008; Praca and Gannier, 2008; Laran and Gannier, 2008; Panigada et al., 2011). Like sea platforms, land platforms can also offer additional appeals. For example, the lookout points (“miradouros”) originally used by traditional whale hunters to spot their prey in the Azores and Madeira islands (Portugal) (www.ecomuseu-azores.org; www.museudabaleia.org) now support whale-watching activities and are marketed as an historic-cultural tourist attraction (Gauffier et al., 2009). Air-based whale-watching can be carried out from helicopters, planes or other types of vehicle used for aerial navigation. It allows a unique zenithal vision of the cetaceans and a broad view of the marine scenery. The thrill that the experience of flying can provide will intensify theimpact of a whale-watching trip on the participant. Whale-watching air tours are offered at several destinations in Argentina, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand (O’Connor et al., 2009) and France (Mayol et al., 2009), amongst others.

3. DEVELOPMENT

O F A W HALE-W ATC HING I NDUSTRY. THE CASE OF THE S TRAIT OF GIBRALTAR

The values and services provided by cetacean-watching activities are basic motors in the evolution of economic activity at a destination or in a region. Included among them are the values which directly affect the participating agents - whale-watchers, researchers, touroperators and nature guides - as described for ecotourism (Wells, 1997). However the flow-on effects on the local economy and social perceptions must also be considered since these can be decisive for local growth and extend far beyond the local economic structure. Tourism is a dynamic, globalized, and multidimensional industry that may directly or indirectly cause significant impact on the local socioeconomic structure (e.g. conditions in the labor market, restrictions in the use of natural resources and limited access). The success of a given strategy designed to develop a tourist business or destination may cause a “copycat” effect on other local businesses and other destinations, which in turn may accelerate the emergence of desired or undesired effects. These may erode the image perceived by local people, visitors and potential travelers, as we will see further on, and the reputation of a given destination and tourist activity may suffer. A shift in the demand from, and social acceptance of, tourism

6


could affect many businesses at the destination but also other non-local businesses (tour operators, other product and service suppliers that depend on tourist flows) and agents participating in the tourism industry. T he worldwide iconic image of cetaceans has contributed to the reputation of whale-watching as a tourist industry deeply concerned with the conservation of the environment. Along with the success of whale-watching in the tourism market, the substantial values provided by the activity have become relevant in other areas such as environmental education, awareness-raising, conservation management, and scientific research, as well as a source of income and employment. Whale-watching tours should ideally be projected as an ecotourist experience, or at least incorporate a strong educational component by including, for instance, other marine fauna, “in order to appeal to more people as well as to give a well-rounded ecological interpretation” (Hoyt, 2002), or other sociocultural resources and attractions related to the whale-watching experience. Ecotourism has been defined as “ responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environm ent and im proves the well-being of local people” (TIES, 2010), and must therefore be regarded as a role model for sustainable tourism. The benefits that ecotourism can provide have been widely emphasized (e.g. protecting the local culture, stimulating the development of local facilities, improving governmental support, and promoting intercultural exchange and a better understanding of other cultures). Nonetheless, ecotourism also has its drawbacks: its implantation may lead to weakened personal relations and loss of cultural authenticity and sustainable lifestyles, which in turn can result in social conflict, increased levels of pollution and noise, overcrowding, socioeconomic unbalance, cultural alienation and finally, dependence on industrialized countries (Dogan, 1989; Mansfeld and Ginosar, 1994; Brohman, 1996). Butler´s T ourism Area Lifecycle Model (1980) argues that tourist destinations pass through different stages as they become more popular, thereby following a “ birth- growthmaturity” pattern. A similar trend has been observed in traditional whale-watching regions (Forestell and Kaufman, 1996). In this respect, Doxey (1975) proposed a model that reflects different stages in the local community’s reaction to the development of tourism at the destination which range from initial euphoria, passing through antagonism when confronting the negative effects of the development of tourism and, eventually, adaptation and acceptance of the new situation (Figure 2). Based on Butler´s model, Forestell and Kaufman (1993) suggested that the businesses involved in whale-watching operations experience similar phases, starting from discovery and competition as the industry develops, through confrontation when regulatory entities get involved, to eventual stability when the industry reaches maturity (Figure 2). Moreover, Duffus and Dearden (1990) argued that even the whale-watching public follows a similar pattern: during the early stages, when the destination is underdeveloped in terms of infrastructure and the flow of visitors is limited, participants are predominantly “ expertspecialists”; i.e. experienced visitors with specific expectations and a special interest in whale-watching who do not require extensive facilities. As the number of visitors grows and new infrastructures are developed, a "novice-generalist" type of visitor becomes more common. These visitors tend to have little or no prior experience or knowledge of the activity, no specific expectations, and generally demand more developed facilities. If, eventually, the limits of acceptable change are exceeded, “ expert-specialists” will no longer be attracted to the site due to its excessive degree of development and will move to other destinations. While


7

infrastructure generally develops at a rapid pace to cover the increasing demand, the management of whale-watching activities tends to evolve at a slower pace.

