Urban Design and Ecology

St.Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy City of St Petersburg New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecology Lincoln University

Urban Design and Ecology: International Perspectives Городской Дизайн и Экология: Международные Перспективы

Editors: Glenn Stewart Maria Ignatieva Редакторы: Гленн Стюарт Мария Игнатьева

St.Petersburg St.Petersburg’s State Polytechnic University Polytechnic University Publishing House 2008

УДК 712.25:712.4 Urban Design and Ecology: International Perspectives. Eds: Stewart, G and Ignatieva, M: St.Petersburg State Polytechnic University, Polytechnic University Publishing House, St.Petersburg, 2008, 261p. Городской дизайн и экология: международные мерпективы: материалы международной конференции. СПб: Изд-во Политехн. Ун-та, 2008. с Editors Glenn Stewart Maria Ignatieva

Редакторы: Гленн Стюарт Мария Игнатьева

The published proceedings of the conference “Urban Design and Ecology: International Perspectives” comprises both selected abstracts and refereed papers. The conference was held in St.Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy, Russia, 2-4 June 2008, and was an initiative supported by the city of St.Petersburg Administration, Lincoln University, New Zealand, The New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecology and the International Federation of Landscape Architects. The abstracts were selected by the editorial panel following an international call for papers. Landscape architecture is a very complex profession and includes different research in design, culture and art and as well as in different aspects of ecology and nowadays in sustainable design. The refereed papers were double-blind reviewed by international peers, following the invitation to all selected abstract authors for participation in the refereed papers section of the proceedings. Труды конференции «Городской дизайн и экология; международные перспективы» содержит тезисы докладов и рецензируемые статьи. Конференция проводилась в СанктПетербургской госудаственной лесотехнической академии со 2 по 4 июня 2008 года. Эта конференция быда также изначально задумана и поддержана адинистрацией города Санкт-Петербурга, Университетом Линкольна (Новая Зеландия), Ново-Зеландским Исследовательским Центром по Городской Экологии и Международной Федерацией Ландшафтны Архитекторов. Тезисы были отобраны конференционным комитетом. Ландшафтная архитектура является очень междисциплинарной профессией и включает исследовательские разработки в области дизайна, культуры и искусства, а также в области экологии и в области устойчивого дизайна. Все статьи прошли процесс двойного анонимного рецензирования с помощью коллег с всего мира. Авторы статей, успешно прошедшие этот процесс, были приглашены написать работы для части трудов конференции, включающей рецензированные статьи.

ISBN 978-5-7422-1849-4

© © © ©

St.Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy, 2008 Lincoln University, 2008 New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecology 2008 SPbSTU, 2008

Acknowledgments The Conference Programme and Organising Committee are very grateful for the support and assistance received throughout the process of organising and hosting this event. We are indebted to our referees who provided excellent feedback and recommendations for the refereed section of the conference proceedings. Such work is by necessity not visible within the proceedings themselves, but is essential in providing the rigour that is required in the contemporary academic environment. We acknowledge Jeni Mihova for the cover design of the conference proceedings. In St. Petersburg we acknowledge the financial assistance from the main conference sponsors the City of St. Petersburg Administration and St.Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy. At The New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecolgy (NZRCUE) and at Lincoln University, where the bulk of the organisational work took place, we are grateful for the assistance of Tracey Shields and Chrissy Gibson for their generous help with paper formatting and preparation of the proceedings. Maria Ignatieva acknowledges the assistance from the Environment, Society and Design Division. Glenn Stewart acknowledges the financial assistance from NZRCUE for providing time to work on the conference proceedings.

Introduction and Welcome Welcome, and Добро Пожаловать! to the conference, Urban Design and Ecology: International Perspectives, held at the State Forest Technical Academy, St Petersburg, Russia, 24 June, 2008. The Conference The conference represents a year of planning, and the realisation of an aspiration to make a tangible contribution to the emerging landscape architecture profession in Russia. The idea to host a conference in Russia in 2008 stems from the immense success of the first international conference in 2007 – Globalisation and Landscape Architecture (GaLA): issues for education and practice. This conference was the brainchild of Dr Maria Ignatieva and Dr Irina Melnuchik, both of whom are native Russians, although Dr Ignatieva now lives in New Zealand. The 2008 conference addresses different international aspects of urban design and ecology and is dedicated to the 75th anniversary of the first Russian landscape architecture programme which was introduced at the St.Petersburg Forest Technical Academy in 1933. Dr Ignatieva’s colleague at NZRCUE, Dr Glenn Stewart, provided further support for the conference organisation through organising the academic review process, programme planning and editing the proceedings. The St. Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy, the Administration of St.Petersburg, The New Zealand Research Centre for Urba Ecology, and Lincoln University in New Zealand, together with the International Federation of Landscape Architects, have provided support for this vision of an international conference of urban ecology and design. The conference is structured around two complementary threads which form the focus for the sessions: Urban Design and Urban Ecology. However, there are also a number of overarching themes which percolate through all of the conference presentations, and there are also open forums which provide opportunities to pursue in-depth discussions. The conference focus is reinforced by the widely international conference participants, who come from Russia, New Zealand, Canada, USA, Uganda, Spain, Brazil, Portugal, Jordan, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Estonia, Greece, Iran, The United Kingdom, Austria, Ukraine, Germany and Serbia.

The Proceedings This proceedings volume reflects a rigorous process of academic peer review, following the conventions of selection and double-blind refereeing which provide quality assurance in research publication. The call for abstract proposals yielded an excellent response, and the review panel selected over 50 abstracts. Successful authors were invited to submit full ‘short’ papers (1500 words) for refereeing, and more than ? papers were received. The process of double-blind review involved the anonymous papers being sent to international peers for feedback and a recommendation on publication. Anonymous reviewers provided responses which were invaluable in the rigour of this process. The final papers which met the review standards are published in the refereed section of this volume. The volume also includes the selected abstracts, comprising 55 conference presentations in total.

Event

Chair / Theme

Registration venue to be confirmed Formal Greetings: venue to be confirmed 1. The Duchess of Kent (UK) 2. Andrei Selikhovkin (Rector FTA) 3. Larisa Kanunnikova (Administration of St. Petersburg) 4. Alexander Gusev (Russian Museum) 5. Diane Menzies (IFLA) 6. Andrei Reiman (Administration of St.Petersburg) 7. Taissia Voltrub (Russian Association of Landscape Architects, Moscow) 8. Glenn Stewart (New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecology) 10.00 – 10.30am Morning Tea

8.00-9.00am 9.00 – 10.00am

Monday 2nd

Day / Time

Speakers

Urban Design and Ecology: International Perspectives, Programme Sunday 1st – Wednesday 4th June

iv

Interval

12.30 – 1.30pm 1.30 – 3.30pm

Session 2B Chairs: Maria Freire & Victor Smertin 1. Irina Melnichuk, Andrei Reiman New Life of Industrial Landscapes in St Petersburg, Russia 2. Olga Vaver Landscape Planning as the Basis for Sustainable Urban Design 3. Andrei Bolschakov Urban Planning Principles of the Microdistrict Design as a Foundation for Sustainable Urban Landscape

1. Larisa Kanunnikova Landscape Scenario and Ecological Aspects of Forming the Centre in St.Petersburg, Russia 2. Niall Kirkwood Brown Lands: Sites, Strategies and Speculations 3. Diane Menzies Water, Urban Design and Ecology: an Essential Trio 4. Dmitry Kavtaradze Urban Design and Landscape Planning as Compensation of Global Standards Monotony

Session 2A Chairs: Maria Ignatieva & Valery Nefedov 1. Boris Sokolov Russian Historical Parks in the Recent Urban Situation: Reconstruction and Identity Session 2B 2. Kamel Mahadin, H. Mahadin, Sustainable M. Louderback design of urban A Critical Regionalist Approach to Park Design landscapes 3. Taissia Wolftrub Reconstruction of flower arrangements and Rose Garden in Moscow Kremlin

Session 2A Urban design, historical landscapes and identity of place

Keynote Presentations: Overview and perspectives

Chair: Michael Jones

Question time 15 minutes

Session 2A venue to be confirmed Session 2B venue to be confirmed

Two parallel sessions of 6 presentations of 15 minutes

Lunch Session 2

venue to be confirmed

4 presentations of 30 minutes

10.30 – 12.30pm Session 1

v

3.30 – 4.00pm 4.00-5.20pm


Question time 15 minutes Afternoon Tea Session 3 Chairs: Carl Smith & 4 presentations of Rod Barnett 15 minutes Theme: Urban venue to be green space confirmed

6. Inna Sotnikova Eco-reconstruction of Urban Communication Spaces (on the example of Volgograd city)

4. Marina Matashova The Ecological Approach to the Natural Infrastructure Khabarovsk. 5. Tatyana Garnizonenko, V.G. Parshin, O.B. Beletskaya Ecological Situation and State of Coniferous Plants in some Districts of Rostov-On-Don City

1. David Myers The Role of the Forest Conservation Act in the Protection of Green Infrastructure in Suburban Maryland, USA 2. AnicaTeofilović, J.Cvejić, K.Čavić, A.Tutundžić Mapping and Evaluation of Belgrade Biotopes as an Ecological Foundation for Sustainable Planning of the City’s Green Areas System 3. Bruno Marques Wriezener Park, Berlin - From an Old Train Lot to a Green Biotope 4. Neil Weinstein Low Impact Development and the Green Highways Partnership: Moving from Industrial to Technology Based Landscapes and Streetscapes

4. Jeni Mihova In Search for Expressions of National and Global Identity: Lessons from Archaeological Landscaping of Acropolis In Athens 5. Kozlovski B.L., Parshin V.G., Garnizonenko Tatyana Settlement Gardening Problems in Rostov-On-Don 6. Еlena Guryeva The Importance of Sanatorium Parks in Urban Environment of Voronezh City And Voronezh Region

vi

10.40-11.00am 11.00-12.40pm

Interval

9.00-10.40am

Tuesday 3rd Chairs: Jacqueline Margetts & Vladimir Teodoronsky

Question time 10 minutes Morning Tea Session 5A: Session 5 Urban design Two parallel and landscape sessions of 5 planning presentations of 15 minutes Session 5B: Urban greenspace Session 5A venue to be

Theme: Low impact urban design and development Question time 15 minutes


5 presentations of 15 minutes

Session 4

Session 5A Chairs: Diane Menzies & Valery Nefedov 1. Konstantinia Andreopoulou Statistical Analysis and Mapping of the Open Spaces of the Municipality of Thessaloniki: an Urban Planning Proposal for the Historical Centre 2. Evgenia Guskova

Session 5B Chairs : Irina Melnichuk & Niall Kirkwood 1. Maria da Conceição Castro Mediterranean Urban Green Spaces with Ecological and Economic Sustainability – Study Cases 2. Stephanie Drlik, L. Licka, A. Muhar Facing Climate Change: Securing the

4. Carl Smith, Andy Clayden, Nigel Dunnett An Exploration of Greenspace in English ‘Sustainable Housing’. 5. Virgínia Maria Nogueira de Vasconcellos, Oscar Daniel Corbella Open Spaces Planning: Relationships Between Urban Morphology and Climate – a Study for a City of Warm and Humid Tropical Climate.

1. Mark Boyer Green Roofs and Bioretention: a Two-Prong Approach to Sustainable Stormwater Management in Urban Settings 2. Reid Coffman Understanding the Green Toupee: Selecting Vegetated Roof Systems for Urban Development and Sustainability Goals 3. D. Roehr, Jon Laurenz Green Skins in the City Context: Contribution of Green Roofs, Green Facades and Green Streets to Reduce Stormwater Run Off, CO2 Emissions and Energy Demand

vii

Interval

12.40-1.30pm 1.30 – 3.30pm

Interval

Theme: Sustainable design of urban landscapes Question time 15 minutes


Question time 10 minutes Lunch Chairs: Session 6 Dmitry 5 presentations of 15 Kavtardze & minutes Mark Boyer


Session 5B venue to be confirmed

confirmed

5. Olga Sokolskaya Formation and Development of Parks and Gardens in Saratov, Russia

1. Jacqueline Margetts Integrated Catchment Management as a Framework for Sustainable Urban Design 2. Rute Matos Urban Agriculture as an Approach for Sustainable Urban Design 3. Vera Funtova, K. Funtov Characteristics of Urban Landscape Development in Toronto (Canada).

5. Sergei Dyuzhev Landscape Planning Foundation for Urban Green Areas Transformation

4. Elena Zaykova 4. Vladimir Teodoronsky Transformation of Landscape in the About Reconstruction of Green Areas Urban Low-Storey Residential area in Moscow from the Position of Real Ecological Values

Town-Planning Potential of the Multi-Functionality of Urban Public Coastal Spaces Open and Green Spaces 3. Elena Shtiglitz 3. Vladimir Kruglyak Ecological research in the Creation of Green Area in Voronezh reconstruction of the summer City garden, St Petersburg

viii

3.30 – 4.00pm 4.00-5.00pm 7A Education 7B Urban Forestry

Question time 10/15 minutes

Session 7A venue to be confirmed Session 7B venue to be confirmed

Two parallel sessions, of presentations of 15 minutes

Afternoon Tea Session 7

Question time 15 minutes Session 7A Chair: Simon Bell 1. Maria Freire The Challenges of the Urban Design in the Contemporary Landscape - New Approaches to Teaching Landscape Architecture 2. Alexander Gorodkov Educational Potentialities of Relics of Landscape Architecture Bryansk State Academy of Engineering and Technology, Bryansk, RF 3. Alexander Tereshkin, O. Azarova Conditions and Perspectives of Using the Protective Windbreak Planting in the System of Green Urban Areas of Steppe Zone: case study of Saratov, Russia

Session 7B Chair: J. Laurenz 1. Antonio Sanjuán Bericat, Antonio Pallarés Antón The BOSQUESUR Project in South Madrid Metropolitan Area 2. Mark Wegner, John Harrington Relating Urban Forest Canopy Development to Municipal Expansion: the Development and Landuse/Landcover Change of the Western Lake Mendota Urban Forest Corridor 3. Alexandra Handrack-Bussenius St. Petersburg, Urban trees – High Quality of Nursery Plants is Important

Dialogue with the Nature by Means Landscape Design as the Basis of the City Ecological Reconstruction Strategy

4. Rod Barnett Under the Radar: Combining Lizard Habitat Enhancement with Creative Landscape Design in the Formation of New Urban Places 5. Valery Nefedov

ix

Interval

9.00-10.20am 8A Botanic Gardens/Parks 8B Landscape Design of Open Space

3. Jessica Tivy, Karen Landman Integrating Habitats: ReEstablishing an Urban Oak Savannah within an Infill Context in Portland, Oregon

2. Lankratova, A., Shreder, M., Arina Eglacheva Floodplain and Natural Park in the System of Urban Green Areas of Petrazavodsk

Session 8A Chairs: Michael Jones & Taissia Woltrub 1. Simon Bell, Victor Kuzevanov, Artyom Parshin The Role of Botanic Gardens in Urban Ecology – A Case Study from Irkutsk

Venue to be confirmed 7.00pm


Session 8A Room 101 (Main building) Session 8B “White Room” (Main building)

Two parallel sessions of 4 presentations of 15 minutes

Session 8

CONFERENCE DINNER

7.00 pm

Wednesday 4th

Open Forum

5.00-6.00pm

3. Mahdi Khansefid Urban Green Space Distribution Patterns Study with Urban Landscape Ecological Approach and its Relationship with Urban Sustainability. Case Study: Tehran Metropolitan Area

Session 8B Chairs: Jeni Mihova & Reid Koffman 1. Ilona Cherepanova, Nadya Kerimova The Analysis of Methods and Means of Sustainable Landscape Design of Open Urban Space: Sample Cases in St Petersburg (Russia) and Cities in The Netherlands 2. Darya Daryenkova Landscape Organization of Nizhny Novgorod City Open Spaces from a Position of Sustainable Development

x

12.40-1.30pm 1.30pm -

11.00-12.40pm

10.20-11.00am Chair: Glenn Stewart

4. Mark Olweny,C. Adule Urban Open Spaces in Kampala, Uganda

1. Glenn Stewart, Maria Ignatieva Urban Design and Ecology – International Perspectives from the Conference 2. Where to from here? Dmitry Kavtaradze, Simon Bell, Rod Barnett

Lunch Celebration of 75 years of Landscape Architecture Programme of the FTA

Room 101 (Main building)

4 presentations of 15 minutes followed by discussion

Final Thoughts and Panel Discussion

Question time 10 minutes Morning Tea

4. Amaechi Raphael Okigbo [Re]making an Imperfect Utopia: Towards a New Museum Landscape/Discourse

xi

xii

Contents 1. Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... ii 2. Introduction and Welcome ...................................................................................... iii 4. Conference Programme ........................................................................................... iv 5. Contents ....................................................................................................................... xii 6. Abstracts In English ............................................................................................................................ 1 In Russian ........................................................................................................................... 42

7. Refereed Papers In English ............................................................................................................................ 71 In Russian............................................................................................................................ 193

8. Posters In English ............................................................................................................................ 232 In Russian............................................................................................................................ 235

1

Abstracts

In English

2

Statistical Analysis and Mapping of the Open Spaces of the Municipality of Thessaloniki and Urban Planning Proposal for the Historical Centre Konstantinia. D. Andreopoulou Department of Architectural Design, Division of Architectural Projects, Municipality of Thessaloniki, 13 Aggelaki str., 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece, Tel +30 2310 296869, Fax: +30 2310 234161, Email [email protected] In the first part of this presentation I process statistically all the recent facts that deal with the open spaces of the municipality of Thessaloniki, and in particular, data on the area of the places, the plant species they include (in quality and quantity) and their facilities. New indexes are created and included in the analysis, providing better comprehension and identification of the open spaces - such as the percentage of the planted area as a proportion of the entire area of each unit. All the data are organized into distinct categories. The ones which are considered the most basic, such as the whole area and the sum of the trees in each unit are presented also in maps for the whole municipality, providing conclusions concerning their distribution. In the second part I focus on the historical centre of the city (intra muros area). I combine previous results applied and analyzed in the historical centre, with data and proposals concerning land use, and in particular the circulation and pedestrian network, and the location of archaeological/ byzantine sites. Having as a goal the creation of a network as continuous as possible for the successive visits of any open space / monument / facility desirable, and in accordance with a certain methodology and theoretical background, I present an urban planning proposal for the intra muros area of Thessaloniki which aims at: 1. 2. 3.

An upgrade of the existing open spaces. The enrichment of the units with new ones, where ever possible. The formulation of an integrated plan, through correlating the units: a. between them, b. with important uses of the city centre, c. with the present and the proposed pedestrian network, d. with the important monuments of the city.

Under The Radar: Combining Lizard Habitat Enhancement with Creative Landscape Design in the Formation of New Urban Places Rod Barnett New Zealand Centre for Landscape Research, School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92025, Auckland, New Zealand, Tel +64 9 8152280, Fax +64 9 846 7369, Email [email protected] One aspect of urban landscape design that has received little attention is the incorporation of native animal habitat into green areas in cities. Creative habitat design offers opportunities both for new techniques of landscape research and design, and for the development of new types of urban places.

3 Under the Radar is a landscape architecture - driven urban design project designed to highlight the unique volcanic landscapes of the Auckland region of New Zealand. It does this by focusing on the ecology of the native lizard populations whose habitat is the volcanic field that structures the Auckland isthmus. The project’s main objective is to highlight the web of biotic and geologic relationships which lies just ‘under the radar’ both of visitors to the city and Aucklanders themselves, and yet which provides the special character of the landscapes with which they interact on a daily basis. At the same time as bringing the cryptic lives of skinks and geckos to the attention of the people who live among them, the project aims to contribute to the scientific understanding of lizards. The project uses a Geographical Information Systems software programme called ArcMap to map the herpetological taxonomies needed to discover specific locations for design interventions. Maps of particular data sets (such as vegetation and habitat structure) are superimposed, and where the most intense interaction between sets occurs, a lizard ‘intensity’ is identified. The site’s geologic and vegetative structure and its cultural/social conditions are then analysed. Design operations extrapolated from the specific conditions of each site are used to develop ‘interventions.’ The interventions are ‘lizard gardens,’ enhanced lizard habitat structures that encourage, support and maintain increased lizard populations by providing the ecological niches, comprising volcanic rocks, leaf litter and plant species, that form lizard habitat. These new landscapes are attractive to humans too, and provide interestingly designed green areas (right in the middle of cities) where visitors can encounter and interact with beings that are often barely registered by the public at large.

The Role of Botanic Gardens in Urban Ecology – a Case Study from Irkutsk Simon Bell1, Victor Kuzevanov2, Artyom Parshin3 1

Estonian University of Life Science, Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu, Estonia, Email [email protected], Irkutsk State University Botanic Garden, Irkutsk, Russia, Email [email protected], 3Moscow State University Botanic Garden, Moscow, Russia, Email [email protected]

2

Green areas within cities in Russia are under immense pressure. The development of city infrastructure often destroys natural green areas because these lands are usually in public ownership and easy to develop. The City of Irkutsk is growing fast but the planning for development and transport is currently following plans originally formulated in the 1980s. Cityscale green planning is at an early stage of development. The valley of the river Irkut and a tributary, the Kaija, are still natural in many ways but are under high anthropogenic pressure/impact. However, an opportunity to expand the existing Irkutsk Botanic Garden, more than doubling its size, has come at a very good time so that the protection and restoration of key ecosystem elements such as an urban fragment of taiga and part of the River Kaija valley will form an integral part. Botanic Gardens in Russia are changing their “green” missions since they have been used for centuries as a means of carrying out research and education about both native and exotic plants. The project commenced in 2007 and the programme of expansion and redevelopment aims to create a world-class facility to attract large numbers of visitors. The location of the garden and the extension land, on a south-west facing slope above the Kaija valley and close to its confluence with the Irkut as well as being connected with other green areas presents the possibility of demonstrating how urban green networks can be used in city planning. The scientific aspects of the botanic garden also lend themselves to long term studies

4 and to evaluate techniques for restoring native vegetation in degraded natural areas. Expanded environmental education opportunities will also enable the message about the value of nature to be more effectively presented in an urban environment and to an urban population.

The BOSQUESUR Project in South Madrid Metropolitan Area Antonio Sanjuán Bericat, Antonio Pallarés Antón .

Comunidad de Madrid, Dirección General del Medio Natural, C/ Princesa 3, 8ª planta 28008, Madrid. Spain

The Bosquesur (literally “South Forest”) pretends to create a forest area in the south metropolitan part of Madrid, the Spanish capital city. Extended for approximately 400 hectares (4,000,000 m2) of the metropolitan cities of Leganés, Alcorcón, Getafe and Pinto, this green area comprises a plantation of more than 1,500,000 trees in order to transform the landscape from the present situation to a very different one. The project tries to increase the living conditions of more than half a million people who live in the surroundings, creating new walking areas, bicycle paths and open spaces. The works will last until 2012 and the total investment will be around 15,000,000 euros.

Green Roofs and Bioretention: a Two-Prong Approach to Sustainable Stormwater Management in Urban Settings Mark Boyer Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Arkansas, MEMH 230, 1 University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA, Email [email protected] Urbanization has been shown to have significant negative impacts on the ecological systems of streams and rivers. These impacts include: increased volume of runoff; decreased time of runoff to reach the receiving water body; increased pollution in the form of temperature, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and nutrients; increased erosion and channel cutting; decreased baseflow; and loss of habitat. Additionally, urbanization causes an increase of ambient air temperature (the urban heat island effect) from building, road and parking lot surfaces that replaced existing vegetation. This urban heat island effect results in increased air conditioning requirements and increased CO2 production. Two technologies utilized in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere can play a significant role in mitigating these deleterious effects of urbanization. Individually, green roofs on buildings and bioretention at grade have the ability to mitigate many stormwater problems and assist in the reduction of the urban heat island effect. Used together, they can have compounded benefits. Green roofs have been shown to reduce the volume of runoff, significantly delay runoff that does occur, and eliminate some pollutants in the runoff, thereby protecting riparian and aquatic habitat. Additionally, green roofs can significantly improve urban temperatures compared to conventional roofs and insulate the interior of the building resulting in a reduction in CO2 emissions. Further, green roofs improve air quality and replace some of the habitat lost through urbanization. Likewise, bioretention reduces runoff volume, delay runoff, eliminate many runoff pollutants, increase groundwater recharge, and restore baseflow. Tree plantings in bioretention

5 cells also have the ability to reduce urban temperatures and emissions from vehicles. If these techniques are used in combination, they have even more potential to protect urban watercourses. This paper will present the reported magnitude of urban benefits of these two technologies as drawn from the literature and highlight examplar sites where both approaches have been utilized.

Mediterranean Urban Green Spaces with Ecological and Economic Sustainability – Study Cases Maria da Conceição Castro Dep. Planeamento Biofísico e Paisagístico, Universidade de Évora, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal, Instituto de Ciências Agrárias Mediterrânicas, ICAM, Email [email protected] The dynamic of urban development and what the public take away from daily contact with nature, produce in landscape architects a great responsibility for the design of green spaces. These areas must be ecological, economically and socially sustainable and must contribute to the improvement of human well-being. It is important to emphasize the positive characteristics of the local and preserve or reintroduce indigenous plants as a way of contributing to biodiversity preservation and provide attractive complements to the design areas. It is urgent to reduce the outputs related with water, fertilizers and pesticides which have a negative impact in landscape. The plants are able to exercise a positive influence on climate and air in the surroundings. They reduce the amplitude of air temperature and air pollution. At the same time they are responsible for the seasonal changes (blooming, flowering) that are very important for the physical and psychological balance of the public. The most distinctive feature of Mediterranean climate involves the seasonality of air temperature and precipitation, which leads to a hot drought period in summer and wet period in winter. Dry summer conditions limit water availability and thus growth, while cool winter conditions limit growth during the season when water availability is generally high. The preservation or reintroduction of native plants, well adapted to local soil and climatic conditions, reduce the cost of establishing and maintaining, as providing attractive complements to a sustainable landscape design. The approach towards the preservation and establishing of Mediterranean native plants are the most important learning in planting design. This paper analyses recent research about wild flowers to be used in meadows as an alternative to the traditional lawns. It will also present two examples of urban green spaces with ecological and economic sustainability.

6 The Analysis of Methods and Means of Sustainable Landscape Design of Open Urban Space: Sample Cases in St Petersburg (Russia) and Cities in The Netherlands Ilona Cherepanova1, Nadezhda Kerimova2, 1

Landscaping Studio “Botanik”, Groningen; the Netherlands, Email [email protected], 2 Landscape Architecture Company “DOM”, St Petersburg, Russian Federation, Email [email protected]

The significant expansion of scale of modern construction is characteristic of both St Petersburg and of many cities and small towns in the Netherlands. It gives a basis to compare the reception of landscape organisation of many open spaces in cities, the requirement of which increase constantly. Such kinds of comparison allow an evaluation of the rationale of accepted design decisions from the point of view how to accommodate created natural environment fragments around architectural objects as well as how to choose sustainable forms of plants. Remembering that green plantation renders a favorable influence on the parameters of environment around architectural constructions, it is important to exert this positive influence for a long period as possible. However, we have to admit that it is necessary that varieties of plants must be chosen carefully for the climatic conditions of St Petersburg. At the same time a quick look at practice of the accomplishment of some cities of the Netherlands is enough to demonstrate how the efficiency of presence of plants near to objects can be increased, and in what respect the main resource of plantings consists as components of buffer spaces. The comparison allows a demonstration of the differences in structure of buffer spaces on approaches to buildings, including the organisation of parking places, entrance directions, the foreground-areas, with reference to such objects of public purpose as shopping centres, hotels, banks and offices etc. The essence of the distinction consists in the creation of more differentiated spaces with precise differentiation of foot and transport spaces, and also in filling functional pauses with the components of vegetation, including reference to gramineous cultures, coniferous varieties in a much greater degree instead of using expensive flower compositions. Thus, it is a question of formation, by methods of landscape design, of a really sustainable urban landscape due to a choice of species of plants carrying anthropogenic loadings less painfully and, first and foremost, forming community possessing a certain analogy to the environment.

Understanding the Green Toupee: Selecting Vegetated Roof Systems for Urban Development and Sustainability Goals Reid Coffman Division of Landscape Architecture, College of Architecture, University of Oklahoma, 830 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019, USA, Tel 011-1-405-325-2548, Fax 011-1-405-325-7558, Email [email protected] Green roofs are icons of sustainability providing needed environmental services to cities and offering the biophilic urban dweller a sensible exposure to nature. Yet, this study shows vegetated roof systems are fairly unsustainable because they are constructed with non-renewable imported resources. The systems should be constructed with local materials and be built within the more densely urbanized areas of cities to improve their level of sustainability.

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Included within this presentation are the recent findings, comparisons of green roofs with other constructed landscapes, and recommendations for application and innovation. This study uses emergy analysis, a form of environmental accounting, to quantify and compare the sustainability of three different vegetated roof systems. The study assesses and compares an agricultural roof garden, a shallow substrate ecoroof, and a deep substrate ecoroof for flows of energy required for the production of biomass. Four indices were calculated: fraction renewable, energy yield ratio (EYR), environmental loading ratio (ELR) and energy sustainability index (ESI). The indices were used to quantify and compare the environmental impacts and respective benefits of the three roof systems. The results from the roof systems are compared to agricultural systems, constructed landscapes and a city. The shallow substrate green roof (ESI = .072) was the most sustainable of the three, followed by the deep substrate green roof (ESI = .03), and lastly the agricultural roof garden (ESI = .022). The levels of sustainability were associated with low percentage usage of renewable resources (shallow 6%, deep 3%, and agricultural 2%). All three systems were more sustainable than conventional landscapes, urban gardens and a city while being less sustainable than various agricultural practices. These findings prove in their current form that most vegetated roof systems improve the sustainability of the city. However, enhancements can be made to advance each system’s level of sustainability.

Landscape Organization of Nizhny Novgorod City Open Spaces from a Position of Sustainable Development Dariya Daryenkova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2nd Krasnoarmeiskaya str., 4, St Petersburg, 190005 St Petersburg, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] The planning pattern of Nizhny Novgorod, situated on the conjunction of Volga and Oka rivers, was largely caused by the peculiarities of its natural position, mainly by the character of the river valleys landscape. Under very complicated topography conditions the river bank profile played a crucial role in keeping riverside areas undeveloped and suitable for recreational use. Natural “framework” was dramatically transferred during the history. There are main problems in the landscape organisation of open spaces in Nizhny Novgorod such as ineffective use of natural resources in the process of landscape formation, lack of environmental support in functional and compositional organisation of waterfronts and inefficient use of the existing topography as an opportunity for expressing the sense of place. The solution of those problems is seen in re-use of open spaces and in celebration of existing topography as well as in increasing the variety of plant materials. For example existing extreme topography can be used as a very positive feature and encourage to organise places for extreme sports. Solving such crucial problems can be achieved by maximum using of topography opportunities within the urban areas and enriching the species biodiversity. Ecological sustainability of open green areas can be provided by integration of separated fragments of indigenous plant

8 communities into one united complex and by understanding complicated hydrological character of the site. The following methods of changing the landscape situation can be suggested: 1. Replacing artificial materials of embankment walls (concrete slabs) with natural structures including gabions. 2. Development of recreation areas on riverside sites. 3. Creating extra pedestrian and cycle paths as well as places for extreme sports.

Facing Climate Change: Securing the Multi-Functionality of Urban Public Open and Green Spaces Stephanie Drlik1, Lilli Licka2, A. Muhar3 1

Doctoral School Sustainable Development, University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna. Peter-Jordan-Straße 82, 1190 Vienna, Austria, Email [email protected], Tel 0043-650-2101772, Fax 0043-1-47654-7209, 2Institute for Landscape Architecture, Department of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria, 3Institute of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria Today sustainable landscape architecture is no longer just the eco-friendly and economical of material handling or the respectful use of resources. New challenges for urban ecosystems need to be considered. Climate change already shows impact on urban biodiversity and the availability of resources. Lifespan, quality and diversity of urban plants are influenced by changing climatic effects, such as the persistent lack of water during heat-waves. The continuing concentration of cities, the lack of vegetation and the use of inappropriate materials and plants will cause a further shortage of resources and magnify the effects of extremely high temperatures. A diverse vegetation cover in an urban structure helps to improve and stabilise air quality and micro climatic effects and is positively contributing to the inhabitants´ quality of life. Urban open and green spaces are influenced by climatic changes in respect of design, construction, planting and maintenance. Changes in usability become evident due to rising temperature, changes in precipitation or varying frequencies of heat and frost periods. For a sustainable design and to fulfil future requirements in particular, changes of use patterns need to be considered. The responsibility to set up society for a new situation dealing with expected effects of climate change makes it inevitable to secure the use and function of open and green spaces through sustainable design. The role of landscape architects need to be more than just creating, designing and maintaining – an important question is the conservation of urban ecosystems which are influenced by new effects. We would like to present preliminary results of a research project on sustainable design and climate change impact on maintenance and usability of urban public open and green spaces. Significant aspects of green space design and maintenance that show a strong interrelation with climate change will be discussed.

9 Landscape Planning Foundation for Urban Green Areas Transformation Sergei Dyuzhev Institute "Kyivgenplan", Kyiv, 16-22, Bogdan Khmelnitskyi Str., Kyiv-30, 01030, Ukraine, Email [email protected] Landscape planning foundation for the transformation of Kiev’s green areas consists of the following parameters: • • • • • • • • • •

Creation, development and restoration of residential, industrial, recreational areas and transport infrastructure; Definition of landscape boundaries, creating of spatial compatibilities and modulations according to psychological comfort. Establishment of dominating and accompanying spatial indications and motives of situational forming of a landscape figure, parameters of psycho-social interaction (balance); Definition of an opportunity and needs (normative stages and expenses) of landscapes existence, parameters of economic (rational) interaction (balance) of their components; Establishment of program balance of a landscape and creating of ecological comfort Elaboration and optimisation of planning decision based on planning reconstruction or restoration. Elaboration and optimisation (identification) of integral planning decisions (schemes of compositional crystallisation of territories) Planning balance of transformation, preservation and/or restoration of a landscape Realisation of a development program Proposing a script or prototype of urban landscape parameters.

Perspective landscape planning parameters of Kyiv green areas are defined by: 1. Distribution and characteristics of green areas in different landscape zones; 2. Level and size of parameters of providing of the population with territories of the general using and needs of new green construction; 3. Boundaries and conditions of new constructed and reconstructed green areas; 4. Capacity of functional zones in resorts "Pushcha-Vodytsa" and «Koncha-Zaspa»; 5. Size and differentiation of tourist streams; 6. Boundaries and capacities of the city tourist zones; 7. Perspective dynamics of transformation in resort treatment, tourism and rest of different kinds; project transformation, borders and Suggested theoretical and methodological principles have been used for the elaboration of the Master Plan of Kyiv (2020) and for the “Complex Development Programme of a Green Zone of Kyiv” (2010).

The Challenges of the Urban Design in the Contemporary Landscape - New Approaches to Teaching Landscape Architecture Maria Freire Department of Biophysical and Landscape Planning, University of Évora, Largo dos Colegiais, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora Codex, Portugal, Tel 00351266745334, Email [email protected] The contemporary urban spaces are dominantly fragmented and without identity. They are usually considered as residual areas in the building whole. This scenery shows a lack of quality standard of life for the city inhabitants, as well as in other kinds of urban areas.

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I intend to show a methodological approach based on the last few years of the teaching Projects of Landscape Architecture at the University of Évora (Portugal), and give an idea about the principal questions which we deal with. The methodology includes: the comprehension and synthesis of the physical, temporal and sensorial dimensions of the space and the idea of “concept” as the main tool of intervention. Essentially based on it, we can consider the essence of each space. Simultaneously the transformation should be a coherent answer to the present context and anticipate the future. In this answer the space should be inscribed and considered as a way of preservation or requalification of its continuity, underlying the natural and cultural specificities. The transformation of the spaces should be based on the essence of the space, which means the use of natural and cultural elements and structures - assuring continuous and fluid links, in a continuing interchange, in a certain space and in a concrete time. Working specificities linked with the shape, matter, functions and time. The vulnerability of the present society makes landscape architecture not simply a reflection of the present culture, but provides an active role in shaping contemporary culture. Therefore what is required is a holistic point of view, here argued, associating culture heritage with the challenges of our everyday life, keeping in mind the sustainability of the landscape, as well as a strong education and ethic formation.

Characteristics of Urban Landscape Development in Toronto (Canada). Vera Funtova1, K. Funtov2 1

High Park Volunteer Stewardship Program (HPVSP), Toronto, Canada, Email [email protected], 2Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Toronto, Canada, Email [email protected] The Greater Toronto Area (GTA) is one of North America's fastest-growing urban centres. GTA population is approximately 5.5 million people, and total area is about 7,000 km2. Toronto is well known as the “City within park”. Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation Department (2007) maintain 7,390 ha of green space and 1,470 named parks. Horticulture and landscaping specialists take care of 2.5 million trees in parks and ravines and 0.5 million street trees. Annually 1.3 million flowers and annuals are grown in 8 greenhouses and planted in the city. Totally 40 ha of horticulture displays are cultivating every summer season. One of the distinctive characters of Toronto is natural ravines that are located inside the urban area. Ravines have aesthetic significance for city landscapes, as well as for improving climate, decreasing noise levels and conserving biodiversity of local plant, animals, birds and insects. Conservation of natural plants of grassland, forest and swamp in ravines is very important for ravine sustainability. Control of the distribution of invasive species is very important for those ecosystems. An ecological approach is very popular in new projects in Toronto gardens and parks. There are some examples: restoration of natural ecosystems in High Park (including fire regulation of plant communities); reconstruction of Ontario lakeshore zone; imitation of natural landscapes in downtown garden (York village); programme of “green” parking lots and planting of natural

11 species in private gardens. Public relations and educational programmes are important for realisation of these new ecological projects. The Toronto “Discovery Walks” programme implemented numerous historical and natural routes in public gardens, parks and ravines. There are also educational and volunteer environmental programmes for adults and children in many Toronto gardens and parks. The successful development of the city environment is guaranteed by joint activities of municipal, charity and public organisations.

Comprehensive Analysis of Approaches in Ecological Investigations of Historical Parks in Toronto and St Petersburg. Vera Funtova1, G. Smith2 1

High Park Volunteer Stewardship Program (HPVSP), Toronto, Canada, Email [email protected], 2Co-Chair HPVSP (2003-2007), Toronto, Canada, Email [email protected] Parks, designed on the basis of natural ecosystems, are very important for aesthetics, nature conservation, scientific and public use. Some parks have a high level of different ecological components including rare and protected species. Management and development of such parks should be based for a scientific approach in sustainable ecosystem development. High Park (Toronto) and “Sergievka” Park (St. Petersburg) are examples of city parks designated as areas of natural and scientific interest. Long term ecological investigations of these parks have been used for their management and monitoring. Each park includes about 100 ha of natural ecosystems. Plant communities are one of the most important components of ecosystems. The main research emphasis was given to investigation of plant communities, mapping of vegetation types, floristical species lists, and descriptions of rare, protected and endangered plant species. In High Park, a detailed analysis of invasive plants and their influences on native ecosystems have been estimated. In High Park, tall grass savannahs with black Oak (Quercus velutina) are the most valuable type of vegetation. They make up 1% of all tallgrass savannahs in the Ontario region. Twenty-nine rare plant species (from 58 in High Park) occur in this vegetation type. In “Sergievka” Park, deciduous vegetation types with oak and lime (Quercus robur, Tilia cordata) and nemoral herbaceous plants (e.g., Galeobdolen luteum, Aegopodium podograria.) are more significant, because they are near their northern limit of distribution. After analysis of all factors, the most influential for park ecosystem were: changing of hydrological conditions; lack of regulating factors in grass communities (in High Park - natural fires, in “Sergievka” Park – cutting down of the shrub layer); pressure from recreational trail development, and urban pollution.

12 Ecological Situation and State of Coniferous Plants in Some Districts of Rostov-OnDon City Tatyana Garnizonenko, V.G. Parshin, O.B. Beletskaya Department of Botany, Southern Federal University, Bolshaya Sadovaya Str., Rostov-onDon, 344006, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] We studied the connection between plant composition and strategies of coniferous planting in Rostov-on-Don. The data reflected the differences in plant species, strategies of planting and the condition of plants in several districts of the city for example in industrial and residential zones and the downtown area. In the “Rostselmash” factory district the ecological situation is complicated because of the presence of several industrial organisations and very intensive traffic. List of conifer trees is very limited and represented by only Pinus silvestris and Pinus pallasiana. Tress here are not tall, the crowns are loose and sometimes having atypical form. Annual growth is usually 3 – 4 cm. The pine needles are whitish and chlorine. Some mortality of plants was observed. The“Severniy” microdistrict housing estate has not any large industrial facilities and the intensity of the movement of passenger cars and public transport is moderate. Additionally to pines, Picea pungens, Juniperus sabina, Thuja occidentalis are planted there. The following strategies of planting were used here: alley planting, simple and mixed group planting and solitary trees. The state of the plants is rather satisfactory. Annual growth is 10 – 12 cm. The crowns are of typical form, rather dense and compact. The pine needle is loden. The Pushkiskaya Street in the centre of the city was planned as a boulevard with recreation and communicative functions. The movement of passenger vehicles along the street is limited. Assortment consists of pines, spruces (forms “Blue” and “Green”, thuja, Juniperus sabina L., Juniperus virginiana L., Platicladus orientalis Franco, including form “Aurea”. The strategies of planting are: alley and drill planting, simple and mixed groups, border planting, solitaires. The condition of the plants is good. Annual growth of the pine is 12 – 15 cm, of the spruces 10 – 12 cm, and of the junipers 4 – 6 cm. The forms of the crowns are typical. The pine needles are compact, with loden or emerald depending on the species. Some mortality of plants was observed in the young plantings because of the severe winter of 2006. The assortment amplification seems to be expedient in all districts. As for the district of the factory “Rostselmash”, it would be advisable to thicken the plantings, thin the crowns and to complicate the strategy of the planting.

Educational Potentialities of Relics of Landscape Architecture, Bryansk State Academy of Engineering and Technology, Bryansk, Russian Federation Alexandr Gorodkov Bryansk State Academy of Engineering and Technology, Bryansk 241037, Bryansk. Stanke Dimitrova Str., 3, Russian Federation, Email [email protected]

13 Improving of teaching and learning for engineering disciplines requires training specialists for landscape design and environmental management. The study of landscape relics and monuments in the Bryansk region required by the education program “Environmental Protective Arrangement of Territories” forms the foundation both for the improvement of the engineering design shells and assimilation of the aesthetic principles necessary for creation of the landscape ensembles. The study of historic aspects of landscape architecture development originates a better insight into the essence of the aesthetic styles in the landscape construction and their connection with socioeconomic development. The most important way of aesthetic education is to visit the landscape art units on location. Originally the study of the landscape units must begin with learning the history of the real estate parks construction, their lay out structure, value of the remained dendroflora and other landscape elements. The research stage of the landscape architectural units has been conducted on location in Bryansk Academy of Engineering and Technology since the 1970s. The following years witnessed the regular extra accurate inspection with the aim to obtain the more detailed information about planting of greenery, trends of the natural layout and landscape ecological factor changes in which a lot of students were involved. The most important and labour consuming work was the process of measurements. The lay out and dendrological schemes which reflect the modern state of the parks and suggestions on their reconstruction were worked out. It became the main foundation for the development of recommendations on how the park ensembles could be preserved, reconstructed and used along modern lines. At present the staff of the “Arrangement of Environment” Department of Bryansk State Academy of Engineering and Technology carry out the work connected with the complex inspection of territories including the following parks: CPCαR “Solovee”, real estate parks in v. Ryovny, Khotylyovo, Lyalichy, Krasni Rog, Ovstug, v. Krasnaya Gora, district parks in v. Dyatikovo. It will become the foundation for the development of the architectural lay out and nature protective project for the park system reconstruction. The deep understanding of aesthetic, ecological and engineering principles must be the basis for the critical and serious study of the architectural lay out structure of the park ensembles, logicality of the three – dimensional construction including the ways of arrangement of the open and closed spaces, their interrelation compositional, application of the relief, glades and reservoirs, principles of planting the tree, bushes and flowers, organizational methods and principles of the connection between the planting and architecture, building interior and park structures, to the techniques of the application of the relief, water reservoirs and rivers for construction of the internal and out – of – park landscapes, creation of the internal and external views from the parks. The landscape analysis of the territories consisting in the complex estimation of the features and indications of the landscape, detection of its space structure, key visual and emotional symbols is carried out supported by the studied ecology – aesthetic principles. One of the problems of the architectural landscape estimation of territories is the site apportionment with various aesthetic values. The sites with the contrast relief (Lyalychy, Khotylyovo and other), with alteration of the open and closed spaces (Khutor Lyubin), with the broken bank strips could be considered as the most valuable fragments of the landscape environment. The results of the predesign inspection make up the outline of the architectural landscape estimation. Together with the symbols of the composition axes, dominants, lay out centers it also contains the disaccording elements of the existing park environment, i.e. the sites of the uncompleted (lost) and unarranged panoramas of the adjacent territories. The results of the estimation of the environmental situation could be given in the form of the computer data

14 base “layers” (factor schemes) or transformed into the selected system of the numerical importance of each landscape class. Old and modern parks, gardens, recreational parks, squares and other categories of the cultivated landscapes are the units of the engineering arrangement of territories. The most prominent feature of the Russian landscape construction is the application of the water reservoirs and various hydro systems, e.g. fountains, cascades, springs, ponds, water falls, lakes. The historical and modern parks are also the units of the ecorestoration and ecoreconstruction. The ecological situation of many parks demands the interference of the engineer engaged in the environmental arrangement. It also requires the engineering preparatory works, special ecological studies, arranging measures whose aim is to solve the hydrotechnical and general engineering problems as to the design and running of the landscape architectural units. All this contributes to the creation of the best sanitary – hygienic and landscape – ecological conditions as well as to the construction of the aesthetically expressive appearance of the human environment. In the period of 2001-2007 the scientific workers of the Department took part in the development of an electronic educational hypertextual manual “Ecology of Bryansk Region” where the historic and cultural investigations of the landscape architectural units found their reflection. The part “Relics of Landscape Architecture in Bryansk Region” included a course of studies “Architecture, Design and Arrangement of Cultivated Landscapes” studied by students who are trained according to education program “Environmental Protective Arrangement of Territories” helps to consolidate the theoretical knowledge which is effectively used in the subsequent course and diploma design. The ecorestoration design in the historic and particularly in the memorial parks favours the aesthetic and education development of students specializing in “Environmental Protective Arrangement of Territories”. It also makes its contribution to the development of their ecological, historic, cultural and patriotic world outlook.

The Importance of Sanatorium Parks in Urban Environment of Voronezh City and Voronezh Region Еlena Guryeva Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering, Timiriazeva St., 8 394613, Voronezh, Russian Federation, Tel. +7 4732 537091, Email [email protected] An inventory of green plantations was carried out, directions of gaining information, analysis were chosen, and a database for the analysis of architecture of Sanatoria of Voronezh region was also prepared. The science about resorts has been developed during the process of obtaining knowledge on curative natural factors and thanks to an expansion of resorts network and development of resort business as a whole. One of the important sections of modern science about resorts is studying of questions of the organization, planning and construction of resorts. The use of natural therapeutic remedies in the territories belongs nowadays to Russia, and in the territories populated with Slavs, that started in prehistoric times.

15 Local health resorts (Voronezh) - M.Gorky's, A.D.Tsjurupy, F.E.Dzerzhinsky`s Sanatoria, "Uglyanets", rest house "Petrovsky", belong to establishment " Voronezhkurort ". In the process of research it was found out, that efficiency of sanatorium treatment to a great extent depends on the organization of space and aesthetic characteristics of treatment places. This is the reason of problems for landscape architects that demand decisions concerning methods and principles of design. One of such problems is the spatial organization of Sanatorium Parks. Sanatoria plantations are of special value in the maintenance of natural physical and biological balance, gas in atmosphere because of processes of photosynthesis occurring in them. One hectare of afforestations per one hour absorbs all carbonic gas that is produced by 200 persons, i.e. 8 kg. The influence of Sanatorium Parks on people’s health is diverse. First of all, it is connected with formation of special conditions inside of sanatorium’s forest park, which are different than in the city, these differences are shown in change of gas structure of air, biological and electric properties, formations of intrinsic microclimate and acoustic background. So, thanks to the change in gas structure forest air has a healing power on function of respiratory and cardiovascular systems, and thanks to change of biological properties resistibility to diseases is higher, and thanks to change of electric properties of forest air - activity of the central nervous system is better, thanks to change of a microclimate - heat irradiation into external space is easier in summer (or some cooling protection in the winter). As a rule, forest air has a restorative action on a person, in some cases it gives some medical effect and has an important psychohygienic value.

Town-Planning Potential of Coastal Spaces Evgeniya Guskova Landscape Architecture and Landscape Gardening Construction Department, The Nizhni Novgorod State University of Architecture and Construction, Nizhni Novgorod, Ilinskaya Street, 65, 603950, Russian Federation, Tel 831 433-93-92, Email [email protected] The present material is devoted to disclosing a town-planning role of coastal city spaces as reserve territories. The focus is on the ecological aspect of urban riverside spaces. There are different ways of developing the cities coastal territories to be considered. The basic core is of a recreational nature, which can increase the natural component of the cities environment. There are various kinds of high concentration of human activity that have created a number of valued advantages. This has infringed upon the optimum balance of the landscape between natural and artificial components. The cities are nearing a critical point where the realization of a sharp necessity to maintain, in the most maximum of degrees, the natural environment. Due to the fact that historical developments of cities occur primarily along water bodies, in this case the river, they are victims, in a sense to overuse by people. This overuse degrades the land in question, making it the prime candidate for repair. In the past few years we see from experience, that the areas architectural-landscape has transformed and become neglected and flooded coastal spaces, which were earlier used as industrial territories (factories, shipyards, farms) or the empty city spaces temporarily used under warehouses, dumps, and parking spaces. Creation of the various, expressive environment and the organization of a "water" line for buildings of the city is necessary for town-planning development. The broken ecology of the majority of such spaces combined with the low efficiency of development has become the principal cause for revising their role in the concept of city development. The enhanced attention to territorial resources of

16 coastal spaces has recently expressed a set of various ideas and realizations. The modern, functional-spatial organization of streamsides may be developed by way of several options; as intended for building zones (building by inhabited quarters), public space of "the closed type" (office, business, shopping - entertaining complex) and public space of "the open type" - a recreational zone. Giving of the town-planning importance to coastal spaces can be tracked on an example of coastal spaces of Nizhni Novgorod. The active aspiration to transformation of coastal territories is traced in projects of Vissarionov workshop. This is recreational public center and a tradingbusiness complex on the Volga coast. Upon agreement of the proposed configuration of the system of the water communications, the adjoining open spaces, recreational-landscape filling of formerly not used areas will allow for the transformation of the currently neglected coastal landscapes into conveniently planted trees and shrubs as well as fragments of the city environment. In essence, similar transformations of unique natural areas will return to that environment to the way nature intended, but in a new ecological quality. Thus, realization of the concept of steady development of modern city assumes gradual transition with application of architectural-landscape, resulting in this organization placing the environment first above all with the most disputed of ecological attitude of space.