Figure 2. Stages in the development of a whale-watching industry and relations and reactions associated with operators (in grey, adapted from Forestell and Kaufman, 1996), and with the local community (in black, adapted from Doxey, 1975).

T he experience enjoyed by the visitor at the destination site will determine whether the conservation message is coming through or not. Clearly, the need for a strong educational component will grow as the destination becomes dominated by “ generalists” as these tend to adopt preconceived perceptions, have unrealistic expectations, and show demands and anthropomorphic behaviors clearly dissociated from nature e.g. feeding the animals or expecting excessively close encounters or even direct contact (Higham, 1998) ). A phase of stability does not necessarily represent the culmination of the whale-watching industry at a destination. Much to the contrary, it can actually serve as a turning point for further future development. Whether the industry continues, renovates or declines will largely depend on the strategy followed after reaching this stage. T he development of a whale-watching industry requires three basic inputs: 1) a cetacean population, 2) visitors and 3) funding for infrastructure development. In turn, the industry must generate three main outputs: 1) economic development through sustainable operations, 2) social values based on education and lowenvironmental impact, and 3) improved cetacean conservation through research in order to support sustainability (IFAW, 1997). Several researchers have contributed with models and guidelines to steer the development of a balanced industry. Orams (1999), for instance, proposed four different approaches for the management of marine tourism (physical, regulatory, economic, and educational). Hoyt (2007) presented a set of lines of action for achieving high-quality and sustainable whalewatching operations, whereas Higham et al. (2009) defined four types of key agents (social research, tourist operations, planning and management, and research of thenatural resources and the environment) and proposed an integral adaptive management model composed of

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“ micro-”, “meso-” and “ macro-” levels, which stressed the importance of natural resource planning and management. However, despite their generalized acceptance, theoretical models cannot completely mirror the real evolution of a tourist (whale-watching) destination. Intense social research work is therefore required to produce reliable data which can help guide managers through the different stages of the facility’s life-cycle and monitor their impact (Johnson and Snepenger, 1993). Whale-watching in the Strait of Gibraltar: an example of rapid evolution in the Mediterranean Sea. While understanding that the implications and impact of developing a whale-watching industry depend on previously existing conditions, we will focus on the case of the area of the Strait of Gibraltar to provide an example of how whale-watching can contribute towards sustainable (tourism) development. T he Strait of Gibraltar is probably one of the most important areas in the Mediterranean in terms of the development of whale-watching activities (Carbó Penche et al., 2007). The industry was established in 1982, when the first tours started to operate in theBay of Algeciras (Figure 3). Nowadays, three types of whalewatching tours are offered in the region. The first type consists of two-hour trips departing from the ports of Algeciras, La Línea and Gibraltar to watch common and striped dolphins (Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba) in the Bay of Algeciras (Bay of Gibraltar) (Area 1 in Figure 3). Secondly, 2-hour tours depart from the port of Tarifa. These trips search mainly for long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), but other species are also sighted, such as bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), and common and striped dolphin (Carbó Penche et al., 2007; de Stephanis et al., 2008). ' 5 1 ° 5

' 0 3 ° 5

' 5 4 ° 5

' 0 0 ° 6

' 5 1 ° 6 3

' 5 1 ° 6 3

SPAIN

La Línea

Algeciras#

1

# # Gibraltar

' 0 0 ° 6 3

' 0 0 ° 6 3

Tarifa #

2

3

MOROCCO

N W

E

s r e t e m o l i K 0 5

0

' 5 4 ° 5 3

' 5 4 ° 5 3

S

' 5 1 ° 5

' 0 3 ° 5

' 5 4 ° 5

' 0 0 ° 6


9

Figure 3. Types of whale-watching in the Strait of Gibraltar according to target species: Common dolphin (1): long finned pilot whale (2); and killer whale (3).

Figure 4. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the Strait of Gibraltar.