St Petersburg, Urban Trees: High Quality of Nursery Plants is Important Alexandra Handrack-Bussenius Regional Manager, H. Lorberg, Baumschulerzeugnisse GmbH & Co. KG, Zachower Straße 4, 14669 Ketzin / OT Tremmen, Germany, Tel +49 33 762 / 510 357, Email [email protected] Many tree species used as urban trees originated naturally from forests. There are almost natural and favourable conditions (soil and climatic conditions) for growth and development of plants. Trees in forests stand close together and influence each other in a negative way (competition) and in a positive way. Positive influences for example result from shading of stems of neighbour trees, from reduced wind and from equal air humidity. Trees under urban conditions are planted as isolated individuals or in small groups. Urban conditions are assumed to be harmful for trees (soil compression, soil pollution, covered soil surfaces, lack of nutrients in soil, rain water running to canalization, changed wind influences, direct sun radiation on tree stems). Due to the dramatically changed growth conditions for urban trees there are increasing demands in planting and maintaining performances. These performances include expert planning, the supply of high quality standard nursery plants, an expert planting and maintenance and also regular controlling management. One of the most important factors affecting the planting success for trees in urban environment is the supply of high quality standard nursery plants. In a few examples the high quality standards of nursery plants in Germany are presented by Tree Nursery Lorberg, Tremmen (near Berlin). Some references of Tree Nursery Lorberg for successful tree plantings in several urban regions in Germany are given.

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Urban Design and Landscape Planning as Compensation of Global Standards Monotony Dmitry Kavtaradze School of Public Administration, Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, building 61, 119992, Moscow, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] Human vision historically used to observe moving objects as a normal function. It was established that brain physiology could be affected by “still pictures” of the environment, lack of moving, (mostly alive objects) was called visual monotony. Globalization brings a new mode of visual standards, obvious unification of urban constructions and combinations of visual urban environment. In many countries municipal management is based more on authoritie’s opinions and interests, avoiding holistic assessment that imparts local citizen’s opinions and needs. We compare requirements to technical standards and ecosystem quality. They are based on different principles to achieve sustainability: first follows measurable unification and operational simplicity, naturalists approach take care of supporting diversity, variability and dynamic of urban and countryside urbanized ecosystems. The diversity of visual patterns in an artificial environment - cities became an issue for scientists, administrators, architects and urban designers. We need to reestablish ecology in the education syllabus in architectural institutes to make urban design multidisciplinary and green in practice. The works of art studios managed by E. Rosenblum in several cities of the USSR/Russia were elaborated “art design projects of city reinnovations” that were open to local citizens and open discussion with authorities. Other professionals continue research on “ecorestoration” of damaged ecosystems following Oldo Leopold’s experience. Simulation games were used as well at MSU, including long term modelling “Econet” development on urban regions and in 2007 Russian-Italian summer schools introduced positive experiences in ecological planning of the modern science city Korolev continuing on from previous “Ecopolis” studies. Groups of students from MSU and Alghero Architect University led by Alessandra Casu designed the “EKorolev” project implementing principles of sustainable development and based on green areas and water bodies infrastructure.

Brown Lands: Sites, Strategies and Speculations Niall Kirkwood Department of Landscape Architecture, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University, Gund Hall, 48 Quincy Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, Tel 617 495 9675, Fax 617 495 5015, Email [email protected] The central work of civil societies in the first part of the twenty-first century will be to address the legacy of industrialization from previous centuries. For many countries, cities, municipalities and communities this work is concerned with the reclamation and reuse of postindustrial lands that by virtue of their past industrial production uses, are now physically degraded, environmentally disturbed, and chemically contaminated. Or more significantly for

18 all those involved in the shaping of our urban environments it is the passage of these brown lands from dereliction and pollution to culturally energetic and socially sustainable creative centers that thrusts these formerly discounted lands into vital agents of change. Brown lands indicate not just a change in physical appearance or a simple return to the productive use of exhausted and currently undervalued plots of ground - a tidying up of the past industrial environment, rather it signals a profound shift in the way in which the landscape architecture discipline must lay claim to this disputed area. This has led to sometimes contentious debate about the future of these sites and has created rifts between those who support development or preservation, ecology and commerce, cities and neighbourhoods, arts and business, private and public. Arising from this the following questions loom large on the horizon: • • •

How do brown lands shape national landscapes and future communities, towns and regions? How do these lands structure the changing needs of scientific and aesthetic knowledge? How does the restoration, recycling, and redevelopment of sites such as decommissioned manufacturing plants, derelict urban waterfronts, inner city factories affect how the public will perceive and interact with the natural and manmade world in the 21st century?

Perceptions towards environmentally compromised sites along with academic research will be discussed alongside design speculations for the creative and legible reuse and integration of these vital national and global landscapes.

Urban Green Space Distribution Patterns Study with Urban Landscape Ecological Approach and its Relationship with Urban Sustainability Case Study: Tehran Metropolitan Area Mahdi Khansefid Environmental Design (MSc) Student at University of Tehran, Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Graduate Faculty of Environment, No. 23, Qods St., Enghelab Ave., Tehran, Iran, Tel. +98 21 22811256, Fax +98 912 5705743, Email [email protected], [email protected] The study on urban green space distribution patterns in the field of planning and design, targeting sustainable city and regarding the city as an organic part of land and a complex of life ecosystems is the main core of this article. This study is conducted with urban landscape ecological approach and different views of urban landscape ecology and the relationship between the principles of this field of science and urban green space distribution, composition, extent and connectivity are studied. Two general overviews about urban green and open space distribution do exist in theory. One considers a comprehensive distribution and emphasizes on the results for the city macro form but the other supports a disperse distribution of green spaces in the urban fabric due to better accessibility. The following patterns for urban green space distribution were introduced after an extensive study on several cities worldwide: 1) dispersed green spaces 2) green rings 3) green sectors 4) a combination of green rings and green sectors 5) green crump lines 6) green lines.

19 In urban landscape ecology, the structure, function and transformation of the landscape over time are of great importance and the structural elements of landscape including patches, corridors and matrix are influential on how urban green spaces are distributed in the city and consequently affect urban sustainability. This can be used as a conceptual framework for planning and designing urban green infrastructures in a systematic proceedure according to environmental potentials. The results of the research have been studied in the natural and cultural context of the Tehran metropolis natural and built green infrastructure to be practiced in a spacio-temporal framework with urban landscape ecological approach and patch-corridormatrix and aggregate-with-outliers models.

Settlement Gardening Problems in Rostov-On-Don B.L. Kozlovski, V.G. Parshin, T.S.Garnizonenko Department of Botany, Southern Federal University, Rostov-on-Don, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] A problem analysis of Rostov-on-Don settlement gardening has been performed. Main defects and factors of their appearance have been detected. Rather traditional methods are used in Rostov-on-Don settlement gardens: groves, parks, public gardens, wayside and drill planting along streets and boulevards, different composition and density groups on lawns and flowerbeds. At present a real assortment in Rostov-on-Don numbers only 200 species of woody plants. Besides low species diversity the main problem is caused by deficit of resistant and long-lived trees of first quantity playing the main habitat generating role. Woody lianas are not practically used in green development that is why we cannot solve completely a problem of the settlement gardening of residential solid buildings. Species and typological composition of existing assortment is not able to solve extreme ecotopes’ settlement gardening problem, characterized by poor substrates, close groundwater occurrence and watering, strongly insulated with packed buildings. However, according to the results of preliminary research about 230 woody species and more than 600 bushes, subdumi and liana species can be used in city settlement gardening, their introduction can solve above-listed problems. Lack of city’s skilful assortment policy is indicated by revision of city parks, boulevards and streets’ assortment for the benefit of cobby, graft and clipped trees and bush configurations that makes recently generated objects not suitable for recreation both in summer and winter. Perennial plants are hardly met among grassy species, annual plant assortment is quite conformed. Therefore, prosperity of seedling cultivation firms is inspired and tendency to grassy perennial range expansion is artificially hold. In the city and the region plantings of Populus L. are purposefully destroyed, which are the most promising for urban settlement gardening in Southern Russia for their environmental need and high phytofiltering ability. It is necessary to emphasize that under considerable scientific backlogs in the introduction and green development sphere the existing situation is the effect of poor coordination between core academic institutions and administrative authorities.

20 Creation of Green Areas in Voronezh City Vladimir Kruglyak Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering, Timiriazeva St., 8 394613, Voronezh, Russian Federation, Tel +7 4732 537091, Email [email protected] The article deals with characteristics of park complexes and peculiarities of creation of green areas in Voronezh City. The conclusions have been drawn based on our research. European city is a city with European living standards, integrated in all aspects (culture, religion, history etc.), as a rule there are not many multi-storeyed buildings with developed infrastructure (bridges, roads, metro) and it uses underground space. According to all mentioned characteristics Voronezh City is a European city in the broad sense of the word. Voronezh is a city in the Russian Federation, the centre of the Voronezh region. It is situated at the border of the Middle Russian Hills and the Oksko-Don Plain, along the banks of the Voronezh River. Voronezh has an official status of a historical city of Russian Federation (1990) and it is related to the objects of town-planning activity of special regulation. The total area of Voronezh City is 51,230 hectares. The total area of water of the Voronezh reservoir is 6,052 hectares. According to the data of enterprise “Voronezh project” the total area of green space of general use is 4,625 hectares . Territorial park complex of Voronezh City has been projected on the base of the culture park, the arboretum of Scientific and Research Institute and the botanical garden of Voronezh State University, lands belonging to the greenhouse “Novyi” and near-by territories. Allocation of building up city area took place without taking into account the town park complex and as a result the connection between the park and the city grew worse. The park complex of Voronezh City has been developed in accordance with modern town-planning principles of creation of comfortable urban areas, forming on the territory of the city and with its united system of green plantings contributed to the improvement of functional and planning, sanitary, recreational and architectural and artistic qualities. Such a system creates united structural and planning organization of the greenery. Town planning situation of the park complex provides organization of a logical, continuous system of green plantings facing the quay of the reservoir and the forest park of the city. Taking into account situational plan of the city, its planning structure, existing territory zoning and local natural conditions, town planning direction can be observed starting from the boulevard Pobedy and the street named after General Lizyukov along the Thalweg Institutskoy gorge to the littoral part and further to the centre of the city. Different planning direction starts in the street Ippodromnaya to Botanical garden of Voronezh State University and arboretum of Scientific and Research Institute and further to forest park of the city. The following conclusions can be drawn from research: 1. The area of the natural land complex of Voronezh is 43,400 hectares; it is the biggest functional zone of the city. 2. In the industrial and built-up parts of the city damage of woody and shrubby crops, their root system is the main factor of weakening of plants, appearing of pests and pathogens causing fungald and virus diseases. 3. Green plantations of streets and transport roads of the city are in satisfactory condition due to the breach of the conditions of soil supply (air, water, minerals).

21 A Critical Regionalist Approach to Park Design Kamel Mahadin, H. Mahadin, Margaret Louderback MK Associates, P.O. Box 556, Amman, Jordan, 11831, Tel +962 586 2320, Fax +962 586 2324, [email protected] Mikhail Gorbachev, the newly appointed “Hero of the Environment” and recent head of the international environmental organization, Green Cross, called for in a recent Time Magazine article "a need for a new paradigm of development bounded by the limits of nature rather than the limits of technology”. He was appealing to the world’s people, and specifically at environmental design professionals, to think globally in terms of nature and her balanced limitations…. and to act locally by practicing responsible environmentally sustainable sensitively prescribed (landscape) design. In this paper three parks in Jordan will be analyzed from a Critical Regionalist approach. Conceptually Critical Regionalism is an approach that is aligned with Gorbachev's plea. It was written in response to the economic technologically driven construction boom in the developing countries of the Middle East. In theory it is applicable to Russia, a country which is also experiencing an economic boom. Critical Regionalism outlines an approach to design which is vernacular and sustainable. Sustainability prescribes the respectful use of landscapes in meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainability is linked with vernacular in that it capitalizes on what has evolved naturally and culturally in a particular region in response to the natural limits of the environment. Critical Regionalism was conceived for the Mediterranean, but its ideas and principles are conceptually relevant to other environments. The components of Critical Regionalism can be used as the underlying criteria for design approaches specific to any region. Russia is definitely not the Middle East, but it is a country whose environment has become affected by the new economic system and its inherent growth patterns. The design of urban parks can be enhanced with the awareness of the principles of Critical Regionalism.

Integrated Catchment Management as a Framework for Sustainable Urban Design Jacqueline Margetts School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92-025, Auckland, New Zealand, Email [email protected] Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) offers a critical new approach to sustainable urban development. The ICM methodology is applicable in all urban areas, but is here explored within the city edge. Urban sprawl into agriculturally productive peri-urban areas has been a continuing feature of many cities worldwide, and is particularly noticeable in Auckland, a low density city which continues to spread over some of the most productive soils in the country. Current approaches to urban growth treat adjacent agrarian landscape as a homogenous ‘blank canvas’. Development

22 plans are drawn up on a spatial basis, with no reference to the capability of the landscape to absorb the particular activity set down by the spatial planning process. All landscapes can be viewed as complex adaptive systems. The catchments (watersheds) that comprise these landscapes are themselves landscape units containing many interacting systems: ecological, hydrological, social, and economic. When activities occur in one part of the landscape system, there will necessarily be an effect on another part. ICM works with this interactivity. The Whitford Catchment, on the edge of Auckland is under intense development pressure. Currently it focuses on productive activities, but there are increasing numbers of people seeking the ‘rural’ lifestyle it offers. Whitford is at a turning point. If current development rules within the Council’s Structure Plan are retained, it will succumb to development pressures and be absorbed into homogenous suburbia. Not only will the rural character disappear, but there will be an inevitable decline in environmental health. An ICM approach to the development of Whitford offers a way forward. This approach uses ecological and hydrological systems to design a robust framework within which development can take place. A variety of Structure Plans based on this approach will show that it is possible to design residential development in such a way as to meet developer objectives, maintain productive capacity and enhance ecological integrity.

Wriezener Park, Berlin - From an Old Train Lot to a Green Biotope Bruno Marques Landscape Architecture Masters Student in Lisbon Technical University – Project developed with cooperation of Berlin Technical University, coordinated by Mrs Cordula Loidl-Reisch and Mr. Simon Colwill, Terase 11 – 3, 10125 Tallinn, Estonia. Tel +37253629500, Email [email protected] All of us know Berlin's recent history: a city swallowed by the Second World War's voracity, only recently regaining its previous dimension, still in the reconstruction process and searching for its lost identity. A multicultural city, polycentric, united and split by the magic of the past, with all its greatness and shame. Here the future is built burying the ghosts from the past – some of them coming from far away but others still present in the memory that pursues us. It was in this context that the project appeared: located in the east part of the city, in "the other" Berlin: a residential area today filled with young people that cohabit with the older generation whose difficult past is still alive and active. This older generation is greatly responsible for the decisions that shape the future of Friedrichshain's District and they remember the past and hesitantly move forward, overcoming their own fears. The project consists of rebuilding a semi-abandoned area and giving it to Wriezenern Park residents. It will be a biotope in the city's heart, near the Ostbahnhof Train Station. The concept encapsulates two main ideas: an outdoor free wireless space and a self-sustainable energy space. Solar panels in the Park will structurally resemble a "small forest-hain" (“Hain” is a German word that means small group of trees, like a small forest), where people can sit and relax while surfing on the net or reading their e-mails. A sophisticated camera system will provide to residents on-line images about what's happening in the Park. To carry out these ideas, the most

23 advanced technology will be placed to community service. European community funding.

The project was supported by

A difficult matter had to be solved on this project: to overcome senior resident's fears concerning high technology to be installed. The continuous meeting, the clear explanations about the project's benefits and time were the key to success, changing mentalities and leading to a stable solution, hand in hand with an enjoyable rebirth of the space.

The Ecological Approach to the Natural Infrastructure of Khabarovsk Marina Matashova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Nab. r. Fontanka 123-306, 190068, St Petersburg, Russian Federation, Tel +7911 199 2899, Email [email protected] The environmental conditions, in which Khabarovsk has been formed and continues to develop, are different and have a number of features, which create the characteristic landscape of the city. Primarily, these features include differences in terrain altitude with high coastal slopes in Central and Northern districts of the city. The complexity of the landscape does not exclude the possibility to transform river valleys into the system of recreational spaces running through the bulk of the city. The main problem in using the natural potential of this territory is the lack of both functionally predetermined structures of green areas and the system of effective communication. At the same time, the complexity of city slopes development is connected with the existing danger of arising some geological processes as the result of any changes in relief structure. In such circumstances, the measure to preserve natural biotopes, which is widely used in international practice, is quite important for the transformation of the Khabarovsk landscape. This allows the natural ability of landscape components to increase the stability of coastal areas. The landscape stability is provided by creating necessary communication frameworks without impacting on existing biomass with its established processes of interaction of natural ecosystems components. Thereby, the formation of the stable communication framework is the basis for the continuous and secure usage of the urban landscape. A communication framework should include the optimal parameters of road-sidewalk network and employ necessary equipment. The development of interconnected fragments of green spaces along with the construction of effective communication systems can become a significant factor of increasing the ecological sustainability of urban areas on the basis of preserving the landscape individuality of Khabarovsk-City.

24 Urban Agriculture as an Approach for Sustainable Urban Design Rute S. Matos University of Évora, Department of Biophysical and Landscape Planning, Largo dos Colegiais, Apartado 94, 7001 Évora Codex., Portugal, Tel 00351266745334, Fax 00351266745390, Email [email protected] The extensive growth of urbanisation has led to new issues on the diversity of urban voids and on their appropriation. Together with high and persistent deficits of environmental infrastructures, new experiences of understanding the urban voids and the landscape quality emerge. In this paper the emphasis will be placed on the integration of cultural, ecological, aesthetic and socioeconomic aspects in urban landscape studies. This will be achieved using both literature reviews, thus providing the reader with a status quo, but also through some case studies. This paper will have its main focus on urban agriculture as part of ecological design of these areas and covering all its potentialities (ecological, cultural, social, economical and aesthetical). In this paper urban agriculture refers to activities linked to food production in cities, including organic vegetable cultivation, but it is not restricted to productive issues. It will also include ecological, cultural, recreational and aesthetical concerns. These aspects are present in a vision of the landscape systems that contribute to a new design approach for urban voids. With this approach, landscape is not only a setting in which to intervene, inserting an indefinite variety of objects, but as a tool through which to design and manipulate complex material. The landscape is transformed into something different, a place sensitive to different transformations, which records the movements and events that cross it. This is landscape as an active surface, structuring the conditions for new relationships and interactions among the things it supports. In this new conception landscape is no longer based on a naturalistic image, but suggests a continuous cultural structure upon which to operate through the management of different productive and recreational activities, events and movements.

New Life of Industrial Landscapes in St Petersburg Irina Melnichuk1, Andrei Reiman2 1

St Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy, Insitutsky per., 5, 194021, St Petersburg, Russian Federation, Tel. 007 812 550 00 71, Email [email protected], 2 St. Petersburg City Administration, Ploshad Lomonosova, 1, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] Rapid industrial development and global nature transformation has resulted in substantial changes in human habitats. Optimisation of urban environment, decreasing of ecological risk and improving quality in urban residential and industrial zones are impossible without improving urban green areas. Many urban environments (including St Petersburg) are very heterogeneous. The most unfavorable for living are industrial zones which have a very high level of air pollution. There are also soil pollution and pollution of underground waters in those zones. Compared to other European capitals St Petersburg urban planning designers at the end of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries were not bothered about city zoning problems. As a result of this policy, today

25 many industrial facilities are located adjacent to the residential areas in the centre of the city (downtown) as well as in the suburbs. Nevertheless, this particular obstacle of modern urban environment gives good opportunities for ecological renovation and includes old industrial areas in the urban planning context. The strategic plan of the City’s development, aims at gradual change of the profile and the restructuring of industrial enterprises as well as removing all manufacturers from the downtown areas and their reorientation towards ecological and highly technological production. The City’s master plan concept is about a stage-by-stage clearing of the downtown area from industrial facilities and their transfer to reserved nonresidential zones. Once industrial zones are demolished they will be occupied by cultural and business facilities. Today it is very important to give a “new life” to architectural industrial heritage. One of the best examples of retrofitting industrial buildings is the restoration project of the Central WaterPressure Head Station next to the Tavrichesky Palace. The Water-Pressure Tower (90 meters tall) which was built in the style of Roman architecture dominates the landscape of the Neva River and surrounding landscapes. The Museum of Water and the Centre for Children’s Ecological Education weres opened in this building. Other examples are reconstruction of New Paper-Spinning Manufacture for the Trading Centre of “Plato” Firm, old Tobacco Factory “Laferm” and industrial and residential complex on Ligovsky prospect. After demolishing industrial complexes, released areas will be needed in ecological rehabilitation. Step-by-step landscape transformation of industrial areas will demand partial reconstruction of natural environment. This will contribute to the improvement of the urban environment in general. The species list which is used at the moment for the planting design in industrial areas of St Petersburg is very limited. Dominant plants are different species of poplar trees and first of all Populus X berolinensis. Shrubs and herbaceous species are almost absent. There is almost no use of decorative flowers. In general green areas are very limited and their conditions are unsatisfactory. The realisation of the strategic plan of moving industrial enterprises from the downtown area of St Petersburg will allow creating a new sustainable urban landscape.

Water, Urban Design and Ecology: an Essential Trio Diane Menzies President, International Federation of Landscape Architects, Christchurch, New Zealand, Email [email protected] No city can exist without water. It is the lifeblood of a city, requiring careful management to meet basic needs. Water also contributes to open spaces, to transport and to recreation and this is especially true of St Petersburg, where water has been important in the history, planning, design and development of the city. As the city evolved over the centuries water has been celebrated in fountains, lakes and other features. It has also provided challenges in management: how it is channelled, how it meets the sea, how to prevent flooding, and how to manage the interaction with the urban ecology.

26

Water, whether scarce or plentiful, provides an opportunity for cities under pressure for space, to achieve multiple use objectives. Design with and for water must deal with the physical aspects (the riparian edges or waterfronts, quality and quantity issues) and may also emphasise the symbolic use of water to achieve innovation and meaning for citizens. Careful and integrated catchment management is needed to ensure waterworks remain an asset for a city. This is a role for landscape architects as stewards of landscape. This paper discusses planning, design and management of water in cities through case studies at a range of scales, from throughout the world. These include studies from New Zealand: from Christchurch, Wellington and Nelson; from the USA: New York and Washington; and from China. Technologies for the conservation, cleansing and management of water are described, as is the interaction between water, water edges and ecology in cities. This limited review sets out to demonstrate that good water management provides the opportunity to enhance the sustainability of a city as well as to provide for a unique context, open space, biota and people.

In Search for Expressions of National and Global Identity: Lessons from Archeological Landscaping of Acropolis in Athens Jeni Mihova School of Architecture, University of Victoria,139 Vivian Street, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand, Phone: +64-4-463-6200, Email [email protected] Today we claim that all the elements of the western culture can be reduced to ancient Greece. Even though the modern Europeans could not be fully associated with ancient Greeks there is certainly still a fascination with the city and its community as the only possible context for developing a true homocentric environment. The presentation will study the role assigned to the newly built Acropolis Museum, intended to become a prominent physical and spiritual node within the network containing the most significant public spaces of Athens. How would it be integrated with the heart of the ancient polis - the sacred rock of the Acropolis and its most important monument - the Parthenon, but as well with the two already completed large scale archeological landscape projects: Ancient Agora by the American School of Classical Studies in Athens and the site connecting the Acropolis to the hill of Philopappos by the Greek architect Demetris Pikionis? Should we scrutinize this strong new architectural presence only as an expression of political power or as a landmarkvehicle for expressing national and global identity in the context of the heart of Western civilization?

27 The Role of the Forest Conservation Act in the Protection of Green Infrastructure in Suburban Maryland, USA David Myers Landscape Architecture Program, Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, 2146 Plant Science Building, University of Maryland College Park, MD USA, Tel +1 301 405 4350, Fax +1 301 314 9308, Email [email protected] The State of Maryland’s (USA) Forest Conservation Act, enacted in 1991 (Natural Resources Article Section 5-1601 through 5-1613), is intended to conserve and provide for the creation of forests in the development process. It involves both the inventory of existing forest and the replanting of new forest if needed during development. Retained forests, reforested landscapes and afforested landscapes dedicated in property easements provide an avenue for forest lands to contribute to overall green infrastructure. First, to frame an understanding of the research, this presentation reports the typical process of the Forest Conservation Act and the relationship of Forest Conservation Act and green infrastructure in Maryland. In the research project area, the Forest Conservation Act is implemented and enforced in the development review process. Secondly, I report on the investigation of the success of afforestation easements and their relationship to the size of easement, the land use type (e.g. residential, commercial, etc.) and age of easement. The project area is located in Montgomery County, Maryland in the Northern Piedmont, forest type 64 of Level III Ecoregions of North America. Potential natural vegetation here was predominantly Appalachian oak forest but vegetation communities have been heavily impacted by extensive deforestation, agriculture, and more recently extensive and rapid suburbanization. Select easements were investigated and documented using available GIS information, aerial photography, and site investigation as well as interviews with county planners and landscape architects who are involved in the Forest Conservation Act. Compliance was recorded for subdivisions and individual properties and types of non-compliance were categorized. A variety of both human and non-human factors are involved in non-compliance conditions. In summary, successes and challenges of the compliance to the law are presented. The applicability of the Forest Conservation Act to other contexts is investigated.

Dialogue with Nature by Means of Landscape Design as the Basis of the City Ecological Reconstruction Strategy Valery Nefedov St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2-nd Krasnoarmeiskaya str., 4., 190005 St Petersburg, Russian Federation,, Tel. +7 812 575 05 28, Fax +7 812 316 58 72, Email [email protected] The contemporary strategy of urban ecological reconstruction is determined by reduction of natural landscapes as the result of industrial and transport expansion and increasing of residential areas. Real normalisation of ecological situation is becoming impossible without regeneration of urban green infrastructure. A new strategy of eco-reconstruction is based on the principle of interaction with nature. It is a dialogue and a reaction on the real nature potentials for the improvement of urban landscape. Non-sustainable conditions of urban streets, squares, embankments and residential landscapes result in the searching of the most effective ways for the nature restoration. Continuation of

28 using just beautification approach in landscape design is no longer able to improve the ecological situation. Many of contemporary urban spaces in St.Petersburg needs major reconstruction. It is very important to search for sustainable urban plant communities. One of the main tasks today is the transition into ecological landscape design. This principle is especially important for industrial and waterfront areas. We are suggesting the following principles of ecological design development in St.Petersburg: -

from visual effects of scenarios making to structural eco-reconstruction; from expensive decorating to ecological regeneration of open spaces by effective using of sustainable natural components; from nostalgia over empire landscapes to the newest technologies of environmental transformation; from concept of monumental immortalising to concept of environment humanisation for the interests of contemporary people.

It is necessary to develop alternative landscape designs which will be able to transfer wasteful urban spaces into sustainable ecological infrastructure.

[Re]making an Imperfect Utopia: Towards a New Museum Landscape | Discourse Amaechi Raphael Okigbo Department of Landscape, Cornell University, 440 Kennedy Hall, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA, Tel 607-255-8451, Dept 607-255-9552, Fax 607-255-1405, E-mail [email protected] Spatial programming, accessibility, movement, linkage, and spatial effects are critical factors in the conception and design of public spatial environments. The programmatic objectives outlined by the North Carolina Museum of Art’s [NCMA] planning team and their importance in the planning and design process formed the basis of this study. This paper focuses on the first of a three-part research paper on the NCMA’s Museum Park project: 1) the project background, site master plan, and the implementation strategy; 2) the examination of different spatial theories and their implications on how outdoor environments are designed – with particular emphasis on Bernard Tschumi’s Parc de la Villete; 3) the development and representation of design ideas within an evolving culture at the North Carolina Museum of Art. In essence, the paper examines the Museum’s role, not only as a repository for art, but also as a generator of new landscape conditions. The North Carolina Museum of Art is planning to implement a new model for an innovative Environmental Art Park in the United States, one that fosters the creation of new installations by providing a venue for experimental work in the landscape; and by facilitating interdisciplinary collaborations between artists, architects, landscape architects, and environmental scientists.

29 Urban Open Spaces in Kampala, Uganda Mark Olweny1, C. Adule2 1

Faculty of the Built Environment, Uganda Martyrs’ University, P.O. Box 5498, Kampala, Uganda, Tel +256 77 254 1559, Fax +256 38 241 0100, Email [email protected], 2 Community & Government Services, Government of Nunavut, Cape Dorset, Nunavut, Canada The recent Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) held in Kampala during November 2007 served not only to place Uganda on the world map as far as international media events are concerned, but also served to highlight critical problems associated with urban spaces of Kampala, and the relationship between people and the City. The paper draws on previous works on the urban landscapes of Kampala, presenting some of the issues that are associated with the use and perception of open spaces of the urban areas of Uganda and Kampala in particular. Over the years no new public open spaces have been created, while existing ones are slowly being lost to developers who see the green spaces as prime commercial space waiting for development. This approach based on a misconstrued understanding of the dynamics of urban areas, an approach that is quickly turning Kampala into one of the worlds most unliveable cities. The paper will give a historical background to the perception of open space in the context of Uganda and how this has led to the current urban crisis. By looking back, we will be better able to place the current trends in context and eventually devise legitimate and long lasting solutions to the growing problems.

Green Skins in the City Context: Contribution of Green Roofs, Green Facades and Green Streets to Reduce Stormwater Run Off, CO2 Emissions and Energy Demand Daniel Roehr1, Jon Laurenz2 1

Greenskins_lab, The Design Centre for Sustainability [DCS], School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture [SALA], University of British Columbia [UBC], 385-2357 Main Mall. V6T 1Z4, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Tel +1 604 827 4056, Fax +1 604 822 2184, Email [email protected], 2 Greenskins_lab, DCS-SALA-UBC, Email [email protected] The research focuses on the environmental benefits derived from an overall intervention of green skins [roofs, façades and streets] in the city core of Vancouver, Canada. It initiates a methodology to create evaluation tools for governments, planning institutions and designers to improve planning strategies and policy developments. To achieve this, it analyses previous research conducted, among others in Germany, Sweden, Canada and USA. In addition, it collects data from related research studies such as the contribution of green surfaces to reduce energy required for space conditioning (Liu and Baskaran 2003; Hoyano 1988; Holm 1989; McPherson, Nowak et. al. 1993 and Laurenz 2005) the capacity of greenery to trap air pollutants (Schaefer 2004) and the contribution of new green surfaces to reduce stormwater run-off (Cronshey 1986; Pitt 2002; and California Department of Water Resources 2000).

30 The research applies the data to a particular case study area in downtown Vancouver. It selects a representative site which combines commercial and residential use, hosting 8,500 people and 30,000 jobs. It proposes an overall green skins intervention by greening 30% of streets, 30% of flat roofs, and 15% of existing façades, in order to achieve the Seattle Green Factor. By doing so, this green intervention would contribute to reducing the energy demand of buildings by 9%, CO2 emissions by 10%, and stormwater run-off produced by the selected site by 4%. The research project questions the usefulness of the Seattle Green Factor for a high density area, suggesting higher value should be given for these types of sites, in order to achieve the environmental goals behind Green Factors. The research is currently analysing the contribution of the overall green intervention towards air quality, urban biodiversity, urban agriculture, and cities aesthetics by greening existing urban surfaces. It attempts to develop a visualization tool to show these findings.

An Exploration of Greenspace in English ‘Sustainable Housing’ Carl Smith1, Andy Clayden2, Nigel Dunnett2 1

Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Arkansas, Memorial Hall, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA, 72701, Tel + 001-479-575-5922, Fax + 001-479-575-8738, Email [email protected], 2 Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield, Floor 3, Arts Tower, Western Bank, Sheffield, UK, S102TN, Tel +44 (0)114-222-0600, Fax +44(0)114-275-4176, Email [email protected]; [email protected]

Residential landscapes are crucial to achieving sustainable housing. The quality and quantity of greenspaces within housing be they private, public or semi-public play a key role in determining the social and environmental qualities of developments. Through analysis of some sixteen English housing case-sites – all of which are purported to be sustainable – this paper elucidates the approaches to greenspace design that were taken, and identifies widely varying levels of greenspace quality and sustainability. It was concluded that a housing scheme’s supposed alignment with sustainability does not guarantee sustainable design in the associated greenspace. Through undertaking semi-structured interviews with stakeholders associated with a selection of the case-sites, key factors which either discouraged or encouraged sustainable greenspace design were identified. Discouraging factors were found to include: developers’ and designers’ concerns regarding the appropriateness of more sustainable treatments in certain physical and social contexts; planting’s competition for space with other elements such as housing foundations; and a lack of knowledge within the design and construction team. In terms of the quantity of greenspace, there are concerns that urban consolidation can lead to loss of private and overall greenspace provision. Ironically increased housing density, which has been moving to the front of the UK planning policy agenda for almost a decade, is often seen as a prerequisite for sustainable urban form and included in many working definitions of sustainable communities. This paper demonstrates that, although private space availability may be negatively correlated with densification, total greenspace cover need not be if flats (apartments) are combined with communal greenspaces. Nevertheless, where these communal spaces lack the qualities of sustainable greenspace, their contribution to the sustainability profile of the development will be highly limited.

31 Russian Historical Parks in the Recent Urban Situation: Reconstruction and Identity Boris Sokolov Russian State University for the Humanities, Biriuzova, 40-83, 123060 Moscow, Russian Federation, Tel (home) +7 499 196 6573, web site www.gardenhistory.ru, Email [email protected] At the turn of the third millennium, the long lasting neglect ion of the Russian historical parks involved into the urban recreation turned into an aggressive policy of their reconstruction dictated by the new marketing of the habitation space. The transformation of these heritage landscapes has its system and strategy, to be discussed: 1)

2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

special arrangements keeping the status of the landscape undefined or diminished, not to make the artistic criteria be applied of argued. (Kouzminki, the Empire country seat in Moscow is now a public park, a subject for "improvement" and "revalorization" rather than "reconstruction"), an outlay strategy of reconstruction, rising the income of the contractors through the costly and non-historical objects (Tarititsyno country seat in Moscow was furnished with modern steel lake bridges and granite paved paths), intrusion of the architects and sculptors turning historical landscape into the space of private ambitions (postmodernist sculptures by Zourab Tzereteli and Alexander Bourganov in the Moscow parks), intentional erosion of the borders, making up trespassing modern designs (historical borders in Tzaritsyno; removed Empire fence at Alexandrovsky Park by the Moscow Kremlin), replacement of the historical structures with the new ones, pretending to take the same functions (Vorontsovo Estate Park in Moscow converted with the theme park whose postmodernist pavilion is called "The Manor House"), introduction of the household landscaping elements into the heritage landscape (levelled earth profile, rocks, fountains, basket supports; the use of non-historical grass (California Green in Tzaritsyno) and flower sorts, regressive aims of the heritage landscape reconstruction: profit, prestige, recreation.

The supposed priorities list typical for the recent landscape renovations of the Russian cities and towns, seems as follows: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

profits of the authors and organizations involved, self-representation of the authors, making up a prestigious place for the mass recreation, tapering the artistic qualities of the heritage landscape down to its recent urban setting, putting forth but the basic qualities of the landscape art omitting its peculiarities and historical achievements, forming the consumer attitude towards the historical landscape ("it is clear", "there are roots", "here is the food", "there are the litter bins", "there are festivals and attractions"); the love for garden art replaced with the "park consumption", managing the public opinion through the simplified / attractive / popular conversion of the historical space.

32 Formation and Development of Parks and Gardens in Saratov, Russia Olga Sokolskaya Saratov State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova, 1 Teatralnay Sq., Saratov 410060, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] In pre-revolutionary Saratov the area of garden plantings was insignificant. Creation of the first park with utilitarian functions (silk manufacture) is dated 1764 and covered 65 hectares. The use of hard construction material for street and roads started in 1804. The soft natural stone was used in this time and it was not very successful. Hard stone material was used for street paving only in 1877. For example, the roadway of the Astrakhan Parkway was made from a grey Finnish granite. Later street design was impoved by organisation of asphalt pedestrian walkways and street plantings. Boulevards of Saratov are the foundation for contemporary main “green corridors”. Today the green areas in Saratov cover more than 2000 hectares and consists of parks, plazas, parkways and Saratov’s Botanical Garden. Residential areas today are very closed to the natural peripheral landscapes, for example next to Smirnovskoye and October Gorges, Rumisnaya Glade, the Savelovskie Mountains. These landscapes create a forest belt which beacames a part of Saratov’s green infrastructure. A distinctive feature of Saratov’s green areas is the central city’s core which is based on parks and gardens designed in the pre-revolutionary time (before 1917). These areas experienced some changes after the Revolution. These core green areas can be divided into following types: • Dedicated to the special historical events (for example, Square of the Revolution Fighters of 1905); • Created on the basis of ancient mansions (for example, the City Park named after Gorky); • Created next to a cathedral or on a place of a cathedral (for example, Square on the Museum Square); • Created on the basis of the pre-revolutionary public spaces and connected to the city’s development of culture and science (for example, a Lipky Garden); • Created as landscape parks on the basis of natural landscapes (for example, the Cosmonauts Quay); • Created on the basis of streets - «green corridors» (foot arteries - the prospectus name after Kirov, the Volzshskaya Street, a part of the Oktiabrskaya Street; parkways – Astrakhanskiy and Rachovskiy, etc.); • Created on the basis of natural large forests (a forest "Kumisnaya Glade" Park, Victory Park). There are two main structure principles in the design of pre-revolutionary parks and gardens: compact principle and linearly-dynamic principle.

33 Formations of Urban “Usadba” Complexes of XVIII- XX Centuries as a Foundation for Sustanable Green Areas in Saratov, Russia Olga Sokolskaya, O.A. Shachina The Saratov’s State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova 1 Teatralnay Sq., Saratov 410060, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] During the end of XVIII- the beginning of XIX centuries special usadba complexes were developed in the city of Saratov. The owners of such usadba were rich landlords, priests and government officials. Usadba complexes consisted of the house, a wing, services and a garden. Authentic usadba is a big rarity in modern Saratov. Globalisation process is arrived to Saratov and ruthlessly destroyed the rest of historical buildings in the downtown of Saratov. Structures of country’s usadba complexes were all wooden and often destroyed by fires, and accordingly reconstructed. There are peculiarities of Saratov usadba complexes: 1) They were located on the bank of the River Volga and had covered a big areas (much bigger compare to the complexes located in the downtown areas); 2) They had front gardens which also decorated streets; 3) They had deciduous trees and shrubes which protected river banks from landslips: elms, poplars, robinia, and shrubs (Syringa vulgaris, Philadelphus, Rosa canina, Caragana arborescens, Viburnum opulus and Ribes aureum. Some fruit trees and shrubs were alo used (apple trees, pears, cherries, black currant, raspberry and quince; 4) Flower beds were ver popular with phlox, peony, tulip, lily, Malva moschata, marygolds and calendula; 5) Typical architectural forms: benches, fences, rotundas, sometimes grotto and small fountains and sometimes sculptures; 6) Lay-out of roads was very rational, from the entrance to living areas. As a result, preliminary recommendations were suggested: 1) Restore (if it possible) plantings and flower arrangements - orchards or their fragments, considering ecological factors; 2) Restore palisades for inclusion of the given objects in system of Saratov gardening; 3) Replace some buildings by the laser image of constructions, allowing to use this free space for recreational activity; 4) Use usadba complexes for tourists and citizens of Saratov.

Eco-Reconstruction of Urban Communication Spaces: the Example of Volgograd City Inna Sotnikova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2-nd Krasnoarmeiskaya str., 4., 190005 Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation, Tel. +7 812 575 05 28, Fax +7 812 316 58 72, Email [email protected],

34 The actuality of eco-reconstruction analysis of the present UCS (urban communication spaces) system in Volgograd is directly connected with the necessity for effective increase in using transport and pedestrian spaces in realization of a new general town planning scheme. According to it, UCS are currently territories, with not only economic potential, but also territories with their growing roles in increasing social effectiveness of urban spaces and definite resources in terms of normalization of ecological situation in the city. Therefore, approaches to eco-reconstruction will be determined by either function in the forming system of the city communication with appropriate landscape reorganization. Due to the linear city structure, it is necessary to single out the problems connected with the existence of zones with increased ecological tension on the rail grounds close to railroad lines and railway stations, express tramway lines, and a lot of urban area along highways with goods vehicle traffic and at crossroads. Ecological aspect is one of the most important which must be considered in working out suggestions for UCS landscape reorganisation. It is suggested to examine several methods of UCS reorganisation: method of restructuring of route-side zones of UCS, method of landscape structure regeneration and correspondingly landscape organisation of rail transport routes, method of multilevel stratification of UCS; which are based on ecological approach and safety principle. We can speak about the formation of systems of differentiated communication corridors separated from each other with buffer spaces and filled with noise shields, folds and vegetation components. European experience shows that arrival of public transport of new generation demands landscape restructuring of current transport spaces, but this very alteration can cardinally affect solutions of many ecological problems of a modern city.

Urban Design and Ecology – International Perspectives from the Conference Glenn Stewart1, Maria Ignatieva1,2 1 New Zealand Research Centre for Urban Ecology, New Zealand, 2Lincoln University, New Zealand The contributions from the authors to the conference give us a broad indication of how much emphasis is being placed on different aspects of urban ecology and design. We have grouped the contributions into broad categories (as per the conference program) and it can be seen that there is a strong emphasis on sustainable design and planning. There were 29 contributions on ecological design and planning and only 17 on what could be considered more typical ‘urban ecology’ (urban forestry, urban green space, botanic gardens/parks). A further five contributions dealt with aspects of low impact urban design and development, and three with education. Sustainable design & planning Urban design, historical landscapes and identity of place Sustainable design of urban landscapes Landscape Design of Open Space Urban design and landscape planning Total

# talks 6 13 4 6 29

35 Urban Ecology/Greenspace Urban Forestry Botanic Gardens/Parks Urban greenspace Total

3 4 10 17

Low impact urban design and development

5

Education

3

Note that four of the six talks in urban design, historical landscapes and identity of place are from Russia. Two talks represented Jordan and Greece. Most of the talks in urban design and landscape planning are from Russia/Europe, nothing from North America. For sustainable design of urban landscape we have presentations from Russia/Europe/New Zealand, North America, a good global coverage. For botanic gardens and parks we only have talks from Russia (or former Soviet states), USA/Canada, Africa, Europe or the Southern Hemisphere. Low impact urban design and development appears to be an exclusive North American phenomenon (although we can add that it is alive and well in Australia and New Zealand!). Contributions on research and landscape design of open space are from Russia, Iran, Uganda and Brazil (bioclimate). Lastly the education contributions are from Russia and Europe. It is not surprising that the theme of “sustainable design of urban landscapes” is very popular around the globe. In Europe and North America this topic has been studied for several decades, in Russia this theme is quite new. In places like New Zealand it is VERY new. In the last couple of years sustainability issues have become a crucial topic for postgraduate research in the large Russian megapolises (Moscow and St.Petersburg) as well as in Russian cities from the Far East, to Siberia and the European part of the Russian Federation. Sustainable design of urban landscapes is approached in a completely different way in western countries (traditionally based on private properties), compared to the Soviet (now Russian) approach of dealing mostly with common urban public green landscapes. There is a real concern in Russian cities for wasteland and brownfield design and large scale urban design planning solutions for waterfront areas. Because of the character of Russian cities in the era of socialist planning and their differences from Western value, there is a huge emphasis in the research of Russian urban green areas on use of plant material, degradation by urban pollution and searching for potential use of indigenous vegetation and historical green areas. Different types of urban green areas (parks, gardens, waterfront, windbreaks, botanical gardens) are a very common theme for research in Russia, Europe and some American cities. It is not surprising that in Europe which is facing rapid globalization, historical urban landscapes are an important tool for urban design and creation of a “sense of place” and national identity. This conference provides unique opportunities to introduce local research themes, practices and sharing of ideas. North America has introduced a new Low Impact Design approach. New Zealand has followed with “Integrated Catchment Management as a Framework for Sustainable Urban Design” which is an innovative approach to urban water management. Several papers on green roofs from Europe and North America suggest a growing interest in the introduction of new sustainable devices in urban environments.

36 The presentations at our conference confirm differences in the interrelation of urban ecology and urban design around the globe. In Western Europe the tendency is to work with urban biotopes, while in North America it is larger scale urban planning landscapes. Russia on the other hand continues to explore approaches concerned with public spaces, but is also trying to apply existing Western (first of all European) approaches to change the current polluted urban environments. The main goal of this conference is the exchange of opinions and ideas, and the search for a common “ecological” language related to urban ecology and design. This will benefit all professionals in urban ecology and landscape architecture around the globe.

Mapping and Evaluation of Belgrade Biotopes as an Ecological Foundation for Sustainable Planning of the City’s Green Areas System Anica Teofilović1, J.Cvejić2, K.Čavić3, A.Tutundžić4 1

Detailed Planning Department, Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, Palmotićeva 30, Belgrade, Serbia, Tel.+381113331690, Email [email protected], 2 Department for the Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade, Kneza Viseslava 1, Belgrade, Serbia, Tel. +381113553122, Email [email protected], 3 Detailed Planning Department, Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, Palmotićeva 30, Belgrade, Serbia, Tel.+381113331621, Email [email protected], 4 Department for the Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade, Kneza Viseslava 1, Belgrade, Serbia, Tel. +381113553122, Email [email protected]

The project “Mapping and Evaluating of Belgrade Biotopes” recorded for the first time diversity and complexity of Belgrade biotopes. The map is a unique database about: participation and spatial distribution of 181 biotope subtypes (52 types and 9 main groups); land use; species of flora and fauna found in the area of certain representatively chosen biotopes, supported by GIS. In the referent area of 77,460 hectares, 163,728 of different single biotopes were isolated. By the automatic primary data processing, various information about Belgrade spaces was derived and presented on the topic maps, in tables and in graphs. Data obtained by such an information base are an important part of ecologically directed planning of green areas system. Beside the biotopes contained in the main group 4 (green structures in built-up area) and group 8 (hedges, underbrush, groups of trees and forests), other biotope types also have a great importance in sustainable development and improvement of the city’s green areas system. For example, biotopes of group 5 (inland waters), especially permanent streams and rivers, amelioration channels etc, as well as the biotopes of group 6 (Wetlands), represent important spaces and foundation of green system and sustainable design. Moreover, biotopes such as abandoned arable land or meadows (group 7), and fallows (group 3) have a great importance for green areas system, and spatial design based on the natural succession principles as well. It is possible to say that by establishing this database, an important step towards sustainable planning of the City has been made. It also created conditions for more integral planning of the green and unoccupied spaces in the City, as well as for the application of the ratified international conventions or those which ratification is in the process.

37 State and using Prospects of the Protective Afforestations in Planting Trees and Shrubs in the Steepe Cities (case study: City of Saratov)

Conditions and Perspectives of Using Protective Windbreak Planting in the System of Green Urban Areas of Steppe Zone: case study of Saratov, Russia Alexander Tereshkin, O.V. Azarova The Saratov’s State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova 1 Teatralnay Sq., Saratov 410060, Russian Federation, Email [email protected] Insufficient level of planting trees and shrubs in urban areas of steppe zone can be compensated by creation of new plantings and maintaining existing plantings. Protective windbreak plantings can be easily included in the urban green system by increasing aesthetic attractiveness. In the process of urbanisation new territories are actively included into residential areas. Windbreak planting zones near the town can be transferred from suburb plantings into the town green areas. The research task was mainly the search for improving of the protection of windbreak in the steppe conditions using the case study of Saratov. The most popular species both in windbreaks in urban green areas of Saratov are Bolle’s poplar (Populus pyramidalis), ash lancet (Fraxinus lanceolata), Norway maple (Acer platanoides) and Box Elder (Acer negundo), leaf linden (Tilia cordata), pseudoacacia (Robinia pseudoacacia), and silver birch (Betula pendula). The influence on the pollution on green areas during winter time (snow pollution) was measured during our research experiment. Mathematical models of processes were developed. The protective windbreaks along town roads are able to absorb much more pollution compared to other green plantings. Windbreak tree and shrub plantings are capable of producing 5.1 tonnes /ha of oxygen and can absorb up to 15.3 kg /ha. More than 30% of pollutants are retained in the plantings which is much higher than in other green plantings. Our investigations conclude that existing forest plantings should be maintained (and linear types) for active use in newly populated micro-districts.

Integrating Habitats: Re-Establishing an Urban Oak Savannah within an Infill Context in Portland, Oregon Jessica Tivy, Karen Landman Landscape Architecture School of Environmental Design & Rural Development, University of Guelph, Guelph ON, Canada N1G 2W1, Tel +519-763-1459, Email [email protected], and +519-824-4120 x53748, Email [email protected]

38 As cities face continuing growth and densification, integrating ecology into urban habitats becomes an increasing challenge. The guiding principles that integrate ecology into the urban landscape are site specific and require local involvement and knowledge. This research determines the guiding principles that integrate a neighbourhood block within an urban Quercus garryana Savannah ecology and residential infill context for the city of Portland, Oregon. Using grounded theory, a series of key guiding principles to integrate ecology into the urban environment will be determined. Methods used are participation in Integrating Habitats; a design competition, key informant interviews and a literature review. The design competition submission formed the foundation of a critique employing the principles of ecological democracy; the effectiveness of international design competitions to resolve local design; and the necessary requirements to facilitate integrating habitats within the built environment. Research outcomes contribute to the re-establishment and enhancement of urban ecology in an infill residential setting.

Open Spaces Planning: Relationships between Urban Morphology and Climate – a Study for a City of Warm and Humid Tropical Climate. Virgínia Maria Nogueira de Vasconcellos¹, Oscar Daniel Corbella² ¹ Escola de Belas Artes - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Tel. (55) 21 2539 5352, Email [email protected], ² Programa de Pós-Graduação em Urbanismo PROURB - Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Tel. (55) 21 2529 6609 , Email [email protected] The professionals involved in the study and interventions of the exterior spaces are paying more attention into the consequences on the environment, produced by the cities’ disordered grow, mainly in Latin America. The proper use of urban spaces requires not only the disposition of the exterior free spaces, but the employment of updated design methods which look at the users’ physical and psychical comfort. In Brazil some studies were developed about the bioclimatism of urban spaces that deal with the relationship between natural and building spaces, looking for how the urban morphology produces microclimate alterations, which would produce a modification of their use. The present paper discusses the thermal comfort of outdoor spaces. It studies the relationship among the variables determining a microclimate and the built environment, and the influence on how these spaces are used. The study was performed for a hot and humid tropical climate, Rio de Janeiro City, in Copacabana District, searching three square’s main characteristics. The mapping of the environment - considering the spreading out of the streets layout, the buildings height requirements and how the constructions were implanted - were used to verify the square’s sun spots and wind pathways. The microclimate study were done performing several experiments in five pre-established spots in each square, measuring solar radiation, air temperature, humidity and winds. To search about how the space is being used, the analysis starts by zoning the different activities in the square, mapping the users’ characteristics (sex and age) and the intensity of their activities within the space. The study presents the experimental results - obtained by series of researches performed during the periods of summer and winter enhancing the importance of the shaded areas to guarantee the use, and the intensity of use, of city squares in a tropical climate.

39

Landscape Planning as the Basis for Sustainable Urban Design Olga Vaver Nizhnevartovsk State University of Humanities, Lenina str., 56, Nizhnevartovsk, Russian Federation, Tel./Fax +7 3466 43 6586, Email [email protected] The work presents methods of landscape planning (LP) as the basis for ecologically oriented decisions about territories organisation. The effects of these methods usage for landscape organisation analysis of Nizhnevartovsk's housing estates made it possible to work out recommendations for their structures optimisation, improvement of the city environment quality and for creation of sustainable urban design. Landscape planning (LP) is an aggregate of activities for spatial organization of public work in a specific landscape which guarantees the sustainable development and preservation of the landscape main functions as a system of life maintenance. LP is also a communicative process which involves all participants of economical and nature-conservative activities on the territory of planning, residential population and social organisation. This process (which provides revealation of users of natural resources interests as well as the revealation of nature management problems) provides resolution and suggests a coordinated plan of activities. LP has three hierarchic levels that differ in scales and plan content. They are the landscape programme, the landscape frame plan and the landscape plan. In the German tradition, landscape plan (usually worked out for a city district or a small settlement) is usually supported by plans of green areas planting in separate housing estates which serve as a joining link between landscape planning and landscape architecture and leads landscape planning to landscape designing, provides the usage of landscape design methods for aesthetic attractiveness of the area and improvement of its health functions. A pilot survey with the help of large-scale landscape planning methods was conducted in 2007. The survey aim was to analyse the landscape organisation of Nizhnevartovsk housing estates (Khanty-Mansiyski autonomous region – Yugra) and to work out recommendations for optimisation of the structure and improvement of the city environment as well as sustainable urban design. The case study was housing estates in the city’s downtown with some severe problems requiring immediate resolution. The survey included the situation analysis, the landscape characteristics estimation, the landscape development targeting and programme of activities. The researchers have worked out some inventory maps which mark conflicts zones, maps of the housing estates landscape structure and schemes of recreational digression stages. They have also conducted a public opinion poll concerning the major problems of the territorial organization. The main problems included the discrepancy between green spaces and accepted standards, the absence of gardens inside housing estates, considerable recreational pressure, heavy traffic, a large number of forbidden car parks, a poor choice of plants with the predominance of one-crop plantings (mainly Betula pubescens) and the people's anxiety about the above mentioned problems.

40 A plan of activities was made which includes planning of housing estates land improvement, recommendations on usage of landscape design methods for enrichment of housing estates internal environment and increasing of vegetation species diversity. Relating Urban Forest Canopy Development to Municipal Expansion: The Development and Landuse/Landcover Change of the Western Lake Mendota Urban Forest Corridor Mark Wegner1, John Harrington1, 2 1

Department of Landscape Architecture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1 Agricultural Hall, 1450 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA, Tel 00+1 (608) 263-7301, 2 Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, 550 North Park Street, 70, Science Hall, Madison, WI 53706-1491, USA, Tel 00+1 (608)262-7996

As urban and suburban areas continue to grow, urban forests will play increasingly important roles in areas such as wildlife habitat, air and water quality, and the interface between human/nature interactions. The patterns, heterogeneity, and extent of these urban forests, highly determined by the original land cover, are now heavily influenced by the seemingly continual changes in urban and suburban land use. Yet, the relationship between these changes and the impact upon urban forests has not fully been studied at a local or small scale. This study utilizes a mixed methods approach to document this relationship between land use/canopy cover changes (LU/CCC) for a selected portion of the Lake Mendota shoreline in Madison, Wisconsin from 1861 to 2005. A qualitative analysis is employed for the 1861 to 1936 period due to the lack of aerial photography. General Land Office (G.L.O.) survey notes, postcards, photographs, and plant maps are some of the sources used to determine the forest patterns and land uses during this time. From 1937 to 2005 GIS assessment is used to compare seven time periods, each approximately ten years apart, to quantitatively assess the LU/CCC. A three level hierarchical classification system is employed to distinguish the land uses and canopy extent, and the resultant polygons are compared using spatial analysis software. This presentation discusses the methodology used to acquire historic information and its limitations. The results of this study are intended to highlight the causes of the current urban forest extent, spatial patterns, and to give reference to the current conversion of land uses at the urban/rural interface. Low Impact Development and the Green Highways Partnership: Moving from Industrial to Technology Based Landscapes and Streetscapes Neil Weinstein The Low Impact Development Center, Inc. 4600 Powder Mill Road, Suite 200 Beltsville, Maryland, 20705, USA, Tel (011) 301-982-5559, Email [email protected] This paper will demonstrate how Low Impact Development (LID) and the Green Highways Partnership (GHP) is creating the foundation for innovative landscape and streetscape design approaches to occur. LID is a stormwater strategy of decentralized controls that allows the designer to utilize every aspect of the landscape and building to meet targeted watershed goals and objectives and achieve a pre-development water balance for the site. The Green Highways Partnership is a joint effort by USEPA and FHWA to create better watershed planning by transportation agencies by recognizing efforts in watershed based stormwater planning,

41 recycling and reuse, and conservation for large scale infrastructure projects. Innovative environmental landscape designs (e.g. green roofs, rain gardens, permeable pavements) in the United States have traditionally been exclusive to special or signature projects and have not been part of the mainstream design and “production” design practice. A significant reason for this is the lack of understanding and interest in the research community and by resource and regulatory agencies that have been focused on end-of-pipe technologies, such as ponds and vaults. This “Industrial” one-dimensional landscape is focused on the research and development of existing technologies. The “Technological” landscape is based on developing strategies and techniques that reflect overall community development and economic goals, multiple infrastructure and environmental programs, and aesthetics. Many of the technologies are rapidly emerging and require a flexible and adaptive management approach for implementation. This paper will discuss how to move towards this approach that is responsive to emerging and Context Sensitive Solutions through pilot projects, research, charettes, codes and ordinances, and education. Transformation of Landscape in the Urban Low-Storey Residential Area from the Position of Real Ecological Values Elena Zaykova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2-nd Krasnoarmeiskaya str., 4., 190005 St Petersburg, Russian Federation, Tel. +7 812 575 05 28, Fax +7 316 58 72, Email [email protected] The development of recreational potential in low-storey residential areas determined the ecological approach for example the planning structure of these areas, including the preservation and restructure of natural frame. That can be one of the factors to territory transition of lowstorey dwelling into sustainable state. Low-storey residential areas have an advantange to multistorey areas first of all in their approach to real nature. Low-Storey dwelling possesses the real possibilities to meet requirements of population in the wide range of recreational activities and gives their community the interaction with nature in an immediate proximity. The adjustment of the space-functional organisation of an urban territory of Low-Storey area under the new social-economical conditions has to be directed to the forming of a multifunctional environment of collective usage and to be social-wanted, economically reasonable and ecologically admissible. Meanwhile, the quality of collective spaces in low-storey residential areas, its multifunction, is valued not only in time, when the territory is needed for the man, but in the possibility of time development of the natural area, intending for recreational usage by inhabitants and appearing in the quality of the important component of a “green” infrastructure of dwelling in forming structural frame in low-storey residential area. One of the results of such reconstruction can be the creation of sustainable biosystem either on the base of the formed association of plants on this area, or on the base of their reproduction in the essential compensation of components of the so-called “second” nature. The spreading of modern approaches makes the application of landscape components of each region the most striking and not linking with the additional cost for their maintenance (using local grasses, mosses, lichens).

42

Abstracts

In Russian

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Принципы градостроительного проектирования района города как основа формирования жизнепригодного городского ландшафта Андрей Большаков Иркутский Госудрственный Технический Университет Иркутск, Россия 664074 ул. Лермонтова, 83, Email [email protected] Природные ландшафты сохраняют основу своих экологических свойств даже при том преобразовании, которому они подвергаются в городской застройке. Сохраняются основные ландшафтные функции геологической среды, поверхностных и грунтовых вод и основные закономерности движения воздушных масс. Застройка не отменяет законов природы. Важнейшими экологическими свойствами ландшафтов являются их средопродуцирующая способность (продуктивность по регенерации воздуха, по регулированию качества и количества поверхностного и грунтового стока). В свою очередь эти свойства тесно связаны с рельефом. Устойчивость ландшафтов к градостроительным нагрузкам возрастает от местоположений долин и низин к вершинным поверхностям, в особенности к плоским плакорам. Ценность ландшафтов по средопродуцирующей способности возрастает, наоборот, от вершин к долинам и низинам. Это позволяет сформулировать принцип ландшафтосообразности планировки (или наименьшего ущерба качеству ландшафтной среды), который состоит в том, что вершины ландшафтов могут урбанизироваться наиболее интенсивно, а в долинах и низинах необходимо сохранять открытые озелененные пространства. Склоны же должны застраиваться с умеренной интенсивностью. Пространственная планировка городского района материализуется в улично-дорожной сети. Основу сети образуют городские и районные магистрали, которые, согласно СНиПу, располагаются на территории с шагом 600 и 1200 метров и имеют ширину транспортного коридора в красных линиях не менее 40 и не менее 60 метров соответственно. Трассы, по которым организован основной транзитный поток – рисунок магистралей – имеет как экономическое значение (транспортно-функциональный каркас), так и экологическое значение (степень защищенности наиболее ценных ландшафтов). Формообразующими линиями в топографии ландшафтов являются бровки и подошвы склонов, тальвеги и водоразделы. Геометрию долин крупных рек формируют поймы и надпойменные террасы. Принцип адекватности улично-дорожной сети и инженерной инфраструктуры задачам устойчивого развития города состоит в том, чтобы сеть магистралей формировалась с необходимым отступом от уреза воды на бровках верхних террас. Линия фронтальной (по отношению к водному объекту) магистрали должна отступать от уреза воды на ширину водоохраной зоны. Трассировка тыловых магистралей по возможности должна совпадать с водоразделами и с бровками холмов. Городские ландшафты имеют в своем составе три элемента: застройку, мощение и озеленение. В зависимости от количественного соотношения долей этих элементов в общей площади городского ландшафта формируется его морфотип. Морфотип по сути отражает плотность застройки территории и рисунок ее плана. Морфотипы городского ландшафта разнообразны и отражают мотивацию градостроительной деятельности. Так, ландшафты с максимальной долей открытого озелененного пространства в ткани жилого района отвечают гигиеническим и рекреационным мотивациям. Максимальная этажность

44 и максимальный строительный объем, которого добиваются в застройке земельного участка, свидетельствуют о коммерческой мотивации. Создание открытых публичных пространств и развитие рисунка планировки общественного назначения способствуют исполнению мотивации на формирование территориальных общностей, в том числе соседских общин (микрорайонов). Разнообразие и одновременно упорядоченность застройки создает условия для исполнения эстетической мотивации в градостроительной композиции. Обособленность планировочных элементов, центробежная тенденция застройки, использование земельного участка исключительно под частную индивидуальную застройку отражает мотивацию персонализации. Стремление сохранять памятники истории, культуры и архитектуры и пространство вокруг них и регулирование застройки с этой целью отражается в морфотипе, который соответствует мотивации сохранения духовной и культурной памяти народа. Принцип согласованности мотиваций в морфотипе застройки состоит в разрешении конфликтов мотиваций градостроительной деятельности в соответствии с общим императивом устойчивого развития территории и в соответствии с дифференциацией территории города на зоны: жилой застройки, исторического центра, общественно-делового центра и рекреации.

Ландшафтное планирование как основа создания устойчивого городского дизайна Ольга Вавер Нижневартовский государственный гуманитарный университет, г. Нижневартовск, Россия, Email [email protected] В материалах представлена методика ландшафтного планирования, как основа принятия экологически ориентированных решений по территориальной организации пространства. Результаты применения данной методики при анализе ландшафтной организации микрорайонов г. Нижневартовска позволили разработать рекомендации по оптимизации их структуры, улучшению качества городской среды и созданию устойчивого городского дизайна. Ландшафтное планирование (ЛП) – это совокупность действий, используемых для построения пространственной организации деятельности общества в конкретном ландшафте, обеспечивающей устойчивое развитие и сохранение основных функций этого ландшафта как системы поддержания жизни. Кроме того, ЛП – коммуникативный процесс, в который вовлекаются все субъекты хозяйственной и природоохранной деятельности на территории планирования, местное население и общественные организации, и который обеспечивает выявление интересов природопользователей, проблем природопользования, решение конфликтов и разработку согласованного плана действий и мероприятий. ЛП имеет три основных иерархических уровня, различающихся масштабами и отчасти содержанием планирования — ландшафтную программу, ландшафтный рамочный план и ландшафтный план. В немецкой традиции ландшафтный план (составляющийся на территорию в границах городского района или небольшого населенного пункта в целом) обычно подкреплен планами озеленения отдельных микрорайонов, что служит объединяющим звеном ЛП и ландшафтной архитектуры, и приводит ЛП к ландшафтному проектированию, использованию приемов ландшафтного дизайна для обеспечения эстетической привлекательности территории и улучшения ее санитарно-гигиенических функций.

45 С целью анализа ландшафтной организации микрорайонов г. Нижневартовска ХантыМансийского автономного округа – Югры для разработки рекомендаций по оптимизации их структуры, улучшению качества городской среды и созданию устойчивого городского дизайна в 2007 г. были проведены пилотные исследования с применением методики крупномасштабного ландшафтного планирования. В качестве объектов были выбраны микрорайоны города, расположенные в центре, испытывающие значительную нагрузку и в которых, соответственно, сложились определенные проблемные ситуации, требующие немедленного разрешения. Программа исследований включала: анализ ситуации, оценку свойств ландшафта, определение целей развития ландшафта и составление программы действий и мероприятий. Результатами стали инвентаризационные карты-схемы (с обозначением зон конфликтов), карты-схемы ландшафтной структуры микрорайонов и стадий рекреационной дигрессии. Также проведен социологический опрос жителей микрорайонов, выявляющий основные проблемы территориальной организации. В результате комплексоного анализа были выявлены следующие проблемы: - несоответствие площади (занятой зелеными насаждениями) принятым нормативам, и отсутствие внутримикрорайонных садов; - значительные рекреационные нагрузки на все озелененные участки; - загруженность транспортом внутримикрорайонных проездов и большое количество несанкционированных автостоянок; - узкий ассортимент растений, используемых в озеленении и преобладание монокультурных посадок (в основном, из Betula pubescens); - обеспокоенность жителей проблемой существенного ухудшения микроклимата городских территорий. В качестве основы для разработки коррекционных мероприятий составлены схемы отраслевых целей использования территорий, выделены зоны сохранения особо нуждающихся в охране ареалов, сохранения свободных площадей и природной среды, преимущественного улучшения особо уязвимых ареалов и улучшения интенсивно используемых ареалов. Был предложен также план мероприятий, включающий разработку «Концепции оздоровления придомовых территорий» и рекомендации по использованию приемов ландшафтного дизайна для улучшения окружающей среды микрорайонов и увеличению видового разнообразия растительности.

Реконструкция цветочного оформления и розария Московского Кремля Таисия Вольфтруб Президент Ассоциации ландшафтных архитекторов стран СНГ, Главный архитектор, ООО «Ампир. Архитектура. Интерьер.», Email [email protected] Во все времена для зеленого убранства территории Московского Кремля было характерно поддержание его в идеальном состоянии. Однако цветочное оформление всегда отличалось традиционным характером и соответствующей стилистикой. Участки розария, разделенные старым яблоневым садом (который сегодня находится в прекрасном состоянии), представляли собой простые посадки розовых кустов, между которыми были проложены дорожки из квадратных гранитных плит.

46 Тайницкий сад привлекает к себе довольно много посетителей, в основном для кратковременного отдыха после посещения музеев Кремля. В зеленом убранстве этого сада, основанного на принципах регулярной планировки, присутствуют также живописные группы кустарников из сирени, жимолости, разных видов барбариса, лохов, спиреи, и можжевельников. Задача реконструкции состояла в том, чтобы не нарушая общего стилевого характера оформления этого старинного сада, придать ему, с одной стороны, «имперское звучание», соответствующее его положению и назначению, а с другой стороны, показать современные возможности цветочного оформления, как весомого элемента в общем «зеленом хоре» сада. При реконструкции розария была выполнена полная перепланировка участков. Была сохранена визуальная связь розария со старым яблоневым садом, и применены классические приемы планировки подобных участков с добавлением современных «модных» тенденций. Работы по реализации проекта проводились в течение двух сезонов – 2005 и 2006 г.г. производственной фирмой «Фиттония» Проект был выполнен архитектурной фирмой «Ампир». Заказчиком проекта выступила комендатура Московского Кремля.

Образовательный потенциал памятников ладшафтной архитектуры Александр Городков, Фурина, В.Н. Брянская государственная инженерно-технологическая академия, Брянск, Россия, Email [email protected] Изучение памятников ландшафтного искусства Брянской области в учебных курсах специальности «Природоохранное обустройство территорий» предусматривает не только совершенствование навыков инженерного проектирования этих объектов, но также и усвоение эстетических основ создания парковых ансамблей. Этап натурных исследований объектов ландшафтной архитектуры выполняется в Брянской инженернотехнологической академии с 1970-х годов. Все эти годы постоянно проводились дополнительные уточняющие обследования, имевшие целью получение более подробной информации об озеленении парков, динамике изменения природно-планировочных и ландшафтно-экологических факторов. Важнейшим и наиболее трудоемким процессом являлись обмерные работы. На их основании были разработаны планировочные и дендрологические схемы, отражающие современное состояние парков, а также предложения по их реконструкции. Это явилось базовой основой для разработки научных рекомендаций по сохранению, воссозданию и современному использованию парковых ансамблей. В настоящее время кафедрой «Природообустройство» выполняется этап работ, связанный с натурными комплексными обследованиями территорий парков (ЦПКиО «Соловьи», усадебные парки в с. Ревны, Хотылево, Ляличи, Красный Рог, Овстуг, Верхний сад, районные парки в г. Дятькове, п. Красная гора). Это явится базовой основой для разработки архитектурно-планировочных и природообустроительных проектов реконструкции парковых систем.

47 Самого внимательного изучения заслуживают сохранившиеся объекты ландшафтной архитектуры, и их связь с архитектурой, с интерьером зданий и парковых сооружений. Необходимо также исследовать приемы использования рельефа и гидрологичских объектов в построении парковых ландшафтов. Ландшафтный анализ территории заключается в комплексной оценке свойств и признаков ландшафта, выявлении его пространственной структуры, ключевых визуальных и эмоциональных символов. Одной из задач архитектурно-ландшафтной оценки территорий является разграничение участка в зависимости от выбранных критериев аттрактивности (привлекательности) ландшафта, т.е. выделение участков с различной эстетической ценностью. К наиболее ценным фрагментам ландшафтной среды могут быть отнесены участки с контрастным перепадом рельефа (например в Ляличи и Хотылево), или участки, построенные на смене открытых и закрытых пространств (Хутор Любин). Результаты оценки природной ситуации могут быть представлены в виде «слоев» компьютерной базы данных (пофакторные схемы) или переведены в квалиметрическую схему на основе избранной системы численной значимости каждого класса ландшафта. Старинные и современные парки, сады, лесопарки, скверы и другие категории культурных ландшафтов, являются объектами инженерного обустройства территорий. Весьма характерной чертой русского паркостроения является использование водоемов и различного рода гидроустройств – фонтанов, каскадов, ручьев, прудов, водопадов, озер, плотин, различных гидротехнических сооружений. Исторические и современные парки являются также объектами экореставрации и экореконструкции. Большой простор для деятельности природооустроителей открывают также обширные пространства зеленого лесопаркового пояса. Ждут своих проектных предложений набережные, овражнобалочные территории и гидропарки. При включении исторических парков (памятников садово-паркового искусства Брянщины) в активную современную жизнь, роль инженерно-экологических и природообустроительных мероприятий достаточно велика. Кафедрой природообустройства в период 2002-2007 годов в рамках дипломного проектирования представлены предложения по экореставрации ряда ценных историкокультурных и мемориальных территорий усадебных парков.

Значение санаторных арков в городской среде г. Воронежа и Воронежской области Елена Гурьева Воронежская государственная лесотехническая академия, г. Воронеж, Россия, Email [email protected] Наука о курортах развивалась по мере накопления знаний о целебных природных факторах, в связи с расширением сети курортов и развитием курортного дела в целом. Одним из важных разделов современной курортологии является изучение вопросов организации, планировки и строительства курортов. Применение природных лечебных средств на территориях, заселенных славянами, началось еще в доисторические времена. Местные Воронежские здравницы – санатории имени Горького, А.Д. Цюрупы, Ф.Э. Дзержинского, "Углянец", дом отдыха "Петровский", входят в учреждение "Воронежкурорт". В процессе исследований выяснилось, что эффективность санаторного лечения в значительной мере зависит от организации пространства и эстетических характеристик мест лечения. В связи с этим перед ландшафтными архитекторами

48 появился целый ряд новых задач, решение которых требует переосмысливания методов и принципов проектирования. Одной из таких задач является пространственная организация санаторного парка. Насаждения санаториев имеют особое значение в поддержании природного биологического равновесия. Один гектар лесонасаждений поглощает за час 8 кг углекислого газа, что эквивалентно количеству СО2, выделяемого 200 человек. Влияние санаторного парка на здоровье человека многообразно. Прежде всего, оно связано с формированием внутри лесопарка санатория особых условий, которые существенно отличаются от городских, Эти отличия проявляются в изменении газового состава, биологических и электрических свойств воздуха и формирования особенного микроклимата и акустического фона. Так, с изменением газового состава связывают целебное воздействие лесного воздуха на функцию дыхательной и сердечно-сосудистой систем человека, с изменением биологических свойств – повышение сопротивляемости к заболеваниям, с изменением электрических свойств лесного воздуха - улучшение деятельности центральной нервной системы, а с изменением микроклимата – улучшение терморегуляции организма. Как правило, пребывание в лесу оказывает общеукрепляющее и лечебное действие, а также имеет важное психогигиеническое значение.

Градостроительный потенциал береговых пространств Евгения Гуськова Нижегородский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, Нижний Новгород, Россия, Email [email protected] Активная человеческая деятельность привела к нарушению оптимального баланса между естественными и искусственными компонентами ландшафта. Все ближе подступая к критической черте, города испытывают острую необходимость всемерного поддержания и максимального увеличения природной составляющей среды. Исторический опыт развития городов показывает, что именно береговые территории обладают максимальной динамикой освоения и наиболее заметной деградацией. Как показывает практика последних лет, сферой архитектурно-ландшафтных преобразований становятся заброшенные и затапливаемые прибрежные пространства, которые ранее использовались преимущественно для промышленнго развития (фабрики, заводы, верфи, фермы) или же пустующие городские пространства, временно используемые под склады, свалки и автостоянки. Создание разнообразной и выразительной среды, организация «водной» линии застройки города является необходимостью градостроительного развития. Нарушенная экология большинства прибрежных пространств в сочетании с низкой эффективностью освоения стали основными причинами для пересмотра их роли в концепции городского развития. При современной функционально-пространственной организации приречных территорий прослеживается несколько путей их освоения: в качестве селитебной зоны (застройка жилыми кварталами), общественного пространства «закрытого типа» (с системой объемов офисно-деловых и торгово-развлекательных центров) и в качестве общественного пространства «открытого типа» – рекреационной зоны.

49 Придание прибрежным пространствам градостроительной значимости можно проследить на примере освоения береговых пространств Нижнего Новгорода. Активная тенденция значительного преобразования береговых территорий прослеживается в проектах мастерской архитектора Виссарионова. Его проеты предлагают строительство рекреационно-общественного центра и торгово-делового комплекса на берегу реки Волга. Согласование новых ландшафтых проектов с существующей системой водных коммуникаций и прилегающих открытых пространств бывших неиспользуемых территорий позволит трансформировать некогда заброшенные береговые участки в элементы устойчивых городских экосистем. Реализация концепции устойчивого развития современного города предполагает использование новых архитектурно-ландшафтных средств организации среды и возвращение приоритета природы в наиболее конфликтные в экологическом отношении пространства.

Ландшафтная организация городских открытых пространств Нижнего Новгорода с позиций устойчивого развития Дарья Дарьенкова Cанкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, СанктПетербург, Россия, Email [email protected] Процесс формирования планировочной структуры Нижнего Новгорода, расположенного на слиянии двух рек – Волги и Оки, в значительной степени был обусловлен особенностями природной ситуации, в первую очередь, характером ландшафта речных долин. В условиях сложного рельефа профиль берега сыграл решающую роль в сохранении части береговых территорий в качестве незастроенных пространств, допускающих рекреационное использование. Природный каркас по мере расширения города был подвержен существенным изменениям, что не могло не сказаться на состоянии экологической устойчивости городских открытых пространств. К числу основных проблем в ландшафтной организации открытых пространств в Нижнем Новгороде следует отнести нерациональное использование природных ресурсов при формировании ландшафта, отсутствие экологического смысла в функциональной и композиционной организации набережных, а также недостаточная реализация возможностей рельефа в качестве средства создания характерного образа каждого фрагмента городского ландшафта. Подходами к решению этих проблем могли бы стать преобразования, ориентированные на изменение функционального наполнения открытых пространств, максимальное раскрытие своеобразия рельефных ситуаций, расширение ассортимента растительных материалов, что не может не отразиться на главном для городского населения понятии – качестве жизни. В частности, ранее не получившие достойного использования территории со сложным рельефом в черте города могли бы обрести новую роль в расширении городских парковых пространств, не говоря уже об организации дополнительных мест для занятий экстремальными видами спорта. Повышение экологической устойчивости территорий может быть достигнуто поэтапным решением ряда принципиально важных задач, включая целенаправленное интегрирование разрозненных фрагментов природного каркаса, последовательное увеличение компонентов растительности в структуре коммуникационных пространств и

50 максимальный учет характера распределения поверхностных стоков для сохранения почвенного покрова и предотвращения размыва эксплуатируемых склонов. В качестве приёмов изменения ландшафтной ситуации могут быть предложены: - замена искусственных материалов подпорных стенок (бетонных плит) набережных на природные, включая габионные конструкции; - обустройство площадок для отдыха различной продолжительности на береговых территориях; - создание дополнительных прогулочных пешеходных и велосипедных трасс, а также мест для занятий экстремальными видами спорта.

Ландшафтно-планировочные основы трансформации сети озелененных территорий Сергей Дюжев Институт «Киевгенплан», Киев, Украина, Email [email protected] Современные ландшафтно-планировочные основы трансформации сети озелененных территорий Украины заключаются: •

•

•

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•

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В обеспечении условий формирования, функционирования, развития и воспроизводства селитебных, производственных и рекреационных территорий, объектов и территорий инженерно-транспортной инфраструктуры; В определении границ целостных ландшафтных образований и нормировании пространственной сомасштабности, совместимости и модулирования компонентного разнообразия с учетом закономерностей восприятия и установления психологического комфорта. В установлении доминирующих и аккомпаннирующих пространственных признаков и мотивов ситуативного формирования рисунка ландшафта, параметров психо-социального взаимодействия (равновесия); В установлении сбалансированности и последовательности (комбинации) доминирующих, паритетных и дополнительных звеньев комплекса функций среды с учетом закономерностей посещаемости, емкости и технологического комфорта деятельности. Определение возможности (продолжительности) и потребности (нормативные этапы и затраты) существования ландшафтов, параметров экономического (рационального) взаимодействия (равновесия) их компонентов; В установлении программных режимов приобретения и наследования избирательных свойств и достижение этапного равновесия ландшафта с учетом его природно-культурной, техно-культурной и социо-культурной значительности. Разработка нормативных целей регулирования (и саморегулирования), критериев и методов пошаговой оптимизации сети территорий, границ и параметров районов экологического взаимодействия (равновесия) с учетом закономерностей поддержки экологического комфорта; В разработке и оптимизации (идентификации) целостного планировочного решения (схемы композиционной кристаллизации и тематизации территории) конкретного ландшафтного целого, установление правил (матриц состояний и режимов) планировочного взаимодействия (равновесия) преобразования, сохранения и/или восстановления ландшафта.

51 •

В осуществлении эффективного территориального и внетерриториального (целевого и ценностного) воплощения (воспроизводства и трансформации) именованной топоформи ландшафтного целого: реализация алгоритма декодирования программы развития, квалиметрическая оценка потенциала функционирования, построение сценария прообраза формирования (модуляции ландшафтных параметров города).

Перспективные ландшафтно-планивочные параметры озелененных территорий Киева определяются: распределением и характеристиками озелененных территорий в разных ландшафтных районах; уровнем и величиной показателей обеспеченности населения территориями общего пользования и потребностями нового зеленого строительства; границами и условиями создания озелененных территорий в районах реконструкции и нового жилищного строительства; границами, составом и проектной емкостью функциональных зон курортов «Пуща-Водица» и «Конча-Заспа»; величиной и дифференциацией туристско-экскурсионного потока, границами и расчетной аттрактивностю туристских зон города; перспективной динамикой трансформации и вместительности сети учреждений курортного лечения, туризма и отдыха разных видов; проектной трансформацией, границами и емкостью сети территорий массового отдыха разных видов и планировочными решениями составляющих интегральных рекреационных зон общегородского значения.

Преобразование ландшафта городской малоэтажной застройки с позиций реальных экологических ценностей Елена Зайкова Cанкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, СанктПетербург, Россия, Email [email protected] В современных условиях наблюдается возрастание потребности населения в полноценном отдыхе вблизи жилища. Развитие рекреационного потенциала периферийных территорий малоэтажной застройки основано на признаниии экологического подхода в качестве основы для формирования планировочных структур этих территорий. Подход заключается в сохранении и реструктуризации природного каркаса. Малоэтажная застройка по сравнению с многоэтажной застройкой обладает реальными возможностями ответить на потребности населения в широком спектре рекреационных занятий. Эта малаэтажная способствует поиску оптимальных решений, сочетающих потенциальные возможности вовлеченных в развитие застройки природных территорий с интересами людей. Регулирование пространственно-функциональной организации городской среды малоэтажной застройки в новых российских социально-экономических условиях должно быть направлено на формирование многофункциональной среды коллективного пользования. Это пространство должно быть также социально-востребованным, экономически целесообразным и экологически обусловленным. При этом качество коллективного пространства малоэтажной застройки, его многофункциональность, оценивается не только во времени, на протяжении которого человек нуждается в этом пространстве, но и в возможности временного развития природной территории, предназначенной для рекреационного использования жителями и выступающей в

52 качестве важнейшего компонента «зеленой инфраструктуры» поселения в формируемом структурном каркасе малоэтажной застройки. В системе восстанавливаемой «зеленой» инфраструктуры необходимо формирование коммуникационного каркаса с природными компонентами, который и должен обеспечить объединение разрозненных природных территорий в контуре малоэтажной застройки с восстановлением их функций, утраченных в результате эксплуатации исходных компонентов природы. Одним из результатов подобной реконструкции может стать создание устойчивых биосистем либо за счет уже сложившегося на данной территории сообщества растений, либо за счет их воспроизводства в виде необходимой компенсации компонентами «второй» природы. Распространение современных подходов делает более актуальным применение органичных компонентов ландшафта каждого региона, в том числе растений, являющихся наиболее характерными и не связанными с дополнительными затратами на их поддержание (злаковые культуры, мхи, лишайники, в целом местные растения). Рекреация с использованием существующей «зелёной» инфраструктуры или с восстановлением компонентами «второй» природы может стать сильным экономическим фактором, являющимся не только социально востребованным в условиях города, но и поддерживающим его экологическую регенерацию. Городской дизайн и ландшафтное планирование как компенсация глобальных стандартов монотонности Дмитрий Кавтарадзе Факультет государственного управления, МГУ имени М.В. Ломоносова, Москва, Россия, Email [email protected] Зрению человека требуется наблюдать движение объектов. Было обнаружено, что физиология деятельности мозга может нарушаться в городах зрительной монотонностью – доминированием визуально однородной среды, отсутствием движения (в основном живых существ). Глобализация распространяет новую модальность стандартов – визуальную монотонность, путем унификации городских конструкций и их сочетаний. Во многих странах городское управление основано на мнениях и интересах администрации, нежели на целостном подходе к городской среде, включая мнения и интересы жителей. Мы сравнили требования к техническим стандартам и качественным показателям экосистем. Они основаны на различных принципах достижения устойчивости: первые на измеряемой унификации и простоте управления, природные системы на разнообразии, пластичности и динамичности. Разнообразие визуальных картин в искусственной среде – городах стало предметом внимания ученых, администраторов, архитекторов и городских дизайнеров. Необходимо восстановить преподавание экологии в архитектурных институтах для обеспечения междисциплинарности городского дизайна и приоритета его экологичности. Работами студии Е. Розенблюма в нескольких городах СССР/России были выполнены художественные проекты реконструкции городской среды» послужившие предметом дискуссии местных жителей и администрации.

53 Другие профессионалы продолжили опыты, начатые Олдо Леопольдом по экологической реставрации деградировавших экосистем. В МГУ также были созданы имитационные игры, включая долговременные модели развития экологических сетей –эконета - в высокоурбанизированных регионах. В 2007 г. Российско-Итальянская летняя школа получила положительный опыт экологического планирования наукограда Королев как продолжение исследования по проекту «Экополис». Группа студентов Архитектурного университета Альгеро под руководством Алессандры Казу предложила проект «ЕКоролев» применив принципы устойчивого развития и опираясь на зеленые территории и водную сеть. Как «Экополис», так и проект «ЕКоролев» направлены на сопряженное развитие урбанизации с региональными экосистемами.

Проблемы озеленения Ростова-на-Дону Козловский Б.Л., Паршин В.Г., Гарнизоненко Т.С. Южный федеральный университет, Ростов-на-Дону, Россия, Email [email protected] В городах степной зоны основная функция зеленых насаждений – обеспечение комфортных условий проживания, что требует особого подхода к формированию их ассортимента. В озеленении Ростова-на-Дону используются достаточно традиционные приемы: рощи, парки, скверы, аллейные и рядовые посадки вдоль улиц, бульваров, группы различного состава и плотности на газонах и клумбах. В настоящее время реальный ассортимент Ростова-на-Дону насчитывает всего 200 видов древесных растений. Кроме низкого видового разнообразия, особую проблему создает дефицит устойчивых и долговечных деревьев первой величины, играющих основную средоформирующую роль в городах. В зеленом строительстве практически не используются древесные лианы, что не позволяет полноценно решать задачу озеленения селитебных плотных застроек и вертикального озеленения. Видовой и типологический состав сложившегося ассортимента не решает проблемы озеленения экстремальных биотопов. Для таких биотопов характерны: бедные субстраты, близкое залегание грунтовых вод, поемность, сильно инсолируемые и с уплотненные почвы. По результатам исследований возможности интродукционных древесных растений, в озеленении города могут использоваться около 230 видов деревьев и более 600 видов кустарников, полукустарников и лиан, внедрение которых может решить перечисленные проблемы. Об отсутствии в городе грамотной ассортиментной политики свидетельствует пересмотр ассортиментного состава городских парков, бульваров, улиц в пользу низкорослых, привитых, стриженых форм деревьев и кустарников, что делает вновь созданные объекты не пригодными для отдыха в течение всего сезона. Среди травянистых видов почти не встречаются многолетники, ассортимент однолетников весьма однообразен. Стимулируется процветание фирм, занимающихся выращиванием рассады, и искусственно сдерживается тенденция к расширению спектра травянистых многолетников. В городе и области целенаправленно уничтожаются посадки растений из рода Populus L. , которые по экологическим потребностям и высокой способности к фитофильтрации являются наиболее перспективными для городского озеленения на юге России. При наличии существенных научных заделов в сфере интродукции и зеленого

54 строительства, сложившаяся ситуация - следствие слабого взаимодействия между профильными научными учреждениями и административными органами.

Создание зеленых пространств г. Воронежа Владимир Кругляк . Воронежская государственная лесотехническая академия, г. Воронеж, Россия, Email [email protected] Европейский город- это город с европейскими условиями (стандартами) жизни, и характеризующийся особыми параметрами культуры, истории и эколгии. По всем перечисленным признакам город Воронеж – европейский город. Воронеж является центром Воронежской области. Он расположен на границе среднерусской возвышенности и Окско-Донской равнины, по берегам реки Воронеж. Город также имеет официальный статус исторического города Российской Федерации (1990г.) и относится к объектам градостроительной деятельности особого регулирования. Территория Воронежа в пределах городской черты составляет 51230 га. Акватория Воронежского водохранилища занимает площадь 6052 га. По данным организации «Воронежпроект» площадь озелененных территорий общего пользования составляет 462,5 га. Территориальный парковый комплекс г. Воронежа создан на базе существующего парка культуры, дендрария Ботанического сада Воронежского государственного университета и землях лесопитомника «Новый». Парковый комплекс города Воронежа разрабатывался в соответствии с современными градостроительными принципами создания благоустроенной городской среды. Парки и зеленый пояс города образуют единую систему озеленения, способствующую улучшению функционально-планировочных, санитарно-гигиенических, рекреационнооздоровительных и архитектурно-художественных качеств городской среды. Градостроительное положение паркового комплекса дает возможность организации логической, непрерывной системы озеленения города с выходом на набережную водохранилища и проникнвение ее в лесопарковую часть. По ситуационному плану города прослеживается четкое градостроительное направление от Бульвара Победы и ул. генерала Лизюкова по тальвегу балки Институтской в прибрежную часть и дальше к центру города. Другая планировочная ось проходит по ул. Ипподромной к Ботаническому саду ВГУ и дендрарию НИИЛГиС и далее в лесопарковую часть города. На основании проведенных исследований зеленых асаждений города Воронежа были сделаны следующие выводы: 1. Территория природного комплекса в существующем балансе земель г. Воронежа составляет 43,4 тыс. га, это - самая крупная функциональная зона города. 2. В промышленных и селитебных районах города повреждение древесных и кустарниковых пород (и их корневой системы) является главным фактором ослабления растений и появления вредителей, грибковых и вирусных заболеваний. 3. Зеленые насаждения улиц и транспортных магистралей города находятся в неудовлетворительном состоянии из-за нарушения условий почвенного питания (воздушного, водного, минерального).

55

Долинные и природные парки в системе озеленения г. Петрозаводска Антонина Лантратова, Мария Шредер, Арина Еглачева Петрозаводский государственный университет, г. Петрозаводск, Россия, Email [email protected] Парки г. Петрозаводска располагаются приозерной части Онежского озера урбанизированной территории. Парки разнообразием и требуют различных природоохранных мероприятий.

в долинах рек Лососинки и Неглинки и в и играют значительную роль в системе отличаются стилями, размерами, видовым подходов к эксплуатации и проведению

Высокий уровень урбанизации Севера России (в связи с освоением уникальных природных ресурсов) ставит задачу разработки мероприятий по сохранению, реконструкции и созданию новых экологически устойчивых озеленительных комплексов. Решение указанной целевой программы связано с инвентаризацией зеленого фонда Петрозаводска, которая проводилась в течение 2001-2007 гг. с помощью приемов и методов, разработанных в отделе геоинформационных систем Регионального центра новых информационных технологий Петразаводского государственного университета. Петрозаводск – крупный исторический, промышленный, научный, культурный и туристический центр. Площадь его составляет 121,8 км2 с населением 282,2 тысяч человек. Территория города расположена на трех террасовидных уступах, сформированных в процессе древних вулканических преобразований в сочетании с озерно-ледниковыми и моренными процессами. Первая парковая композиция – «Березовая роща» была создана в 1712 г. вблизи дворца Петра I. Планирвка парка основана на приемах регулярных садов Франции 17 века. Первый план городской застройки был разработан архитектором А.С. Ярцевым в 1785 г. Его основу составляла радиально-лучевая планировка. Проведенные инвентаризационные исследования показали, что для улучшения экологического состояния города и для расширения озеленительных площадей необходимо эффективно использовать долинные природные ландшафты рек Лососинки и Неглинки, а также уникальные приозерные территории. Парковая территория реки Лососинки составляет более 50 га. Она включает 4 сквозных парка, отличающиеся генезисом, функциональным назначением, стилизацией и видовым разнообразием. Парки включают лесопарковую территорию, парк отдыха (созданный в процессе рекультивации) и характеризуются богатым видовым разнообразием (64 вида древесных растений). В приозерной части располагается Прибрежный парк, спроектированный в ландшафтном стиле (площадь - 14,3 га.). Отличительной чертой парка является наличие архитектурноскульптурной галереи под открытым небом, которая включает произведения в стиле авангарда и пост-модерна-символические подарки Петразаводску от городов-побратимов. Обширная приозерная часть города является резервной территорией для создания садов и парков.

56 Составленные в процессе исследования электронные карты свидетельствуют о плотной застройке исторической части города и микрорайонов и наличии интенсивной транспортной сети. Большинство природных экосистем нарушены. В исторической части города необходимо обратить особое внимание на озеленение дворов, пешеходных зон и территорий ограниченного пользования (детских садов, школ, поликлиник и больниц).

Экологический подход к формированию природной инфраструктуры Хабаровска. Марина Маташова Санкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, СанктПетербург, Россия, Email [email protected] Природная ситуация, в которой сформировался и продолжает развиваться Хабаровск, отличается большим разнообразием и имеет ряд особенностей, благодаря которым создается характерный ландшафт города. В первую очередь, к таким особенностям относятся большие перепады рельефа с высокими береговыми склонами в Центральном и Северном округах города. Сложность освоения рельефа для развития городской инфраструктуры не исключает возможности преобразования речных долин в систему парково-рекреационных пространств, пронизывающих основную часть города и находящихся в непосредственной близости от селитебных территорий. Основной проблемой в реализации природного потенциала территории является отсутствие функционально оправданной структуры как самих озелененных территорий, так и системы эффективных коммуникаций, обеспечивающих их удобную доступность. Одновременно сложность освоения склоновых участков города связана с существующей вероятностью возникновения опасных геологических процессов в ходе каких-либо преобразований структуры рельефа. В таких условиях важным для преобразования ландшафта Хабаровска становится широко применяемый в международной практике прием сохранения природных биотопов, позволяющий в целях повышения устойчивости береговых территорий использовать способность естественных компонентов ландшафта к самовосстановлению. Стабильность его состояния обеспечивается созданием необходимого коммуникационного каркаса без воздействия на существующую окружающуб среду. Размещение дополнительных масс растительности (в местах плотной застройки и на границах наиболее интенсивных транспортных коммуникаций) может способствовать повышению комфортности рекреационных пространств и составить важную часть природной инфраструктуры города. Основой для обеспечения продолжительного и безопасного использования фрагментов городского ландшафта становится формирование устойчивого коммуникационного каркаса, обладающего оптимальными параметрами дорожно-тропиночной сети с включением необходимого оборудования (например, средств освещения и навесов). Использование такого подхода наиболее актуально для периферийной зоны города – Северного округа. Развитие взаимосвязанных фрагментов озелененных пространств и создание системы эффективных коммуникаций может стать существенным фактором

57 повышения экологической устойчивости городских территорий на основе сохранения ландшафтной индивидуальности Хабаровска.

Новая жизнь промышленных ландшафтов Санкт-Петербурга Ирина Мельничук, Андрей Рейман Санкт-Петербургская государственная лесотехническая академия, Санкт-Петербург, Россия, Email [email protected] Глобальные изменения природы, связанные с бурным ростом промышленного производства и урбанизации, привели к существенным изменениям среды обитания человека. Оптимизация городской среды, снижение экологического риска, улучшение качества жизни в селитебных и промышленных зонах невозможны без использования городских зеленых насаждений. Среда крупного города, в том числе и Санкт-Петербурга, неоднородна с экологической точки зрения. Наиболее неблагоприятными для человека являются промышленные зоны, характеризующиеся высокой степенью загрязнения, прежде всего воздушного бассейна. Помимо загрязнения воздушного бассейна происходит загрязнение почв и подземных вод. В отличие от европейских столиц, градостроители Петербурга конца XIX –начала XX вв. не задумывались над проблемами зонирования и проблем коммуникаций. В результате множество промышленных предприятий Санкт-Петербурга существуют рядом с жилыми кварталами, как в центре города, так и на периферии. Но именно этот недостаток городской среды сегодня как раз дает богатые возможности для экологического преобразования среды и включения пространств промышленных предприятий в новый градостроительный контекст. Стратегическим планом развития города предусмотрено постепенное перепрофилирование и реструктуризация промышленных предприятий и удаление из центра города вредных производств, переориентация их на экологически чистые и высокотехнологичные производства. Концепцией предусматривается поэтапное освобождение территорий центральной части города от промышленных объектов и перебазирование их на резервные территории нежилых зон. На освобождаемых территориях планируется строительство объектов культурного, делового и общественного назначения. На сегодняшний день пришло время дать новую жизнь памятникам промышленного зодчества. Одним из лучших примеров перепрофилирования промышленного предприятия является реставрация Центральной водонапорной станции перед Таврическим дворцом. Водонапорная башня высотой около 50 метров, выполненная в формах романской архитектуры, доминирует в панораме Невы. В зданиях разместился Музей воды и центр экологического образования детей. Другие примеры – это перепрофилирование главного здания Новой бумагопрядильной мануфактуры под торговый центр фирмы «Plato», бывшая табачная фабрика «Лаферм» и промышленно-жилой комплекс на Лиговском проспекте. В результате постепенного вывода промышленных предприятий, освобождающиеся пространства потребуют экологической реабилитации. Поэтапное преобразование ландшафта промышленных

58 территорий позволит провести частичное восстановление природного потенциала, будет способствовать оздоровлению окружающей среды и приведет к использованию ранее недоступных участков. Ассортимент видов, используемых для озеленения промышленных территорий в настоящее время, крайне ограничен. Преобладают различные виды тополей, в первую очередь тополь берлинский. Недостаточно используются для озеленения кустарниковые и травянистые растения. Практически нет цветочного оформления. Зеленые насаждения с занимают очень небольшие площади или совсем отсутствуют. Состояние имеющихся зеленых насаждений часто характеризуется как неудовлетворительное. Реализация стратегического плана вывода промышленных предприятий из центральных частей города позволит создать новую, экологически более стабильную городскую постиндустриалную среду.

Диалог с природой средствами ландшафтного дизайна как основа стратегии экологической реконструкции города Валерий Нефёдов Санкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, СанктПетербург, Россия, Email: [email protected] По мере сокращения компонентов природного ландшафта (в результате экспансии территорий транспортного и промышленного назначения) и расширением жилых зон, реальная нормализация экологической ситуации становится невозможной без последовательного восстановления природной инфраструктуры города. В основу новой стратегии экологической реконструкции целесообразно положить принцип взаимодействия с природой. Это-прежде всего диалог, предполагающий реагирование на реальные возможности природы в оздоровлении отдельных фрагментов городского ландшафта. Неустойчивое состояние ландшафта городских улиц, площадей, набережных и дворовых территорий вынуждает искать наиболее эффективные пути воссоздания здесь природных компонентов среды, отвечающих изменившемуся характеру использования территории. Продолжение украшательских тенденций в использовании средств ландшафтного дизайна не может привести к улучшению экологической ситуации. В связи с этим многие ранее созданные городские открытые пространства требуют экологической реконструкции с превращением восстанавливаемых компонентов природы в действенный фактор стабилизации ландшафта города на основе формирования взаимосвязанного природного каркаса территорий. Принцип применения растительности, обладающей максимальной устойчивостью в городских условиях, диктует поиски растительных сообществ, обеспечивающих лучшее самоподдержание городских экосистем. Для современного этапа развития Санкт-Петербурга с максимальной остротой встает проблема перехода к эко-ориентированному ландшафтному дизайну. Особенно актуален подобный принцип на наиболее «проблемных» территориях, например, на территориях бывшего промышленного пояса, а также на береговых участках и коммуникационных пространствах.

59 Целям цивилизованного экологического развития городского ландшафтного дизайна в Санкт-Петербурге может отвечать следующий переход: - от визуальных эффектов сценарирования к структурной экореконструкции; - от затратного украшательства к экологической регенерации открытых пространств с увеличением доли природных компонентов среды; - от ностальгии по императорским ландшафтам к использованию новейших технологий преобразования городской среды; - от концепции монументального увековечивания к концепции гуманизации среды в интересах современного человека. По существу речь идет о развитии альтернативного ландшафтного дизайна, который будет лишен схоластичного сценарирования, и будет способен преобразовать безжизненные городские пространства в устойчивую экологическую инфраструктуру.