T hey also takeadvantage of occasional sightings of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) during the months of May and June (Gauffier et al., 2009; Bentaleb et al., 2011) (Area 2 in Figure 3). Finally, the third type of whale-watching trip in the Strait of Gibraltar benefits from the interactions between orcas (Orcinus orca; Figure 4) and red tuna (Thunnus thynnus) fisheries occurring from mid June through to August (Guinet et al., 2007; de Stephanis et al., 2008). T his offer consists of 3-4 hour trips organized solely when interactions take place, which may not occur every year owing to current legal restrictions on tuna fisheries (Area 3 in Figure 3). On the whole, the following factors have contributed to the rapid development of the whale-watching industry in the Strait of Gibraltar area: tourist attractions with easy and regular access, visitor volumes above the critical threshold, product diversification, entrepreneurship and available expertise. Andalusia, and more specifically Tarifa and Gibraltar, are popular tourist destinations, and whale-watching businesses have successfully adapted their offer to the conditions of the local tourist industry. Visitors travel to Tarifa not only from nearby areas but also from other locations more than 200-250 km away (Carbó P enche et al., 2007). On this basis, together with the permanent presence of cetaceans accessible within a short distance from the coast, the local whale-watching industry has matured within a short period of time (De Stephanis, 2007; de Stephanis et al., 2008). Whalewatching businesses have been able to attract visitors with two different and compatible products (short two-hour trips or longer 4-hour tours). They have also managed to counter the frequent bad weather conditions by transferring their area of operations to the bay of Algeciras when strong East winds do not allow navigation in the Strait.

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The whale-watching industry in Tarifa has to a large extent developed in accordance with the models used to describe the evolution of a whale-watching destination and the typology of operator businesses and visitors participating in a growing whale-watching industry. 9

500 450

8 Nº of boats 7

400

Total capacity

350 300 5 250 4 200

Total capacity

Nº of boats

6

3 150 2

100

1

50

0

0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Year

Figure 5. Evolution of the whale-watching industry in the Strait of Gibraltar area by number of boats and passenger capacity (1996- 2011).

The business started in 1998, when two foreign specialized entrepreneurs began to offer whale-watching tours from 15-passenger capacity boats in Tarifa. Between 1998 and 2001, local businessmen in the nautical sector benefited from the experience and began to set up their own whale-watching businesses, resulting in the establishment of five new businesses by the end of this short period. As the industry matured, the smaller boats that had been used during the earlier stages were progressively replaced with higher capacity motor boats (Figure 5). More recently, in 2009, a third typeof business seeking to offer a differentiated product with the incorporation of new types of vessels (small rapid inflatable boats and sailing vessels) started to flourish in Tarifa. In parallel, several associations have started educational and volunteer programmes to try to conserve the various whale and dolphin populations present in the Strait. Volunteer programmes to study fin whale migrations are run during the months of May-July and November-December. At the same time, various local authorities are developing an interpretation center that will be connected with the operating whale-watching companies, thus offering a new educational product which will attempt to fill in the low season with school visits and provide formation for the whale-watching crews. Nowadays, the whale-watching industry in Tarifa employs approximately 40 professionals during the high season (summer months). According to estimates given by the representatives of whale-watching businesses, there were nearly 39,000 whale-watching visitors during 2011. Approximately 35,000 of them (89.7%) took long-finned pilot whale tours and 4,000 (10.3%) opted for orcatours. The total direct income was estimated at around 1,000,000 €, with an estimated 39.3% “direct income/total income” ratio for whale-watching operations in the Spanish Mediterranean (O’Connor et al., 2009) (T able 1), meaning the


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whale-watching industry in T arifa generates some 2,550,000 € per year (2,300,000 € corresponding to pilot whale tours and 250,000 € to orca tours).

Table 1. Whale watching e conomics in the Mediterranean Sea in $ (adapted from O'Connor e t al., 2009 and authors obse rvations). DI=Dire ct Incom e , TI=Total income

*

Country

Whalewatchers Whalewatchers Operators Direct income Indirect income Total income DI/WW 1998 2008 (WW) 2008 2008, in $ (DI) 2008, in $ 2008, in $ (TI)

DI/TI

Spain (Mediterranean) 2011

25.000

70.000*

20*

2.968.961*

4.579.482*

7.548.443*

42*

39,3%*

Gibraltar 2008

1.875

35.371

8

834.077

1.664.551

2.498.628

24

33,4%

France (Mediterranean) 2008

712

5.258

22

739.569

811.565

1.551.134

141

47,7%

Italy 2008

53.000

14.415

6

839.426

1.836.437

2.675.863

58

31,4%

Cyprus 2008

-