Древесные растения в городе Плич А., Нандрак-Буссениус А. Экспертное бюро Йохен Брем, Бестензее, Германия Древесный питомник ЛОРБЕРГ, Треммен, Германия Email [email protected] Многие из деревьев, которые мы используем в городе, – потомки лесных деревьев. Лес – естественное место произрастания этих древесных растений. Там господствуют в основном близкие к природе условия, которые с растениеводческой точки зрения можно расценивать как благоприятные (условия местонахождения и климатические условия). Деревья растут в общей системе и в обоюдном взаимодействии. Из этого проистекают конкурентные отношения, однако и положительные воздействия для каждого отдельного дерева. Такие положительные воздействия состоят, например, во взаимном затенении ствола, уменьшенном влиянии ветра или равномерной влажности воздуха. В городской среде деревья сажаются в большинстве случаев поодиночке или в небольших группах. Условия местонахождения можно преимущественно охарактеризовать как враждебные для растений (замащивание почвы, уплотнение грунта, быстро стекающие дождевые воды, измененные влияния ветра, прямое солнечное облучение стволов, малое количество питательных веществ в почве и т.д.). Вследствие изолированного положения в этой среде деревья подвержены совершенно иным воздействиям, чем деревья в лесу. Вследствие значительно измененных условий местонахождения деревьев в городском окружении по сравнению с их естественной средой, возникают повышенные требования ко всем профессиональным работам и услугам. Эти профессиональные работы и услуги охватывают все фазы – от квалифицированного планирования, поставок высококачественного товара из древесного питомника, посадки (выполненной со знанием дела), ухода до регулярных проверок. Важным фактором для успешной адаптации древесных растений после их посадки в городе является покупка высокосортного товара в древесном питомнике с высоким качеством. Основные критерии качества для деревьев из германских древесных питомников будут представлены на основе примеров из питомника ЛОРБЕРГ (Треммен, Германия).

60

Исторические парки России в современной городской среде: проблемы реконструкции и сохранение идентичности Борис Соколов Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, 123060 Москва, Улица Маршала Бирюзова, д. 40, кв. 83, телефон +7 499 196 6573, мобильный +7 916 856 8702, сайт: www.gardenhistory.ru, Email: [email protected] В начале 2000-х годов невнимание к историческим паркам России, входящим в сферу городской рекреации, сменилось агрессивной политикой их реконструкции и приспособления к новым функциям. Процесс переработки исторической садовой среды носит системный характер: 1) создание административной ситуации, в которой статус ландшафта не определен либо снижен, а критерии оценки его художественных качеств отсутствуют. Усадьба Кузьминки в Москве имеет статус общественного парка, что не позволяет говорить о "реставрации" ландшафта, а только его "благоустройстве" и "ревалоризации", 2) затратный принцип реконструкции, повышающий рентабельность работ за счет дорогостоящих и чужеродных элементов . Пример – стальные мосты, ведущие на остров XVIII века в Царицыне и дорожки из гранита и кирпича в пейзажном парке этой усадьбы. 3) вторжение в проектный процесс современных архитекторов и скульпторов, делающих исторический ландшафт средой самовыражения. Пример – стеклянный павильон между Хлебным домом и Большим Дворцом в Царицыне, 4) умышленное размывание границ исторического парка, внедрение новых элементов дизайна в эту пограничную зону (границы парка Царицыно, "усадьба Деда Мороза" в Кузьминках), 5) замена исторической ландшафтной структуры на новую, предназначенную прежде всего для рекреационного и фестивального использования (превращение парка усадьбы Воронцово в Москве в детский парк с павильоном, названным "главным усадебным домом"), 6) внесение элементов массового ландшафтного дизайна в исторический культурный ландшафт (срезание рельефа, введение альпинариев, фонтанов, стоек для вертикального озеленения, использование бытовых газонных смесей (California Green в Царицыне) и современного ассортимента цветочных растений) вместо исторической флоры, 7) упрощение социальных и художественных задач, связанных с реконструкцией и сохранением исторических садов и парков – выгода, престиж, рекреация. Предлагаю для обсуждения собственную "реконструкцию" – реконструкцию новых приоритетов типичных (не всех!) современных реконструкций: 1) экономическая выгода лиц и организаций, причастных к работам, 2) самовыражение авторов проекта, 3) создание престижного объекта массового отдыха, 4) приведение художественных качеств исторического парка в соответствие с современной городской средой, 5) воспитание у посетителей обновленных исторических парков примитивного, массового восприятия садового искусства и ландшафтного творчества,

61 6) формирование потребительского понимания парковой среды ("чисто", "дорожки", "еда", "урны", "праздники", "аттракционы"), замена исторических и художественных впечатлений процессом "потребления парка", 7) манипуляция общественным сознанием на основе культурных мутаций исторической среды, которые большинство населения региона оценивает сугубо позитивно. В докладе приводятся положительные и отрицательные примеры парковых реконструкций, а также предлагаются способы позитивного воздействия на общественное мнение и на эстетические предпочтения в сфере ландшафтного творчества.

Формирование и развитие садово-парковых объектов Саратова Ольга Сокольская Саратовский государственный аграрный университет им. Н.И.Вавилова, г.Саратов, Россия, Email [email protected] В дореволюционном Саратове площадь искусственных насаждений была незначительна. Создание первого парка с утилитарными функциями (производство шелка, где находились шелковичные плантации) датируется 1764 годом. Он имел площадь 65 га. Первые указания на мощение улиц Саратова упоминаются в 1804 году. Улицы делались из мягкой породы камня, который быстро превращался в пыль. С 1877 года для мощения улиц стали употреблять твердые породы камня. Так, например, мостовая Астраханского бульвара выкладывалась из серого финского гранита. Вдоль улиц впоследствии устраивались тротуары, залитые асфальтом. Бульвары Саратова являются основными “зелеными коридорами”. Сегодня площадь зеленых насаждений селитебной территории в Саратове составляет более 2000 га, в том числе насаждений общего пользования - более 600 га. Помимо парков, скверов, бульваров и ботанического сада жители приблизились и к таким периферийным естественным ландшафтам, как Смирновское и Октябрьское ущелья, Кумысная поляна, Савеловские горы. Эти ландшафты входят в единый лесопарковый комплекс, примыкающий к Саратову и непосредственно «вливаются» в его “зеленую структуру”. Отличительной особенностью системы озеленения Саратова является ее центральное ядро, построеноенное на основе дореволюционных объектов садовопаркового искусства (ОСПИ). В Саратове по историческим предпосылкам возникновения ОСПИ подразделяются на типы: Исторический характер объектов садово-паркового искусства Саратова определил их подразделение на следующие типы» − созданные на местах исторических событий (например, сквер на площади Борцов революции 1905 года); − созданные на базе старинной усадьбы (например, парк КиО им.Горького); − созданные при соборе или на месте собора (например, сквер на Музейной площади); − созданные на основе дореволюционных общественных объектов, связанных с развитием культуры и науки (например, сад “Липки”);

62 − созданные как архитектурно-ландшафтные объекты на базе естественных ландшафтов (например, набережная Космонавтов). ОСПИ Саратова формировались на основе следующих композиционных приемов: компактного приема (сад «Липки» и пр.) и линейно-динамического приема (бульвары, набережная, парк «Победы»). Данные композиционные приемы ОСПИ во многом зависят от прилегающей к «зеленым» ансамблям жилой застройки. Формирование и развитие ландшафтно-архитектурного наследия Саратова организовало его «зеленый» каркас.

Особенности формирования городских усадебных комплексов периода конца 18начала 20 веков, как устойчивых элементов системы озеленения Саратова Ольга Сокольская, Шачина О.А. Саратовский государственный аграрный университет им. Н.И.Вавилова, г.Саратов, Россия, Email [email protected] В конце XVIII- начале XIX веков сложились городские усадебные комплексы, принадлежавшие священнослужителям и чиновникам из мелкопоместного дворянства. В них входили: дом-особняк, флигель, службы и обязательно сад. Сохранившиеся до настоящее время усадьбы данного типа – это большая редкость. Активное градостроительство, все более проникающее в центральные городские районы, безжалостно уничтожает остатки исторической застройки провинциальных городов. Строения в городских усадебных комплексах были в основном деревянными, поэтому часто уничтожались пожарами, а соответственно перестраивались. Исследуя городские усадебные комплексы г.Саратова были определены особенности их формирования как устойчивых элементов системы озеленения: • • •

•

городские усадебные комплексы расположенные на берегу р.Волги были больших размеров, чем усадебные комплексы в центре города; усадебные комплексы имели палисадники, которые украшали не только сами объекты, но и улицы; усадебные комплексы имели на территории лиственные деревья и кустарники определенных видов: деревья, защищающие склоны от оползней: вязы, тополя, акация белая; из кустарников- сирень обыкновенная, чубушник, шиповник, желтая акация, калина обыкновенная (ф.бульденеж), смородина золотистая; из плодовых деревьев и кустарников – яблони, груши, вишни, черная смородина, малина, айва; в палисадниках – сирень, рябина, калина; усадебные комплексы имели цветники с ассортиментом XIX века: многолетников – флокс, лилейник, пион; из луковичных – тюльпан, лилия; из двулетников – мальва; летники- тагетес, календула, космея.

Городские усадебные комплексы имели также малые архитектурные формы, такие как скамьи, ограды, беседки, иногда гроты и фонтанчики, скульптур было мало. Территории усадебных комплексов, расположенных на берегу, позволяли строить там флигели, которые сдавались внаем. Планировка дорог на территории усадеб была рациональной: от входа к жилым и хозяйственным постройкам.

63

В итоге исследований предложены предварительные рекомендации: • восстановить (по возможности) древесно-кустарниковую растительность и цветочные культуры, а где возможно- плодовые сады или их фрагменты; • восстановить палисады для включения данных объектов в систему озеленения Саратова; • хозяйственные постройки можно заменить лазерным изображением сооружений, тем самым свободное пространство использовать для культурных мероприятий; • использовать данные усадебные комплексы в культурной жизни гостей и жителей Саратова.

Экореконструкция городских коммуникационных пространств (на примере г. Волгограда) Инна Сотникова Санкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет, СанктПетербург, Россия, Email [email protected] Актуальность исследования вопросов экореконструкции системы существующих ГКП (городских коммуникационных пространств) Волгограда непосредственно связана с очевидной необходимостью повышения эффективности использования транспортных и пешеходных пространств в условиях реализации нового генерального плана города. В соответствии с намеченными направлениями развития Волгограда можно говорить о том, что именно ГКП в настоящее время – территории не только с определенным экономическим потенциалом, но и территории с их возрастающей ролью в повышении социальной эффективности городских пространств, а также определенными ресурсами в плане нормализации экологической ситуации в городе. Поэтому подходы к экологической реконструкции этих пространств будут определяться функциями каждого из них в формируемой системе коммуникационных русел города с адекватным преобразованием ландшафта. В числе основных проблем, обусловленных характером линейной структуры города, необходимо выделить проблемы, связанные с существованием зон повышенной экологической напряженности на прирельсовых территориях (вблизи линий железной дороги и вокзалов), трассах скоростного трамвая, участках городских территорий вдоль автодорог (с движением грузового транспорта) и на перекрестках. Состояние ландшафта коммуникационных пространств усугубляется недостаточной обоснованностью и зачастую случайностью выбранных приемов размещения растительности и трактовки рельефных ситуаций. Экологический аспект – один из основных, который должен быть учтен при разработке предложений по ландшафтному преобразованию ГКП. Предлагается рассмотреть несколько методов реорганизации ГКП, включая метод реструктуризации притрассовых зон ГКП, метод регенерации ландшафтной структуры и, соответственно, ландшафтной организации трасс рельсового транспорта, метод многоуровнего расслоения ГКП. Все эти методы основаны на экологическом подходе и принципе безопасности для человека. В данном случае можно говорить о формировании системы дифференцированных коммуникационных коридоров, в которых с различной скоростью передвигаются

64 пешеходы и транспорт. Коридоры начинаются от «вылетных» коммуникаций и кончаются пешеходными улицами, разделенных между собой буферными пространствами и заполненными шумозащитными экранами, складками рельефа и компонентами растительности. Как свидетельствует европейский опыт, приход общественного транспорта нового поколения требует ландшафтной реструктуризации существующих транспортных пространств, но именно это изменение может радикально повлиять на решение многих экологических проблем современного города.

О реконструкции зелёных насаждений на объектах ландшафтной архитектуры г. Москвы Владимир Теодоронский Московсий государственный университет леса, Москва, Россия Исследования, проведённые в течение 10 лет по программе «Мониторинг состояния зелёных насаждений Москвы» выявили некоторые существенные закономерности в состоянии зелёных насаждений на городских объектах Москвы. Установлено, что значительная часть древесных растений на территориях городских парков, созданных в середине XX века, как основного компонента природного комплекса города, не способна выполнять свои функции, и требует осуществления радикальных мероприятий по реконструкции, оптимизации состава и возрастной структуры. Комплексная оценка состояния насаждений позволила выявить причины, вызывающие необходимость проведения мероприятий, связанных с улучшением состава и возрастной структуры насаждений, частичной замены растений, восстановления формирующих объект типов пространственной структуры и типов насаждений. Основными причинами, вызывающими снижение жизнеспособности растительности и нарушения типов пространственной структуры на объектах являются следующие: -

естественное старение насаждений; ошибки, допущенные при проектировании и формировании насаждений в процессе их содержания; - отрицательное воздействие на растительность антропогенных факторов среды; Естественное старение и распад насаждений признаны главной причиной в этом ряду. Основными ошибками при проектировании и создании насаждений на объектах озеленения, которые вызывают необходимость реконструкции, являются: - недооценка градостроительной ситуации при проектировании объекта озеленения и несоответствие его функциональному назначению; - необеспеченность достаточно развитой дорожно-тропиночной сетью и площадками отдыха; - нарушение норматива размещения деревьев и кустарников в сторону чрезмерного увеличения насаждений, видовая несовместимость растений и их отрицательное влияние друг на друга;

65 - размещение растительных группировок без учета отношения растений к свету, к воздействиям ветровой нагрузки и влиянию техногенных факторов; - повышение рекреационных нагрузок, и в связи с этим, возникновение стихийной дорожной сети, уничтожение растительного покрова, механические повреждения деревьев и кустарников; - бедность ассортимента и необоснованность сочетаний растений; - обеднение почвы в связи недостаточной заменой грунта плодородным слоем растительной земли; - низкий уровень благоустройства озелененной территории. Установлено, что содержание насаждений на многих объектах проводится, как правило, бессистемно, без учёта экологических условий, в которых находится объект, что приводит к преждевременному старению растений, потере декоративности и в конечном итоге к их гибели. В парковых массивах зачастую не проводятся элементарные мероприятия по формированию типов насаждений, удалению и замене отмирающих растений, сохранению типов пространственной структуры, оптимального соотношения открытых, полуоткрытых и закрытых пространств. Приостановить процесс распада и предотвратить полную гибель насаждений, повысить их декоративность и функциональную эффективность возможно лишь путем проведения целого комплекса мероприятий, одним из эффективных является реконструкция объекта, оптимизация типов пространственной структуры. Реконструкция насаждений на объектах озеленения – сложный, многогранный и во многом индивидуальный процесс, связанный как с разработкой специального проекта, так и выполнением технологических работ в процессе его выполнения.

Состояние и перспективы использования защитных лесных насаждений в системе озеленения городов степи на примере г. Саратова Александр Терешкин, Азарова О.В. ФГОУ ВПО «Саратовский ГАУ им. Н.И. Вавилова», г. Саратов, Россия, Email [email protected] Недостаточный уровень озеленения городского пространства в условиях степи необходимо компенсировать созданием новых насаждений, а также сохранением уже существующих, (если они достаточно эффективно выполняют возлагаемые на них функции). Органичное включение защитных насаждений в систему озеленения возможно при их преобразовании и повышении эстетической привлекательности. При этом необходимо сохранять на должном уровне их средообразующие и защитные функции. В процессе урбанизации в пространтсво населенных пунктов активно вовлекаются территории, ранее занятые агроландшафтами. Защитные лесные насаждения, оказавшиеся в непосредственной близости от застройки, также выполняют и эстетические, и рекреационные функции наряду с защитными, так как они автоматически перешли из пригородных насаждений в категорию внутригородских. Задачей наших исследований являлась оценка возможности улучшения состояния защитных лесных насаждений (вошедших в систему озеленения населенных пунктов) в условиях степи Российской Федерации и оценка их средообразующих и эстетических

66 функций на примере города Саратова. Для получения сравнительных характеристик существующих зеленых насаждений, относящихся к различным категориям, была разработана шкала комплексной оценки рекреационно-эстетических свойств зеленых насаждений и проведена оценка их санитарно – гигиенических функций на основе общепринятых методик. В результате исследований установлено, что в системе озеленения г. Саратова доля защитных лесных насаждений достигает 23,4 % (601 га). Они представлены массивами на склонах (35 %), противоэрозионными насаждениями (24 %), лесными полосами вдоль дорог (21 %), полезащитными полосами (16 %) и санитарно-защитными зонами (4 %). Все зеленые насаждения являются социально востребованными. До 9 % населения города используют их в качестве мест кратковременного отдыха. При проведении комплексного благоустройства этот показатель можно было бы повысить до 61 %. Таксационные характеристики, показатели жизнеспособности пород в защитных лесных насаждениях и комплексные рекреационно-эстетические характеристики защитных насаждений по сравнению с другими видами городских зеленых насаждений в целом несколько ниже. Это объясняется отсутствием лесоводственных уходов и худшими условиями произрастания. При проведении соответствующих мероприятий существует возможность их увеличения до сопоставимых величин. Санитарно-гигиенические свойства защитных лесных насаждений в системе озеленения города сопоставимы с другими видами зеленых насаждений, поскольку они способны обеспечить производство 5,1 т/га кислорода, депонирование СО2 – 1,6 т/га и поглощение 15,3 кг/га вредных газов и аэрозолей и осаждение пыли – 0,7 т/га. Здесь задерживается на 30 % загрязнителей больше, чем в других зеленых насаждениях. Проведение в них рубок ухода с частичной заменой деревьев и посадкой кустарников увеличивают в среднем биоэнергетический потенциал насаждений на 0,49 ТДж/га. При проектировании новых жилых микрорайонов можно рекомендовать максимально сохранять имеющиеся в ландшафте лесные насаждения массивного и линейного типов, используя их как основу для последующего формирования зеленых пространств, в дальнейшем трансформируя их в скверы и бульвары.

Особенности современного развития городских ландшафтов Торонто (Канада). Вера Фунтова, Фунтов К. «Программа поддержки волонтеров Хай-Парка» , Торонто, Канада, Email [email protected] Отделение сельского хозяйства, Университет Гуэльфа, Торонто, Канада, Email [email protected] Торонто является одним из наиболее быстро растущих урбанистических центров Северной Америки. Его население составляет 5,5 млн. человек, общая площадь около - 7 тыс. км2. Торонто является одним из наиболее зеленых городов Канады. По данным Отдела парков, лесного хозяйства и рекреации Торонто (2007) общая площадь зеленых насаждений составляет 7390 га, из них- 1470 парков. Под контролем данной организации

67 проводится мероприятия по поддержанию 2,5 млн. деревьев в парках и «оврагах», а также 500 тыс. деревьев на улицах города. Ежегодно высаживается около 1,3 млн. однолетних и других культур, поддерживается 40 га садовых демонстрационных объектов. Подготовкой посадочного материала занимаются 8 тепличных хозяйств. Одной из отличительных черт озеленения Торонто является наличие малоизмененных природных растительных массивов в городском пространстве, так называемых «оврагов», которые пронизывают город с севера на юг. Они являются не только важной эстетической составляющей ландшафта, но и обеспечивают улучшение городского климата, снижают уровень шума, являются рефугиумами естественной флоры и фауны. Сохранение природной флоры луговых, болотных и лесных растительных сообществ оврагов, а также препятствие распространению агрессивных дичающих инродуцируванных видов – важные компоненты поддержания естественного баланса в данных экосистемах. К особенностям современного городского дизайна следует отнести растущую экологическую направляющую в реализации ландшафтных проектов различных масштабов. В качестве примеров можно привести: восстановление природных ландшафтов Хай-парка (High Park), в том числе с использованием плановых выжиганий (как одного из способов регуляции экокомпонентов); реконструкция прибрежных экосистем в ландшафтных проектах на берегу озера Онтарио; проект стилизации различных типов природных экосистем в центре города (Yorkvillage); программа озеленения парковок; использование видов местной флоры в частных садах. Большое значение в реализации ландшафтных проектов уделяется информационной и образовательной составляющим. Широкое развитие получила система познавательных прогулок “Discovery walks”, предлагающая маршруты по «зеленому кольцу» города. Во многих крупных парках функционируют обучающие экологические программы для детей и взрослых, организуется деятельность волонтеров. Эффективное развитие городской среды обеспечивается комплексными действиями муниципалитета, благотворительных и общественных организаций.

Сравнительный анализ подходов экологических исследований исторических парков Торонто и Санкт-Петербурга. Вера Фунтова, Смит Дж. «Программа поддержки волонтеров Хай-парка» , Торонто, Канада, Еmail [email protected] Сопредседатель ( 2003-2007 гг) «Программы поддержки волонтеров Хай-парка», Торонто, Канада, Еmail [email protected] Особое эстетическое, природоохранное и научно-образовательное значение для городского ландшафта имеют парковые массивы, созданные на основе естественных природных сообществ. В ряде случаев на их территориях представлено значительное разнообразие многих компонентов экосистем, в том числе редких и охраняемых объектов. Поддержание и развитие такого рода зеленых территорий требует научного подхода, основанного на принципах устойчивого экологического развития. Хай-парк (Торонто) и парк БИНИИ «Сергиевка» (Санкт-Петербург) являются примерами городских парков, имеющих статус природной охраняемой территории, и объектами

68 многолетних экологических исследований, дающих основу для их менеджмента и мониторинга. На территории каждого парка находится около 100 га природных экосистем. Рельеф парков сходен системой продольных оврагов на равнинной поверхности плато, наличием прудов и ручьев. Растительные сообщества являются одной из важнейших составляющих экосистемы. В связи с этим наибольшее значение при экологических исследованиях обоих парков было уделено геоботаническому обследованию территорий, картированию фитоценозов, составлению флористических списков, выявлению редких и находящихся под угрозой видов растений. В Хай-парке проведен расширенный анализ инвазивных элементов и изучение их влияния на состав и структуру естественных сообществ. На территории Хай-парка наиболее ценным типом фитоценозов являются высокотравные саванны с дубом черным (Quercus velutina) , которые составляют 1% от всех саванн в провинции Онтарио и содержат 29 редких видов растений (из 58, отмеченных в парке). В парке БиНИИ важна роль широколиственных сообществ с дубом черешчатым, липой мелколиственной (Quercus robur, Tilia cordata ) и неморальными видами в травянистокустарничковом ярусе (Galeobdolon luteum, Aegopodium podograria), находящихся на границе их северного распространения. В результате сравнения наиболее деструктивных факторов, оказывающих влияние на экосистемы данных парков следует указать изменение гидрологического режима, отсутствие регуляторных факторов в травяных сообществах (природные пожары в Хай-парке, вырубки кустарников и древесного подроста в Сергиевке), рекреационная нагрузка, и как следствие увеличение дорожнотропиночной сети, а также замусоривание. Следует отметить негативную роль общих процессов загрязнения окружающей среды, характерных для мегаполисов.

Анализ средств и приемов устойчивого ландшафтного дизайна, используемых при благоустройстве городов (на примере Санкт-Петербурга и городов Голландии) Илона Черепанова, Надежда Керимова Ландшафтная студия «Ботаник», Гронинген, Нидерланды, Email [email protected] Ландшафтно-архитектурная компания «Дом», Санкт-Петербург, Россия, Email [email protected] Значительное расширение масштабов современного строительства, характерное как для Санкт-Петербурга, так и для многих городов Голландии, дает основание сопоставить приемы ландшафтной организации многих городских открытых пространств, потребность в которых постоянно возрастает. Подобное сопоставление позволяет оценить рациональность принимаемых проектных решений с точки зрения размещения фрагментов природного окружения архитектурных объектов и выбора устойчивых форм растительности. Изменение представлений о характере взаимодействия архитектурных объектов с окружающим ландшафтом включает переход к рассмотрению буферных пространств в качестве функционального и композиционного продолжения самих объектов архитектуры, что создает предпосылки для последовательного увеличения в структуре подобных пространств компонентов живой природы. Помня о том, что зеленые насаждения оказывают благоприятное воздействие на параметры среды вокруг архитектурных сооружений, важно добиться, чтобы их

69 положительное влияние распространялось по возможности более продолжительный период. В сложных климатические условиях Санкт-Петербурга приходится наиболее тщательно относиться к выбору пород растительности. Одновременно, достаточно беглого взгляда на практику ряда городов Голландии, чтобы понять, каким образом эффективность размещения растений вблизи объектов может быть повышена, и в чем заключается главный ресурс их размещения в качестве компонентов буферных пространств. Подобное сопоставление позволяет отметить разницу в структурировании буферных пространств на подходах к зданиям, в том числе при организации автостоянок, входных направлений, аван-площадей, применительно к таким объектам общественного назначения, как торговые центры, гостиницы, банки, офисы и др. Суть различия заключается в создании в Голландии более дифференцированных пространств с четким разграничением пешеходных и транспортных пространств, а также в заполнении функциональных пауз компонентами растительности, включая использование злаковых культур, хвойных пород в гораздо большей степени, чем обращение к затратным цветочным композициям. Таким образом, речь идет о формировании средствами ландшафтного дизайна реального и устойчивого ландшафта города за счет выбора пород растительности, переносящих антропогенные нагрузки менее болезненно, а, главное, образующих устойчивые сообщества растений, обладающих определенной аналогией с природной средой. Экологические исследования в проекте «Реконструкция Летнего сада» - как основа для создания экологически устойчивого исторического объекта в центре СанктПетербурга Елена Штиглиц Федеральное государственное учреждение культуры «Государственный Русский музей», г. Санкт-Петербург, Россия Email [email protected] Немалую роль среди современных направлений ландшафтной архитектуры занимает реставрация исторических объектов – как уже сформировавшихся экологических систем, нуждающихся в особо бережном подходе к их реставрации, Для этой цели прежде всего необходимы проведение серьезного комплекса экологических исследований. Летний сад – шедевр русского садово-паркового искусства был заложен в 1704 году как парадный сад Российской Императорской резиденции. Архитектурно-ландшафтная композиция Летнего сада создавалась на протяжении почти всего XVIII века. Петр I лично изучал книги по строительству садов и фонтанов и его собственноручный чертеж лег в основу планировки всего сада. Новая мода конца XVIII-начала IX в.в. на «пейзажный стиль» в садово-парковом искусстве сказалась на судьбе Летнего сада. Деревья перестали стричь, четкие регулярные формы приобрели живописные очертания. В XIX веке Летний сад превратился в общественный городской парк. На сегодняшний день Летний сад потерял свою художественную ценность и статус памятника садовопаркового искусства XVIII века. В большой комплекс исследовательских работ проекта «Реконструкции Летнего сада» вошли почвенные и гидрологические изыскания, фитопатологические обследования всех

70 зеленых насаждений, составление гербария. За трехвековую историю от регулярного Летнего сада осталось только планировка и на отдельных участках стриженые кустарники и деревья. На остальной территории – насаждения, превосходящие по возрасту предельный срок жизни деревьев и кустарников в городских условиях. 80% деревьев в Летнем саду вступили в фазу естественного старения. Этот процесс усугубляется воздействием неблагоприятной городской среды и сильной антропогенной нагрузки. Все старовозрастные деревья ослаблены, заражены инфекционными заболеваниями. Практически все деревья в Летнем саду нуждаются в комплексном и планомерном лечении. Но, несмотря на экстремальные условия жизни для растений, в Летнем саду за последние сто лет сформировалась особая экосистема - взаимосвязанные между собой растительные сообщества. Напочвенный травянистый покров представлен уникальными растениями, произрастающими в природе только в широколиственных дубравах редкими видами колокольчиков, ветрениц, хохлатки и фиалки. Весной зацветают эфемероиды (чистяк весенний, гусиный лук, селезеночник), покрывая мрачные уголки Летнего сада желтыми коврами. Ценный напочвенный покров нуждается в отдельной охране и реставрации. Для этой цели была составлена подробная инвентаризация и гербарий. В проекте реставрации большое значение придается мероприятиям по сохранению уникального ландшафтного комплекса «Летний сад» и повышению жизнеустойчивости зеленых насаждений в центре крупнейшего мегаполиса г.Санкт-Петербурга.

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Refereed Papers

In English

72

Statistical Analysis and Mapping of the Open Spaces of the Municipality of Thessaloniki: an Urban Planning Proposal for the Historical Centre. Konstantinia D. Andreopoulou Department of Architectural Design, Division of Architectural Projects, Municipality of Thessaloniki, Greece Introduction The purpose of the present essay is to present an urban planning proposal for the network of open spaces in the historical centre of Thessaloniki after a thorough analysis of all data concerning the open spaces of the city. The study area, the municipality of Thessaloniki and especially its historical centre, is approached through the aspect of the open spaces; therefore a presentation of the theoretical definitions of the terms that are correlated with “open space” and “urban park”, from literature and provisions of legislative context, is considered necessary. Although there is plenty of legislation and definitions concerning the terms ‘forest’ (Papastavrou & Makris, 1985) and ‘environment’, the situation is different when it comes to terms such as: ‘open space’ and ‘park’ (Andreopoulou, 2004). The notion of open space in an urban area is illustrated as: «... the outdoor, welcoming the optional and spontaneous facility, the movement, or the visual investigation of an important number of individuals in a city...» (Lynch, 1972). Other terms with the same or similar meaning, are the: “green areas” or “free areas”, having as a distinctive difference that the first term, is interested in the open space as an area of communication and of social facilities, leaning its principles on the usage, the behavior and the transactions on the urban outdoor area. In the framework of the present essay, the definition of the open spaces according to Kevin Lynch was used, putting an emphasis on the area as a public place of free chosen and spontaneous activity. The methodology and theoretical background that is going to be followed for the design of the historical centre is the one according to the Systems Approach. A system is defined as “a complex whole”, “a series of connected things or parts”, “an organized body of material and immaterial things” and as “a group of objects that are connected and interact in the formation of a whole”. The systems parts are constantly the human facilities and especially those that tend to take place and repeat in certain locations, zones or areas. The connections between these parts are the human communications and we are mostly interested in those that develop repeatedly and are site located (McLoughlin,1969). Concluding, in accordance with the ‘Systems’ Approach’, for the planning of the historical centre of the city, the units of free spaces should be approached firstly as an ensemble between them and secondly as an ensemble with the other uses of the city. The connections we are interested in are expressed through the networks of circulation and pedestrian movement. Open spaces data analysis of the Municipality of Thessaloniki The data examined in the present essay derive from urban places that refer to the type of parks and gardens, squares, seafront and pedestrian ways, playgrounds and areas of specific use. (Ananiadou – Tzimopoulou, 2003)1. From all the data, the ones correlated with the size, the

1

Areas of specific use are the sports courts, the botanical and zoo gardens, cemeteries, archaeological sites, universities campus, etc. The data derive from the Parks

Database of the Plant Department, Municipality of Thessaloniki.

73 plant species and the facilities included in each unit are examined in depth. Furthermore, new indices are created, assessing the better identification and potential of the open spaces. In order to assess the size of the units, the element of the whole area was used and the index of the proportion of the planted area in the whole area was created for each record. From the elements concerning plants, emphasis was put on trees, because of their special biological, structural and perceivable importance for the characterization of an area as an open space. As a consequence, we are interested in the sum of the trees, also in their density in every open space record, which is expressed with the index of the proportion of the sum of the trees in the whole area. Respecting the facilities, the number of the units that include lighting, sitting areas, playground and monuments are presented and identified. In order to create distinctive categories for every index and element examined, a statistical process was taken out in collaboration with the population of the records in every category. The results of the analysis are presented separately for every element, index and category in the complete text and in detail in charts, at the annex. The whole area and the sum of the trees in each unit, which we mostly concerned with, are presented also in a map of the whole municipality. Since we are interested in the population’s index, we sum the open spaces area for the whole city and the index open space per inhabitant is calculated at 3,293m2/inhabitant. With the contribution of the tree rows in the pedestrian zones, the index rises to 7,077 m2/ inhabitant, but still remains low, compared with other European cities (Soulier, 1977). Analysis of the urban planning and open spaces data for the historical centre of the city In the second part, the essay focuses in the historical centre of the city (intra muros2 area). The statistical process of the park elements is repeated here with the same defined categories. The spatial distribution of the facilities of the open spaces is also presented in a map. The analysis that concentrates at the historical centre of the city also uses the three following urban planning studies: 1. The General Urban Planning Layout of the Municipality of Thessaloniki, where the land uses are shown, (Organization of the Regulating Plan and Environment Protection of Thessaloniki, 1997). 2. The General Essay of Transportations and Circulations for the Urban Planning Complex and the Outer City Zone. (Denco Engineer Consultants, 2000). 3. The Urban Planning Regenerating – Elevation of the physiognomy of the Thessaloniki City Center. The circulation and the parking in Thessaloniki. (Kyrou, 1996). The general feature of the historical centre is that it accommodates the commercial functions and most of the public services. Concerning circulation, the area is heavily integrated. The degradation of the historic face of the city and the aesthetics of the public place are both consequences of the urban sprawl. In parallel with the results of the analysis, the available proposal layouts were studied. The essays already referred to were examined at their proposal part, along with the: Investigation of the land use and potential for relative proposals in the Upper City of Thessaloniki, (Lagopoulos et al., 1997). 2

Area inside the Byzantine Walls

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The proposal for the historic centre Based on the conclusions from the analysis that points out the small size of the existing open spaces, the first thought for their better appointment is to enrich them with more plants (Dafis, 1991), to provide for all the necessary facilities and create new open spaces, wherever possible. The pedestrianization of roads and squares is a more radical intervention, by proposing a network that links all existing open spaces between them and with other important uses of the city centre, with the existing and proposed pedestrian network and with the important monuments of the city. Substantially, the basic points of the proposal are: a. The creation of a perimetric promenade, at the boundaries of the intra muros zone, in relevance with the Byzantine Walls and the waterfront. b. The extension of the archaeological axes of the historical centre, such as the Aristotelous, until the Upper City.

At the above layout proposal, the recommendation for the enrichments in existing pedestrian ways, the new pedestrianizations and the new areas for regeneration are presented, along with the existing proposals from the literature. The pedestrian zones are illustrated as five different types, indicated in the plan by the following coloured lines3: A. B. C. D. E.

Route for exclusive pedestrian movement Pedestrian way authorizing access to certain categories of vehicles Pedestrian way authorizing parking of inhabitants Pedestrian flow without parking Pedestrian flow with parking

Conclusions Open areas are a very sensitive section, probably because both their definition and method of analysis are still under investigation. In Greece, the quantitative, and up to and extend, their qualitative picture, are still explored as a residual of urban planning regulations, rather than as one of their targets. Thessaloniki could not deviate from this general framework. The open spaces of the city arise splitting up, small in size, providing the low coverage of 3,293 m2/inhabitant. The high density 3

The yellow lines show the pedestrian ways proposed from the literature and the green color the open spaces.

75 of monuments at the historic centre of the city, most of them vanishing in the noise and the pollution gives an unpleasant surprise. Beyond the present proposal, in the future it will probably be necessary to adapt more drastic measures, as an answer to the above problems. Our spiritual heritage constitutes a mayor part of the urban landscape, which must be protected, even with gestures of excluding the historic centre from the vehicle circulation, according to the model of other European cities with a rich history. References Ananiadou – Tzimopoulou, M. (2003). Landscape Architecture. Theory and critique. Thessaloniki: Administrative support of the Dep. of Architecture, Polytechnic School. A.U.TH. Andreopoulou, K. (2004). Urban – suburban – outer urban green. The legislative framework in the areas of direction and protection. Essay during the postgraduate program in Landscape Architecture. Thessaloniki: A.U.TH. Dafis, S. A. (1991). Urban Forestry. Thessaloniki: A. U. TH. Denco Engineer Consultants, Trademco, TRUTh S.A., WS Atkins Ltd, & INFODIM. (2000). The General Essay of Transportations and Circulations for the Urban Planning Complex and the Outer City Zone. Thessaloniki: Organization of the Regulating Plan and Environment Protection of Thessaloniki. Kyrou, G. (1996). Urban Planning Regenerating – Elevation of the physiognomy of the Thessaloniki City Center. The circulation and the parking in Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki: A. U. TH. Lagopoulos, A. F., Stathakopoulos, P., Dimitriadis E.P. & Asimos, P. (1997). Investigation of the land use and potential for relative proposals in the Upper City of Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki: Organisation for The Cultural Capital of Europe “Thessaloniki 1997”. Lynch, K., (1972). The openness of open space. Arts of the Environment, 108-124. McLoughlin, J. B. (1969). Urban and Regional Planning: A Systems Approach. London: Faber & Faber. Organization of the Regulating Plan and Environment Protection of Thessaloniki. (1997). The General Urban Planning Layout of the Municipality of Thessaloniki, Charts 1,2,3, “Municipality of Thessaloniki, Land uses” Papastavrou, A. K. & Makris, K. I. (1985). Forest politics, Issue A. Thessaloniki: A.U.TH. Soulier, L. (1977). Espaces Verts et Urbanisme. Paris : Centre de Recherche d’ Urbanisme. In : Ananiadou – Tzimopoulou, M & Zaxariadou - Tsokou, N. (1979). Open spaces and green areas in Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki: Coordinating Committee of Scientific Association for the Protection of the Environment. 40-42.

76 Under The Radar: Combining Animal Habitat Enhancement with Creative Landscape Design in the Formation of New Urban Places Rod Barnett School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Unitec New Zealand Native animal habitat enhancement offers opportunities for the design of new urban landscapes. A project in Auckland, New Zealand, called Under the Radar, exemplifies this relatively new area of urban landscape architecture. Under the Radar highlights the unique volcanic landscapes of the Auckland region by focusing on the ecology of the native lizard populations whose habitat is the volcanic field on which the city is built. It seeks to draw attention to the web of biotic and geologic relationships which lies just under the radar of Aucklanders, and which provides the special character of the landscape that they interact with on a daily basis. At the same time as bringing the cryptic lives of skinks and geckos to the attention of the people who live among them, the project contributes to the scientific understanding of lizards. It intersects scientific data about lizard species with place-specific socio-cultural data to generate landscape form.i Under the Radar uses the GIS programme ArcMap to discover specific locations for design interventions. Maps of particular data sets are superimposed, and where the richest interaction between sets occurs, a lizard ‘intensity’ is identified. The site’s geologic and vegetative structure and its cultural/social conditions are then analysed. Design operations extrapolated from the specific conditions of each site are used to develop ‘interventions.’ The data sets are: • • •

Lizard populations (because there are no maps of these, a vegetation surrogate is used). Volcanic rocks (of which there are several types). Cycleways and walkways (a network stretches across the Auckland region).

The interventions are ‘lizard gardens,’ enhanced lizard habitat structures that encourage, support and maintain lizard populations by providing the ecological niches, comprising volcanic rocks, leaf litter and plant species, that form lizard habitat. These new landscapes are attractive to humans too. They provide interestingly designed green areas (right in the middle of cities) where visitors can encounter and interact with beings that are often barely registered by the public at large. Intensities have been discovered at a number of locations. Those so far chosen for the project are at the Otuataua Stonefields on the shore of the Manukau Harbour in Mangere, and Tahaki Reserve on the slopes of Maungawhau volcanic cone in Mt Eden. Under the Radar is a science / art collaboration. The project team consists of a lizard ecologist (or herpetologist), a plant ecologist, landscape architects, a public art specialist and a curator of projects.ii Herpetologists study reptiles; not only what they eat and what eats them, or the ingenious means by which they derive their body heat from the radiation of the sun, but how they exist within a geological and botanical environment that structures their patterns of existence. The ecologist observes, measures, classifies, and on the basis of this work draws hypotheses about lizard behaviour and habitat structures. He/she determines the lineaments of the lizard ecology, and describes the conditions that are necessary for reptilian life. An abstract ecological model is derived. It diagrams the links between the trajectories of reptiles and all the structures and flows with which they come into contact. The landscape architect uses landscape analysis and environmental mapping to cross-reference with the scientific data and then, through an extrapolation of operational procedures, generates formal modifications of the landscape.

77 Like all creatures lizards associate themselves with a particular combination of environmental conditions. In so doing they form part of a biotic community that includes plant, animal, insect and bird species as well as themselves. A biotic community is an assemblage of organisms living together and interacting. A lizard assemblage is a sub-unit of such a community. Biotic communities and their component assemblages are without rank and scale. A reptilian assemblage, for instance, could be as small as a dead log, or it could be the entire forest floor. It could even be the rainforest itself (Heatwole and Taylor 1987:185). Important aspects of assemblages are the numbers and kinds of species they contain, and how these structural characteristics change in space and time in relation to environmental conditions. Different lizard species can comprise an assemblage. Once the habitat and microhabitats of particular species have been defined, it is possible to enhance the use of existing habitat structures by adding in special features, such as food sources and perching opportunities. Certain species prefer certain habitat structures. The greater the number of microhabitats the greater the number of species of lizard can be accommodated. The species that may be found in the project intensities share a requirement for similar structures: logs, rock outcrops, leaf litter. Temperature is one of the most important single factors in the ecology of reptiles and a great portion of the daily activity of many species is devoted to corresponding with the thermal environment (Heatwole and Taylor 1987:21). In any natural environment, however, there is tremendous thermal diversity. On the one hand, a lizard will gain heat from some sources and lose it to others, and on the other heat gain and loss changes with the time of day. Heat exchange with the environment is critical. This occurs in the following ways: • • • • •

absorption of radiant energy radiative loss conduction convection evaporative cooling

In the morning lizards have low body temperature, and come out of their lairs to bask on twigs, branches and other similar structures. At this period they increase their temperature by the absorption of radiant solar energy. Absorption is maximized by their bringing only their feet into contact with the twigs to minimize heat loss through conduction. Sometimes they will perch on three legs. Later in the day when the substrate is warmer, the lizards will tend to occupy solid perches such as rocks which have themselves absorbed solar energy. On such rocks lizards will lie in full contact with the perch, absorbing heat both from the sun, and by conduction from the rock. The design of lizard gardens, then, will rely on operations that maximize such aspects of the geometrical habitat configuration as: • • • • •

inclination of surfaces (in NZ north facing surfaces increase the thermal environment) presence of rock crevices (for protection and hibernation) substrate texture (provides food source and protection) perch height (for thermal absorption and protection) diameter and density of overhead canopy (maximise solar penetration to habitat)

78 Otuataua Lizard Garden The Otuataua Stonefields Historic Reserve is the only remaining Maori stonefield site in public ownership.iii It was formed by the eruption of two volcanic cones, one of which has been extensively mined, while the other is relatively intact. Large quantities of volcanic stone from the eruptions were used both by Maori and Europeans in the making and protecting of gardens. Wall remnants clearly show the patterns of occupation and gardening from early Maori horticultural practices to latter day orcharding and farming. Maori garden wall alignments, primarily constructed in chevron patterns to maximize kumara exposure to the sun, have been overlaid by quadrangular walled enclosures specific to European farming practices.iv The result is a singular array of structures that visibly record the history of settlement of this part of Tamaki Makaurau. A number of different species of skink have been observed at, or may be considered as likely to inhabit, the stonefields site. These are the now endangered moko skink (Oligosome moco), the copper skink (Cyclodenia aena), the ornate skink (Cycodenia arnate) and the rainbow skink (an Australian native that has been observed in stone walls at the entrance to the stonefields). The Otuataua lizard garden has been designed to fulfill the ecological requirements of these species – what they eat, the space they control, and their thermal requirements. The location for the lizard garden is close to the stonefields reserve but not actually in it. The garden is proposed for a site where the coastal walkway turns ninety degrees and heads towards the boundary between the stonefields reserve and a coastal and foreshore restoration zone. This walkway is proposed to become part of Te Araroa (The Long Pathway), the walking trail running the length of New Zealand. At this point the walkway runs beside two large earthcovered stone mounds, and affords impressive views both of the stonefields and the Manukau Harbour. The design proposes a series of dry rock forms and an earth mound oriented to the sun, creating heat panels which provide a localized climate ideal for thermal absorption, conduction and convection. The dry rock structures provide vertical perches and lateral crevices for basking and protection. Planting adds further to the habitat structure with the provision of twigs and branches for perching in the morning, and leaf and twig litter on the ground plane for protection and foraging for insects. Lines of flax (Phormium tenax) bound the garden and help provide the microclimate conditions lizards require. As well as providing habitat the design of the garden extends the historic stone garden structures of the reserve to create a new terrain that intensifies and focuses the patterns of early gardening techniques. The pit and mound continue the topography of the stonefields, the stone structures reflect their geometries, and tamarix trees introduce the exoticism of the orchard. The resulting garden provides a timely laboratory for the study of lizards. These reptiles are urban indicator species, and can tell us much about the biodiversity of our cities. But the body of knowledge of northern New Zealand herpetology is evolving only slowly, due to the diminished locations and range of the endemic lizard population. The Auckland region currently provides habitat for twelve species of lizard. Prior to urbanization there were eighteen. The depredations of prolonged urban development and the corresponding growth of predator populations have taken their toll. The lizard population of Auckland is therefore in a critical phase. The Under the Radar project shows how new animal habitat can be designed in urban situations to enhance at-risk species chances of survival and at the same time provide a new kind of public open space.

79

References Heatwole, H.F. and J. Taylor (1987). Ecology of Reptiles. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty Notes i

This research on urban animal habitat design for human places is in its early stages. In order to simplify objectives and exert some control over outcomes we have limited the design of habitat structure to a single species. It is planned that, once results are in for this work, multi-species habitat structures may be designed. ii The Project Team is as follows: Associate Professor Rod Barnett, Unitec New Zealand Dr Graham Ussher, Lizard Ecologist, Auckland Regional Council Leslie Haines, Field Ecologist, Unitec New Zealand Bradbury McKegg, Landscape Architects Katrina Simon, Landscape Architect Scott Greenhalgh, Landscape Architect Paula Wilkinson, Landscape Architect Gisella Carr, Director Finance, Te Papa Tongarewa The Museum of New Zealand John McCormack, Starkwhite Gallery iii Maori are the indigenous people of New Zealand. They have been in continuous occupation of the country since at least the 14th century. iv Kumara (Ipomaea batatas)is the Maori name for several species of sweet potato, a tuberous food plant that early Maori settlers brought to New Zealand from Polynesia, the widelydistributed network of Pacific Islands from which they migrated. Growing kumara in New Zealand’s cooler climate required the rapid development of new horticultural techniques, including devising ways – such as stone alignments – of prolonging exposure of the growing plants to the sun.

80 Fig. Otuataua Lizard Garden Concept Design and Perspective

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82 Green Roofs and Bioretention: a Two-Prong Approach to Sustainable Stormwater Management in Urban Settings Mark Boyer Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Arkansas Introduction Urban aquatic ecological systems experience significant impacts as a result of development and subsequent increases in stormwater runoff. Existing vegetation and well-developed soil profiles are replaced with compacted clay fill and impervious surfaces such as roads and buildings. Typical development practices that remove existing vegetation and topsoil result in an estimated 90% reduction in stormwater storage capacity (May, et al., 1997). This reduced storage capacity of the vegetation and soil is then exacerbated by an increase in impervious surfaces and therefore an increase in the amount of runoff and the speed at which it occurs. An increase of 35%- 50% in impervious land cover in urban environments can result in an increase in runoff of up to 30% compared to pre-developed natural pervious surfaces (PGCM, 1999). The result of removing natural storage capacity and increasing runoff is urban stream, creek and other waterway channel instability and negative effects on aquatic habitats. The Center for Watershed Protection (CWP, 2000) in Ellicott City, Maryland, USA, reports that a 30% increase in impervious cover results in a 5-10 fold increase in stream size. Furthermore, the Puget Sound Action Team (PSAT, 2005) in Tacoma, Washington, USA, found that a 25% increase in impervious cover resulted in half of a stream’s fish community being lost. When existing vegetation and soft surfaces are replaced with dark colored hard surfaces which absorb heat and release it after the sun sets, urban areas experience the urban heat island effect; where urban areas are hotter during the day and stay hotter longer through the night. This results in air conditioning needing to work harder during the day and run longer at night in urban areasthus increasing CO2 emissions. These dark colored, hard, solar-absorptive urban surfaces cause ambient air temperatures in urban areas to be higher than adjacent rural areas. Akbari et al., (1992) reports that New York City, New York, USA, is 10˚ F hotter than outlying areas and that the urban heat island effect is responsible for a $1 billion dollar per year increase in national electrical costs in the United States. Green Roofs Green roofs, also known as vegetated roofs, living roofs, eco roofs, etc., are traditional waterproof roofs that have an assembly placed on top of the waterproofing to enable plants to grow. Extensive green roofs are those which use a relatively thin (2-6 inch, 5-15 cm) lightweight growing substrate over a drainage layer and plants that are adapted to such harsh growing conditions, usually sedums and other succulent species. Extensive roofs can be retrofitted to existing buildings but are also less costly in new construction due to their thin profile and light weight. Many extensive roofs do not receive supplemental irrigation, but instead survive only on rainwater. Benefits of extensive green roofs, related to the deleterious effects of development stormwater outlined above, include a reduction in stormwater volume and a delay in peak runoff timing. Kolb (2004) reported that 45% of annual rainfall on a building could be removed and recycled back into the atmosphere through a green roof. Others have reported 60%-100% reduction in runoff from buildings with green roofs depending on the substrate thickness, rainfall amount and antecedent conditions (DeNardo et al., 2005; Moran et al., 2004; VanWoert et al., 2005).

83 Coupled with this reduction of runoff volume, green roofs also have the benefit of delaying the time it takes for runoff to begin leaving the roof. This delay has a significant positive effect on flash flows in urban streams. Without a green roof more runoff would leave the roof very rapidly, due to the high imperviousness and low frictional resistance of the building waterproofing membrane. Because this increase runoff volume occurs early in the storm, when it is raining the heaviest, the high volume of water reaches the stream quickly and at the same time that runoff from other impervious surfaces arrives, causing a rapid rise in flow. This rapid rise in flow subsides quickly when it stops raining, but the channel and bed cutting of the high flash flow will have already occurred. Further, because the natural hydrology of the land has been modified, little rainwater can infiltrate the ground to flow as ground water into the watercourses. The result is that there is little, if any ground water baseflow to keep the watercourse flowing during dry periods, and aquatic habitat may disappear. Delaying the peak flow from urban surfaces will help reduce channel instability and increase baseflow. Green roofs have been found to delay runoff leaving a roof from 95 minutes up to 4 hours (Moran et al., 2004; Liu, 2003) and reduce that eventual roof runoff by 57%-87% (Moran et al., 2005). Less runoff gets to the watercourse initially and more groundwater flow arrives later, double benefits to urban watercourses. Additional benefits from green roofs that are important in urban areas include reported noise reductions of 40 db (Peck and Kuhn, 2001), air pollution removal (Yok et al., 2005) and a reduction of urban heat island effect (VanWoert et al., 2005) through lowering ambient air temperatures. The reduction of ambient air temperatures has the ancillary effect of reducing operational CO2 emissions due to reduced air conditioning for the green roofed building and also the surrounding buildings. Further, green roofs play an important role in increasing biodiversity in urban areas. Brenneisen (2003) found in a multi-year study of 24 green roofs in Basel and Lucerne, Switzerland, 78 spider and 254 beetle species (including some rare species) and bird species in urban green roofs that are normally found in open landscape areas, thus indicating the value of green roofs in urban areas. Coffman and Davis (2005) similarly found that the Ford Motor Company green roof in Dearborn, Michigan, USA, was inhabited by 29 insect species, 7 sider species and 2 bird species within two years. Bioretention Bioretention includes rain gardens, vegetated swales, and bioswales and utilizes the principle that water quality is improved and runoff volumes are reduced when runoff is put safely in contact with permeable earth surfaces and vegetation. Bioretention is often associated with discrete runoff generators such as building downspouts, roads, and parking lots. Runoff is forced to slow down and pond in shallow depressions for small design storm volumes, usually under one inch (2.54 cm). During this ponding time, the runoff is cleaned through physical, biological, and chemical processes associated with the mulch, plant material, and soil of the bioretention cell. The volume of runoff is reduced through evaporation, transpiration by plants, and infiltration into soil profiles for groundwater recharge. Runoff volume reduction is a significant reason to utilize bioretention in urban areas. The role of trees in reducing runoff volume is two-fold. First, tree surfaces intercept rainfall and prevent it from ever becoming runoff. Xiao and McPherson (2002) reported that a medium size Sweet Gum (Liquidamber styraciflua) tree intercepted 70.5% of a .799 inch (20.3 mm) rain event. Second, of the rainfall that does reach the ground, trees have a significant capacity to utilize that water and remove it from the stormwater flow. Akbari et al., (1992) report that trees can transpire up to 100 gallons (0.3785 m3) of water per day. The two processes of interception and transpiration from trees are repeated at a smaller scale for all of the other woody and herbaceous

84 plants within the bioretention cell. Coupling vegetation benefits with infiltration into the soil profile, bioretention has been shown to result in a reported 85% volume reduction (UNHSC, 2006). Trees in bioretention associated with parking lots, or other heat producing surfaces, have the added benefit of shading those surfaces and reducing ambient temperatures. One study found that with just a 29% tree cover in an urban parking lot, temperatures were reduced 1-2˚ F compared to an adjacent parking lot without trees (Scott et al., 1999). Ponding the runoff using small checkdams helps with the volume reduction, but also benefits urban watercourses by delaying the peak flow. The time it takes for the water that is held back and forced to pond in shallow depressions to overtop the checkdams can be significant. The University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center (UNHSC, 2006) reported a peak delay of 615 minutes. This delay allows for uncaptured runoff from other impervious surfaces to pass through the watercourse before any bioretention runoff arrives, thereby reducing the overall peak flow in the watercourse. The increased infiltration of runoff into the ground through the bioretention cell also has the added benefit of maintaining or restoring baseflow and protecting aquatic habitat during dry seasons. As mentioned, bioretention also improves water quality by removing many of the common urban runoff pollutants. Particulate matter is trapped by vegetation, mulch and soil; hydrocarbons are volatilized off or broken down through chemical processes; heat is dissipated through contact with cool vegetative, mulch, and soil surfaces; and, nutrients and metals are metabolized into plant tissue or rendered inert through chemical or biological processes. Yu et al., (1999) report pollutant removal rates associated with bioretention of 86% total suspended solids, 90% total phosphorous, 60% total nitrogen, and 67% oil and grease. While percent removal rates are somewhat controversial as an accurate measure of performance (see Jones et al., 2008), they are used here to give an indication of bioretention performance, as very little data exists that reports concentration changes. Geosyntec and Wright Water (2007) have reported some biofiltration performance data which indicates the following changes in concentration between influent and (effluent): suspended solids 52.78 (17.84) (mg/L); total phosphorous 0.25 (0.27) (mg/L); total nitrogen 1.32 (0.57) (mg/L); total zinc 176.71 (27.93) (µg/L); total lead 19.53 (5.42) (µg/L); total copper 31.93 (9.63) (µg/l); and, total cadmium 0.54 (0.30) (µg/L). Green roofs and bioretention combined Given the benefits of green roofs and bioretention individually, they should be utilized more in urban environments. However, if they were used in combination, the benefits would be magnified. As has been shown, green roofs delay and reduce the volume of runoff from building roofs. If the runoff that does eventually occur from roofs in larger storm events was routed into a surface bioretention cell dedicated to the building runoff, then more of the runoff would be potentially infiltrated into the ground; a greater delay in peak flow could be achieved; and, additional pollutant removal could be accomplished. This would be in addition to benefits from bioretention associated with parking lots and road surfaces. Because bioretention cells are designed to capture and treat runoff close to the source, they do not have to be in addition to other landscape improvements. In fact, bioretention cells properly planted and maintained can replace what is traditionally thought of as a designed landscape. With bioretention cells close enough to building and parking lot surfaces to obtain the shading and cooling effect, the urban heat island effect would be reduced even further. While there may be a project that exists which combines a green roof and bioretention, I have been unable to find a specific exemplar site. Projects exist that are similar, but they combine

85 green roofs with other stormwater management techniques (e.g. constructed wetlands, rainwater harvesting, etc.). Those projects include Pottsdamer Platz in Berlin, Germany; the Northern Kentucky Sanitation District No. 1 headquarters in Fort Wright, Kentucky, USA; the Waitakere City Council Building in Auckland, New Zealand; and, the Beddington Zero Energy Development housing development in Sutton, Surrey, outside of London, England. More projects that utilize multiple alternative stormwater management techniques, especially green roofs and bioretention, need to be constructed. The urban environment is the ideal place for such combined projects to protect natural ecological systems. References Akbari, H., Davis, S., Dorsano, S., Haung, J., & Winnett, S. (1992). Cooling our Communities. Washington, D.C. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Brenneisen, Stephan. (2003). “The benefits of biodiversity from green roofs-key design consequences.” In Proceedings of 1st North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities, Chicago, IL. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. Center for Watershed Protection [CWP]. 2000. The Impacts of Urbanization slide show on The Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center website. www.stormwatercenter.net Coffman, R.R., and Davis, G. (2005). “Insect and avian fauna presence on the Ford assembly plant ecoroof.”. In Proceedings of 3rd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities, Washington, DC. pp 457-468. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. DeNardo, J.C., Jarrett, A.R., Manbeck, H.B., Beattie, D.J., and Berghage, R.D. (2005). “Stormwater mitigation and surface temperature reduction by green roofs.” Trans. ASAE 48:1491-1496. Geosyntec Consultants, Wright Water Engineers, Inc. (2007). Overview of Performance by BMP Category and Common Pollutant Type International Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) Database [1999-2007]. Water Environment Research Foundation, American Society of Civil Engineers (Environmental and Water Resources Institute/Urban Water Resources Research Council), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Highway Administration, American Public Works Association. Jones, J., Clary, J., Strecker, E., and Quigley, M. (2008). “15 Reasons you should think twice before using percent removal to assess BMP performance.” Stormwater January/February. Kolb, R. (2004). “Good reasons for roof planting: Green roofs and rainwater.” Acta Hortic. 643:295-300. Liu, K. (2003). “Engineering performance of rooftop gardens through field evaluation.” Proceedings of the 18th International Convention of the Roof Consultants Institute: 93-103. May, C.W., Horner, R.R., Karr, J.R., Mar, B.W., & Welch, E.B. (1997). The Cumulative Effects of Urbanization on Small Streams in the Puget Sound Lowland Ecoregion. Seattle,WA; University of Washington.

86 Moran, A., Hunt, B., and Jennings, G. (2004). “A North Carolina field study to evaluate green roof runoff quantity, runoff quality, and plant growth.” In Proceedings of 2nd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities, Portland, OR. pp 446460. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. Moran, A., Hunt, B. and Smith, J. (2005). “Hydrologic and water quality performance from green roofs in Goldsboro and Raleigh, North Carolina.” In: Proceedings of 3rd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities, Washington, DC. pp 512-525. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. Peck, S. and Kuhn, M. (2001). Design guidelines for green roofs. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Ottawa, Ontario. 16 Nov. 2005. http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/. Prince George’s County, Maryland [PGCM]. (1999). Low-Impact Development Design Strategies: An Integrated Design Approach. Largo, MD, Department of Environmental Resource Programs and Planning Division. Puget Sound Action Team [PSAT]. (2005). Low Impact Development; Technical Guidance Manual for Puget Sound. Tacoma, WA, Washington State University Pierce County Extension. Scott, K.I., Simpson, J.R., & McPherson, G. (1999). “Effects of Tree Cover on Parking Lot Microclimate and Vehicle Emissions” Journal of Arboriculture 25(3):129-142. VanWoert, N.D., Rowe, D.B., Anderson, J.A., Rugh, C.L., Fernandez, R.T., and Xiao, L. (2005). “Green roof stormwater retention: Effects of roof surface, slope, and media depth.” Journal of Environmental Quality 34:1036-1044. Yok Tan, P. and Sia, A. (2005). “A pilot green roof research project in Singapore.” In Proceedings of 3rd North American Green Roof Conference: Greening Rooftops for sustainable communities, Washington, DC. pp 399-415. The Cardinal Group, Toronto. UNHSC (University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center) (2006). CICEET, Durham, NH.

2005 Data Report,

Yu, S.L., Zhang X., Earles, A., and Sievers, M. (1999). “Field Testing of Ultra-urban BMPs.” Proceedings of the 26th Annual Water Resources Planning and Management Conference, E. Wilson, editor, American Society of Civil Engineers, June 6-9, 1999, Tempe Arizona. Xiao, Q. & McPherson, E.G. (2002). “Rainfall interception by Santa Monica’s municipal urban forest.” Urban Ecosystems 6:291-302.

87 Mediterranean Urban Green Spaces with an Ecological and Economic Sustainability – Study Cases Maria da Conceição Castro Dep. Planeamento Biofísico e Paisagístico, Universidade de Évora, Portugal ([email protected]), Instituto de Ciências Agrárias Mediterrânicas, ICAM Introduction The increasing degree of urban density reduces the relation between built spaces and open spaces. The strong urbanization process has been made in a chaotic and arbitrary way, which has produced the public’s take away from the daily contact with nature and, at the same time, it is the main responsible for endangering biodiversity, habitat fragmentation and polluting air, water and soil. As the buildings increase in height and the streets are becoming larger and larger, Man has gone out of scale in the urban space. It is very important that he finds adequate spaces to his scale again, as a way to achive his own balance. Green spaces organize and link building spaces, Continuum aedificandi, ensure their own longterm survival, contribute to human well-being and, at the same time, must be in harmony with the natural environment. So, it is very important to emphasize the character of the site, Genius loci, and preserve and reintroduce indigenous vegetation as a way of contributing to biodiversity preservation and provide attractive complements to the design areas. Landscape architects and other professionals must rethink the design of green spaces, to please the future generations, offering a wide range of passive or active activities where the citizens also have the possibility to contact with several cycles of the nature. The indigenous plants have a variety of seasonal characteristics (colour, texture, volumetry, blooming and frutification), very important to the physical and psichological balance of the citizens, for they may grow in a variety of substrates with low nutrients soils, whereas exotic plants usually need a substrate of relatively fertile top soil. Their use in green spaces is very important as they contribute to reduce the cost of establishing and maintaining these areas (Emery, 1986). According to what Steidle-Schwan said (2000), the use of native plants in urban landscape is not a question of good or bad intervention - it is a question of quality and economic thinking. We must not forget that Nature doesn’t need us but we need nature. Notions The concept of preservation of indigenous vegetation within urban space comprises its protection instead of planting and sowing (Flogärd, 2000). Often it is only possible to preserve parts of the original vegetation. Big trees are usually taken into consideration but other ground cover vegetation is seldom valorised, in Portugal. During the urbanization process the indigenous vegetation is sometimes removed or submitted to negative impacts as soil compactation, by heavy vehicles, or disturbed by escavations and embankments, destroying soil horizonts. The soil must be preserved before planning and design process as it has an important seed bank which may be used later on, in some situations. Preservation of indigenous vegetation includes many biological, economical and social advantages (Flogärd, 2000). It is urgent to minimize the lost of limited resources, reducing the outputs of fertilizers and pesticides which have a negative impact in landscape.

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The native plants have a variety of characteristics very important for the physical and psychological balance of the public. They are well adapted to local soil and climatic conditions, reduce the cost of establishing and maintaining but, at the same time, they are responsible for seasonal changes as blooming, flowering, diversity of smells, colour, texture and forms which incite the contemplation and awake of memories and feelings. Most of the time the citizens don’t know enough about the flora and fauna of their region. Areas of native vegetation are very important because they establish patches of mature areas with a high level of diversity, as the uban areas are looked upon as having a poor diversity. However they are also corridors of wild life which may link the urban landscape with the rural surroundings. The landscape architects, on the conception of sustainable green spaces, must be presented two fundamental principles: minimise the impact on the environment and minimise the use of a limited natural resource (Flogärd, 2000). The preservation or reintroduction of native vegetation has economic advantages as this type of plants adapt very well to a variety of subtracts with low nutrients, whereas cultivated plants usually need a substrate relatively fertile. So, it is urgent to minimize the loss of limited resources, reducing the outputs of water, fertilizers and pesticides which have a negative impact in landscape as well as reducing the areas of sealed surfaces as a way of ensuring adequate water table and soil stability. The green spaces must fulfill social, recreational and biological needs, which incite the contemplation and the awakening of memories and feelings like the observation of many aspects of flora and fauna do. Study cases The Calouste Gulbenkian Fundation’s Garden was build during the sixty’s decade by the landscape architects Gonçalo Ribeiro Telles and António Viana Barreto. It is an artificial ecosystem, as it is manipulated by man, integrated in an urban space where the character of the place was respected without forsaking ecological principles. It is also present the functional and social dimension appealing to the intrinsic value of the plants. The vegetation was preserved during the construction process and, in some situations transplantations of some species were made, in order to be used later, such as the removing of the superficial horizon of the soil, which was very rich in organic matter. A lake was built in a concave area, which allows the existence of a specific flora and fauna and besides that, it’s a possibility when it comes to watering the garden, during the summer. We may sit down on the lawn, near the lake, and reduce the tension of an excited day. The Mediterranean landscape is represented here through the distribution of indigenous vegetation according to the ecological design. The oaks and the stone pines are planted in the slopes and the poplars, alders and ash-tree are related with the humid of the soil. Meadows were sowing in the open space of the wood. The garden has areas with a variety of uses which make possible active or passive activities with different ambiences. It is from the different systems of ways, crossing the several sub-spaces of the garden, that it is possible to hear the singing of the birds, the rustling of the water of the lake,

89 the children’s laughter; to smell the flowers and grass after the cut or the wet ground after the rain; and read a special book in the shade of the trees. The contrast between bright and dark, the enclosure, intimacy and open space produce effects of surprise. Aurora Carapinha (2006) is the one responsible for the research and compilation of many documents related with the Gulbenkian Garden (fig.). Fig. Gulbenkian Garden

It will focus on two recent projects where the landscape architect, Pedro Batalha, had the responsibility of deciding on the preservation of some patches of indigenous vegetation. The oaks (Quercus ilex subsp. Rotundifolia and Quercus suber) and narrow-leaved ash (Fraxinus angustifolia) were protected by a fence during the construction process. The morphology of the space induced the distribution of the indigenous plants. The oaks (Quercus ilex subsp. Rotundifolia), myrtles (Myrtus communis), strawberry trees (Arbutus unedo) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) are planted in dry areas while nettle trees (Celtis australia), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and oleander (Neriun oleander) are situated near the water. Considerations Green spaces are very important in the daily life of the citizens offering a wide range of passive and active activities. They fulfil many social and psychological needs of the general public, without forget their ecological efficiency. The planning and designing process are very important in the preservation of patches of mature vegetation, as it is the crucial moment of decision about what to preserve and where to build. The patches of mature vegetation are important biotopes which may establish wild life corridors as a way of increasing the biodiversity of urban areas. The preserved areas of indigenous vegetation have a special beauty and natural organization that it is difficult to achieve by manmade.

90 In landscape design, links between resourses, human uses and ecological principles must be established. The new design of new open spaces must take in consideration versatility and functionality without forgetting its sustainability. References Carapinha, A. (2006). O Jardim. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Emery, M. (1986). Promoting nature in cities and towns. A practical guide. London: Croom Helm. Florgärd, C. (2004). Preservation of indigenous vegetation in urban areas - an introduction. Landscape and Urban Planning 68:343-345. Steidle-Schwan, A. (2002). Indigenous plants - integrated in a marketing concept for urban greening. International Research Symposion Indigenous Vegetation within Urban Development, Uppsala, Sweden, August 14th to 16th. 64

Understanding the Green Toupee: Selecting Vegetated Roof Systems for Urban Development and Sustainability Goals Reid R. Coffman Division of Landscape Architecture, University of Oklahoma Introduction Green roofs have become an icon of sustainable development. The systems provide many needed environmental services to the city such as the regulation of both hydrology and energy. Theses services retain rainfall to protect streams while simultaneously intercepting sunlight to reduce energy demands that cool both the city and the building. In addition, green roofs create habitat for wildlife. In some instances, roofs can be a food source for local citizens. Lastly, green roofs offer the biophilic urban dweller a sensible exposure to nature within the city through physical access and views. Yet, in spite of the knowledge of all these environmental services the sustainability of these systems remains unmeasured. Currently, it is unknown how much renewable and non-renewable resources account for the construction and operation of such systems over their lifetime. Also, we do not understand if they are the best development choice compared to other landscapes that offer similar services. And lastly, it is not clear if designing, constructing and operating these systems results in improving the level of sustainability of a city. Therefore, this study evaluates the quantities of energy and resources used by three different types of ecoroofs and compares these to various landscapes in order to improve the understanding of how these systems impact a city’s sustainable development. Methods Emergy Analysis Emergy analysis, which evaluates different systems components on a common basis, is a promising tool to evaluate resource use and production in vegetated roof systems. Emergy, spelled with an “m”, is a method of environmental accounting where renewable natural processes and products can be compared on a common basis with economic processes and products. Emergy analysis has been defined as the measure of both the work of nature and of

91 humans in generating products and services (Odum 1996). This type of analysis puts “the contributions of the economy on the same basis as the work of the environment” (Odum and Odum 2000). It has been used to evaluate ecosystems such as wetlands (Howington et al. 1997; Ton et al. 1998), agricultural farms and farm practices (An 1998; Bastianoni et al. 2001; Rydberg and Jansén 2002), waste water treatment facilities (Nelson et al. 2001), urban landscapes in metropolitan areas (Huang et al. 1995; Huang 1998; Huang et al. 2001), and entire regions, such as the state of Maine (Campbell 1998). Brown and Ulgiati (1997) demonstrated emergy is effective at assessing the performance of “eco-technologies,” technologies involving natural resources or ecosystem services. It has been used as a comparative method to measure the sustainability of some seemingly disparate systems, such as economies, and some products, such as crude oil and corn, through a series of indices (Ulgiati and Brown 1998). More recently, researchers have used these indices to measure and compare the sustainability of constructed urban landscapes and agriculture (Beck et al. 2001; Martin et al. 2006) Emergy analysis is based on the flow of the following resource inputs; Renewable resources (R), such as sun wind and rain; Non-Renewable resources (N), which are the local energy stores within the system, such as topsoil in a farm system; and Purchased resources (F), which are the economic inputs, such as equipment, construction materials, and services, including labor. Inputs interact in the system and produce a yield. The emergy of the Yield (Y) is equal to the sum of all emergy inputs required to produce the yield (Y = R+N+F). The flows of resources are converted to emergy through transformities which have been calculated for a wide variety of resources and renewable energies. They can be found in past publications, articles and dissertations (Odum 1996; Burnakarn 1998; Odum et al. 2000; Bastianoni 2001; Brown and Bardi 2001; Brandt-Williams 2002; Huang and Hsu 2003; Ganeshan 2005). Emergy indices compare flows from the economy to flows of the environment. The indices and their descriptions used here have been provided by Ulgiati and Brown (1998). •

•

•

Emergy Yield Ratio (EYR): The ratio of exported emergy to emergy that is invested as purchased inputs. It measures the ability of the system to exploit renewable resources. EYR = Y/F Environmental Loading Ratio (ELR): Ratio of purchased and non-renewable resources to renewable resources. This indicates the pressure of a system on the surrounding environment. ELR = F/R Emergy Sustainability Index (ESI): The ratio of the emergy yield ratio to the environmental loading ratio. It measures the production of a system relative to the environmental pressure. ESI = EYR/ELR

Site Descriptions The agricultural roof garden, a roof designed to grow food, was a series of raised beds created on the top level of a parking garage in an urban neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois, USA, which operated for one year (1997). Records on inputs and yields were published for the Chicago study by Martin (2001). The system consisted of annual plantings and required seasonal watering, fertilizing, weeding, and harvesting. Plants were lettuce (Lactuca sativa), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), squash (Cucurbita spp.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), peppers (Capsicum spp.), onion (Allium spp.), and cucumber (Cucumis sativis)

92 The two replicate ecoroofs, which are roofs designed to grow plants to provide general environmental services such as stormwater retention and thermal cooling, were constructed one meter above the ground on a crushed stone nursery pad at the Ohio State University agricultural farm, Columbus, Ohio, USA, in the spring of 2004. These systems simulated ecoroofs and contained nine shallow plots 10 cm deep (shallow substrate ecoroof) and nine deep plots 30 cm deep (deep substrate ecoroof). All the plots were sized at 1m2. They were planted once with Little blue stem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and Low grow sumac (Rhus aromatica ‘Gro Low’). Maintenance practices involved weeding once a year for woody plants with membranepenetrating roots. Quantities of all inputs were recorded for one year for the agricultural roof garden and a measure of vegetable biomass was taken at harvest. For both ecoroofs all input quantities were recorded over two years and whole plants harvested in the second year for each system to determine annual biomass. Data from both of these systems was extrapolated to represent a 98m2 area to equal that of the agricultural roof. In addition, membrane inputs for water proofing, drainage, and root protection were recorded. Membrane inputs for agricultural systems were made to conform to the national standards of roof greening systems by including drainage and root protection membranes. The assessment is based on 30-year duration due to the life expectancy of the water-proofing membrane. Findings The largest renewable resource entering all three systems was ecoroof rain. In all three systems, purchased resources far exceeded renewable inputs. Across all systems, the imported resources of labor, growing medium (topsoil or expanded clay), plants, and compost were the greatest purchased resources. Labor in the agricultural roof garden was the greatest of all inputs in any system. Each of the three systems used very low amounts of renewable resources when compared to purchased resources. The shallow ecoroof used the most renewable resources (6%) while the agricultural roof used the least (2%). The shallow substrate green roof (ESI = .072) was the most sustainable of the three, followed by the deep substrate green roof (ESI = .03), and lastly the agricultural roof garden (ESI = .022). Discussion In order to better understand the vegetated roof systems, they were compared to other constructed landscapes previously assessed using emergy (Table). When compared to landscapes that either produce food or are constructed as part of urban settings, vegetated roof systems recorded middle range values of ratios and indices. Compared with traditional and conventional agriculture, all three vegetated roof systems recorded lower emergy yield ratios and higher environmental loading ratios resulting in lower emergy sustainability index values. On the other hand, compared to a city, constructed urban gardens, and a conventional landscape, the three systems showed higher emergy yield ratios and lower environmental loads, which resulted in higher emergy sustainability index values. The three vegetated roof systems possess ESI of 0.07 (shallow ecoroof), 0.03 (deep ecoroof), and 0.04 (agricultural roof garden). All roof systems had lower sustainability than indigenous farming in Chiapas, Mexico (ESI of 115), a local farm in Italy (1.75), a blackberry farm in the USA (0.65), a local vineyard in Italy (0.44), and a conventional corn farm in the USA (0.06). All of these agricultural systems had higher emergy yield ratios and lower environmental loading ratios than the roof systems. Therefore, the vegetated roof systems had lower sustainability due to the lower yields and higher pressures on the environment. However, all vegetated roof systems have higher sustainability than a conventional landscape (8.61E-06), an organic garden (0.002), an edible landscape (0.002), a forest garden (0.001), and the city of Taipei, China (0.001). All of the urban landscapes

93 possessed lower emergy yield ratios and higher environmental loading ratios. Therefore, vegetated roof systems had greater levels of sustainability due to higher yields and lower pressures on the environment. Conclusions Vegetated roof systems, including both ecoroofs and agricultural roof gardens, are appropriate technologies to improve the level of sustainability of a city. They are reasonable alternatives to gardens and conventional landscapes. The design and construction of such technologies should strive to maximize the use of renewable resources. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge Jay Martin, Claudio Pasian, and Martin Quigley who encouraged and aided the work of the project. References An, S. B. H., Zou, C. (1998). Studies of emergy flow in a compound agro-ecosystem in the Taihu Lake area, Jiangsu Province, China. Ecological Engineering 11: 303–313. Bastianoni, S., Marchettini, N., Panzieri M. and Tiezzi, E. (2001). Sustainability assessment of a farm in the Chianti area (Italy). Journal of Cleaner Production 9(4): 365-373. Bastianoni, S. M., N ; Panzieri, M., Tiezzi, E. (2001). Sustainability assessment of a farm in the Chianti area (Italy). Journal of Cleaner Production 9: 365–373. Beck, T., Quigley, M. and Martin, J.F. (2001). "Emergy evalution of food production in urban residential landscapes." Urban Ecosystems 5(3): 187-207. Brandt-Williams, S. L. (2002). Handbook of Emergy Evaluation: A Compendium of Data for Emergy Computation Issued In a Series of Folios. Folio 4. Emergy of Florida Agriculture. . C. f. Environmental and Policy. Gainesville, Florida, USA., University of Florida. Brown, M. T. and Bardi, E. (2001). Handbook of Emergy Evaluation: A Compendium of Data for Emergy Computation Issued in a Series of Folios. Folio 3, Emergy of Ecosystems. . C. f. E. Policy. Gainesville, Florida, USA., University of Florida,. Burnakarn, V. (1998). Evaluation of Recycling and Reuse of Building Materials Using the Emergy Analysis Method. Architecture, University of Florida. Doctorate of Philosophy: 281. Campbell, D. E. (1998). Emergy Analysis of Human Carrying Capacity and Regional Sustainability: an Example Using the State of Maine. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 51(1/2): 531-569. Ganeshan, P. (2005). Performance and environmental accounting of air biofiltraion for carbon monoxide removal. Biological Resource Engineering. College Park, University of Maryland. M.S.: pgs 103. Howington, T. M., Brown, M.T. and Wiggington, M. (1997). Effect of hydrologic subsidy on self-organization of a constructed wetland in Central Florida. Ecological Engineering 9(3-4): 137-156.

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Huang, S. L. (1998). Urban ecosystems, energetic hierarchies, and ecological economics of Taipei metropolis. Journal of Environmental Management 52(1): 39 - 51. Huang, S. L. and Hsu, W.L. (2003). Materials flow analysis and emergy evaluation of Taipei's urban construction. Landscape and Urban Planning 63(1): pg 61-74. Huang, S.L., Lai, H.Y. and Lee, C. L. (2001). Energy hierarchy and urban landscape system. Landscape and Urban Planning 53(1-4): 145-161. Huang, S. L., Wu, S. C. and Chen, W. B. (1995). Ecosystem, environmental quality and ecotechnology in Taipei metropolitan region. Ecological Engineering 4: 233-248. Martin, B. (2001). A Wading Pool Garden. Retrieved http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/cottage_gardening/66126.

1/1,

2003,

from

Martin, J. F., Diemont, S. A. W., Powell, E., Stanton, M. and Levy-Tacher, S. (2006). Emergy evaluation of the performance and sustianability of three agricultural systems with different scales and management. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 115(1-4): 128-140. Nelson, M., H. T. Odum, Brown, M. T. and Alling, A. (2001). Living off the Land: Resource Efficiency of Wetland Wastewater Treatment. Advanced Space Research 27(9): 1547-1556. Odum, H. T. (1996). Environmental accounting : EMERGY and environmental decision making. New York, Wiley. Odum, H. T., Brown, M. T. and Brandt-Williams, S. L. (2000). Handbook of Emergy Evaluation: A compendium of data for emergy computation issued in a series of folios. Folio 1: Introduction and global budget. C. f. E. Policy. Gainesville, Florida USA, University of Florida. Odum, H. T. and Odum, E. P. (2000). The Energetic Basis for Valuation of Ecosystem Services. Ecosystems 3: 21-23. Rydberg, T. and Jansén, J. (2002). Comparison of horse and tractor traction using emergy analysis. Ecological Engineering 19(1): 13 - 28. Ton, S., Odum, H. T. and Delfino, J. J. (1998). Ecological - economic evaluation of wetland management alternatives. Ecological Engineering 11: 291–302. Ulgiati, S. and Brown, M. T. (1998). Monitoring patterns of sustainability in natural and manmade ecosystems. Ecological Modeling 108(1-3): 23-36.

95 Table : Landscape Comparisons

Facing Climate Change: Securing the Multi-Functionality of Urban Public Open and Green Spaces S. Drlik1, L. Licka2 and A. Muhar3 1

Doctoral School Sustainable Development, BOKU University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, 2Institute of Landscape Architecture, 3 Institute of Landscape Development, Recreation and Conservation Planning

This paper presents preliminary results of a research project on sustainable design in landscape architecture and climate change impacts on maintenance and usability of urban public open and green spaces. Sustainable landscape architecture Landscape architecture deals with planning, design and management of landscapes with a focus on the complexity of social, economic and ecological processes in the field of cultural production. Technical and ecological knowledge are basic tools for designing landscapes, living spaces, parks, squares and gardens. Working topics in landscape architecture range from ecological studies on to social issues up to questions of design and construction. Regarding sustainability the profession has for the last decades predominantly dealt with ecological aspects. Even current tendencies for instance in the context of `Landscape Urbanism´ 4 are primarily debating ecological interactions. Moreover the landscape architectural discussion about 4

Landscape Urbanism is a theory of urbanism arguing that landscape, rather than architecture, is more capable of organizing the city and enhancing the urban experience. Landscape Urbanism has emerged as a theory in the last ten years and is far from being a coherent doctrine. Still, most of the important projects related to this theory have yet to be built, so design competitions have been an influential stage for the development of the theory. (vgl. Waldheim, 2006)

96 sustainability ties in with a long tradition, based on different ideologies and theories (see Swaffield, 2002). However, the definition of sustainability has developed beyond the ecological approach long time ago. In the context of the Doctoral School Sustainable Development at BOKU University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, a research project investigates the changes of the meaning and application of the term `sustainability´ in landscape architecture. We hope to gain insight on the development by analyzing professional and theoretical articles from this discipline of the last three decades and by comparing the results with definitions and approaches from other disciplines. In the early 19th century a balance between social and economic development became increasingly important. Society started to aim for economic efficiency and social justice. This trend can be regarded as one of the roots of the current debate about sustainability. In the 19th and 20th century, considerations how man can live with nature in a more respectful and integrative way, were expressed by authors such as Thoreau (1854). In the discipline of landscape architecture, among others, Mc Harg wrote important articles in the 1960s about the interrelation between design and nature (see Mc Harg, 2006). From the early 1970s onwards a serious debate has been conducted about sustainable protection of the environment (e.g. LeRoy, 1978). The concept of sustainability came into general usage following a publication of the 1987 report of the Brundtland Commission. Set up by the United Nations General Assembly, the Brundtland Commission coined what was to become the most frequently quoted definition of sustainability as a development that "meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Hauff, 1987). Aiming for sustainability requires looking ahead Today sustainable landscape architecture is no longer constricted to economical and ecological handling of materials or to the sensible consumption of resources. Sustainable development requires obtaining options for future generations to meet their demands. Therefore changes in social processes need to be included in our considerations (see Luks, 2002). To safeguard people’s quality of life in large cities, the use and function of open and green spaces have to be maintained. Climate change is challenging the urban ecosystem in general, but in particular the maintenance and usability of recreational spaces within the city. Usage of open spaces is likely to be intensified due to the increasing number of city dwellers and precarious housing conditions. Therefore, the range of required use options is also increasing. In order to meet these requirements public open spaces have to fulfill a wide range of functions. This is partly due to the differences in life-cycle stages (age, family-structure, employment) and social groups (income, education, profession) (Grimm-Pretner, Licka 2000). Changes of activities, however, also occur in dependence of fashion and cultural shifts. Finally, climate plays a crucial role in the way open and green spaces are created, used and maintained. The global climate is changing – what are expected effects on urban public open and green spaces? Altered meteorological parameters, such as rising temperature, increasing wind conditions and varying frequencies of precipitation, heat and frost periods, as well as differentiation of uses and needs threaten the long term functionality of public open and green spaces in large cities. The continuing concentration of cities, the lack of vegetation and the use of inappropriate materials and plants will cause a further shortage of resources and magnify the effects of extremely high temperatures, appearing in heat islands, areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings. This metropolitan effect is a well-documented example of anthropogenic

97 modification to climate that has an atmospheric, biological, and ecological impact. The main cause of the urban heat island effect is modification of the land surface by urban development. A growing population tends to modify an ever larger area of land, which usually results in an additional increase of average temperature, wind and monthly rainfall (Yow, 2007). Long lasting qualities of urban public open and green spaces The concept of sustainability aims for social, economic and ecological balance; all three dimensions need to be considered justly. In the current discussion more aspects are added to these three dimensions. `Cultural Sustainability´ is considered as one of the `new´ key items. The core statement of this additional aspect defines sustainability as a demand of culture and civilisation. Formerly dominant patterns of behaviour are henceforth in transition into new cultural patterns of a changing society (see Krainer et al., 2007). Considering this, for a sustainable design and to fulfil future requirements, in particular changes of usage need to be respected. In the profession’s debate landscape architects agree that changes in usability become more relevant due to climate change. In the scientific debate on landscape architecture, however, sustainable design as a holistic approach has not been focused on yet. To create sustainable landscapes expected future effects need to be considered. Due to climate change, modifications in design, production, construction, planting and maintenance of urban open and green spaces are expected to be necessary. In our research project, climatologists from the BOKU Institute of Meteorology have been involved to elaborate and evaluate forecasts of climate change. A regional climate model was developed which shows future scenarios for the region of Vienna. Based on these data, a catalogue was evolved, to merge possible climatic changes with impacts and expected effects on urban public green space. The catalogue is structured into four main tasks: (1) climate change impact on humans in urban areas (quality of life, interdependencies between man and environment, outdoor recreation patterns, use of open spaces); (2) impact on urban vegetation and biodiversity; (3) impact on soil and covering; and (4) impact on outdoor furniture and materials. Currently, experts and expert-groups of the gardens department of the municipality of Vienna are interviewed to gain insight on the necessities and strategies for construction and maintenance of public green spaces. By means of these qualitative interviews the catalogue will be enhanced and completed. First results of the guided interviews show that there is an existing awareness of the interrelation between climate change and urban green systems. Stakeholders are focusing on increasing temperature, heatwaves and changing wind conditions. Maintainers of the municipality of Vienna are already giving thoughts to resulting effects, such as urban heat-islands, aridity and irrigation, phreatic water level, storm water usage, occurrence of vermins, and especially the changing use of vegetation. Windstorms are of interest concerning the break resistance of trees, injuries and safeness. Because of the long term process of vegetational development, anticipatory planning of green spaces is gaining particular importance. Climate change already today shows impact on urban biodiversity and the availability of resources. Lifespan, quality and diversity of urban plants are influenced by changing climatic effects, such as the persistent lack of water during heat waves. A diverse vegetation cover in an urban structure helps to improve and stabilise air quality and micro climatic effects and is positively contributing to the inhabitants´ quality of life. Because of missing strategies, the trial-and-error-method is presently the usual way for practitioners of the Viennese garden department to find out which plants are still appropriate to the changing climatic conditions. While this might be feasible for annual plants of short living shrubs, this is not the case for trees with a potential life span of decades or even centuries.

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The next step of our research project will be to focus on the users of open spaces by means of on-site observations and stakeholder interviews in different climatic areas. Finally, all research data will be compared to general design criteria. Conclusions will be integrated in guidelines for practitioners, designers and municipalities. Acknowledgements This paper is based on a research project in the framework of the Doctoral School Sustainable Development (dokNE) at BOKU University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna within the Austrian Sustainability research program provision, jointly funded by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science and Research, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, and the Provinces of Lower Austria, Vienna and Styria. References Council of Europe (2000). European Landscape Convention, online http://www.iccops.it/oceans21/documents/EU_landscape_convention.pdf, 18.01.2008

on

Grimm-Pretner, D., & Licka, L. (2000). Open use for open spaces in: BENSON, J.F., ROE, M. Ed. (2000). Urban Lifestyles, Spaces, Places, People. Rotterdam: Balkema Publishers Hauff, V. / Hrsg. (1987). Unsere gemeinsame Zukunft: Der Brundtland-Bericht der Weltkommission für Umwelt und Entwicklung. Greven: Eggenkamp Verlag (Englische Originalausgabe: Our Common Future. Oxford University Press) Krainer, L., & Trattnigg, R. (2007). Kulturelle Nachhaltigkeit. München: oekom verlag Kunze, R. (2004). Zersiedelung. Die Nachhaltigkeitsstrategie in der Diskussion; in: Planerin Fachzeitschrift für Stadt-, Regional- und Landesplanung H. 1/2004, S. 3/4 Le Roy, L. (2002). Nature Culture Fusion. Natuur Cultuur Fusie. samenstelling: Esther Boukema & Philippe Vélez Mcintyre. Rotterdam: NAi Uitgevers / Publishers Le Roy, L. (1978). Natur ausschalten, Natur einschalten. Natuur uitschakelen – natuur inschakelen. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta Luks, F. (2002). Nachhaltigkeit. Wissen 3000. Hamburg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt/Sabine Froenewold Verlage McHarg, I. (2006). The essential Ian McHarg: writings on design and nature / Ian L. McHarg; edited by Frederick R. Steiner. Washington, DC: Island Press Penker, M. (in press). Governing Austrian Landscapes: Shifts along the Private-Public Divide, in: Sikor, T., Barlösius, E., Scheumann, W. (Hrsg.): New Publics in Resource Governance. Earthscan. Saffield, S. (2002). Theory in Landscape Architecture. A Reader. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press Thoreau, H.D. (1979). Walden oder Leben in den Wäldern. Zürich: Diogenes Verlag AG (Titel der Originalausgabe: Walden: or, Life in the Woods, 1854)

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Waldheim, C. (2006). The Landscape Urbanism Reader. (1st ed.). New York, N.Y.: Princeton Architectural Press Yow, D.M. (2007). Urban Heat Islands: Observation, Impacts, and Adaptation. Geography Compass, Volume 1 (6), 1227-1251, November 2007

Landscape Essence, the Base Concept for All Significant Design Maria Freire University of Évora, Portugal, Department of Biophysical and Landscape Planning Introduction Unfortunately, the theory of the Landscape Design is not sought by practitioners today. Most contemporary interventions have significant problems. These problems are essentially associated with the scale and context as well as inconvenience programmatic (not sustained in function, shape or matter), aesthetics (visual and sensorial irrelevant or improper) and ethics. We are interested in teaching material that might expand Landscape Design beyond the simple embellishment of sites, or exhibition of common or innovative ideas, toward practices that also reactivate its natural and cultural dimensions. Mostly, practitioners have chosen unreflective, intuitive, or experiential approaches to the design phenomena, as has been observed by many authors (Telles 1992, Corner 1999, Girot 1999, Corajoud 2001). Design intervention by most contemporary landscape architects in Portugal is essentially valued as embellishment, complementing the new urbanized areas, improvement of ecological damage, or emblematic works, rather than, as modes of practice directed toward large urban issues, physical planning, and social development. With this increased marginalization of pubic design, the proliferation of problems concerned with the landscape grows substantially. The complexity of landscapes aligns multiple and competing forces and relations (social, political, ecological processes, and program demands) into newly stimulating and interactive alliances. The subjugation to the world “constructedness”, associated with questionable ways of being and acting in society, and the use of inadaptable theories of design are the basis of this problem. Methodology The conceptual orientation proposed is linked with the essence of the space and the classical methodology. The landscape essence concept is considered as the most important basis for all significant design. It is associated with the singular specifics of what is already on the site, the subtleties of temporal, and habitual or particular experiences that we can assist there – they are linked with the spatial, ecological, historical-cultural, and aesthetic components. This concept, that I emphases - as the one with the major influence on the process of transformation of the landscape - is already used by some professionals in Europe and America (Christophe Girot, Georges Descombes, João Gomes da Silva, Hargreaves Associates, and others). This methodological approach has been used over the last few years in the teaching of Landscape Design at the University of Évora, Portugal. The methodology is based on the use of classical deductive phases: analysis, diagnosis (problems and potentialities) and proposals.

100 However, we introduced new principles in this process, exploring inductive aspects and drawing practices, more dynamics, associating the phenomenology and synthesis with the creativity. So, we accompanied the process with the simultaneous use of inductive acts. The process of revealing the place includes distinct and sequential moments of interpretation: using our senses to gather the place to us; a reflective period of description; seeking of existing patterns in the site phenomena and relating these patterns to potential intentions for site. This means visualization of solutions, since the beginning of the process, stimulating the intuitive perception and creativity (Magalhães, 2001). The concept of “design intelligence” defined by Michael Speaks as “practices [that] allow for a great degree of innovation because they encourage opportunism and risk-taking rather than problem solving” (Speaks, 2002) is thus used in this process; it gives shape and form to the basis – the very landscape substrate. The first step is the analysis of the place, which means the comprehension and synthesis of the physical, temporal and sensorial dimensions. The students are oriented towards developing the capacity to apprehend and interpret space, towards understanding its specificities and towards interiorizing and sharpening the awareness of individual living manifestation of the sensations. The students did not know the location of the site until they arrived there on the first site visit. The initial intuition is what matters most in the beginning. No maps or boundaries were given to them. They were encouraged to set their own site boundaries and walk the site to obtain an understanding of it. They sketched the place in different graphic representations (diagrams, sections, perspectives, views, thematic plans, and details) and connected them with notes and descriptions. They were allowed to take photographs of the site but couldn’t use them in this initial moment, in order to develop reflection and internal images. This first perception is complemented and understood through repeated visits to the site, studies and document research, including the site and the surrounding context. Components like ecological, spatial, historic-cultural and the aesthetics are the basis of knowledge of the landscape - students should know them and understand them well, be able to synthesise them, and place them in a hierarchy in the context of valuing the global system. All work is based in working sketches, drawings, models and vocabulary. The aim is to develop the capacities of synthesis and communication. Therefore, we encourage students to discuss, explore and combine those characteristics in an abstract model, oriented for what is the essence of the place. Vocabulary as a tool is introduced to facilitate the ability to interpret and describe the landscape. It includes descriptive terms and pairs of adjectives (such as inside/outside, horizontal/vertical, open/closed, stable/unstable, physical/visual), emotional states of being and the terminology of principles of spatial design. The third moment is related to an understanding of the physical dimension of the space. Practice is linked with the use of the drawings, photographs and building models of the existing space. Subsequently, the strategy is to look for concepts that could orientate the design process. Those concepts can be focused in the preservation or requalification of natural and cultural identitaries specificities. We are looking for those forces and events which underline the evolution of a place: what contributes durably to the identity of the site, what belongs to the place, something that is unique there, what is more notable, the tendencies in which we can support the transformation in a stable way (Corajoud, 2001); what elements, structures or ambiences to retain, what to transform and what to replace? The concepts are a tool on which the project will be founded. In this step, the strategy is based on the transformations in the inherent potential of the landscape, involving the synthesis of understanding potentialities and possibilities to solve eventual problems. In this moment, we

101 encourage students to use again the construction of an abstract model, the tool that can synthesize the principle aims, founded in the essence of the place. After that, the strategy is to structure the ideas and make them work in an organized plan that includes the clear definition of the typology of space and the interview program. Both are based on the syntheses and on the large context in which space is inscribed. They are the result of working inclusively with interrelated fields (landscape, urban planning, and architecture, ecology, engineering, social and political) and at multiple scales. In the selection of the typology what matters most are the function, shape and matter of the space and the surrounding context. The interview program helps in the organization of the most consistent ideas and spatialities and to clarify the organization of structures and elements. Finally it is proposed the transformation of the space based on his essence. This means using significant natural and cultural elements, as well as structures, which should be worked in a continuing interchange, in a certain space and in a concrete time. Working spatialities related with specificities of shape, matter, functions and time. In this sense, we explore the creativity associated with the design intelligence and the strategic thinking developed for a specific intervention. In design terms, the strategy involves understanding the inherent potentiality of the space and shaping or deploying form to maximize effects (Corner, 2004-2005). Final Considerations The use of the essence, as the main concept in the process of intervention, essentially requires the exploration of the synthesis capacity. The drawings articulated with the written interpretations are the first results of comprehension and synthesis of the place. Once transferred to an abstract model, the result will stimulate the process of reducing information, putting it in a hierarchy and articulating the complex components of the system. The aim is salient to the most important specificities and the potential meaning of the essence in the definition of news spatialities. The cultural, ecological, morphological and aesthetical assumptions were brought into permanent debates we had with the students. Together, students reflected and discussed their individual or collective interpretations, understanding and ideas. Simultaneously, we supported students in their own interpretations of the space, and suggested that their synthesis could be used to improve the place; many more possible and adequate solutions to the complex interventions arise. The student still learns that the synthesis and the design of the landscape is an integrated and ongoing process. References Beardsley, J. (2000). A Word for Landscape Architecture in Harvard Design Magazine 12: http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/research/publications/hdm/back/12onlandscape_beardsley.html Corajoud, M. (2001). Les neuf conduites nécessaries d’une propédeutique pour un appresentissage du project sur le paysage. in AVVV Jardins Insurgés, Arhitecture du paysage en Europe. Catálogo de la II Biennale Européenne du paysage. Barcelona. pp.119-132. Corner, J. (editor) (1999). Recovering Landscape. Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

102 Corner, J. (2004 – 2005). Not unlike life itself. Landscape strategy. in Harvard Design Magazine, 21: - Girot, C. (1999). Four trace Concepts in Landscape Architecture. in Essays in Contemporary Landscape Architecture. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 58-67. Magalhães, M. (2001). A Arquitectura Paisagista: morfologia e complexidade. Lisboa: Editorial Estampa. Speaks, M. (2002). Theory was interesting …but now we have work in arq: Architectural Research Quarterly 6: 209-212. Telles, G. (1992). Um novo conceito de paisagem global: tradição, confrontos e futuro. Universidade de Évora.

Characteristics of Urban Landscape Development in Toronto (Canada) Vera Funtova1 & Kirill Funtov2 1

High Park Volunteer Stewardship Program (HPVSP), Toronto, 2 Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.

Introduction The Greater Toronto Area (GTA) is one of North America's fastest-growing urban centers. GTA population is approximately 5.5 million people, and total area is about 7000 km2. Toronto is well known as the “City within park”. Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation Division (City of Toronto, 2007) maintains 7390 ha of green space and 1470 ha named parks. Horticulture and landscaping specialists care for 2.5 million trees in parks and ravines and 0.5 million trees on streets. Annually 1.3 million flowers, annuals and many other crops are growing in 8 greenhouses and planting in the city. Totally 40 ha of horticulture displays are cultivating every summer season. Ecological approach is a very popular tendency in landscape projects of the city. As examples: conservation and restoration of natural ravine ecosystems, stylization of natural landscapes in downtown garden, reconstruction of Ontario lakeshore zone, program of “green” parking lots, planting of natural species in public and private gardens. Conservation of natural city ecosystems Natural landscapes of Toronto’s area were significant changed by urban development in the past 200 years. Fortunately some of natural ravines have escaped dramatic changes. Now the urban forests are one of the distinctive aesthetic characters of the city. As well as they improve climate, decrease noise level and conserve biodiversity. The ravine ecosystems are highly sensitive natural habitats because of their age and restricted city location. Some of the trees in Toronto’s ravines are more than 150 years old. Forest, grassland and swamp types of the ravine vegetation preserve the majority of native plants, animals, birds and insects. Certain human actions (as injury of trees and shrubs, change of the natural land elevation, placing any type of debris including garden waste, construction new structures) can result in soil erosion and invasion not native tree and shrub species in ravine ecosystems. In 2002, the new law regulation of the ravine’s protection has been passed in Toronto City Council. Toronto Urban Forestry Services

103 actively works with community groups and other forestry professionals to coordinate the environmentally responsible management of Toronto’s ravine lands. High Park is one of the most significant historical parks in the centre of Toronto that contains high diversity of rare plant species and plant communities (City of Toronto, 2002). Total area of the park is 160 ha, including 24 ha of ponds. The central part of High Park is located on a plateau. Two ravines dissected plateau in north direction. Territory of the park was belonged to John Howard since 1836 year to 1873 when the Howards deeded it to the city. The most significant changes of natural park ecosystems were made in the 1950’s. The swimming pool, the zoo, the tennis courts, roads and parking lots account for 57 ha. Since the late 1980’s priority of nature conservation was recognized and management practices began the restoration of park ecosystems. Botanical analysis of High Park plant communities have been done by Varga (1989) and specified 13 years late (City of Toronto, 2002). The plateau and upper ravine slopes covered by dry oak forests and savannahs with black oak (Quercus velutina). Lower and north, east slopes contain moist deciduous forest dominated by red oak (Quercus rubra). Mixed forests of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and red maple (Acer rubrum) have restricted distribution along the lower slopes of the west ravine. The tallgrass savannahs with a prairie understory are the most valuable type of vegetation in High Park. Their area is equal to 1% of all tallgrass savannahs in Ontario region. Woodlands dominated by black oak consist almost 80% of rare plants registered in the park. In total 29 rare species were recorded. The most of those are typical for southerly regions. In list of rare specious included Lupinus perennis, Liatris spicata, L. cylidracea, Sylphium perfoliatum var.perpholiatum and etc. In 1989, High Park was designated as an Area of Natural and Scientific Interest (ANSI). Since that time some restoration activities have been undertaken by the city organization. In 2000, the long-term goals of High Park’s Management Plan (20012010) were developed to provide preserving and restoring of nationally significant black oak woodlands and savannahs. The plan’s actions and strategies include: prescribed burning as the most effective method of restoring terrestrial ecosystems; controlling invasive plant species; reestablishing native plant communities and species; restoring rare native plant populations, reducing trampling damage; monitoring pollution and climate change and other. The Volunteer Stewardship Program was established for public contribution to city staff restoration work. This group is one of the largest volunteer program that providing assistance for re-introduction native plants, removal invasive species, test plot monitoring and other conservation activities. Ecological approach in design of new urban gardens Village of Yorkville Park is realized as an artistic idea of presentation natural diversity of Canadian landscapes in the centre of urban territory. The park was designed by Martha Schwartz, Ken Smith, David Mayer Landscape Architects Inc. San Francisco, as modern variation of the traditional “front-yard” gardens. It reflects the original line of the houses in one of the oldest part of Toronto. Park is designed as a series of 12 gardens. Each garden is contemporary urban interpretation of different plant communities. History of the Village of Yorkville with Victorian time of plant collection was reunited with the ecological vision of landscapes. Herb Rock Garden, Crabapple Orchard, Festival Walk, Herbaceous Border Garden are presented there as well as Pine, Birch, Amelanchier Groves, prairie and marsh communities. Assortment of plants depends on historical or ecological character of the garden. Because of transit lines and high level of recreation the park lawn surfaces mainly reduced and prairie and marsh gardens designed as territory restricted for walkers. Lakeshore area of the city Toronto has industrial background in history development. Plants, warehouses, railway and road transition areas are almost replaced now with hotels, art centres

104 and condominium complexes. Landscape design of waterfront gardens is connecting centre of the city with vibrant parks of Toronto’s islands. Since 1990, project of Artist’s Gardens have been created by designers and artists as living installation of contemporary and traditional ideas about gardening. Twenty five gardens are located around former Power Plant building (Harbourfront Contemporary Art Gallery). “Return from Nature” created by Bob Wikie as garden of dichotomy between nature and technology, as transformation everyday objects in aesthetic ones. “Changing Channels” by Janet Morton realized as bright plant composition in original containers, TV boxes that represent TV garden channels. Brad Copping’s and Sue Rankin’s “Swamped” garden used image of old boat as human use of lakeshore and sand grasses, bog plants as natural waterfront environment. “Seeds of Change” garden by Lorraine Johnson created on basis drought-tolerant native species and heritage food plants as modern urban assortment for boulevards, laneways and city lots. Other lakeshore project “The Spadina Quay Wetland” (0.35 ha) has replaced a parking lot. This garden demonstrates the potential of transformation highly urbanized waterfront site into diverse and stable ecosystem. Regenerated wetland ecosystem has three zones a dry upland area, a periodically flooded area, and an area that contains water year-round. These different zones contain native plant species and will support a broad range of wildlife. Visitors can see marsh birds, butterflies, frogs, beavers and young pike. The project was made under authority of the City of Toronto, The Toronto and region Conservation Authority and the Toronto Bay Initiative in association with the Waterfront Regeneration Trust. Public relationships and educational programs are important for realization of ecological projects of the city. In response of continuing urbanization process in Toronto a number of initiative projects are continuing to develop. One of them is Advocacy Planting Program for Toronto that started in 2002. Since beginning 400 thousands plants has been planted at over 300 city streets, roads, parks and ravines. “Discovery Walks” program has been created as part of Ontario’s Legacy Trail System. Self-guide walking routs are connecting natural and social history of Toronto with healthy life style. Children’s garden programs and environment volunteer projects offered by the City of Toronto in many community parks (City of Toronto, 2007). Conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems, development new ecological projects of recreation areas, adult and children environment educational programs and volunteer activities in parks and gardens are modern characters of Toronto in last decades. Successful development of the city environment is guaranteed by joint activity of municipal, charity and public organizations. References City of Toronto. High Park Woodland and Savannah Management Plan (2002). Corporate printing. Toronto. Ontario, City of Toronto. (2007). Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation Division.. Toronto. Ontario. (www.toronto.ca/parks) Varga, S. (1989). A Botanical inventory and Evaluation of the High Park Woodlands: Area of natural and Scientific Interests. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Parks and Recreational Areas Section, Central Region, Richmondhill.

105 Value of Sanatorium Parks in Uran Environment of Voronezh City and Voronezh Region Еlena Guryeva Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering, Voronezh, Russian Federation The science about resorts The science about resorts has been developed in process of obtaining of knowledge on curative natural factors and thanks to an expansion of resorts network and development of resort business as a whole. One of the important sections of modern science about resorts is studying of questions of the organisation, planning and construction of resorts. Usage of natural therapeutic remedies by Slavic tribes started in prehistoric times. In the Tsar’s time all land on which resorts were opened and constructed, belonged to the State and it was not too well managed and maintained. Most therapeutic resorts were rented by cities, provinces, and private companies. Most of the best resorts belonged to members of the tsar’s family. Magnificent palaces and country houses, fountains, parks with rare species of trees were constructed here. During the Great Patriotic War the majority of sanatoria and rest houses were used as hospitals and for the treatment of wounded and sick armed forces personnel. In these hospitals modern methods of treatment of wounded people were used as well as sanatorium methods of treatment. Works have been carried out in post-war years on restoration of resorts network, sanatoria, rest houses, on development of new resort areas, reconstruction of old and construction of new sanatoria and resort establishments. Local resorts developed quickly and natural medical resources were used more widely. Medical services on resorts, cultural and welfare facilities and rest conditions for workers have been improved as well. In 1950 there were over two thousand sanatoria which is higher than in pre-war time. Development of a network of sanatoria and rest continued for several decades. The case studies of our research were – the local Voronezh health resorts, for example the sanatorium named after Maxim Gorky, A.D.Tsjurupy`s and F.E.Dzerzhinsky`s , the sanatorium, "Uglyanets", the rest house "Petrovsky". All these sanatoria are part of the governmental organisation "Voronezhkurort ". In the process of our research we found out, that efficiency of sanatorium treatment to a great extent depends on the spatial organisation and aesthetic characteristics of treatment places. One of the main tasks for landscape architects today is searching for optimal spatial organization in a sanatorium park (Kruglyak, 2004). The green zone of Voronezh City was developed in 1944 in the radius of 30 km around the city. Natural forests are at the core of this zone. There are also urban green areas of common use (general purpose) and limited usage. Our research covered examples of limited use, the sites of sanatoria of Voronezh and the Voronezh Region. Usually city green areas are divided into the following groups: •

•

General purpose - the city and regional parks and the specialised parks; urban gardens, gardens of residential areas, green areas inside the residential areas or next to groups of apartment houses, green areas of plazas, in front of building; boulevards, pedestrian zones and waterfront areas. Limited usage - on sites next to apartment houses, kindergardens, schools, high schools, technical schools, cultural - educational facilities, sports constructions, green areas of public health services and sanatoria, the industrial enterprises and warehouse zones.

106 •

Special purpose - highways and streets; water-protection, shelterbelts, anti-erosion plantings; cemeteries; nurseries, and also green areas located in suburban areas and on protective zones around the industrial enterprises.

Our research shows that forests have an advantage over meadow communities for people suffering respiratory problems. Forest ecosystems are very good for treatment of nervous and psychological diseases and oncological diseases. Green plantations play an important part in isolation of urban population from noise sources. For example clones of deciduous trees absorb 26 % of noise, and reflect and scatter 74 % of noise (Kruglyak, 2004). Sanatoria plantations have a very special value in maintenance of the urban environment. One hectare of forested area during one hour can absorb the amount of carbon dioxide (8kg) produced by 200 persons. Many native forest trees are producing phytoncydes - biologically active substances formed by plants that can kill or overwhelm the growth and development of microorganisms. Phytoncydes are capable of transforming part of the oxygen and ozone or atmospheric oxygen and form a great number of easy ions. The high degree of ionization is a very favorable factor for normal physiological processes in humans. Influence of a sanatorium park on human health is very diverse. First of all, it is connected with formation of special conditions inside of sanatorium’s forest park, which are different from urban environmnt. Green sanatorium areas have a special microclimate and acoustic conditions. The research confirmed that change in gas structure of forest’s air has a healing power on function of respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Biological properties help to increase the immune system. Electric properties of forest air improve the activity of the central nervous system. Changes in microclimate help to improve the thermoregulation capacity of the human body. Generally the forest air has a very positive restorative function, in some cases it gives some medical effect, and also has an important psychohygienic effect. The green areas of a sanatorium play an important role in functional and structural organisation of a resort treatment. We even suggest thinking about organization of landscape therapy which has aims to treat peculiar disease. We suggest including the following requirements for sanatorium parks in the conditions of Central Chernozem Region: 1) Creation of comfortable environment by using methods of landscape architecture: • Microclimate (regulation of temperature and humidity conditions, air exchange) by using green plantations; • Using species capable of producing phytoncydes for treatment of different kinds of diseases; • Air aromatization principle (maximal use of pleasant smells of plants and exclusion of uncomfortable smells); • Sound comfort (exclusion of all adverse noise); • Microbiological, physical and chemical cleanliness of air (regulated by different types of green areas); • Ionization of air (using specific–plant communities and water features, such as cascades, pools, falls, etc.). 2) Organisation of special conditions for medical treatment such as climatotherapy. Climatotherapy is the complex of special processes of aerotherapy (treatment by air), heliotherapy (treatment by the sun), phytotherapy (treatment by aromas of plants in pavilions

107 of herbal medicine specially intended for it) and ionotherapy (connect to properties of plants to clear air physically and chemically and their ability to ionize the air). It is suggested, that the degree of air’s ionization is defined by a factor of unipolarity, i.e. the ration of the quantity of positive ions to quantity of negative ions. Optimally it is considered that the factor of unipolarity be less than one unit. It is proved, that ionization of air with prevalence of negative ions renders extremely favorable influence on human organism at resort treatment. Now we know three ways of artificial decreasing unipolarity:

With the help aerohydroionisators-artificial installations of dispersion under pressure of water in air; With the help hydroionisation natural character - falls, cascade and pools By increasing of green areas

The aesthetic comfort of parks should be organised according to the specialty of the specific sanatorium. The main goal of sanatorium complexes is maximising increase in positive emotions, release from stress and creative interaction with nature. Novelty in aesthetics of modern sanatoria landscape design principles is based on understanding the role of different plants and their association with human health. For example the pines Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra and P. strobus can be very good for the treatment of respiratory problems because pines realise a lot of natural oils and aromatics (especially effective during summer heat). For daily walks and training of heart activity we suggest avenues located on 5% slope planted with Tilia cordata, Acer platanoides and Euonymus europeae and Viburnum lantana for shade. For slow, rhythmically measured walks and places for short rest we recommend avenues from wide-spreaded umbrella-shaped forms of trees (Quercus robur and Corylus avellana). For the elimination of nervous pressure it is very good to have forest composed of Acer Pseudoplatanus, Aesculus hippocastanum, Prunus spp and Padus avium because of their deep green foliage which gives eye protection during direct light. Our research sanatoria parks in Voronezh region show, that real comfort for rest and treatment, can be achieved only by scientifically proved principles of organization of different plant communities. Conclusion 1. Green areas of modern sanatoria, rest houses, prophylactic houses, children's camps, which are specially designed for rest and recreation, provide favorable microclimatic and hygienic conditions for people. These plant communities should have a special spatial and functional organisation. 2. Plant communities in sanatoria are designed mostly for walking, rest and special treatment procedures and should include main and secondary routes covering the main functional zones of the park and its picturesque landscapes. 3. Spatial organisation of all types of green devices is defined by character of interrelation and placement of their basic elements - forestlands, separate trees, groups, glades, lawns, flower beds, reservoirs, roads and relief. These interrelations and character of placement of basic elements is defined by the type of planning of the sanatorium park as a whole.

108 4. The status and uniqueness, and also high sanitary and protective importance of sanatoria green areas demands regular monitoring, management and maintenance as a foundation for the healthy creation of sustainable plant communities. References Kruglyak, V.V. Guryeva, E. I. (2004). Park construction zone features. U. 1. F.E.Dzerzhinsky`s sanatoria. Voronezh: Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering.

Urban Landscape Planning as Compensation of Global Standards Monotony Dmitry Kavtaradze School of Public Administration, Moscow State University, Russia Introduction Urban milieu becomes our main habitat. From the beginning of human history ones vision was full of moving images of creatures, plants, animals, and clouds… but it does not truly exist in artificial environments. Modern brain morphology and physiology study perception of retina and visual cortex found special cells that are responsible for checking moving objects. Signals of movement are not single features of natural environment. Actual visual difference of the objects (shape, colour, distance, combination of all them) is vitally important for a mammal’s brain. Globalization imparts “unification of diversity” of visual milieu and needs to be studied on different levels of human adaptation to these changes, including mental physiology disorders (Filin, 1997) and emotional impacts of sensor deprivation (Bowring, 2007). From point of environmental impact assessment (EIA) globalization as the holistic phenomena that pretends to be a system inside the Biosphere without taking care of the host system. Let’s propose another, romantic environmental determination of globalization: “Globalization achieving diversity that sustains the world dynamics”. Vision of good and bad In Russia, as well as in many other countries, municipal management has yet to embark on the ‘philosophers stone’ question: megapolis’s are managed according to practical considerations and even by feel, rather than on the basis of scientific reasons and a system of recommendations. We have to admit that science does not speak the language of management, and management is not very eager to issue challenges to the scientists, so the tale of the tower of Babel still applies. Like alchemy in its time, the modern science of urban design and management is collecting crumbs of knowledge about separate features of city structures, and is wasting time discussing opinions rather than exploring the problem in depth. Municipal authorities establish hubs of selforganization among citizens (who are willing and capable to organize themselves ‘in their own way’), and regulate the physical and chemical parameters of the urban environment (air and water quality, noise, electromagnetic fields, etc.), but they don’t even pose the problem, and therefore are unable to solve the task of managing the city as a system, a metabolic tank coherent with the regions of the biosphere that needs to be assembled by landscape architecture.

109 It is important to understand the factors that make the problem of different visions of “good and bad”. Many of them are caused by different outlooks (in Russian the term “mirovossrenie”) of technicians and naturalists (Kavtaradze et al., 1999). Requirements to technical standards Diminishing not reasonable diversity Language unification Systematization of static phenomena, subjects Maximum simplicity Perfectionism in following standards and norms Applying advanced standards

Ecosystems quality Biological diversity Diversity of languages Dynamics and often not predictable phenomena Expanding complexity Constant variability Incomplete knowledge of ecosystems dynamics

Urban planning and especially design are endless processes of seeking for at least mitigation measures of these controversial visions with unclear tasks to reduce ecological risks in the long term. Ecology in principles of urban management Ecologists are following the principle: diversity of elements provides sustainable ecosystems. To be a good visual environment it must be heterogeneous and influence the brains activity (Bernstein, 1961). The urban landscape as the subject of professional education is not obligatory in many Soviet/Russian architect universities. At Moscow Architecture Institute ecology as the subject of study does not exist at all. Issues “about ecology and environment” are presented by formal regulations, rules and standards not as values or principles of ecology and human dimension. Is it a goal of landscape architecture to provide compensation for the lack of visual, sensitive signals and diversity in cities? Of course “yes” will be answer from environmentalists, but it is not in the outlook of architects. This task is unknown to them. Education often is using still patterns of diversity: to support global diversity as the principle we need to use diversity of patterns, like Nature itself. Landscape architecture must be coherent to local ecosystems, landscape as it was done using a bioregional approach, that observes existing balance of local culture (that is always “different”) and local ecosystems. Now we mostly deal with “fractals of an ecosystem approach”. Urban ecology imparts landscape architecture as its element of assembling urban ecosystems; we named them “urbobioms” (Kavtaradze, 2005). The expertise of good, bad, acceptable landscape architecture projects finally are done by citizen opinions, observers, city visitors of exhibition: humans will vote following their feelings, whether it is ‘comfortable or not’. To fit sustainable development values (principles are still not clear enough) urban milieu need to be coherent to local/regional ecosystems and landscape and be part of regional metabolism in a long-term perspective. Garden cities, civilly, okolopolices, ecopolises are the type of ecourbanization that includes restoring ecosystems and taking care of them. Education became multidisciplinary in theory and practical modeling, designing by making certain projects as the processes that intend to absorb the newest and best on the Globe. Still it

110 needs careful assessment and an ecological time scale. It will bring truthful vision to the subject of landscape architecture and eco-engineering in urban areas (Kim, 2007). Art solves the Babylon tower problem How can we support cooperation between citizens, local authorities and landscape architecture? Probably the answer is given in the “Strategy for education for sustainable development” EEC UN (Strategy, 2005). It starts with a remarkable preface for the need of “the common vision”. The first step is important especially in unclear, uncertain situations. Human experience shows positive results to start by sharing desires as vision of “future that is good for us”. The landscape architecture is well equipped by drawings, photos, schemes that are used as a clear, understandable language of images of possible futures. In Moscow famous designer Eugenie Rosenblum used very productive studio sessions where 2030 art participants visited certain cities (Khimki, Pouschino, Stary Oscol etc.) for a few months absorbing the culture and human interests, traditions and making sketches, plans, models that later turned into exposition in the particular city. Citizens visiting the exhibition discussed the projects and it was the starting point of “people to specialists and authorities” dialogue (Rozenblum, 1987; Kavtaradze, Rosenblum, 1998). It was a progressive multifunctional practice of urban design based on ecological principles for human needs. Ecological background of urban landscape design “Ecoreconstruction” that started in several urban places is acting apart from ecology as a science studying ecosystems. At the same time we have another approach – “ecological restoration” (Tishkov, 1998) that is based on the following ecological theory and practice of directed succession as it was started in 1940 by Oldo Leopold in Wisconsin, USA and in USSR by planting strips of the forests (“lesopolosy”). How small might a sustainable urban landscape be? What might be a socially acceptable carrying capacity of this urban landscape? Do modern citizens agree to live surrounded by spots of wild nature? Those questions need to meet not only together, but also with answers by simulation developing highly urbanized regional modeling. These methods have been used for several decades at Moscow State University in simulation games design and implementation. One of them (Econet ABC) has modeled 30 years of processes of ecological network design in the “Sviatsk” region in central part of Russia. The Department of natural resource management of MSU had positive experiences organizing summer schools for planning sustainable development by Moscow State University with Alghero Architect University (Italy). It was planning sustainable development of highly urbanized areas in Moscow region: Korolev Science City and National Park “Losiny Ostrov”. The project was performed by Dr. Ing. Alessandra Casu with cooperation of the Korolev Institute (KIMES) and support of the Administration of Korolev Science City (2007). The project shows possibility of international cooperation in sustainable planning of modern city and natural protected areas by planning ecological infrastructure and water bodies in urban landscapes as a key for a happy urban environment (Ignatieva, 2006)-Fig.

111 Fig. Ekorolev map

References Bernstein, N.A. (1961). Ocherednie problemi psihologii aktivnosti, Problemi kibernetiki. Vip.6 (in Russian). Bowring, Jacky. (2007). Sensory deprivation: Globalization and the Phenomenology of Landscape Architecture, in: G.H. Stewart et al. (eds.) Globalization and Landscape Architecture: Issues for Education and Practice, St Petersburg, 2007: 81-84 Filin, V. (1997). Videoecology. What is good for eyes and that not. International center, Moscow, (VideoEcology). (in Russian). Ignatieva, Maria. (2007) Globalization Trends in Russian Landscape Architecture, in: G.H. Stewart et al. (eds.) Globalization and Landscape Architecture: Issues for Education and Practice, St Petersburg, 2007:111-115. Kavtaradze, D. et al. (1999). Automobile Roads in the Ecological Systems. Moscow, CheRo, 1999 (In Russian). Kavtaradze. D (2005). Urbanisation of the Biosphere. Moscow, VINITI, Problemi Okrushauschej Sredi I Prirodnih Resoursov, Vip. 7, 2005, P. 3-37, (in Russian). Kavtaradze, D., Rozenblum, Eugene. (1989). Art concept of “Ecopolis” in Khimki town. Ecology of small towns. Preprint. Ecology of small town, “Ecopolis” project, Pouschino, 1989, (in Russian). Kim, Sung-Kyun. (2007). Education and Practice of Landscape Architecture in Korea, in: G.H. Stewart et al. (eds.) Globalization and Landscape Architecture: Issues for Education and Practice, St Petersburg, 2007:19. Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development (2005). - http://www.unece.org/env/ESD Rozenblum, Eugene. (1987). Design as tool for communication between professionals and urban citizen. Cities and ecology. V.1, Moscow, GKNT:.134-138, (in Russian). Tishkov, A. (1998). Restoration of Northern ecosystems. Moscow, М, 1998, (in Russian).

112

The Analysis of Methods and Means of Sustainable Landscape Design of Open Urban Space: Sample Cases in St Petersburg (Russia) and Cities in The Netherlands Nadya Kerimova 1, Ilona Cherepanova 2 1

Landscape Architecture Company "DOM", St Petersburg, Russian Federation, 2 Landscaping Studio "Botanik", Groningen, the Netherlands

Introduction Significant expansion of modern construction is characteristic of St Petersburg as well of the majority of cities of Holland. The global processes of urbanization are in many respects similar in the city environment. This provides the basis for comparing landscape organization of the open urban spaces in St Petersburg and The Netherlands. The urban growth supersedes and alters more and more of the natural component of the environment creating major ecological and social problems: the thermal balance is broken, air quality declines, soil is compressed, rainwater is not effectively used, and the green component of the city space sharply decreases. In the present article we show how these problems are solved by means of sustainable landscape design in The Netherlands. We discuss opportunities of adapting these approaches to the St Petersburg conditions. Problems Modern studies of sustainability of the city environment prove that it is necessary to preserve and expand its green component. Plants are one of the key components in planning modern cities. Their positive influence extends not only on surrounding environment, but also on emotional, psychological and recreational spheres of human life. We shall consider in more detail the basic challenges faced by ecosystems within the modern city environment. The problem of green area loss is inherent to all modern megacities including the cities of The Netherlands and is especially acute in St Petersburg. At the basis of the given problem lay 1) unconstrained expansion of the cities, 2) increased pressure of the urban construction upon surrounding landscape and 3) the decreasing sustainability of existing green plantings in the aggressive city environment. Quality and amount of the green component constantly diminishes due to the lack of support from the environment. This problem is aggravated at the stage of planning of green buffer zones since the principles underlying creation of ”city-resistant” plant communities frequently are not considered. As a result, the open city spaces need to be organized in such a way that will allow keeping the biodiversity characteristic for each district and will create a green layer that will not demand constant investment. Other important negative factor of the city environment - uncontrollable increase in transport streams, growth of unregulated parking. Municipal transportation is one of the basic sources of risk for the population from the health protection and environmental point of view because it promotes air and water pollutions, and affects the quality of life. The increasing danger to pedestrian and bicycle movement limits opportunities of physical activity for the population, which in turn, raises the risk of serious diseases (Transport, Health and Environment PanEuropean Program, http: // www.thepep.org) Unregulated parking places typical for St Petersburg cause destruction of the low circle of vegetation, particularly lawns, and condensation of soil. Systematic structurisation of the open space and shielding of problem sites and

113 pedestrian zones by green plantings is the basic means of solving these problems in The Netherlands. Another serious issue specific to St Petersburg is large areas of bare soil unprotected by vegetation. It causes erosion of the top ground layer. The negative consequences of this process are damage and suppression of vegetation, reduction in soil fertility, air pollution by dust particles, pet excrements and motor transport emissions, which affect breathing and settle on all surrounding objects, resulting in an unpleasant appearance of buildings outside and inside (Zhirmunskaia, 2004). The Netherlands: Problems and solutions From the moment of St Petersburg foundation, Holland has been a great influence on the construction of the city and its planning. A “cultural capital”, Amsterdam, served as a model for construction of our city. Peter the Great, showed special interest in the Dutch gardens and sent his citizens for training in garden art (Lihachev, 1982). Presently, the modern experience of The Netherlands in the field of landscape architecture and design invariably provides high quality examples that are economic and harmonious from the aesthetic perspective of utilization of the natural resources (Den Ruijter, 2002; Raxworthy, 2007). The plot below compares the average monthly temperatures (Fig.) in The Netherlands and in St Petersburg. It is clear that the climate of the Netherlands in many respects is similar to St Petersburg with the exception of much softer winter in Holland. Therefore the assortment of plants used in landscape design considerably differs with regards to cold-sensitive plants. Fig. Average monthly temperature in St Petersburg and Amsterdam. Average monthly temperatures 20 15

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114 The Netherlands is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, therefore this country’s landscapes have an essentially anthropogenous character (up to 70 % of the territory) while the limited natural territories are kept and protected carefully. In the coastal part of the socalled inner sea prevail polders: man-made land crossed by a set of channels. They were made by building of Afsluitdijk dike in Zuiderzee Sea to stop floods. This new land was named Flevoland and the reclamation of this area starts the period of "new landscapes". Agricultural specialists and landscape architects had to work together to find a new form for reclaimed area where new polder-residents can live (Deunk, 2002). The essential part of the plant communities of The Netherlands are also of artificial origin. Nevertheless, the human activity also increases variety of the landscapes (International Exchange center SIA www.iec.lv). The state successfully regulates the environment by constantly monitoring coordination between the landscape architecture and city growth (Den Ruijter, 2002). Examples of the urban design in The Netherlands show opportunities of modern landscape design to effectively use the transformed components of nature and maintain sustainability of the city environment. So one of the ways of preventing the green area loss is revival of natural components not only in the nearest environment of architectural objects, but also in the structure of objects by creating an additional vegetative layer (a lawn, a garden) on roofs, facades, terraces of buildings or by partially immersing buildings into the landscape and covering them with vegetation, for example with a lawn. The so-called «Landform architecture» allows compensating the green spaces lost during construction (Lee, 2007). It allows restoring a natural habitats and biodiversity in the city space. Amsterdam’s Museum Square (Museumplein) is an example of such design. The slope is covered by a lawn, given to tourists and city dwellers to rest, simultaneously is a roof of an underground parking and a supermarket (Brummel, 2002). Integration of the plants into the structure of a building allows preservation of the existing green component. Such method can simultaneously improve expressiveness and appeal of the facade and increase the comfort of internal rooms. However this approach demands modification of the architectural objects and team effort of architects and landscape architects (Nefedov, 2002). The problem of the creating pedestrian and recreational environment, parking for cars and bicycles, and other fragments of the city space that comply with the safety requirements and provide comfort for people and the environment is solved in The Netherlands by structurisation of the open city space with obligatory inclusion of vegetation. An interesting example of informal approach to the city space structurisation is the project realized in 2006 on the Groningen Railway Station areas. It consists of «a city balcony» - artificial surface lifted high above the forecourt on which the pedestrian and recreational areas are located. Parking lot for 4,000 bicycles is organized below. Big diameter apertures visually link space above and under a platform and allow trees to grow through the deck (Raxworthy, 2007). In other cases, modifying color and texture of plants according to centuries-old traditions topiary arts and modern aesthetic concepts, allows to achieve not only the functional differentiation of space, but simultaneously its scaling, visual shielding, creation of characteristic lines and outlines, decorative and semantic effect. Thus it is necessary to select such breeds of vegetation that possess optimum parameters for differentiation of space: in density and resistance to pollution and possible damages. In The Netherlands numerous species of evergreen bushes are used for these purposes: Ilex, Mahonia, Prunus laurocerasus, Pyracantha and of cause Buxus. Among coniferous plant cypresses, yews, spreading forms of junipers and false cypress (Chamaecyparis) are especially popular. Among the trees used for structurisation of greater spaces especially popular are plane trees, beeches, ashes, lindens, willows, birches, oaks. For

115 decorative effects, numerous species of maple and magnolia blossoming by early spring and trees of genera Prunus of Rosaceae family are used. Among bushes blossoming during winter time is Hamamelis, in the early spring – Forsythia, later - species of brooms, Spiraea, Deutzia, and then Hydrangea which has become very popular recently. There are many more possibilities for plant biodiversity used for decorative effect, and for parks and recreational areas in The Netherlands because of very mild winter. In St Petersburg, bushes with the necessary qualities are Shiny Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster lucidus), Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) Hardhack (Spiraea douglasii), some varieties of a hawthorn (Crataegus). Retaining walls are used in The Netherlands to raise the level at which the plants are planted to protect them from damages and harmful emissions of transport and thus the assortment can be expanded to Wall Cotoneaster (Cotoneaster horizontalis), Mountain Pine, or Mugo Pine, (Pinus mugo), laceshrub, or stephanandra, (Stephanandra incise), Forsythia hybrid (Forsythia × intermedia) can be used for decorative effect (Aksenova et al., 1989). Sites of the bare ground (soil) are absolutely unusual for the city environment of The Netherlands. Spaces that are not covered by pavement are without fail filled with either vegetative or inert material. This keeps streets clean, protects ground from destruction, provides humidity and temperature balance and increases sustainability of the environment. To achieve artistic expressiveness, composite integrity of the surface and surrounding architectural objects, landscape architects, designers and engineers use diverse approaches of processing of the low circle of vegetation, including the methods described below. Landscape geoplastics helps to increase the area covered by trees and shrubs in the buffer space, to create best conditions for vegetation (increase of insolation, excessive rain water drainage) to protect vegetative components from influence of transport and foot movement, to insulate recreational and rest zones from the traffic noise. For example, this method was used for the organization of territory around Hogeschool building in Nijmegen. The use of diverse combinations of classical sheared lawns, grass family and succulents, located in a raster, ground-covering, decoratively blooming perennial and bulbous plants (galanthuses, crocuses, muscaris, narcissuses, tulips). By adding inert materials, designers achieve interesting modern visual effects. As a result of varying types of vegetation and ways of their planting the variety, expressiveness and appeal of a surface, its morphological connection with elements of a building is achieved and characteristic image of a place is created. The high creative potential of experts allows creation of compositions that bear semantic load, and cause associations or sensations and connect with the given point of space. Good examples of such work in which the choice of means of design depending on purpose and assignment of territory is precisely traced are De Nieuwe Ooster berggraafplaats in Amsterdam (Karres en Brands); Gevangenismuseum in Veenhusen (Buro Lubbers); Tuin Van Bezinning (Nederlands politie), in Varnsveld (Buro Poelmans Reesink) (Lutten, 2007). The majority of the discussed approaches to space organization can be applied in St Petersburg, with modifications to the range of plants and lawn grass mixes. It is necessary: - to select plants that remain decorative for a longer period of time within the calendar year and whose maintenance is inexpensive; - use plants inherent in our district and ecologically-compatible plants.

116 Conclusion We have examined a number of challenges in organization of the open city space of St Petersburg and approaches to solution of similar problems in the state of The Netherlands. In this way in climatic conditions of St Petersburg it is probably to use next methods: landform architecture, the introduction of nature in architectural objects, the city environment structurisation by means of plants and trees, landscape geoplastics, lawn, grass, perennial and inert material combinations. However, the analysis shows the necessity to consider distinction in plants assortment, especially for not-cold-winter-resistant ones. Such approach allows creating new expressional landscape and increase in sustainability and comfort of the urban environment. References Aksenova, N.A., Frolova, L.A. (1989). Derev'ya i kustarniki dlya sadovodstva i ozeleneniya (Trees and bushes for gardening and planting of greenery). Moscow: the Moscow University.

Brummel, K. (2002). Amsterdam: A square makes room for museums, The Netherlands in Focus. Munich: Callway. Buligin, N.E., Firsov, G.A., Togersen K.G. (2000). Hvoinie v ozelenenii Severo-Zapada Rossii i Severnoi Svedcii. (Conifers in landscape architecture in North-West of Russia and North of Sweden. St. Petersburg: LTA. Buligin, N.E., Jarmishko, V.T. (2000). Dendrology. Saint-Petersburg: Nauka. Den Ruijter, M. (2002). “Netherlands: processes versus static states”. The Netherlands in Focus. Munich: Callway. Deunk, G. (2002). The 20th Century Garden and Landscape Architecture in The Netherlands. Rotterdam: NAi Publishers. Lee, J.S. (2007). “Living the Land” C3 272:136-137 Lihachev, D.S. (1982). Poezia sadov (Poetry of gardens). Leningrad: Nauka Lutten, E. (2007). Landschaps-Architectuur en Stedenbouw in Nederland 2003\2007. Wageningen Nefedov, V.A. (2002). Landscape design and environment sustainability. St.-Petersburg: Poligrafist. Raxworthy, J. (2007). Bike Park in Groningen, The Netherlands. Urban Space. Topos. Munich: Callwey. Zhirmunskaia, M. Zelienoe udobrenie (Green kg.narod.ru/library/l_geoek.zemlia.i.nedri.html#a20

fertilizer).

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117 Valley and Natural Parks in the System of Town Gardening of Petrozavodsk

Antonina S. Lantratova1, Marija Schreders2, Arina Yeglacheva3 1

Botany and Physiology Department, Ecology-Biology Faculty, 2 Regional Center of New Information Technologies, 3 Botanical Garden, Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, Russian Federation Numerous studies testify the tendency of the world’s population migration to towns and cities during the XX century. The world’s city population was only 3 % in 1830; it is predicted that the figure will be 57 % by 2020 (Osipov, 1997). The enlargement of city population results in the enlargement of the density of town development, transport and other communication network. All these tendencies reduce the quality of urban ecosystems and human comfort. The only components providing favourable ecological conditions on urbanised territories are green areas. The aim of our research was the development of the green areas landscape design strategy in the city of Petrazavodsk. The research tasks included: • inventory of green plantings in the historical part of Petrozavodsk located between the Lososinka and the Neglinka rivers; • Suggestion of recommendation on reconstruction and preservation of rare historical, naturaland landscape complexes on the territory of Petrozavodsk; • Indication of new territories suitable for enlargement of green areas in the conditions of dense urban development. The research was conducted from 2001 to 2007. Petrozavodsk is a large historical, industrial, scientific, cultural and tourist center in the Northern part of Russian Federation. The city covers 121.8 square km and has population of 282,200 people. The city is situated in the medium-taiga zone. The climate is continental with maritime features provided by the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean and its some influence from the Gulf Stream. The city’s topography is influenced by ancient volcanic activities that were also smoothed by quaternary lacustrine-glacial and moraine sediments. The landscape is terrace-like with narrow river valleys; beautiful crystal ledges can be seen on individual spots. Harmony of water and land gives to the city the unique character and charm. The Lososinka and the Neglinka rivers flowing into the Onego Lake create a very picturesque environment in the historical part of Petrozavodsk. The main element of town landscape is the water area of the Onego Lake bay; it makes the town look very marine-like. Petrozavodsk is surrounded by woodlands in the south and in the south-east; this provides an important visual spatial connection between urban and forest landscapes. Native forests consist of coniferous, middle-taiga subzone species with some elements of nemoral flora. The basic types of forests are Piceetum myrtillosum, Piceetum vacciniosum, Piceetum oxalidosum, Piceetum polytrichosum, Pinetum vacciniosum, Pinetum myrtillosum, Piceeto-Pinetum herboso-hylocomiosum. Species such as Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescens, B. pendula and Populus tremula are dominant in the structure of these forests, Rosa accicularis, R. majalis, Lonicera xylosteum is dominant in a shrub layer, while Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Oxalis acetocella are dominant in a grassy

118 cover. Ulmus laevis, U. glabra, Tilia cordata, Acer platanoides can be seen in mixed type of forests with nemoral elements and also Picea abies. There are also some representatives of Orchidaceae among widespread grassy plants under their flat layer. The inventory of the urban green areas was conducted with the methods developed in the Botany and Physiology Department and at the Geoinformation Systems Department of the Regional Center of New Information Technologies of Petrozavodsk State University. Taxonomical maps helped to develop the strategy of evaluation and perspectives for green areas development in Petrozavodsk. The research started from one of the oldest part of Petrazavodsk, called “the Birch Grove” which was found in 1712 near the mansion house of Russian Tsar Peter the Great. The planning structure of this park was based on the principles of French baroque. The first city’s development plan was suggested by Russian architect A.S. Yartsev in 1785. It was based on radial-axis planning principles which became very popular throughout Russia at that time. Even later general plans of the city still had some elements of this original structure Our research showed that the 19th century contributed the most in the town development and creation of urban gardens and boulevards. The first boulevard was built on Mariinsky Street. The active development of green areas was continued in the first half of the XX century. At those periods the historical part of Petrozavodsk was beautified by new parks and gardens, boulevards and urban street and numerous green areas in residential areas. A considerable part of woody plants in green areas was cut down or burnt during the town occupation in the Second World War. The active replanting works took place in the 1960-1980’s (Lantratova et al., 2003). The use of GIS methods allowed us to determine the horizontal spatial structure of green areas (taking into consideration the location of separate species on the given territory) and to estimate their condition, aesthetical importance and the level of damage. We found 167 species of woody plants in the green areas of Petrozavodsk. Deciduous species are dominant (Table 1). Table 1. Systematic Spectrum of Petrozavodsk Dendroflora

Departments Pinophyta Magnoliophyta Total

Species Number % of total absolute number 17 11.1 150 88.9 167 100

Genus Number

Family Number

Flora Proportions (family:genus:species)

9 58 67

3 30 33

1:3:5.7 1:1.3:5 1:2:5

Our main recommendation is the importance of increasing the conifer species for planting design of Petrazavodsk which is very important in our long winter climate. The correlation of native and alien species which are used in green areas is 1:4 which testifies the poor natural character of local dendroflora. Native species such as Betula pendula, B. pubescens, Acer platanoides, Ulmus glabra, U. laevis, Tilia cordata, Sorbus aucuparia, Rosa majalis are widely used in planting design; Larix sibirica, Pinus sylvestris, Lonicera xylosteum are used less often. The representatives of Rosaceae family (55 species - 32%) dominate in the spectrum of leading families, followed by Salicaceae (26 species - 15%) and Pinaceae (13 species - 8%). The greater presence of Rosaceae family can be explained by a very common use of fruit trees in the historical design at the beginning of the 20th century. Nowadays fruit trees can b found only on urban protected territories (for example, the trees of the public garden of the men’s seminary).

119

Petrazavodsk green areas are represented by woody plants from different floristic regions (Table 2). Table 2. Geographical range of woody plants in the urban green areas.

No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Origin North-American West-European East-European Siberian East-Asian Iran-Turanian Cosmopolites Hybrids Total

Coniferous (species number) 6 2 5 3 1 0 0 0 17

Deciduous (species number) 23 36 26 17 25 11 10 2 150

Total Species Number

% of Total

29 38 31 20 26 11 10 2 167

17 23 19 12 16 6 6 1 100

The species introduced from West-Europe are represented by a high percentage in the green planting spectrum (23 %). This can be explained by the fact that the planting stock from Latvia, Estonia, and Germany and from other European countries were used in the design process. The elements of North-American flora are known for their high decorative qualities and durability. For example, Colorado spruce, Picea pungens, especially its blue or green varieties, or Thuja occidentalis which has a lot of variety of phenotypic forms. The established species spectrum, the suggested categories of vitality, decorative value and durability are the main criteria for the creation of green areas (Lantratova et al., 2007). Modern intensive urban development in the historical part of Petrozavodsk increases the value and importance of establishing of nature-protected green areas. Existing policy of “dense construction” in the historical centre resulting in destroying and disappearing of residential green areas. There is a real necessity of establishing reserves and creating of new green areas. Among them the Lososinka and the Neglinka river valleys and also of the coastline of the Onego Lake are the most important. The Park of Lososinka River covered more than 50 hectares (fig.). The park consists of four green areas. These areas are different in their origin, functions and species composition. Plant communities play a significant water-protection and sanitation role. Citizens also use these parks for swimming and walking. There are quite a lot of sport facilities on their coastline. Among these four parks, the richest in species variety is the Recreation Park organized in the process of the land recultivation. This park is located just next to the historical part of Petrozavodsk. The Neglinka River has its source in the suburban woodland and flows into the Onego Lake. Its valley area is about 40 hectares. The valley can be divided into five parts in correspondence with the sequence of their placement in the system of town development. The most developed part of the Neglinka River is its estuary and the near-lake part of the floodplain. Gavrila Derzhavin, the

120 first Olonets governor, built the first hospital on the forested coastal territory of this river. Nowadays the buildings of the City hospital are located there. The valley of the Neglinka River separates the historical part of the town from the industrial district called Pervomaiskiy. The second largest part of the Neglinka River valley has Children’s Park and the historical public garden of the former men’s pedagogical seminary. According to the new Petrazavosk Master Plan, two parks in landscape style will be created there. The part of the forested river valley, are planned to be connected with the residential areas of Drevlyanka-II. The new 2007 Master Plan supports the reconstruction of green areas on the Onego Lake waterfront. At present, two boulevards face the embankment; the foundation of the third is under way. The largest changes will be made on the coastline of the Lake. At the moment Pribrezhniy Park is the core facility in this area (total area of 14 hectares). The Park is famous for the monument to Peter the Great, the founder of Petrozavodsk, and also for its open-air sculpture gallery which includes avangard and post-modern masterpiece sculptures which were gifted to Petrozavodsk from its sister-cities in Finland (Varkaus, Yoensuu), the USA (Duluth), Germany (Neubrandenburg, Tuebingen), Sweden (Umeo) and France (La Rochel) The reconstruction plan for Pribrezhny Park suggests to use trees such as Picea pungens, Abies balsamea, Larix sibirica, Pseudotsuga caesia, Thuja occidentalis, Quercus robur, Betula pendula var. carelica, Salix alba, Tilia cordata, T. platyphyllos, Malus baccata, Padus maackii which will visually support the sculpture gallery. These plants will be used for topiary and alley and group planting. There is real necessity in Petrazovdsk in the reconstruction of green areas of day-care centers, high schools and hospitals. It is important to include different design elements such as flower borders and nice native lawns. In Northern cities, in the conditions of prolonged seasonal darkness, it is crucial to have open spaces covered by good lawns. In our urban environment lawns play significant environmental and aesthetical roles. . Unfortunately, the idea of establishing lawns sustainable in our climate is very new. Conclusion Research has shown that Petrazavodsk urban planning structure was based on radial-axis baroque principle. The classical style with aesthetic elements of baroque was widely applied at the creation of parks, parkways and public gardens (Recreation Park, The Governor's Garden) in the past. In the end of the XIX century the parks were planned in the fashion landscape style. Modern urban planners consider Petrazavodsk as a growing university town with a lot of potentials. Existing dense structure of the city dictates the modern strategies in landscape design for example development of the waterfront areas of the Lososinka and the Neglinka rivers and the coastal part of the Onego Lake and the strategy of local mosaic landscape design based on small architectural forms and also developing areas next to supermarkets, car parks and transport arteries. References Lantratova A.S., Itsikson E.E., Markovskaya E.F., Kuspak N.V. (2003). Parks In The History Of Petrozavodsk. Petrozavodsk: Petro-Press.

Lantratova A.S., Yeglacheva A.V., Markovskaya E.F. (2007). Woody Plants Introduced To Karela. Petrozavodsk: Petrozavodsk State University. Osipov V.I. (1997). Moscow: Geology and City. Moscow: Moscow textbooks and cartography..

121

Fig. The park of Lososinka River (Photo by A. Eglacheva)

The Catchment as a Framework for Sustainable Urban Design

Jacqueline Margetts School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Unitec New Zealand, Private Bag 92-025, Auckland, New Zealand, Email [email protected] Introduction Urban expansion into agriculturally productive peri-urban areas has been a continuing feature of many cities worldwide, and is particularly noticeable in Auckland, New Zealand, a low density city which spreads over some of the most productive soils in the country (Tong and Cox 2000). While the Auckland Regional Council (ARC) has devised strategies to contain urban growth and strongly favours intensification within the current city boundary, it can be argued that their own rules governing subdivision in peri-urban areas are contributing to this urban expansion.

The current ARC zoning regulations in many peri-urban rural areas around Auckland allow for blanket 4Ha subdivision across entire areas. While this minimum size might appear reasonable for a rural zone, the pressure for subdivision in these areas has led to entire catchments being subdivided for housing, squeezing out rural activities. The negative social and environmental effects of this type of development are well documented (eg France 2006). As Nassauer (2005) argues, the answer is not in prohibiting subdivision, but in approaching it differently. One of the ways currently being explored in the New Zealand context is the use of a catchment-based approach to planning and design.

122 Catchment-based approach Landscapes can be viewed as complex adaptive systems, created and shaped by dynamic processes which interact with each other in a myriad unpredictable ways (Wright 1974, Bergandi 2000, Margetts & Barnett 2007). A catchment (watershed or drainage basin) is a naturally bounded area that receives and drains water downhill into a stream, river, lake or the sea. The systems within it can be seen as sub-sets of broader landscape systems operating at a smaller scale. Catchments are now widely recognized as useful physical planning units for landscape analysis (Coxhead & Shively 2005, Bowden 1999). They are defined by the flow of water.

An analysis of the dynamics occurring within a single catchment enables an understanding of the interconnections between water, soil, flora and fauna (Bowden 1999). This understanding can then be related to systems operating within the wider landscape. Scott (1998) identifies three main advantages of using the catchment as the unit of analysis. First, the catchment provides a suitable framework for planning and design processes. Second, catchments provide a recognizable picture which captures the imagination of politicians, community and individual land owners. Third, they serve as an integrative framework of basic elements including topography, hydrology, vegetation, ecological systems, human communities, and access patterns. Traditionally, much of the planning within the New Zealand context has been based on the zoning of different uses (farming, residential and so on) - an approach which promotes the modification of the landscape to suit a particular use. A catchment-based approach on the other hand prioritizes the landscape and the natural systems which occur within it. Uses are planned on the basis of the suitability of the landscape to accommodate them (Scott 1998). While there are many catchment-focused projects in New Zealand (both rural and urban-based), few use this approach to design and plan intensive urbanization in productive landscapes. Catchment-based planning (CBP) starts with the landscape. Instead of assumptions about development and infrastructure (for instance housing type or settlement morphology) driving landscape modification, development is governed by the particular characteristics of the landscape - its intrinsic capability to sustain a specific activity. New housing developments and infrastructure are required to adapt to the landscape, not the other way round. This requires developers to adopt a different way of thinking about settlements and infrastructure. If the most productive soils are made unavailable for urban development we find, surprisingly, that instead of producing the usual (in New Zealand) single dwelling on large rural lots, we get high rise or other intensive developments. As an extension of a catchment-based approach which is currently mainly used to manage hydrological systems and enhance biodiversity (see for example Meurk & Hall 2006, MAF 2001, MAF 2004) this technique can be deployed to inform design and nudge planners, developers and designers to refer more closely to the landscape within which they are operating. Design and the catchment-based approach In a crude sense, CBP provides the methodological context for designing settlement patterns which do not impinge on the productive capacity of the landscape. But it does much more than that. CBP requires a thorough understanding of catchment patterns and processes to underpin design decisions.

The process follows a series of steps:

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Landscape elements are mapped5 and analysed. These elements include topography, geology, vegetation patterns (native and exotic), waterways, archaeological sites and other protected areas. Hydrological systems that require protection are identified and a planting strategy developed. This strategy should include riparian planting, the planting of steep slopes and erosion-prone areas (Scott 2003, MAF 2004). Carefully selected planting can form a robust vegetative framework for the catchment and provide environmental resilience to disturbance and assist with the protection of biodiversity (MAF 2001, Dale et al 2001, Meurk & Hall, 2006). Mapped landscape information is used to determine the patterns of activity within the catchment. Priority is given to productive activities and all suitable land is designated for that use. The remaining land is then ranked for suitability for urbanization. This land is then sorted against other criteria, including social and economic factors, and areas for different intensities of urban development are identified. Markedly different urbanization patterns can result from the same initial suitability data, depending on how these play out in response to community and local authority priorities. The land-use patterns that emerge respond to human desires and needs on the one hand, and contribute to environmental health and resilience on the other (Coxhead & Shively, 2005), and are very different to those patterns produced by normative planning processes. The individual settlements are designed using landscape information at multiple scales. Urban morphology and the design of infrastructure responds to the patterns and processes occurring in the landscape; sensitivity to the nuances of the terrain informs the location and type of dwellings, the positioning of wetlands, footpaths, open space and so on. This occurs at both pragmatic and conceptual levels. For instance, the overall strategy of retaining productive capacity on a catchment level can inform garden and park design at the settlement level. Production becomes an integral part of settlements, and instead of settlements being separate from the productive landscapes of the catchment, they become part of them.

While this approach is essentially McHargian in nature6 – landscape information is mapped and layered to establish land-use patterns - it has the potential to go beyond determining broad-scale land-use planning. Catchment-based approaches can be used to ascertain not just the best fit between activity and landscape, but to maximize the potential of any given use, rather than simply accommodating it. Landscape capability, or the intrinsic suitability of a landscape for any given use, can not only be used on the broad scale for guiding settlement patterns and for identifying productive areas, it can also be applied at a much finer grain. Sensitivity to landscape variation on the small scale (dry knolls, wet depressions, patches of poor soil, slope orientation and so on), can also guide decision making within that landscape and, for example, direct the appropriate intensification of productive activities, maximizing the natural capability of the landscape and using the least inputs in a close matching of crop with micro-conditions. Productive activities are not, however, the only application of catchment-based systems. They can be used just as effectively for settlement design.

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Mapping is the process by which data is spatialised to discover relationships within and between data sets. Ian McHarg developed a process of mapping and overlaying bio-physical and social data to assist planning decisions. His landmark book ‘Design with Nature’ was first published in 1969. 6

124 Catchment-based approaches to design at different scales That CBP can achieve environmental integrity has been argued by various authors (see McHarg 1969, Perley et al 2001, Shively 2005, France 2006). Less frequently discussed is the use of a catchment-based approach to the design of settled landscapes.

In New Zealand Scott (1989, 2007) has demonstrated that a CBP can be effectively used for subdivision and settlement design on multiple levels in the mode that van Roon & van Roon (2005) describe as Low Impact Urban Design and Development (LIUDD) – a pragmatic and empirical methodology based on bio-physical, cultural and economic systems. But CBP is a powerful conceptual and strategic design generator too, as can be seen in the work of landscape urbanists Stoss LU, a Boston-based design studio who operationalise ecological processes in the design of green urban infrastructure (Stoss LU 2007). New York-based Urban Interface is another practice that foregrounds the agency of CBP by linking ecology and media to explore the interrelationship between design and emergent systems in cities. Conclusion Given that cities grow, and horizontal development is inevitable, what sort of mixed-use systems should we design to enable habitation and production to exist in an ecologically sustainable way? As Auckland has expanded its urban form it has moved from its nineteenth century concentric pattern of growth to a series of dispersed centres or nodes throughout the urban conglomeration. This decentralized pattern provides a model for new urban developments. CBP can create an urban form that consists of intense nodes embedded in a productive and ecologically robust landscape – a designed urban-rural patterning that is practical and sustainable, and generated by New Zealand’s unique circumstances. References Bergandi, D. (2000). Frank H. George Research Award - Highly commended paper - Ecocybernetics: the ecology and cybernetics of missing emergences. Kybernetes 29: 928-942.

Bowden, W. (1999). Integrated Catchment Management Rediscovered: an essential tool for a new millennium, Manaaki Whenua Conference. 21-23 April 1999, Wellington, New Zealand: Landcare Research. url: http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/news/conferences/manaakiwhenua/proceedings.asp Coxhead, I., & Shively, G. E. (2005). Economic Development and Watershed Degradation. In G. E. Shively (Ed.), Land Use Changes in Tropical Watersheds: Causes, Consequences and Policy Options. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. France, R. L. (2006). Introduction to Watershed Development: Understanding and Managing the Impacts of Sprawl. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. MAF (2001). Towards Safeguarding New Zealand's Agricultural Biodiversity: Research Gaps, Priorities and Potential Case Studies. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, New Zealand Government. MAF (2004). Review of Riparian Buffer Zone Effectiveness. MAF Technical Paper no. 2004/5. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, New Zealand Government. Margetts, J. A., & Barnett, R. J. (2007). Landscape Systems Modelling: A Disturbance Ecology Approach, Australia and New Zealand Systems Conference. Auckland.

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McHarg, I. L. (1969). Design with Nature. New York: The Natural History Press. Meurk, C. D., & Hall, G., M. J. (2006). Options for Enhancing Forest Biodiversity across New Zealand's Managed Landscapes Based on Ecosystem Modelling and Spatial Design. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 30: 131-146. Nassauer, J. I. (2005). Using cultural knowledge to make new landscape patterns. In J. A. Wiens & M. R. Moss (Eds.), Issues and Perspectives in Landscape Ecology (pp. 274-280). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scott, D. J. (1998). Sustainable Development Strategies of the New Zealand Landscape: The Hauraki Gulf Islands as a District Plan Example of Application in a Microcosm, NZILA Conference: Today's Actions, Tomorrow's Landscapes. Wellington. Scott, D. J. (2003). Sustainability, Myth or Reality? Sustainability by Design. Primary Industry Management Journal, December, 2003 Scott, D. J. (2007). Whitford: Managed Residential Growth. Auckland. Unpublished report. Shively, G. E. (Ed.). (2005). Land Use Changes in Tropical Watersheds: Causes, Consequences and Policy Options. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. Stoss, L. U. (2007). StossLU. Seoul: C3 Publishing. Tong, R., & Cox, G. (2000). Clean and Green? The New Zealand Environment. Auckland: David Bateman. van Roon, M. & van Roon, H (2005) Low Impact Urban Design and Development: Principles for Assessment of Planning, Policy and Development Outcomes. Centre for Urban Ecosystem Sustainability, Working Paper 051. Wright, H. E. (1974). Landscape Development, Forest Fires, and Wilderness Management. Foundation Papers in Landscape Ecology. J. A. Wiens, M. R. Moss, M. G. Turner and D. J. Mladenoff. New York, Columbia University Press.

Wriezener Park, Berlin From a Old Train Lot to a Green Biotope7

Bruno Marques Technische Universität Berlin, Project coordinated by Mrs. Cordula Loidl-Reisch and Mr. Simon Colwill Introduction All of us know Berlin's recent history: a city swallowed by the Second World War's voracity, only recently regaining its previous dimension, still is under reconstruction and searching for its 7

Biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals. Biotope is almost synonymous with the term habitat, but while the subject of a habitat is a species or a population, the subject of a biotope is a biological community. (Connor 1995, Hiscock 1995)

126 lost identity. A multicultural city, polycentric, united and divided by the magic from the past, with all its greatness and shame. Here the future is built burying the ghosts from the past – some of them distant but others still present in the memory that pursues us. Though still in the process of reconstruction, the past is a tangible reality throughout Berlin. By walking the city we realize that the magic component is present in its magnificent buildings and extensive green spaces. For all this, the past reflects itself in the actions and perceptions that take place in this city. It was in this context that the project appeared: located in the east part of the city, in "the other one" Berlin: a residential area today filled with young people that cohabite with the older generation whose difficult past is still alive and active. This older generation is greatly responsible for the decisions that shape the future of Friedrichshain's district and they remember the past and hesitatingly move forward, overcoming their own fears. Historical context Let’s go back to the past so that we can understand the context and motives behind the changes that took place. Berlin grew rapidly from the late 1800s to the Second World War era, and in 1920, it swallowed up surrounding suburbs to become Gross-Berlin (Greater Berlin). Like many expanding cities during this time, Berlin employed a combination of rail options to reduce traffic congestion. In the midst of S-Bahn Warschauer Straße and S-Bahn Ostbahnhof train stations, main poles for the circulation of the Eastern Berlin population, once full of life but nowadays dissolved in the wild vegetation that seems to be trying to hide mistakes made by men in the past 150 years.

In 1898 construction began on the urban lines, east to west, from Lichtenberg until Wriezen. The town’s growth and the rising passenger numbers induced, in 1903, the redesign of these rail tracks lines and their expansion towards Schlesischen Bahn (now Ostbahn), near to Wriezen bahn, heading west. In 1950 the decision was made to alter the names, Schelesischen Bahn permanently became Ostbahn due to its evolution and also due to its rail connections with Wriezer bahn, only functioning as a railroad hub. The definitive closure of Wriezer Bahn to passenger’s dates to 1949, with Ostbahn assuming its functions. The Wriezer Bahn lines were reserved for post office services. This alteration drove to the isolation and degradation of the site. (BF-K, 1997) Then, in 2005, most of the railroad lines are removed; amongst them the ones that were used to built the train wagon, isolating the huge iron architectural building, like a heart without its arteries. Some of these ‘internal organs’ are still present in our project’s site, others are forever gone. In 2006 begins this site’s expansion with the construction of two big commercial surfaces (Metro and Obi), based on sealing construction materials, isolating all the area previously belonging to the Wriezer Bahn station that still names the site. (BBR, 2007) Area Description All the future park area, almost 5ha, was integrated in 2007 on the city, by the green department, as a potential plants and animal biotope. Also happens in 2007 that Wriezener Park process was inserted on the city public project platform of restoration of old railway train lots (like Gleisdreieck project8). These projects are supported by the local community ideas.

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Gleisdreieck area is composed by 35ha from an abandoned railway “triangle” hub intersection. Nowadays is a big biotope connecting Potsdamer Platz to Tiergarten, keeping all the wild vegetation which grew along the years and also an open air art exhibition. For further information check www.berlin-gleisdreieck.de

127 Although the ‘Freifunk-Hain’ idea happened before in 2003. A free WLAN platform was developed by the local community for all the residents – Freifunk ‘Communitree’. WLAN platform is a Wireless Local Area Network, based on radio waves which permits the users by connected to the network, using internet system, without wires. For along 4 years, the free WLAN connection generates on the community, the idea of expansion of this free service for a public space when all can use it. Being an area in development, the Freidrichshain’s district presents a majority young population living there, but wrapped up for a very active community in the public decisions who makes all the future project decisions extremely connected with these community ideas. The Project area is limited in northeast side by habitation buildings and in southwest by the Spree River. In the exposed areas to northwest grew in the last years big commercial surfaces that blocked the connection with Ostbahn station, and on southeast the area continues besides Warschauer Straße Station. In the connections way, the whole space is in a privileged geographical position, since all the main transports are next and several cycle roads cross the principal communication points. An internal problem of circulation is connected with the southwest limit where some railway tracks still remain, making a physical barrier as an obstacle in the connection with both sides of the park. Besides that, inside the park is a historical building connected with past of maintenance and repair of old rail machinery, but under historical preservation – Lokschuppen – since the times when Wriezener Bahn was shut downed. This building from iron architecture period will have a special position on the structural concept of the park. “Freifunk-Hain” concept The project consists of rebuilding a semi-abandoned area and giving it to Wriezenern Park residents. It will be a biotope in the city's heart, near the Ostbahnhof train station. The concept held two main ideas: an outdoor WLAN space connected through the Freifunk ‘Communitree’ network and a self-sustainable energy space. These two elements hold the conceptual idea for a ‘Freifunk-Hain’ as a public platform for a communicative and social network of different groups and with the local population. Using the open WLAN source since 2003, this ‘Hain’ resembles a “small group of trees”, this project called upon different parts of the community to integrate technology with art, in an urban landscape surrounded by nature.

The system is managed completely autonomously by a wind-wheel and a series of ‘leaves’ from solar-panels, creating different stop areas on the park with open WLAN network as a way to experience the city and the parkland. For that, the acceptance and open mindedness of the users for modern technologies is crucial. The park presents itself in 5 different modules, like the illustration 1 shows: • Fukuoka demofield – field moderation • Green classrooms – school-garden for the students open air classes • Sport-courses - variable sport-utilization for each age • Freifunk-Hain - communication-technology and interaction • Community-equipment - Lokschuppen , the functional restore of the historical old building From these modules the one chosen for development was ‘Freifunk-Hain’, by the hands of Mrs. Cordula Loidl-Reisch and Mr. Simon Colwill for Berlin’s Technical University. The goal for Freifunk-Hain was centered on the development of a site that would support WLAN and would be sustainable energy wise. Cross referencing this with the concept of ‘Hain’, group of small trees, we aimed to create small spaces that would allow users to sit, connect and being

128 transported to a cybernetic reality amongst the vegetation, isolated from the urban chaos. With the thought of maintaining the biotope that gained it’s terrain over the metallurgic reality, emerged the idea of solar panels as if they embodied the ‘Hain’ though resembling more a group of sunflower crops. Each element is inserted like a small tree that struggles with the untamed vegetation; the non-vertical ‘trunk’ exposes its texture to every corner of the park (Fig.). These structures are able to produce enough power for the entire park, Lockschuppen included, maintaining all computer systems. A system of LED lights9 (Light Emitting Diode) will also be presented as an indicator of the amount of energy being produced, the temperature and the bytes being transferred at the moment. The whole structure will resemble a work of art, especially at night time when the LED lights will glow in the dark. This entire park platform still possesses an attached informative structure. A system of cameras will allow to follow the construction evolution of all entire park, as a daily register, analogous what it happened in Potsdamer Platz. It will also allow seeing the conditions of the park at each moment; you can check online the weather conditions or see how busy it is, just before leave home. These structures will also have TFT-LCD ‘touch screens’10 with cameras and access to the photo and video blog service lodged in the park website servers (www.freiraumlabor.org). This system will allow the users to take and send pictures or videos to his friends, at the moment or later on from home. Conclusion In conclusion, by the actions of local community a biotope was preserved on the city structure, their actions and their beliefs turn this project possible to happen. In the near future, users can use this platform “inside” the nature, be connected, read is e-mails, know which temperature is and still take photos or make videos and send to the friends. We also reach a structure inserted in a biotope preserved on the city, self-sustainable in energy and interactive cybernetic platform that will foment social and communicable relations in Friedrichshain’s District. References Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung. BBR (2007a). Modellvorhaben Innovationen für familien- und altengerechte Stadtquartiere. Internet website: http://www.bbr.bund.de/nn_21288/DE/Forschungsprogramme/ExperimentellerWohnungsStaedt ebau/Forschungsfelder/InnovationenFamilieStadtquartiere/Modellvorhaben/10__MVB__Berlin WriezenerBahnhof.html. Checked in 2007, July 19th

Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung. BBR (2007). Innovationen für familien- und altengerechte Stadtquartiere – Ein xWoSt-Forschungsfeld –32/1 – 03/2007. Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung (Hrsg), Bonn 2007 Bezirksamt Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg (1997). B-Plan V42. December 1997 Connor, D., (1995). The development of a biotope classification in Great Britain and Ireland principles and structure of classification. In: Hiscock, K. (Ed.), Classification of Benthic Marine Biotopes of the North–East Atlantic. Proceedings of a BioMar-Life workshop held in Cambridge, 16–18 November (1994). Cambridge UK, Peterborough, Joint Nature Conservation Committee: 30–46. 9

Light Emitting Diode, usually called LED is a small area light source, often with extra optics added to the chip that shapes its radiation pattern. These small lamps can be founded in several colors as blue, green, red and white (Moreno 2006). 10 Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display, normally called TFT-LCD, is a layer which improves image quality on screens as desk or laptops, providing the user to interact with the system without mouse or keyboard.

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Moreno, I. (2006). LED Intensity Distribution. International Optical Design, Technical Digest. Internet website: http://planck.reduaz.mx/~imoreno/Publicaciones/IODC2006.pdf. Checked in 2008 April 15th. Fig. “Freifunk-Hain” conceptual view, showing the 5 different modules and a schematic 3D composition resembling the “Hain” sunflowers.

Urban Agriculture as an Approach for Sustainable Urban Design

R. S. Matos University of Évora, Department of Biophysical and Landscape Planning, Largo dos Colegiais, Apartado 94, 7001, Évora Codex, Portugal, Email [email protected] Introduction The dysfunction and disjunction of the city’s matrix has created vulnerable and interstitial open, built and discontinuous spaces, usually called urban voids. It is our belief that the city reconstruction can have its genesis in these spaces. They could be an actual expression of the “continuum” of the landscape, where a landscaped infrastructure connecting them would be essential. The main objective is to propose a new design approach that can provide the creation of a productive and recreational landscape infrastructure, based on the multi-functionality that characterizes the Mediterranean landscape and on the Portuguese tradition of associating production with recreational activities on the landscape. It is the plan of this paper to explore one possible infrastructure – urban agriculture – covering all its potentialities (ecological, cultural, social, economical and aesthetical), as a new design approach for urban voids. Material and Methods Authors from very different theoretical backgrounds have studied and produced critic assessments on the importance of void spaces in the city. Also the need of an urban re-

130 qualification led to the production of studies, which had urban agriculture as a central question. To these studies we shall make reference through the reviewing of the literature and through the presentation of some projects: - The studies of Braudel (Braudel, 1995) and Orlando Ribeiro Ribeiro, 1987), that have written about the multi-functionality of the Mediterranean landscape, its diversity, its multiplicity, irregularity and richness in its contrasts. - The studies of Pierre Donadieu (Donadieu, 2006) that puts in evidence the need of a complementary relationship among the country-side and the city, that he calls “campagne urbane” (Donadieu, 2006). - The work of Ribeiro Telles (Telles, 2003), who has always defended the productive and recreational character of vegetable gardens, a cultural issue in Portugal. - The winner proposal of the competition Europan 9: The proposal, titled “Urban Crops”, was developed, by a Portuguese team, for a site located in the area of Poïo, in the outskirts of the city of Pontevedra, capital of the homonymous province of Galicia, in Spain. - The agrarian park of Baix Llobregat – This Park is part of an area which occupation was always the agriculture. In 1996 the European Union has attributed a Life Project for the agricultural restoration of the Baix Llobregat valley. This action has led to the formalization of the actual Park. Today, it constitutes a reference in the agricultural and environmental management panorama, and an important space in the metropolitan area of Barcelona. - An urban agriculture project, in Potchefstroom, South Africa, coordinated by Sarel Cilliers. The goal was to investigate the application of urban agriculture in previously disadvantage communities, using the ecocircle method of vegetable cultivation, used by Ecocircle Holdings. According to Cilliers (Cilliers, 2007) there have been studies over a three year period. However, these studies are ongoing to get quantitative data available to prove that the ecocircle method is ecologically friendly and sustainable. - A Mary Miss project for “Serpentine Art and Nature Commons” Park. This proposal is from 2002 and it’s in progress now. The Project Serpentine Art and Nature Commons is a 20 acre park, located on a wooded hillside on Grymes Hill, Staten Island, New York. The prime objective was to maintain the area available for free public use, to prevent irresponsible land development, to rescue land that is eroding, and to restore some of the original trees, shrubs and wildlife to the area. The proposal employs a geometry form to structure the proposed interventions, which are used to make visible the natural processes of the site, as well as facilitate the use by the community. By selecting this theoretical literature we are suggesting a possible compatibility between a land use that is far traditional on the Mediterranean landscape – urban agriculture - and the city and its voids, between production and recreation, reinforcing the question of cultural landscape. The project Urban Crops and the Baix Llobregat agrarian park were selected because: the first represents the contemporary concerns about the importance of the proximity between city and countryside. The second one represents a real and successful example of a rural structure integrated in the urban space. It is what Donadieu (Donadieu, 2006) calls campagne urbane, and what Telles (Telles, 2003) defends since a long time ago. These two examples represent what can be done in the urban fringes. Its scale is related with the large interstices of the city peripheries, fundamental to establish an urban landscape structure from the country-side to the inner of the city and vice-versa. The projects of Cilliers (Cilliers, 2007) and Miss (Miss, 2002) are used as examples of different but compatible approaches, where the socio-economical question, fundamental in Cilliers project,

131 and the aesthetical vision, present on Serpentine Park of Miss, could be jointed together with the ecological concerns, turning these spaces into productive and recreational landscapes, in the inner of the city. The Multi-Functionality of the Mediterranean Landscape According to Orlando Ribeiro (Ribeiro, 1987) and Fernand Braudel (Braudel, 1995) the Mediterranean biophysical determinisms define a peculiar relationship between the man and the territory, made on a constant struggle. They generate a different landscape construction, the development of a promiscuous culture and of the multi-functional agro systems. This multifunctionality of the Mediterranean landscape gives rise, in Portugal, to the habit of recreation associated to productive activities. This has always been a reality, not only in gardens but also in urban open spaces. These spaces were rarely assumed just as recreational, being rendered, in a constant dialogue, between recreation and production. According to Carapinha (Carapinha, 1995), this is the characteristic that distinguishes Portuguese open spaces from those of the rest of European cultures.

Telles and Donadieu have been staunch defenders of the urban vegetable gardens for quite a long time ago. They have defended that the urban concentrations should have in its interior and in its periphery, agricultural spaces. These should have as a purpose to regularize the micro climates and the cycle of water, the ecological balance and the physical stability (Donadieu 1998). But they are still relevant from the cultural, social, recreational and economical point of view (Telles, 2003). Once again the multi-functionality of the French and Portuguese Mediterranean landscapes is present in the speech of both authors allowing the simultaneous presence of recreational and productive activities in the urban voids of the city. The works of Telles present a strong cultural component. This is related with the specificity and the essence of Portuguese open spaces. It is fundamental for us, as a country, to understand the landscape trough a cultural perspective, thus creating a new design to the approach of urban voids. Case-studies: Urban Crops and Agrarian Park of Baix Llobregat The first prize of the latest edition of European 9 can be seen as a “follower” of Telles’s and Donadieu’s studies. Focused on the themes of “European Urbanity, Sustainable City and New Public Spaces”, the winning project for the selected location of Poïo, submitted a design that merged a new constructed grid with the territory, maintaining a purpose of close relation to the land. The final solution is defined by that tension between an idea of “rural landscape” and the concept of a communitarian use of “urban crops”. It´s a model of territoriality that questions previous notions of city and country; assuming the urban expansion as something that doesn’t occur on abstract, inert space, but over the setting of superimposed marks that define the reality of its landscape. It is from the close relationship between architecture and pre-existing natural systems that new forms of spatiality are defined, with new chances for public life and dwelling.

A real example of the proximity among city and countryside is the Parque Agrario del Baix Llobregat, in Barcelona. It can be seen as an urban landscape structure and considered a support through which the ecological transactions occur (Sabaté, 2000). This system follows a model based on a global and systemic vision of the urban landscape that integrates several infrastructures that build it. It can be seen as a future guide to urban expansions. This example is used as a successful model of a productive and recreational open space, allowing the preservation of productive values and of ecological and cultural resources.

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These are both examples (a proposal and a real one) easily associated to the urban fringes: spaces with a vast scale, in the transition to the countryside. Spaces that constitute the landscape structure (productive and recreational) we are defending. Urban Agriculture Utilising the Eco-circle and Serpentine Art and Nature Commons Park According to Cilliers (Cilliers, 2007) the main objectives involved in the project Urban Agriculture Utilising the Eco-circle were concerned with the creation of jobs, with the counter malnutrition with minimum environmental impact; with the minimum water consumption and maximum community involvement; with minimum effort and expenses on vegetable cultivation; and also with the use of a method that is more in balance with nature and its processes. Vegetables are cultivated in circles with a diameter of 1 m, forming clusters of seven circles, 1 m apart. Each circle is surrounded by natural or ruderal vegetation, forming an agro-ecosystem with the planted vegetables. The unique geometry of the serpentine rock of Mary Miss shapes the structures for the proposed interventions at the Serpentine Art and Nature Commons. Modular hexagonal elements interlock to create a new path surface and a series of terraces, also stabilizing the soil and correcting erosion problems. Re-vegetation with endemic plants to the serpentine soil will restore an ecologically rare and valuable plant (Miss, 2002). The existing paths will be stabilized and improved through the use of an interlocking hexagonal concrete pavement; the opening in the centre is filled with gravel, allowing the path to be permeable. We can verify that it’s not difficult to find some similarities between this proposal and the Cilliers ecocircle proposal. They both assure the defence of ecological questions and they are both formally constituted by modules circles/hexagons, filled out in its interior with vegetables/permeable path, growing in its interstitial spaces spontaneous vegetation. On Cilliers proposal the social, economical and ecological components are related with the production of food, whereas in Miss’s proposal the aesthetical and ecological components are associated to a recreational feature. As we can see it wouldn’t be difficult the association of these two proposals to have a productive and recreational landscape. Also the easier suitability to smaller scale spaces that should integrate the landscape structure, those located in the inner of the city, namely parks or gardens, is verified. Conclusions The multi-functionality of the Mediterranean landscape includes, in its variety, urban agriculture not only as a productive issue but also as a great potential of recreation, including social, economical, ecological, cultural and aesthetical concerns.

With the analysis of some theoretical works and some case-studies which proposals include a productive and recreational systemic overview of the landscape, we intend to defend an approach based on new experiences of understanding the urban condition of the void spaces and of the landscape quality importance. With this approach, landscape appears as an active surface, structuring the conditions for new relationships and interactions among the things it supports. It suggests a continuous cultural structure upon which to operate through the management of different productive and recreational activities, events and movements. References Braudel, F. (1995). O Mediterrâneo e o Mundo Mediterrânico, vol 2 (2ª ed.). Lisboa: Publicações D.Quixote.

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Carapinha, A. (1995). Da Essência do Jardim Português. Vol.I. Dissertação apresentada à Universidade de Évora para a obtenção do grau de doutor no ramo de Artes e Técnicas da Paisagem. Especialidade de Arquitectura Paisagista e Arte dos Jardins, Universidade de Évora, Évora. Cilliers, S.S., Matjila, E.M. & Sandham, L. (2007). Urban agriculture utilizing the eco-circle approach in disadvantaged communities in Potchefstroom, South Africa. Stewart G., Ignatieva M., Bowring J., Egoz S. & Melnichuk I. (eds.) Globalisation and Landscape Architecture: Issues for Education and Practice, Proceedings of conference held at St Petersburg State Forest Technical Academy, 3-6 June 2007, Polytechnic University Publishing House, St Petersburg, pp. 88-91. Donadieu, P. (2006). Campagne Urbane, Una Nuova Proposta di Paesaggio della Città. Roma: Donzelli Editore. Miss, M. (2002). Serpentine Art and Nature Commons. Retrieved October 27, 2007, from http://www.marymiss.com/index.html. Ribeiro, O. (1987), Portugal, o Mediterrâneo e o Atlântico (5ª ed.). Lisboa: Livraria Sá da Costa Editora. Sabaté, J. (2000). El parc agrari del Baix Llobregat. Área. Revista de Debats Territorials, 8, pp. 251-282. Telles, G., (2003). Agricultura, Ruralidade e Identidade Cultural. A Utopia e os Pés na Terra – Gonçalo Ribeiro Telles. Lisboa: Instituto Português de Museus, pp. 327-330.

Water, Urban Design and Ecology: an Essential Trio

Diane Menzies1 and Rob Gerard2 1

President, International Federation of Landscape Architects, 2Environment Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Introduction My school had an area fenced off at the back of the grounds with ‘Out of bounds’ signs hammered to the timber fence. Behind the fence was a large kidney shaped pool. It had been constructed of ferro-cement in the days when this technique was largely experimental. What remained was a frog pond with crumbling concrete edges. The pool was a dark event in the schools building programme. The frog pond though continued to provide delight to those girls who were not daunted by squelchy mud between their toes.

The frog pond demonstrated a number of aspects: design must be appropriate for the materials and use to which it is applied. It demonstrated the influence of time, and social values. Recreation and social expectations have now changed. It also demonstrated nature’s resilience. Water is a key element in St Petersburg but no city can exist without water. It is the lifeblood of a city, requiring careful management to meet basic drinking and hygiene needs. This paper sets

134 out to demonstrate the close link between water and ecology and to show that the two are mutually complementary in designing for sustainable urban development. The three aspects, that is water, ecology and design and their values are discussed through a series of brief examples. The underlying themes are changing perspectives towards water and the environment, and achieving good outcomes by participatory approaches, which require active community involvement and learning. Integrated catchment management: Kaikoura (Wong 2008) By the late 1990’s many spring fed lowlands streams in Canterbury were “degraded”. A programme of remedial action was needed. A difficulty was lack of understanding of the causative factors. Investigations of the water quality monitoring data, and on-ground stream walks were initiated, to provide information. Remedial actions involved changes in land and stream management. This required a change in the way waterways were perceived, so that they were seen as “Living Streams”, with a wide range of values.

The participatory process was based on principles and practices of agricultural extension. Living Streams built working partnerships between communities, landholders, industry, councils and non-government organisation’s, and included a schools education programme. The aim was to encourage the property owners to change the way they look after the streams. Lyell Creek came to Environment Canterbury’s attention as a result of complaints regarding the state of the stream where it flowed through the Kaikoura township. Sea conditions blocked the mouth and backed up the stream water, and when the mouth was re-opened there was a black sediment deposit on the banks that was both unsightly and foul smelling. Lyell Creek was detracting from Kaikoura’s image as a tourist town, and remedial action was indicated. The first step was to collect more water quality data to prove to all that there was a problem, to more closely identify the sources and nature of the problem, and the best measures to obtain improvement. The science teacher at the High School undertook a weekly monitoring programme, supported by further community monitoring. One outcome of the project has been that many more trout are being observed in Lyell Creek. There is a healthy balance of weed and gravel, and the trout habitat is much improved. Early results confirm that the clarity is vastly improved, but there is no improvement in the faecal coliform levels. When the programme is completed, the results will be presented to the community, and further actions initiated as required. The participatory process involved a mixture of science, education, peer pressure, threats, persuasion, a structured but responsive programme, and a respect for participant’s views and experiences. This process has strengthened and united the community, rather than splitting it into property owners versus environmentalists, fishermen versus farmers, and all sides at odds with the regulatory authority. Riparian management Christchurch The Lyall Creek project was about water, ecology and community perception but did not have design attention. Opportunity was not taken to incorporate further design for the waterway in the township. Such work was undertaken prior to the project. The Christchurch City project to change the way waterways are perceived is led by landscape planners and designers. The Lyall Creek project was concerned with rehabilitation but the Christchurch City waterways project provides new opportunities and the re-creation of Christchurch landscapes. Christchurch City

135 was a swamp with many streams prior to 1840. Streams were drained and put underground. Changed attitudes have developed as part of world wide attention to water sensitive design and management (Wong 2008). The City is now rehabilitating waterways and enhancing their function for scenic amenity, biodiversity and recreation. In doing so they are not only rediscovering the early landscape of Christchurch, they are also improving the water quality by careful riparian planting and better use and management of water and discharges. Where, in the past, grass was mown close to the waters edge, native tussocks now line the banks, filtering water, providing protection for the riparian edge, and a place for water birds to nest. The Styx River project (Wraight 2007) is an example of the waterways project and the active involvement of the community in planning, design and managing change in an area they care for. The series of reserves through which the river winds are managed for recreation and biodiversity, among other things. This includes a living laboratory for research, well used by school children and a guardians group of citizens. The work demonstrates the link between water, design for recreation, and biodiversity: in this city where the rainfall of 700mls per annum and parched areas in summer draw attention to the relative lushness of riverside vegetation. Wellington A project which has taken similarly wide range of environmental design factors into account is Waitangi Park in Wellington. The designer, Megan Wraight and Associates (Wraight 2007) ‘uncovered’ a stream which had previously been piped but discharged into the harbour. The stream takes overflow and seepage from old sewer pipes as well as storm water. The water from the stream is now naturally filtered through native sedges and other plants, which help to extract the pollutants from the water. Over 95% of bacteria and heavy metals are cleaned from the water before it is discharged into the harbour. Locally sourced plants from the Wellington coastline demonstrate the diversity of Wellington’s eco-systems. The park is an example of a creative and sustainable approach to managing the city waterfront and has brought further attention in Wellington to water sensitive design, to address local community problems.

It is a somewhat easier task to link ecology, urban design and water, and achieve a satisfactory outcome when human habitation is relatively recent, and the national population is only four million. By contrast, India has many, many centuries of development and change appears harder to achieve in urban areas. Water tanks in a village near Chennai in India appeared to require a change in community attitude. The tanks called Oornis were built on urban fringes for washing clothes or bathing (Khanna 2008) as well as irrigation. In the villages I visited, the tanks were turgid and polluted, with floating rubbish. While local people were still using these neglected Oornis, what is needed is not only the rehabilitation of the tanks taking the Lyall Creek example of community responsibility, and the incorporation of the tanks into relevant community design as has been undertaken in Christchurch and Wellington, but community leadership. Water harvesting is still important for irrigation and other uses in India and an NGO (Kaul 2008) is now investigating ways to lead his change. Wuxi, China Wuxi City is located adjacent to Tai Lake in Jiangsu Province. As in India, people have lived in this area for a long time: nearly 3000 years and there are now over 2 million residents, as well as a dominant industrial sector in the city (Liu 2007). In the last few years the lake has shown water

136 quality problems, as with the tanks in India, and the lake had a ‘blue green algae’ outbreak in 2007. In contrast to India, the city administrators are responding by a major effort to de-sludge the lake and manage discharges. In spite of water quality problems the city planners are also developing new parks alongside the lake to enhance access and visibility. This will improve people’s connections with the water. As with the change in attitude and awareness in Christchurch New Zealand, Tai Lake is being celebrated rather than hidden and the design opportunities to open the waterfront to lake views are being encouraged. As with Christchurch, this is an example of design led change. Tehran City, Iran But when there are design conflicts outcomes are frustrated. Tehran is also an old city built over centuries on a south sloping site. The city has gradually expanded uphill towards the mountain backdrop. Tehran is built over 7 valley systems which have vestigial streams which become brown muddy torrents when fed by snow melt and rain.

Water is a scarce resource in Tehran and over the centuries it has been carefully channelled through the city by gravity. A main street has just been upgraded, providing for continued water channelling, along 35 kilometres of the urban street. The street trees, which provide shelter in the scorching summers, are flourishing because they are provided with water, and the air in the street, is cool and moist (Ghasem Gohar 2008). The City has a design project for protecting the top of one of the catchments which is under construction. However, this work is being undermined, literally, further down the catchment where the stream is being channelled with vertical stone banks up to 8 metres high, to address an erosion problem. The landscape designers are aware that the local plants stabilise the stream as well as providing habitats for wildlife, and that the stream is a visual, biological and open space asset, connecting people and animals to relatively natural habitats. Yet an engineering solution, which does not protect water quality, is being advanced. In this example water, ecology and design are in conflict and the outcome appears doomed to an unsustainable outcome. The community do not currently have an opportunity to contribute to this issue. Discussion and conclusions People need water to survive, plants and animals need water and cities need water for many purposes. Skilful planning, design and management of water in cities and in the catchments beyond, acknowledges ecological values and their interdependence. Urban design must be coupled with community understanding and clear management so that the vision is achieved through the seasons, and over time. Community involvement in urban issues enables greater support, resources and understanding of the three interdependent aspects: water, ecology and urban design. While designers take their inspiration from context, place, history and other factors important aspects for urban design are the values and participation of the community. References

Ghasem Gohar, S. (2008). UBO, Tehran. Heremaia, C. (2007). Christchurch City Council, New Zealand. Khanna, N.P. (2008). Heritage conservation, Bangalore, India, pers comm.

137 Kaul, A.(2008). PPAL, New Delhi, pers comm. Liu, X. (2007); International Symposium, Wuxi China, October 2007. Gerard, R. (2007). Working towards Living Streams in Canterbury, Environment Institute of Australia and New Zealand conference, New Zealand. Wraight, M. (2007). Wellington, New Zealand, pers comm; Tor Sanlorenzo International Prize brochure, Italy, 2007. Wong, T. (2008). presentation to NZILA Conference Shift, April 2008, Auckland, New Zealand.

In Search for Expressions of National and Global Identity

Jeni Mihova School of Architecture, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6021, New Zealand, Tel 64 (0)4 4636162, Fax 64 (0)4 463 6204, Email [email protected] Archeological landscaping of Acropolis in Athens: Any discussion about the meaning of the urban context usually starts with an acknowledgement of its multilayerdness. We matter-of-factly classify these layers as geographical, culturalhistorical, archaeological, and architectural - or we try to reduce the multilayeredness to only one visual perception, or interpret it as solely a matter of aesthetic choice. This is how we forget to pay attention to the political and ideological motives and symbolism that reveal deeply embedded local and global power relationships or ambitions.

I will refer to three important contemporary urban design projects around the Athenian Acropolis to demonstrate how hidden motives play an active role in the process of forming a symbolism. For the Acropolis, this symbolism stems from the idea of its place at the centre of Western civilisation, but it is also deeply rooted in its locality. My intention is to assess to what extent these design projects are capable of both interpreting the past and serving the needs of the present. The meaning of the Past There is no doubt that contemporary views of the significance of the Acropolis’ “historic” past are profoundly influenced by archaeological science. It was the archaeological science that contributed to the selective reconstruction of the historic areas on the Acropolis and the archaeological park that envelops it, with both rationales privileging Classical Athens. This “filtering” in order to preserve the most valuable remnants of ancient of Athens can be witnessed when wandering with the crowds of tourists in Athens’s archaeological park – what is, in effect, a fenced-off open air museum presented on a grand scale. A visit to the British Museum in order to view the architectural sculptural decoration of the Parthenon Temple that was removed from the Parthenon Temple by Lord Elgin some 200 years ago could fill the missing half of the picture. It is natural that such direct encounters question the role of the past in the context of the present.

138 The Acropolis as a national symbol of the Modern Greek state As the nucleus of Athens, the Acropolis Hill had been inhabited as early as Neolithic times, since 3000cBC. The place and every structure erected on it was altered and destroyed many times over by subsequent generations and foreign invaders. As a result of those numerous transformations, the Acropolis Hill has been densely layered to the point of becoming a gigantic historical collage.

A synopsis of the history of the Parthenon alone reveals a number of the temple’s physical metamorphoses while enduring both natural and human disasters. It not only withstood earthquakes and fire-raising, but played its role as a rapidly redesignated stage-set in the service of political propaganda in a constant dialogue with the eternal Athenian landscape. The Parthenon was once the highly charged mythical space of an ancient pagan city. It was transformed into the symbolic heart of Christianity, and then turned into a mosque, stripped of its sculptural decoration; to finally reach the status of a UNESCO preserved historic site and becoming a contemporary tourist “Mecca”. Let us not forget that the overwhelming international interest in Athens’ historical memory and the massive tourist flow are a direct result of the immense interest by antiquarians and archaeologists in Athenian antiquities, during the 18th and 19th centuries, the Acropolis and its monuments in particular. As well as eminent and enduring research and publications about the Athenian Acropolis, there have been numerous attempts to imitate, implement and appropriate the Parthenon Temple and the Acropolis in foreign geographical and cultural contexts. It is useful to mention here the two most significant of these imitations: the German version of the temple in Regensburg, Walhalla, in which the ambitions of its architect Leo von Klense and its patron, the Crown Prince Ludwig, extended to a level of replicating an allusion of the sacred rock; and the full scale “replica” of the Parthenon building in, USA, built to vaingloriously promote Nashville as the “Athens of the South”. Both - the“Nashville Parthenon” and the Walhalla were constructed in park-like settings and isolated from the busy central urban milieu, arguably the only context in which the meaning of the Athenian Acropolis could be properly experienced. In parallel to providing inspiration for these foreign replicas, we must acknowledge the Parthenon’s role as a dominant symbol of Greek national identity. For example, the works dedicated to the Parthenon of many modern Greek poets, appear highly attuned both to its ambiguous position as an eclectic mix of all existing possibilities and to only one layer of historic memory from the time of the Periclean “Golden Age” and shortly afterwards (Giannakopoulou 2002). Search of local and global identity Once emancipated from the Ottoman occupation, the modern Greek state initiated the archaeological, conservation and restoration works of the Acropolis’ monumental structures. Subsequently, some forestation of the dry bare hills of the Acropolis developed in neoclassical Athens, along with the planning of the city’s rapidly expanding infrastructure, including roadworks and a system of pedestrian spaces.

The first proposal for a large scale design project covered the area north of the Acropolis rock and was put forward in 1832 by two young architects, the Greek, S. Kleantis and the German, E.Schoubert. The designers’ vision was to create a grand scale open air museum and public space. They established five priorities for their vision’s realisation (Loukaki 1997):

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1/ the undisputable role of Greek society as the curator of its ancestral cultural heritage 2/ the necessity of advancing archaeological science 3/ an awareness of ancient monuments as public spectacles 4/ a selective assessment of the past 5/ minimising the role of Byzantine architecture to a picturesque addition to the Classical monuments. Two years after this proposal, a much more opportunistic or “sacrilegious” design was put forward by archbishop Schinkel. It extends the first vision of an open air archaeological museum to an archaeological garden in the centre of which, on the Acropolis proper, was to be built the palace of the first King of the Modern Greek state. However, there are only two large, and arguably “divergent”, urban design projects that were realised during the years of establishing the Modern Greek state, and we will discuss how these projects express the Acropolis’ local and global identity. Landscaping of the archaic Agora The first of these projects was undertaken by the ASCSA (American School of Classical Studies in Athens) and claimed the area north of the Acropolis, which links the sacred rock with Karameikos as a historically significant protected zone. In June 2005, celebrations were held to mark the 75th anniversary of the ASCA’s reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos, the landscape project and the restoration of the Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles (ASCS 2007).

In a certain sense, the “American zone”, which includes not only reconstructions from the Classical, but the Roman and Byzantine periods as well, could be interpreted as a showcase for the advancement of the American archaeological school in Athens, and its dominant position in the disciplinary “wars (Lord 1947). It could also be read as a reflection of the political and economic influence of US on the Greek state “in assisting it to fulfil its aspirations to keep its position as guardian of this priceless symbol of western civilization” (British School of Athens 1986). Regardless of the earnest attention paid to the archaeological and literary evidence available about the planting of this area in antiquity, the scarcity of evidence cannot fully defend the project’s “scientific approach”. The designer of the Agora’s grove, R.E. Criswold used an advanced photomontage technique for visualising the site when the plantings reached maturity. He also tried to engage strictly with a number of strategic principles, such as creating a buffer zone between the modern city and the archaeological site, sparse planting within the Agora proper, clustered planting that frames and emphasises the archaeological excavations and hillsides, and a specific choice of trees to be associated unambiguously with the deity represented on the site, e.g. oak for the Altar of Zeus (Loukaki). However, the ASCS’s project is seen as “largely indifferent to the vibrant modern city” because “it turned its back on the living Athens in favour of the dead historical monument of Periclean Athens”. Likewise, the purely archaeological (rather than botanical) evidence used in the area of temple of Hephaestus and the landscape solution that followed, achieved the somewhat problematic effect of a “neat but non-Greek quality” (Loukaki 1997). ASCS’s purist approach was aligned to the priorities stated for the urban archaeological park. It exclusively favoured the ancient Hellas and “pre-eminence of things Greek over things unGreek, or pre-Greek, or post-Greek” (British School of Athens 1986). Furthermore, the tone of

140 the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos was revealed as a clearly “philhellenic gesture” of “deep political symbolism” (McKendrick 1981), and an opportunity for a new democracy such as the USA to make visible its affiliations with the cradle of European civilization. This is evidenced by the personal interest President Eisenhower showed in the project, and financial support from the Rockefeller Foundation (McKendrick 1981. Search for essential cultural expressions The second project for discussion was developed and supervised by the Greek architect D. Pikionis. It comprises the landscaping for the archaeological area linking the Acropolis rock to the hill of Muses, Philloppapou, and Pnyx area.

Applying a very different motivation and creative process, this project was aimed towards discovering a symbolism worthy to express national and Greek identity, without becoming whimsical or stylistic. Carried out in the period 1954-1957, under the auspices of Konstantinos Karamanlis (Minister of Public Works), the project consisted of an elaborated system of paved pedestrian roads and foot-paths, sitting and viewing areas, the reconstruction and extension of the historic area around the church of St Dimitrius Lomabrdiaris, and planting of the overall area. Through Pikionis’ skilful hints about the ancient Greek genius of recycling the remnants of the past, we are able to interpret this intentional “eclecticism”, or grand collage. This is made possible because his project provokes us sense the underlying spiritual link with the locality. As Papgeorgiou- Venetas puts it: “Pikionis’ source of inspiration was always the land of Greece and the action of human activity on its historic landscape” (Papageogiou-Venetas 1991). By assembling anew invaluable remnants of the neoclassical houses of the demolished residential area in ancient Pnyka, Pikionis’s paths are a unique stone tapestry, which provide a frame for the ancient and modern city. Needless to say, Pikionis’ creative process was equally unique. Very little of the project was designed in the studio as an abstract idea to be implemented on site. Rather, the design was created on site, in collaboration with highly skilled specialist craftsmen. The planting of the site follows the same artistic and spiritual essence as Pikionis’ design philosophy, that is, “in plastic and symbolic harmony with the character of the landscape” (Papageogiou-Venetas 1994). Paradoxically, Pikionis’s less “scientific” approach is more effective and in tune with our time. It feels right, as Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa recalled his experience of it: “At the end of the ascent Pikionis’ road comes to an end. When I looked back I saw a crowd of people unconsciously enjoying walking up the opposite site to the Acropolis. The Parthenon was displaying its usual cold shape and I thought that while the Parthenon may express the dead form of ancient Greece, Pikionis’ road expresses the living space of present day Greece.”(Kurokawa 1994) The new Acropolis Museum Another prominent architectural presence already a reality in the central cityscape of Athens, the new Acropolis Museum, turned the international attention to Athens again. First, in form of few architectural competitions and later by revealing current archaeological excavations of the Makryianni site – the immediate area south of the Acropolis.

141 However, the Museum is not yet fully operational, due partly to the unfulfilled task of repatriating the Parthenon marbles. Indeed with its dark glass boxlike roof , which matches the orientation and layout of the Parthenon temple proper, the overall design is a strong statement about the Greeks’ determination to reunite the architectural sculptures of the Parthenon with their rightful place of origin. Equipped with state of the art technology for preserving and displaying these and other priceless originals from the Acropolis, the museum would not have been developed to this point without heavy sponsorship from the European Union. Undoubtedly, this important new urban design intervention poses once again the question of how we can use the cherished past as a granary for future generations, and what are the most appropriate ways to interpret this question successfully. Instead of Evaluation Regardless of seemingly similar intentions behind their design to acknowledge the ‘double identity of the Acropolis’ all design projects discussed here differ thoroughly in their political and aesthetic priorities and their interpretations of the spirit of locality.

When assessing the creative processes for the projects and viewing the sites after they gained a level of familiarity for locals and visitors (as well as after the planting reached a certain maturity), one obvious conclusion could be that capturing the genius loci is incredibly flimsy and contradictory territory. It is clear that its very nature suggests a profound link between nature and society, but undoubtedly its magical quality is only possible to sense through skilful artistic interpretations. Fig. Archaia Agora; Pikionis pathways; New Acropolis Museum (photos by Jeni Mihova)

References: British School of Athens (1986). A Celebration of the Centenary of the British School of Athens 1886-1986. London:Camberwell Press.

Giannakopoulou, L. (2002). Perception of the Parthenon in Modern Greek Poetry, Journal of Modern Greek Studies.v.20:241-271

142 Kurokawa, K. (1994). The Philopappus Road. Dimitris Pikionis. The Landscaping of the Archaeological Site around the Acropolis 1954-1957 In: A.Pikionis (Ed).Athens: Bastas-Plessas Publications.v.VII:69 Loukaki, A. (1997). Whose Genius Loci?: Contrasting Interpretations of the “Sacred Rock of the Athenian Acropolis”. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Blackwell Publishers, 87(2): 306-329 McKendrick, P. (1981). The Greek Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Greek Lands, New York: W.W.Northon &Co: 403. Papageorgiou-Venetas, A. (1991). The Ancient Heritage in Modern Metropolitan Life: Landscaping the Archaeological Sites of Athens. Annals D’Esthetique.v. 29-30:7-47 Papageorgiou-Venetas, A. (1994). The Acropolis Project. Dimitris Pikionis. The Landscaping of the Archaeological Site around the Acropolis 1954-1957 In: A.Pikionis(Ed). Athens: BastasPlessas Publications.v.VII:13-28 Pikionis, D. (1955). Letter to the Minister of Public Works. Dimitris Pikionis. The Landscaping of the Archaeological Site around the Acropolis 1954-1957 In: A.Pikionis (Ed).Athens: BastasPlessas Publications.v.VII: 31-33. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (2007). One Hundred and Twenty-First through One Hundred and Twenty –Fifth Annual Reports, 2001-2002 through 2005-2006. ASCS. Athens: 12

Johannes Paulus II Park (Madrid, Spain): Design, Ecology and Urban Landscape

A. Morcillo, F. Sepúlveda, N. Bautista, S. Soria Directorate General of Green Areas. City Council of Madrid, Paseo de Recoletos, 12. E28001 Madrid, Tel +00 34 91 588 53 54, Fax + 00 34 588 53 13, Email [email protected] Introduction The metropolitan area of Madrid has over 5,000,000 inhabitants. The total surface area of the green zones of Madrid adds up to 21,000 hectares (34.6% of its total surface), of which 5.626 are kept by the City Hall of Madrid. Madrid, which is continuously expanding, is growing and developing with extensive garden spaces, which are becoming more and more valuable compared to simple rest and recreation activities: more features, diversity, innovations, ecology.

Large green areas involve a huge effort of planning and implementation, a compatible design for their economical future maintenance and a minimized consumption of resources. When first designing a park, it is necessary to integrate it into the urban scheme, to take into account the original situation of the terrain, to use sustainable urban design methods, to foresee the pros and cons that may turn up in the adjacent neighbourhoods, to manage the necessary authorisations from the different services involved and, obviously, to comply with the normative and regulations.

143 Main target: application of the sustainable gardening criteria The city hall of Madrid is building the Johannes Paulus II Park that, when totally finished, will occupy 31 hectares and will require an investment of more than fifteen million euros by the time it is finished. It was conceived, from the very beginning, with sustainability in mind. It is organized into four zones, two of which are already finished and being maintained. The project of the other two zones is being finished.

Its aims are: to equip the neighbourhood and the city with a new green zone, to achieve, via themed areas and the equipment, the category of “Special Park”, to apply, without ruling aesthetic and functionality aspects out, sustainable gardening criteria in its creation and subsequent maintenance. In a Mediterranean country, water management is particularly important (Ayuntamiento de Madrid, 2006). For this reason, irrigation systems that promote efficient water saving, a suitable size of the irrigation systems and a control of water consumption by means of programming and rain-moisture sensors have been accomplished. The irrigation system contemplates two types of networks: one of drinking water and another of re-used water. The first one is used to supply either the fonts (only for those with a saving water system installed) or the thin-sheet water falls (continuously re-circulating). The other network is used to supply the drip irrigation system which is of low water consumption and high performance. This irrigation system is programmed by means of a remote centralized control system. Other ways of minimizing the use of water are the selection of native plants or those which are adapted to the environment of Madrid, the minimization of the surface of lawns and the prioritization of the usage of seasonal pastures or ground-covering plants with low water requirements. The surface area of grass in this park is less than one percent, while the rest is occupied by tree and shrub species of low water consumption. Design Its design is a tribute to the Mediterranean culture of gardening and to its gardeners; it illustrates its legacy for sustainability in the current era.

Water, which is a scarce and highly prized asset in all the cultures represented, is the link between the four zones of the park. The inheritance of the usage and management of water in the Mediterranean area is represented by means of canals, ditches and reservoirs, which are designed to optimize their usage to achieve maximum performance and simplicity. The recovery of models of the Mediterranean tradition of efficient, simple and inexpensive maintenance is the shortest path towards sustainability. Its legacy leads us to low maintenance. Similarly, the way to design a gardening of low water consumption is to make a good use of our plant heritage. Structure The park is divided into four differentiated and independent zones which are coherent among them.

1. Sport zone This zone houses projected sport facilities. There is a rugby school in this neighbourhood as well as a lot of people interested in it. There are not many facilities where one can play this sport currently in Madrid. A regulation rugby field, stands, locker rooms and toilets, rest area, thin-sheet water falls and

144 gardens have been projected. The zone, which is of a more informal nature, is mainly devoted to usage by youth. Due to its location at the end of the park, this does not alter the nature of the rest of it. 2. Rest zone: Garden of the Sun and water This area is already finished and currently in use. It has a neighbourhood green zone typology. Its design and plant areas contribute to its unique character. Mediterranean agricultural species, with their ethno-historical relevance, live together with a contemporary design that symbolizes the two main defining elements of Mediterranean cultures: the sun, by excess, and the water, by scarcity. A big sun clock casts its shadow on the lines of the pavement, indicating the time according to the different seasons. The four main rivers of the Mediterranean cultural paradise flow from the clock, depicting the aureole spiral that is always present in Mediterranean culture and in nature. The main species of the Mediterranean agricultural culture: the olive tree, wine tree and fruit trees have been planted in this zone. This area holds auxiliary leisure facilities: lanes and rest areas, areas for youth usage, bike trails and dog area, all of them equipped with suitable furniture. The roads make the connection between the two adjacent neighbourhoods easier. 3. Thematic zone: Historical gardens of the Mediterranean The gardens in countries that border the Mediterranean are illustrated in allegorical form throughout history, recovering, from old cultures, either an applied architectural shapes or a gardening design currently in use. In this way, the civilizations that contributed to define our culture are represented. This zone, constructed and in use, is equipped with bike tracks, games for youth usage, and facilities of leisure, with the furniture adapted for each use. MIDDLE EAST GARDEN The Middle East is the cradle of our civilization. Various gardening and agricultural techniques and species like almond tree, vine, fig tree, carob tree, walnut, mirtus, cypress, laurel, pomegranate tree, oleander, barley, wheat, etc came from there. Next to Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the first historical gardens made their appearance. Not only the first known methods of irrigation were used there but also the agricultural techniques and the species of culture were improved. MEDIEVAL GARDEN The work of the monks was essential in the conservation and transmission either of the botanic knowledge or its relation with health. The monasteries were places where knowledge was interchanged. Pilgrims, travellers, expeditionary, studious and walkers arrived to them. The Hortus was a limited space, different compare to the outdoor landscape. Cuadrangule was used either to create monasteries or to turn them into orchards. In this kind of gardens, a well represents the water. ARABIC GARDEN Arabs did terraced and levelled the terrain in mountains and in steep areas. They put in practice sophisticated watering methods by means of reservoirs, irrigation ditches and other techniques that allowed them to cultivate by retaining the scant existing water (Olonetzky, 2007). Either the geometry of the Arabic gardens design or the water capture in the pools, are illustrated in this zone.

145 PALM TREE ALIGMENT Palm tree alignment shows how a green shelterbelt creates a microclimate by means of its shade, allowing the growth of other sensitive species. The andalusi peasantry knew how to maximize the good use of the scant existing water, in almost desert areas, by means of either plantations or a rational management of date palms. THE PARADISE All the religions which were born in the Mediterranean shores, placed their deities and the beginning of humankind in a Garden (Pairaideza, Mount Olympus, Eden, etc.), which was always associated to the water and where the happiness was reached by the straight men. Here, the paradise is represented by means of an island located in a big thin-sheet waterfall. 4. Educational zone The last zone is taken up by an afforested pine wood. In the project, which nowadays is being finished, agro-forestry management plans are the argument for creating an educational scene. Within the existing afforestation, some squares dedicated to different typologies of forestry management planning are created e.g. pines (resin woodcutters, wood hookers, resin extraction, pinions, naval construction), Quercus (dehesas, cork, manufacture of barrels, coal bunkers), Shores (boxes and paper, feeding of the cattle, basketing techniques, aspirins), servant species (fences, sticks, roofs, cords, tissues, dyes). Conservation and maintenance The entire park is projected by criteria of rationality for its later maintenance. It has been provided with drainage and illumination networks as well as a specific treatment for the roads, according to their stability.

It has been adopted, for the maintenance of this big park, an integral management plan. The maintenance services have to preserve it as well as to improve and to manage it. The last preservation techniques of parks involve, from a holistic approach, the following points: Preservation of plant elements, road infrastructure, public illumination network, irrigation and drinking water systems, rivers, reservoirs, pumping, drainage and sewage, fences, civil works, street urban furniture and informative boards, selective waste collection and cleaning,, control and surveillance of the park , maintenance of machinery and vehicles, systems and programs of management, management of activities inside of the park, etc. The carried out actions have been chaired by the idea of sustainability, which will also chair the, prompt in execution, future ones. References Ayuntamiento de Madrid (2006). Ordenanza de gestión y uso eficiente del agua en la ciudad de Madrid. Area de Gobierno de Medio Ambiente, 89-101

Olonetzky, N. (2007). Sensations. A time travel through garden history. Birkhaüser. 31-39

146 Fig. The Johannes Paulus II Park

The Role of the Forest Conservation Act in the Protection of Green Infrastructure in the Development Process in Maryland, USA

David Myers Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland USA Introduction An understanding of the impacts due to urbanization, and regulations and polices developed to mitigate those impacts, is critical in creating a sustainable future given global urbanization trends. Maryland has a long and substantive history of activity in land conservation, landscape forest regulation, and the policy promotion and development of ecologically and recreationally-based landscapes devoted to economic, ecological, and recreationally-based greenways and green infrastructure networks. As an example of regulation, the State of Maryland’s (USA) Forest Conservation Act (FCA), enacted in 1991 (Natural Resources Article Section 5-1601 through 51613), is intended to conserve and provide for the creation of forests in the development process. The FCA requires the developer to provide two documents. The first, a Forest Stand Delineation (FSD), must identify forest stands, specimen trees, and provide an ecological description of the site. The FSD serves to provide guidance where development will have the least impact on existing forested areas and important environmental features. The second document, a Forest Conservation Plan (FCP), provides instructions for clearing and the reestablishment of forest in easements. Galvin, M. F., et. al. (2000) provides more detailed information and impacts of the FCA. Retained forests, reforested, and afforested landscapes dedicated in property easements

147 provide an avenue for forest lands to contribute to overall green infrastructure and canopy creation. At the policy level, Maryland, like Florida and others (Benedict and McMahon), instituted green infrastructure initiatives to provide a more science-based and comprehensive view of land conservation efforts. The purpose of the integration of Green Infrastructure (GI) into Maryland’s greenway programs (Maryland Greenways Commission, 2000) was to create a GI plan, use a science-based GIS method, and determine ecologically significant lands regardless of ownership (Weber, T. 2001). Greenways and open space planning receive widespread support by the citizens of Maryland (Maryland Greenways Commission, 1995). These are examples of a myriad of tools and techniques that have been developed to promote and create sustainable landscapes. Despite strong citizen support and these types of regulations and policies, land development in Maryland, particularly low density residential land development, and its resultant deforestation and fragmentation, threatens the environmental support systems and hydrological and biological quality of the environment. The percent of land conversion from resource lands (forest and agriculture) to low density residential has risen from 47% in 1973 to 58% in 1997 and is expected to reach 62% by 2020 (Maryland Department of Planning, 2001). Weber and Aviram (2003) indicated in an analysis of Maryland’s identified 2000 green infrastructure that, “if current trends continue a large fraction of Maryland green infrastructure may be seriously degraded by 2020”. The purpose of this study was to investigate selected on-site afforestation easements to determine relationships between compliance and easements characteristics: age, size and land use type. Afforestation is a forest planted where forest did not exist at the time of the proposed development. In many cases, these are agricultural or early successional vegetation communities. In addition, this study looks at contributions to green infrastructure patterns. The project area is Montgomery County, Maryland. Potential natural vegetation here was predominantly Appalachian oak forest but vegetation communities have been heavily impacted by extensive deforestation, agriculture, and more recently extensive and rapid suburbanization. In addition to human behaviours occurring during both the development and management phases, non-native invasive exotics and deer browsing are significant disturbances to vegetation succession regimes. Methods The data set was a collection of 182 FCP records where area of afforestation easements was greater than zero. After review of all 182 FCP records, approximately 106 had easements digitized. Approximately half of these, 50 FCPs, were then selected along a range that represented size to develop a series of case studies. The general steps involved in the process are as follows 1) familiarization with Forest Conservation Act (FCA) process and resultant Forest Conservation Plan (FCP) and easements records; 2) determination of addresses for all 182 FCP records having afforestation easements; 3) documentation of digitized easements; 4) capture of aerial/oblique photos for the development of case study documents; and 5) interpretation of compliance.

Categories of compliance were defined primarily as to whether there was indication that the property was being managed to prevent forest growth. Compliance was not focused on survivability of individual trees or the survivability proportion of trees. The focus of the interpretation was to look at human interventions that appeared to be impediments to successional processes leading to a closed forest canopy. Another phase of this study is intended to assess rate of survivability and investigate more horticultural and management questions.

148 Results The total area of on-site afforestation easements for all 182 sites is 152.8 ha (377.7 acres) with the mean acreage of 0.84 ha (2.1 acres) per on-site afforestation easement. However, 63% of the 182 records are less than 0.40 ha (1 acre) in size. Measures of existing forest on-site that are retained on-site during the development process (64.2%) are similar to those reported in a 5 year report (66%) (DNR, 2004). In these 182 records, anticipated forest - forest retained on site, afforested and reforested acreage - is approximately 20.3% of the net tract area of property under consideration in the forest conservation plans. Areas to be in on-site afforested easements were equal to retained forest easements and approximately four times larger than reforested easement areas. While it is likely that compliance is more successful for retained forest, due to inertia, non-compliance and losses related to afforestation and reforestation easements would likely be of greater concern since the amount of resources needed to plant and maintain these forest easement types are greater. Overall, of the 20.3% net tract area of property, the proportion of forest easement types as a percent of total anticipated forest in easements on the net tract area of property for forest retained on site, forest reforested on site, and forest afforested on site is 44.0%, 11.2 %, and 44.8%, respectively.

Twenty nine of the fifty (58.0%) easements were interpreted to be in some form of non compliance. This can be interpreted as 58% of the easements indicated some from of management this inhibited forest growth. Additional easements might be considered in noncompliance if the measure of that non-compliance was the existence of the required tree/vegetation plantings. It was beyond the scope of this phase to assess the level of survivability of plantings as required by individual FCP specifications. While 58% of the easements are interpreted to be in some from of non-compliance the summation of noncompliance acreage was only 18.3% of the total on-site afforestation easement acreage. It should be noted that some of the larger afforestation easements, those falling above 8 ha (20 acres), were interpreted as in compliance. This was a conservative approach that might underestimate the amount of non-compliance. In relationship to easement age, size and land use type, preliminary interpretation of the results suggest the following relationships. The greatest level of non-compliance occurs within smaller easements in residential areas. It does not appear from preliminary results that age of the easement has an influence on compliance. Medium density residential land uses have a higher than average rate of non-compliance than other land use categories while commercial land use appears to have lower than average non-compliance. The last result may be in part due to small sample size. Medium density residential land uses also had 78.4% non-compliance. Summary and Implications Where afforestation is required as a tool to maintain targeted thresholds for the protection and establishment of the long term presence of forest canopy in developed areas, the preliminary results of this study suggest that the percent of non-compliance is a concern. Further field investigation is needed to provide more accurate site and individual tree assessment. Regardless, the current rate of non-compliance of afforestation easements has a serious negative impact on the quantity and quality of forest canopy in developed areas. Thus the ability to contribute to, and compliment, those landscapes in the green infrastructure is also reduced. The results of this study may have implications in other localities where the adoption or existence of similar polices and regulations are utilized to promote sustainable landscapes.

149 Acknowledgements Thanks to Katherine Nelson and Mary Dolan, Environmental Planning, Countywide Planning Division, The Maryland-National Capital Park & Planning Commission (MNCPPC), Montgomery County, Maryland. Thanks also to MNCPPC for funding to support this research. References Benedict, Mark A and Edward T. McMahon. Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the 21st Century. Washington, D.C.: Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse, Monograph Series. Web site: http://www.greeninfrastructure.net/.

DNR, State of Maryland Department of Natural Resources. (2004). The Maryland Forest Conservation Act: The Law That Conserves Forests During Development A Ten Year Review. Web site: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/forests/download/FCA_10_year_review.pdf Galvin, M. F., B. Wilson, and M. Honeczy. (2000). Maryland’s Forest Conservation Act: A Process For Urban Greenspace Protection During The Development Process. Journal of Arboriculture 26(5): 275-280. Maryland Department of Planning. (2001). Maryland’s Changing Land: Past Present and Future. Maryland Department of Planning, Baltimore, MD. Maryland Greenways Commission. (1995). Attitude Survey of Maryland Residents Regarding Greenways and Open Space. Maryland Greenways Commission, Annapolis, MD. April 1995. Maryland Greenways Commission (2000). Maryland Atlas of Greenways, Water Trails and Green Infrastructure 2000 Edition. Maryland Greenways Commission, Annapolis, MD. Weber, T. (2001). Maryland's Green Infrastructure Assessment: Detailed methods, version 5.1. Maryland Dept. Nat. Res., Annapolis, MD. Web site: File name: \\ccws62585\greeninf\GI_v5_1\documents\GI v5_1 methodology.wpd Weber, T and Aviram (2003). Forest and Green Infrastructure Loss in Maryland 1997-2000, and Implications for the Future .Web site: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/greenways/fgil/fgil.pdf

[Re]Making An Imperfect Utopia: Towards A New Museum Landscape Discourse

Amaechi Raphael Okigbo Cornell University, Department of Landscape, Ithaca, New York, USA, Email [email protected]

Introduction In April 2002, the North Carolina Museum of Art Foundation commissioned the master plan for the North Carolina Museum of Art (NCMA), Museum Park. This production comes at a time when the region is faced with the pressures of a progressive economy. Since 1950, the region’s population has tripled, resulting in the cross-pollination of commerce, and the perpetual dispersal of infrastructural conduits – such as the Research Triangle Park (RTP), the Raleigh-Durham International Airport, the North Carolina State Fairgrounds Complex, and facility-extensions of the North Carolina State University Campus. The master plan for the NCMA marks a

150 significant departure in the city of Raleigh’s land use character from a condition of highly segmented urban and suburban green infrastructure to an urban strategy where all major cultural and recreational resources will be linked as part of an ambitious “pedestrian-oriented” openspace infrastructural system. This will create an interconnected matrix of manufactured landscapes designed to support the contemporary lifestyle of Raleigh’s mobile, globally connected and technologically savvy community. The project, [Re]making an Imperfect Utopia: Towards a New Museum Landscape /Discourse (the first component of a three-part research paper) is focused on the development of museum spatial environments as a critical agent in the cultivation of landscape urbanism. As an act of critical engagement, the project represents a unique moment where the impulse of architecture (as critical and artistic production) and landscape architecture (as an extension of architectural production) converge, producing an opportunity that requires a repositioning in the prevailing stance on contemporary design practice – where the issue of architecture (interiority) and landscape (exteriority) are considered separate design problems in practice. Unlike most museum design projects where the architecture dominates the site, this project adopts a strategy that places importance on the relationship between the museum complex (the built environment) and the site (the surrounding context). This strategy looks at the building’s landscape and the landscape’s architecture as an extension of the same design problem – the landscape as a “spatial continuum” of the museum architecture. Polemic: Landscape Urbanism The development of public space at the beginning of the 21st century presents a perplexing urban design problem for architects, planners, and landscape architects, as clearly articulated by Wolf Prix’s remark in his article on “public space”: “the gradual privatization of urban public space in Western cities is having a profound effect on contemporary architecture as a whole. Faced with a lack of public funds, cities and local authorities are increasingly unable to play an active role in urban planning and instead acquiesce to private investors who help themselves to the biggest and best pieces of the city… contemporary urban interventions take place in an amorphous and imponderable space, analogous to chess figures moving horizontally across blurred television screens, but the grid of the chessboard has disappeared, as have the rules determining how the pieces move… space is no longer predetermined but rather developed through the tension and interrelationship between figures. This is the basis for a vigorous new model of urbanism.” (Prix, 2003).

These comments are reactive to the synthetic contemporary conditions where the urban and natural systems are not mutually exclusive, but interdependent – produced as by-products of a dynamic consumer-oriented global economy, where architect, landscape architects and planners are key protagonists in the translation and formation of urban spatial environments. When considered carefully, they are irrefutable observations that parallel the growing urban condition in North Carolina, particularly around the Raleigh-Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill sector, where the city’s urban public space is increasingly fractured by urban sprawl and architectural mutations. Prix’s comments also speak to the need for new urban domains that are designed as cultural infrastructures – for “transformative programming” (Tschumi, 1998) – that will accommodate the tension and dialogue produced by local and global economies. These domains are catalytic nodes that stimulate surrounding urban conditions through connective circuits and movement ribbons, emphasizing programmatic interrelationships between contrasting spatial environments in a given domain. This philosophical approach to urbanism proposes a new agenda for shaping

151 urban public space and acknowledges the criticality of flow patterns in cultivating and sustaining nodes of attraction (Prix, 2003). The North Carolina Museum of Art Project This museum park was once the land of the Tuscarora Indians. European colonists moved in a half-century before the Declaration of Independence. Twenty years before the American Civil War, a free African-American family farmed here. Military training camps were here in the Civil War and World War One. Then the area became a prison site, the Polk Prison Complex (Daniels, 2001). Today, the complex is located between the City of Raleigh, the Research Triangle Park (RTP) and the City of Durham. The NCMA complex covers about 165-acres, which includes the recently abandoned 45-acre Polk Correctional Facility: 100 + acre portion of this green-space is dedicated to the Museum Park and comprised of rolling meadows, woodlands, and a small stream known as House Creek.

The goal of the project is to implement an innovative environmental park that integrates works of art into the landscape, and provides venues for experimental projects while facilitating collaborations among artists, architects, landscape architects, and environmental scientists. The Museum Park will be a publicly accessible model and laboratory for environmental restoration, art and nature based education, and a powerful tool to engage community members in active learning processes toward ecological sustainability (Wheeler, 1998). The master plan employs a strategy of establishing a dialogue between the architecture, the art, the landscape and the visitor through spatial programming, accessibility, linkage, and movement. Issues which are central to the design and planning of the museum complex are organized around programmatic zones and stitched together by a circulation apparatus comprised of primary, secondary, and tertiary ribbons that support programmatic conditions and activities within the Museum Park. The ribbons are used as cinematic strategies to unveil the museum site, while simultaneously bridging and connecting the park to the surroundings. The museum will unfold its walls beyond the confines of architecture and embrace the surrounding urban matrix (which is structured into three taxonomic components: The Green, The West Lawn, and The Woodlands), creating a “charged threshold” where the museum and the park grounds serve as a canvas for creative expression – a surface that engages and captivates the visitor. Within this context, some areas will be flexible in their programmatic function, allowing their users to prescribe and compose the space. The result is a museum environment that is more adaptive, and aqueous in its configuration, and capable of handling the demands of a dynamic programmatic framework. The landscape becomes an active development realm where a new layer of time is superimposed to create a distinct spatial condition: a convergence of multiple expressions, a palimpsest of cultural production, and a collage landscape within a complex and collective set of physical relationships. The challenge of achieving these goals yields fertile questions about landscape spatial phenomena and fragmentation of urban public spaces and the criticality of rewriting existing conditions in an effort to restore destabilized human and natural systems. This will be the focus of the second phase of this research project which will examine, more broadly, landscape-spatial theories and strategies within the Museum Park and other contemporary urban parks and their implications on landscape urbanism. Within the framework of this project, the following question serves as a springboard for launching this investigation: as one considers the increasing ephemerality of places, what role does contemporary art play in the creation and transformation of public spaces?

152

References Daniels, Dennis F. (2001). Historical Research Report: Polk Prison Property. North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources: Research Branch Division of Archives and History, 1- 125.

Prix, Wolf. (2003). “b5 2 c6: Public Space” in The State of Architecture at the Beginning of the 21st Century. Ed. Bernard Tschumi and Irene Cheng. New York: Monacelli Press, 18. Tschumi, Bernard. (1998). Architecture and Disjunction. MIT Press, 160-168. Tschumi, Bernard. (1998). Event-Cities. Cambridge. MIT Press, 327-29. Wheeler, Lawrence J. (1998). “Introduction” in North Carolina Museum of Art: Handbook of Collections. Ed. Nagy, Rebecca M. Hudson Hill Press, 1-9. Photo Credit Landscape of Architecture/ Architecture of Landscape. North Carolina Museum of Art/Museum Art Park, North Carolina, USA. Amaechi Raphael Okigbo. Conceptual drawing (mixed media on canvas, 48 x 60 inches), master plan proposal 2002-05.  Amaechi Raphael Okigbo. The drawing is a conceptual synthesis of interior conditions within the architectural proper of the museum building and condition in the surrounding urban matrix. It serves as mnemonic device or code for the reconstruction of memory.

153 Urban Open Spaces in Kampala, Uganda

M. R.O. Olweny1 and C. Adule2 1

2

Faculty of the Built Environment, Uganda Martyrs’ University, Uganda, Community and Government Services, Government of Nunavut, Cape Dorset, Nunavut, Canada

Introduction , “... for magnificence, for variety of form and colour, for profusion of brilliant life – plant, bird, insect, reptile, beast – for vast scale... Uganda is truly the pearl of Africa.” … expressed in 1907 by a relatively unknown British Parliamentary Undersecretary of State for the Colonies – Winston Churchill. Was it not for the fact that Churchill became possibly Britain’s most revered Prime Minister, these sentiments published in his travelogue; ‘My African Journey’ (Churchill, 1908) would have been consigned history. Today, ‘Uganda, the Pearl of Africa’ is found on virtually every advertising brochure for the country. Churchill was of course referring to Uganda’s natural beauty, which one would be hard-pressed to find in the urban areas of the country today. Most are slowly being eroded by commercial enterprise that views them as prime development sites. This situation raises questions about the nature of these spaces and their designation in today’s milieu. At the current rate, Kampala will be without any open space by 2020. Open Space in Kampala Kampala is one of the few cities in Africa arguably of African origin, having been the location of the capital of the Kingdom of Buganda - one of the largest and oldest kingdoms in the region for close to a century before European influence. The duality is still evident in the modern City of Kampala, and part of the resulting challenges faced in the city today. Indigenous, open space in pre-colonial Uganda, were generally utilitarian in nature. These spaces served a variety of purposes: herding of livestock, plantations gathering spaces or as performance space, but rarely just for show or for leisure (Adule, 2001). In Buganda, the layout of settlements was governed by guidelines that dictated the arrangement of various activity spaces. The layout of the Lubiri (royal enclosure) for instance was always laid out with the Kabaka’s (King) palace facing west – towards the rival Bunyoro Kingdom, considered a threat to Buganda. This guideline followed to this day, in the layout of the palace of the current Kabaka, although the threat from Bunyoro is non-existent today. Homesteads also incorporated within them large forecourts intended for gatherings and receptions, and in all cases, included a large banana plantation – the pride of every household in Buganda. A particular characteristic of the forecourts was the fact that they were neither paved or grasses, but bare earth. Being hilly, Kampala had numerous swampy valleys that were infested by malaria carrying mosquitoes and consequently avoided, essentially defining these as permanent open spaces.

Open spaces in the colonial settlements included some of the principles of open spaces in the indigenous settlements. In particular, the non habitation of the low-lying swampy grounds, although over the years, many of the swamps have been drained, and the spaces formalised as recreation areas. The low-lying areas were a crucial part of the water catchment area and were prone to flooding during the wet seasons. These areas include Kitante Valley Park (which includes the Kampala Golf Course), the Lugogo sports grounds, and the railway marshalling yards. An aspect of open space in the colonial settlement reminiscent of the traditional homestead was the single-family homes on a large lot surrounded by large lawns. This layout ensured that the residential areas of the colonial settlement were always green, giving Kampala

154 its nickname ‘the garden city’, which it was in its heydays. The extensive lawn gardens were akin to the gardens found in indigenous homestead - possibly an indication of the influence indigenous settlements had - although it could also allude to the status of the inhabitants, evidenced by early planning regulations that segregated residential areas for different racial groups. Many of the colonial open spaces were of strategic importance. These included the Naguru and Kololo airfields - part of the military infrastructure of the city. These exist to this day, although part of the Kololo airfield has been converted for use as a cemetery – for national heroes. A particularly significant open space however was Government Square, now known as Constitution Square. Located at the centre of the city, this space was, and still is one of the few open spaces formally designated as a park, and still used as such to today. Originally, the two (2) hectare space was designated as the future home for the colonial government headquarters which was being moved from the original settlement on Kampala Hill. However, due to a lack of funds, a result of the onset of the World War I (WWI), the space remained as an open space. It was later gazetted as such, and remains to this day - the colonial government consigned to a sharing space in the municipal government offices. The dual urban structure of Kampala - a result of the proximity of two urban settlements of the indigenous settlement – the Kibuga at Mengo, and the colonial town of Kampala, (later moved to Nakasero) provide a valuable study on the interaction of two urban traditions and the subsequent influence on the modern city of Kampala. This however is not the focus of this paper, which is concerned with the state of urban open spaces of Kampala. Changes to the make up of the open spaces of Kampala have largely been a result of; a) Africanisation of government and commercial enterprise particularly during the 1970s, and; b) Post-war rebuilding of the country following close to a decade of civil and military war during the 1980s, and more recently; c) pressure from commercial interests during the 1990s. Over the past four decades, Kampala tried to come to grips with its duality, influenced not only by the two urban traditions, but also by religion - Christianity (Anglican and Catholic) and Islam, a matter brought to light recently with the reconfiguration of the original historic settlement on Kampala hill to accommodate a new ‘national mosque’. Nevertheless, virtually all open spaces in Kampala today were gazetted during or before the colonial era and remained largely intact until the 1990s, when a new set of forces has resulted in these spaces increasingly being threatened with destruction. (Alweny, 2008) Contemporary Urban Spaces in Kampala The years 1970s to the late 1990s were tumultuous years in Uganda, during which the rule of law was severely eroded due to a series of civil wars and military conflicts that served to bring the country’s economy to a standstill. With no built environment professionals to oversee the planning process, decisions made were based on ad-hoc criteria. To add to the dire situation, Uganda did not have any Architecture, Planning or Landscape Architecture programme, with the first architecture programme initiated in 1989 and with planning in 1995, both at Makerere University. Consequently, developments have tended to encroach onto gazetted open spaces, reducing their area considerably over the last decade or so.

Without exception, all open spaces in Kampala have been the subject of development applications over the last decade. Although a few prominent proposals were halted, the majority have gone ahead, affecting the urban amenity of a city. Projects that were halted include a proposal for a petrol station within the grounds of the Kasubi Royal Tombs, - UNESCO World

155 Heritage Site. In another case, Constitution Square had been allocated to a local developer for the development of a shopping mall. The recently concluded Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) saw a rush to construct numerous hotels for the three-day event. Many, on land previously reserved as open space. These include the extension to Hotel Africana and the Golf Course Hotel. The associated shopping mall erroneously named ‘Garden City’ adjacent to the Golf Course Hotel is itself built on the Kitante wetland that occasionally floods after heavy downpours. Another, the Lugogo Shopping Centre constructed on the on the Lugogo sports grounds, also failed to account for the high water table. Schools have not been spared this trend, with all government schools within the city losing all or part of their sports grounds to socalled developers. The most controversial has been the demolition in 2006 of one of the oldest schools in Kampala, Shimoni Primary School, for the construction of a hotel – which has not been built to this day. Defining Space and Place Developments on green spaces have intensified over the last few years bring to the forefront a number of issues in regards to the open spaces, their intended use and their actual use both in the past and currently. Open spaces have traditionally been regarded as space that is utilitarian in nature and as such the concept of open space as a non-utilitarian – not being economically active is a concept that is not appreciated in Uganda. (Olweny, 2006; Buwembo, 2008) The existence of open spaces for leisure and relaxation was seen as an anomaly; consequently such spaces had to be put to economic use – economic in the traditional sense. While it could be argued that the changes being made to Kampala are a result of ‘Africanisation’ one is left to ponder this in light of the indigenous settlements, which did treasure open spaces, and protected them from encroachment. Is it actually ‘Africanisation’ causing the loss of the open spaces, or rather internationalisation? Internationalisation, often accompanied by an ‘outward-looking approach’ as described by (Morojele, 2003) presents a contextual problem, prioritising a global viewpoint that ensure the local condition is often ignored. In the case of Kampala, the wholesale application of international urbanism, without reference to the contextual issues of place is a major cause of the chaos. Influence from the Middle East for instance – importing desert or temperate typologies into a context where this is inappropriate.

The fast disappearing open spaces leave us with two questions to ponder; ‘why is this occurring?’ and ‘why is it allowed to happen?’ The answer may lie in the relationship Ugandans have with the land. Certain spaces have attached social and cultural significance, as was the case with Mabira Forest. A proposal to de-gazette part of this old growth forest for use as agricultural land met with stiff opposition and mass protests forcing the government to back down. The same cannot be said of the various open spaces in Kampala, which have been allocated for various commercial developments. One argument often cited is that these are colonial legacies that need to be erased. Urban cemeteries have been no exception; the last three within the city boundaries are already designated as future development sites. (Olweny, 2006) With over 50% of the open space already covered by concrete, we are left to wonder what can be done to reverse this trend. This question is particularly difficult to answer given the political involvement. The need for competent professionals is but part of the solutions, professionals who can assist in educating the public on these issues. Conclusion The importance of open spaces to the overall amenity and function of the city has for the most part been ignored. In this light, it may be time to rethinking the open spaces in Kampala, their place, function and design? How should we encourage people to appreciate their worth? These are two of many questions Built Environment professionals in Kampala are faced with, and

156 hopefully will have answers to before the last remaining green spaces are erased from the city. While the indigenous settlements do offer some clues as to the nature of traditional open spaces and the use of the same, greater effort has to be made to translate this into use patterns and in contemporary urban spaces. Regardless, the layers of influence cannot be ignored as they form a part of the urban fabric of the city. As we grapple with these issues, time is against us to make these spaces work for us and prevent the disappearance of what made Kampala liveable in the first place. The ball is in our court. References Adule, C. (2001). A Public Open Space Typology for Kampala: The Development of Form Through Studying Traditional Open Space, Master of Landscape Architecture Practicum, Department of Landscape Architecture, Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

Alweny, S. (2008). “Kampala’s green spaces risk extinction.” The Daily Monitor. February 16. Kampala. Buwembo, J. (2008). “No trees in Kampala, please, we’ve left country life behind.” in The East African, March 3, Nairobi. Churchill, W. (1908). My African Journey, London: Hodder & Stoughton. Morojele, Mphethi. (2003). “Space and identity: From the grassroots to the global”. Digest of South African Architecture. Cape Town: South African Institute of Architects Olweny, M. (2006). “Kampala stripped naked, fast turning into the world’s most unliveable city”. The Daily Monitor. August 10, Kampala. Fig. the city of Kampala today

157 Living Surfaces: Contribution of Green Roofs, Green Facades and Green Streets to Reduce Stormwater Run Off, CO2 Emissions and Energy Demand

Daniel Roehr & Jon Laurenz, Greenskins_lab, Design Centre for Sustainability, School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (SALA), University of British Columbia (UBC). Vancouver, BC, Canada. Introduction Many attempts are currently being made to create greener urban environments. One set of initiatives, implemented through policy, are “green factors”. Beginning in Berlin and Hamburg, Germany during the 1990s with the Biotope Area Factor (BAF, 1994), the Greenspace Factor was recently implemented (2001) in an urban development in Malmö, Sweden (Greenspace factor, 2001). Even more recently, in 2007, the City of Seattle developed its Green Factor (Seattle Department of Planning & Development, 2007). The main objectives of these green factors can be summarized as follows:

- Safeguarding and improving microclimatic and atmospheric hygiene - Safeguarding and developing soil function and water balance - Creating and enhancing the quality of plant and animal habitats - Improving the residential environment as well as reducing energy demand and CO2 emissions Our research analyses how these environmental goals can be achieved by greening a selected percentage of all urban surfaces within the Downtown Vancouver study area through green roofs, green facades and green streets (Fig). Fig. Overall living surfaces intervention (green streets + green façades + green roofs) ©greenskinslab

before

after

before

after

We study the consequences of such a "living surfaces" intervention, focusing on the contribution to reduced energy demand and effective stormwater management. Using a specific site in the core of Downtown Vancouver, we analyse existing green and grey surfaces. We then apply the Seattle Green Factor, which requires increases in green surfaces of 30% of flat roof areas, 30% of sidewalk areas, and 15% of façade areas to achieve the value (0.3) suggested by the Factor. We identify the environmental benefits that such an intervention provides to the selected site in terms of energy savings, reduction of CO2 emissions and stormwater run-off. We are currently developing a simple, computer-based tool for urban planners and city policy makers that would

158 also include the visualization of green interventions and illustrate the environmental benefits achieved. Aesthetic design recommendations will also be included. Methodology In the first phase, we select the case study site within Downtown Vancouver. The area selected reflects our project interest in analysing a dense urban area that combines residential and commercial buildings and that is expected to increase its density in the future through the “EcoDensity” (the City of Vancouver, 2006) initiative launched by the City of Vancouver. We analyse existing conditions of the site in terms of land use, green and grey surfaces, current energy consumption by buildings type and end use, CO2 emissions by energy source and flat roof and building façade areas.

We then apply the Seattle Green Factor (Seattle Department of Planning & Development, 2007) to the case study area. To achieve the value (0.3) suggested by the Factor, we propose to green 30% of existing flat roof area, 30% of existing sidewalk area and 15% of existing building façade area. By doing so, existing green surfaces are increased from 12% to 28%. Moreover, according to research studies on green roofs, the energy required for space conditioning due to the heat flow through roofs, would be reduced by more than 75% (Liu and Baskaran, 2003). In addition, green walls contribute significantly to the reduction of indoor air temperature in summer, since they reduce the external air temperature of a west-facing orientation up to 4ºC on a clear August day in Japan; (Hoyano, 1988) and by 5ºC in South Africa (Holm, 1989). This cooling effect of plants could reduce the annual cooling energy use by 31%, and windbreak plantings around unprotected homes are shown to reduce annual heating energy use by 15% (McPherson, Nowak et. al., 1993). According to computer simulations, in a warm climate such as in Madrid, cooling energy use reduction could reach up to 45% and heating reduction up to 23% (Laurenz, 2005). In terms of the capacity of plants to trap air pollutants such as CO2, grassy plants (on lawns) can trap 4.38kg/m² per year; shrubby plants (on green roofs) can trap 8.76 kg/m²; and climber plants (on green walls) can trap 6.57 kg/m² (Schaefer, 2004). In the initial phase of this research we also calculate the contribution of proposed new living surfaces to reduce stormwater run-off, based on the CN (Curve Number) Method (US Natural Resources Conservation Service - NRCS). The CN Method calculates daily runoff rate from each cover type, such as streets, landscaping area, and roofs. We calculate the runoff rate created by each cover type (roof, street, and landscaping area) combining the Curve Numbers of each cover type with the daily rainfall data for Vancouver (Environment Canada 2006). Considering the soil properties of the case study area, we assume a soil texture of silt loam or loam. This means we use an average CN of 69 for the calculation with a moderate rate of water transmission (0.15 - 0.30 in/hr) (Cronshey, 1986). Recent research has shown that compacted urban soil could influence infiltration; the CN of 69 also assumes that the soil is hand-compacted (Pitt, 2002). To estimate the contribution of green roofs to reduce runoff, we use the updated Crop Coefficient Method (California Department of Water Resources, 2000) where the runoff reduction rate of a green roof is equivalent to the evapotranspiration rate. We therefore calculate the total runoff reduction of green roofs by combining the evapotranspiration rate and the areas of green roofs.

159 Conclusion / Discussion We conclude, building on previous studies, that by greening 30% of existing flat roof areas, 30% of existing sidewalk areas and 15% of existing building façade areas, the energy demand of buildings would be reduced by 9%; CO2 emissions would decrease by 10%; and stormwater runoff would be reduced by 4%. We argue the implications of applying green factors to a high density area, such as the selected one. Green factor strategies typically add up different green surfaces for a selected site, divided by the total area of the site. However, this method does not consider the volumetric characteristics of the site, such as existing building façade surfaces.

The research shows that there is an opportunity to study how green factors could be adapted to different urban situations. To improve green factors and achieve more precise and effective green policies, we suggest continued research that produces accurate data on the environmental benefits of green interventions, along with in-depth studies on the cost and benefits of such green strategies, as well as ways of promoting green interventions through incentives. We will incorporate this into a simple computer-based tool for urban planners and policy makers that will be an important determinant in developing green policies with a strong formative basis. References Biotope Area Factor (BAF). (1994). Berlin, Germany. http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/landschaftsplanung/bff/index_en.shtml

California Department of Water Resources. (2000).“A Guide to Estimating Irrigation Water Needs of Landscape Plantings in California”. Department of Water Resources Bulletins and Reports. The City of Seattle, The Seattle Department of Planning & Development. (2007). Green Factor, http://www.seattle.gov/dpd/Permits/GreenFactor/, Seattle, US. The City of Vancouver. (2006). http://www.vancouver-ecodensity.ca/

EcoDensity

initiative.

Vancouver,

Canada.

Cronshey, R.G., Roberts, R.T., and Miller, N. (1986). “Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds“ (TR-55 Revised). Washington, D.C. Environment Canada. (2006). http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/Welcome_e.html Greenspace Factor. (2001). Malmö, Sweden. http://www.map21ltd.com/scan-green/bo01.htm Hoyano, A. (1988). “Climatological Uses of Plants for Solar Control and the Effects on the Thermal Environment of a Building”. Ed. Energy and Buildings. Vol 11, #1-3, pp 181-199. Tokyo. Holm, D. (1989). “Thermal Improvement by means of Leaf Cover on External Walls - A Simulation Model”. Ed. Energy and Buildings. Vol 14, pp 19-30. South Africa. Laurenz, J. (2005). “Natural Envelope: The green element as a boundary limit”. The 2005 World Sustainable Building Conference. Tokyo.

160 Liu, K., and Baskaran, B. (2003). “Thermal Performance of Green Roofs through Field Evaluation”. North American Green Roof Infrastructure Conference. May 29-30, Chicago, Illinois. McPherson, E. G., Nowak, D. J., et. al. (1993). “Chicago’s Evolving Urban Forest: Initial report of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project“. North-eastern Forest Experiment Station, pp 40-41. Radnor, Pennsylvania. Pitt, R., Chen, S.E., and Clark., S. (2002). “Compacted Urban Soils Effects on Infiltration and Bioretention Stormwater Control Designs“. The 9th International Conference on Urban Drainage. IAHR, IWA, EWRI, and ASCE. Portland, Oregon, September 8-13. Schaefer, V., Rudd, H., Vala, J. (2004). “Urban Biodiversity”. Captus Press, Ontario.

An Exploration of Greenspace in English ‘Sustainable Housing’

Carl Smith1, Andy Clayden2 and Nigel Dunnett2 1

2

Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Arkansas Department of Landscape, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Research rationale It has been suggested that residential greenspaces are the key to future sustainable living (Baines, 1998). In the UK, the last twenty years have seen the establishment of initiatives that claim to deliver more sustainable housing: Urban Villages; Millennium Communities; and Building Research Establishment certification (BREEAM) (Smith et al., 2007). However, there has been little research into schemes built through these initiatives, and the few existing critical studies (Barton & Kleiner 2000; DETR, 2000; Biddulph et al., 2003) have not considered residential greenspaces (including private gardens, communal spaces and all other vegetated spaces). This paper looks to fill this gap in knowledge, by considering the levels of sustainable thinking in the design of greenspaces within UK ‘sustainable housing’ sites – with a particular focus on England – and exploring the reasons behind the approaches taken. Furthermore, there is concern that moves to increase the UK’s housing density standards will reduce greenspace cover in future developments, and this study explores this possibility. Literature review One of the most obvious benefits of residential greenspace is its role in offsetting the imposition of impermeable areas and helping to manage site runoff (Whitford et al., 2001). Quantity of greenspace is therefore important – but so too is the quality of the greenspace, and its spatial relationship with other elements. Greenspaces with trees and large shrubs can reduce operational energy of homes by slowing winds and providing shade (Brown and Gillespie, 1995) whilst plantings (especially trees) adjacent to roads can also improve air quality (Givoni, 1991 as cited by Jorgensen, 2001) and help provide visual variety for adjacent footpath users (DTLR/CABE, 2001). Urban biodiversity is driven by the structural and species variety of plants in greenspaces (Jensen et al., 2000); these very same characteristics help increase disease resistance in plant communities and lower maintenance inputs (Dunnett & Clayden, 2000). As well as habitat in their own right, residential greenspaces can help create green connectivity through an urban area (Johnston and Newton, 1993) and boost regional biodiversity (Dramstad et al., 1996). The reported health benefits of contact with greenspace include promotion of well-being, reduced

161 stress and decreased recovery times from illness (Moore, 1982; Ulrich et al., 1991; Rhode & Kendle, 1994) and it has also been reported that vegetated greenspaces can help create a sense of community and safety in urban settings (Kuo et al., 1998; Joongsub & Kaplan, 2004). For greenspaces to contribute fully to residential sustainability, they have to be far richer than the simple compositions of closely mown turf, scattered emergent specimen trees, and low diversity shrub mass that, according to Dunnett & Hitchmough (2004), are often seen in the UK. Similarly, greenspaces which are rich in terms of range of experiences and activities (which planting can help to define) are preferred by residents and are more likely to foster community sentiment than large, homogenous areas (Williams, 2005; Quayle & Driessen van der Lieck, 1997). Methodology Between October 2001 and August 2005, the authors undertook a study investigating landscape sustainability in housing schemes purporting to be sustainable. Sixteen sites were selected for this broader multiple-case study providing variety in unit density, context, typology and tenure. The sites were located throughout England, including schemes within the cities of Liverpool, Bolton, Reading, Southampton, Bristol, Milton Keynes and London, as well as within rural villages in Buckinghamshire, Essex, Somerset, Hampshire, Cheshire and Kent. Each of the sites was badged as an ‘Urban Village’ or a ‘Millennium Community’ and/or was BREEAM certified. Each of the sixteen housing case-studies in the broader study was assessed using a sustainable landscape checklist based on the BREEAM assessment tool (see Smith et al., 2007). The checklist criteria included both the quality and quantity of residential greenspace, and it is that data which forms the focus here. Scaled site drawings including the extent and design of greenspaces were obtained and analysed, and each site was visited, whereupon a photographic record was made and observations were dictated into a hand-held Dictaphone. Through subsequent semi-structured stakeholder interviews with developers, designers and contractors, it was then possible to identify some of the reasons behind the observed approaches to greenspace design. The interviews were recorded and transcribed, and undertaken in line with best practice described by others (Burgess, 1984.; Oppenheim, 1992). Results Generally, the incidental greenspaces (verges, medians and frontage strips) within the body of the surveyed housing schemes were poorly connected and dominated by a narrow selection or monoculture of small-growing ornamental shrubs such as Hebe rakaiensis, Lavandula angustifolia and Lonicera pileata and/or closely mown grass. Developers did not generally plant trees and other vegetation in private gardens, preferring to lay them to turf. More extensive semi-public communal spaces were observed in some of the higher density schemes (i.e. greater than 30 units per hectare – uha-1) – a point that will be returned to later. Nevertheless, most of these more extensive greenspaces again featured only closely mown grass. Overall there was reluctance on the part of the developers to undertake new tree or significant shrub planting anywhere within the assessed housing. However, in a few instances communal spaces had been used by a developer to introduce more diverse, environmentally and socially beneficial greenspace into the higher density layouts: for example a native wildlife garden; or a patchwork of allotments (small open spaces intended for residents to raise their own vegetables), tree orchards and fruit patches.

Assumptions regarding social context and housing tenure influenced what was deemed appropriate for the analysed greenspaces. At public housing schemes, the Registered Social Landlord often assumed that richly planted greenspace would be vulnerable to excessive abuse, be refused for adoption by the local authority, and thus represent an unwanted liability. It was also assumed by the social developers that residents would be unwilling to accept maintenance responsibility for rear-garden planting, again leading to vandalism. Apart from concerns

162 regarding malicious abuse, more ecologically informed planting designs were avoided in streets and communal spaces under the belief that they are onerous to maintain. In private housing the aim of plantings was to provide ornamentation and encourage house sales, and the emphasis was therefore on a limited selection of small, ornamental shrubs of limited diversity. Furthermore, in the private schemes, there was concern that rear garden planting would impinge on the occupier’s opportunities for self-expression. The extent and structural diversity of plantings within greenspaces were also undermined by a lack of space, driven by the prioritisation of other elements over greenspaces and vegetation, including house foundations, services and parking spaces. As noted, high density housing schemes featuring flats (apartments) were often seen to incorporate relatively large communal greenspaces. Conversely, the non-private spaces between the lower density houses were filled with extensive shared driveways, parking areas and garages. As a result, one case-site with a density of just 15 uha-1 had a similar embedded greenspace cover (around 45%) as another case-site with a density of 45 uha-1. These findings suggest that, at the scale of an individual housing site, the relationship between the proportion of embedded vegetated greenspace cover and housing density may be less straightforward than the strong negative correlation suggested by Whitford et al. (2001). Using a two-tailed correlation analysis to determine the Spearman’s rho coefficient between unit density and percentage embedded greenspace cover for the 16 case-sites investigated here (n=16), it was shown that the negative correlation of –0.229 had a significance level of 0.394 and that therefore this relationship is not significant at an acceptable level; the null hypothesis that embedded green space cover and housing density were independent on these sites could not be discounted. Discussion and conclusions This study has shown that a housing scheme’s claim to be more sustainable than the norm, through alignment with recognised initiatives, does not guarantee a sustainable approach to residential greenspace. In fact, the majority of these schemes featured greenspaces no different from the standard, high resource, low diversity approach found in typical developments. Although some higher density developments were seen to incorporate relatively extensive communal greenspaces (and thus establish that high housing density can feature significant greenspace cover) these were seldom designed to aid social and environmental functioning. Given the current policy on increased housing density in England (and the concomitant lack of private garden space) central government, local authorities, developers and designers urgently need to fully consider the need for high quality, vital and sustainable shared greenspaces and ways of overcoming hurdles to implementation and ongoing maintenance.

Semi-structured stakeholder interviews revealed that greenspace diversity and quality in communal areas can be undermined by developers’ concerns regarding maintenance. The collected evidence suggests that the assumed cost of maintaining, and finding agreements for the adoption of, anything more complex than grass-sward or monoculture (especially where vandalism is assumed to be an issue) is a common concern. There was also a concomitant lack of realisation amongst housing developers, designers and contractors that more complex vegetation may not necessarily equate to high maintenance cost. It is important that the UK Government and its agencies (CABE, The Housing Corporation, English Partnerships) and the BRE look beyond the four walls of houses themselves when appointing exemplar sustainable schemes, and highlight developments were sustainable greenspace has been achieved. Though small in number, this study did demonstrate that more sustainable greenspaces can be incorporated into UK housing, even at high densities and within

163 challenging socio-economic settings. Such exemplar domestic schemes, together with those established elsewhere in Europe may be a source of inspiration, demonstrating where developers have provided rich communal greenspaces (including streetscapes) with diverse, functional and attractive low-maintenance plantings, as well as features such as water management, composting and children’s play. In the shorter term, early involvement by landscape professionals and innovative planting methods, together with more enlightened standards for proximity of vegetation to foundations, street design and adoption, could help developers incorporate vegetation and greenspaces into tight urban sites. This needs to be driven by developers and planning authorities being made fully aware of the importance of residential greenspace to a sustainable future. Fig. Hedebegade - Copenhagen. The restoration of this inner city housing block in 2002 incorporated sustainable deign features including waste recycling, solar heating and rainwater harvesting. Here the water is directed to an infiltration pond where the water is temporarily stored before it is filtered and retained for use in the communal building. The harvested rain is used for flushing toilets and to supply the communal laundry. The courtyard also supports other sustainable activities by providing covered areas for bicycle storage, recycling and composting facilities

References Baines, C. (1998). The green perspective. Proceedings of NHBC Annual Conference: Sustainable housing – meeting the challenges. Amersham: National House Building Council.

Barton, H. & Kleiner, D. (2000). Innovative Eco-Neighbourhood Projects. Chapter 5. In: Sustainable Communities, the Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods. Barton, H. (Ed.). London: Earthscan. Biddulph, M, Franklin, B. & Tait, M. (2003). From concept to completion. A critical analysis of the urban village. Town Planning Review 74:165 – 193.

164 Brown, R.D. & Gillespie, T.J. (1995). Microclimatic Landscape Design, Creating Thermal Comfort and Energy Efficiency. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Burgess, R.G. (1984). In the Field. An Introduction to Field Research. London: Allen and Unwin. Department of the Environment, Transport & the Regions. (2000). Regeneration Research Summary: Millennium Villages and Sustainable Communities Final Report. (Number 30). London: DETR. Department for Transport, Local Government & the Regions /CABE. (2001). Better Places to Live By Design: a companion guide to PPG 3. London: DTLR. Dramstad, W.E., Olson, J.D. & Forman, R.T.T. (1996). Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning. Washington: Harvard University Graduate School of Design/Island Press/The American Society of Landscape Architects. Dunnett, N. & Clayden, A. (2000). Resources: The Raw Materials of Landscape. Chapter 10. In: Landscape and Sustainability. J.F. Benson & M.H. Roe (Eds). London: Spon Press. Dunnett, N. & Hitchmough, J. (2004). More than nature. Landscape Design April 2004: 28 – 30. Jensen, M.B., Persson, B., Guldager, S., Reeh, U. & Nilsson, K. (2000). Green structure and sustainability – developing a tool for local planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 52:117 – 133. Johnston, J. & Newton, J. (1993). Building Green: A Guide to Using Plants on Roofs, Walls and Pavements. London: London Ecology Unit. Joongsub, K. & Kaplan, R. (2004). Physical and Psychological Factors in Sense of Community; New Urbanist Kentlands and Nearby Orchard Village. Environment and Behaviour 36: 313 – 340. Jorgensen, A. (2001) Why is it important to encourage nature and wildlife near the home? [online] Available at: www.map21ltd.com/overvecht/papers/natben.htm [Accessed on 12 March 2002]. Kuo, F.E., Bacaicoa, M. & Sullivan, W.C. (1998). Transforming inner-city landscapes. Trees, sense of safety and preference. Environment and Behaviour 30: 28 – 59. Moore, E.O. (1982). A prison environment’s effect on health care service demands. Journal of Environmental Systems 11:17 – 34. Oppenheim, A.N. (1992). Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. New Edition. London: Pinter Published Ltd. Quayle, M. & Driessen van der Lieck, T.C. (1997). Growing community: A case for hybrid landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 39: 99 – 107.

165 Rhode, C.L.E. & Kendle, A.D., (1994). Human well-being, natural landscapes and wildlife in urban areas. A review. English Nature Science Report No 22. English Nature. Smith, C., Clayden, A. & Dunnett, N. (2007) Residential Landscape Sustainability: A Checklist Tool. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Ulrich, R.S., Simons, R.F., Losito, B.D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M.A. & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology 11. pp 201 – 230. Whitford, V., Ennos, A.R. & Handley, J.F., (2001). ‘City Form and Natural Processes’ – indicators for the ecological performance of urban areas and their application to Merseyside, UK. Landscape and Urban Planning 57: 91 – 103. Williams, J. (2005). Designing Neighbourhoods for Social Interaction: The Case for CoHousing. Journal of Urban Design 10: 195 – 227.

Formation and Development of Parks and Gardens in Saratov, Russia

Olga Sokolskaya Saratov State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova, Saratov, Russian Federation In pre-revolutionary Saratov the area of green spaces was insignificant. Creation of the first park with utilitarian functions started in 1764 with the manufacture of silk from plantations, at that time the park was 65 hectares. The first roads were established in Saratov in 1804 which were made from a soft stone and it quickly turned to dust which combined with the street dirt. By 1871 the only 11 streets were paved. House owners were responsible for repairing the roads, but they neglected to do so or did it poorly (Lusina, 1987). More robust stones were used for roads from 1877. For example, the roadway of the Astrakhan Boulevard was constructed from the best grey Finnish granite. Later pedestrian street sidewalks were subsequently asphalted. The boulevards of Saratov are now the main “green corridors”. Today green areas in Saratov cover more than 2000 hectares. Besides parks, squares, parkways and the Botanical Garden citizens today can use peripheral natural landscapes, for example Smirnovskoye and October gorges, Rumisnaya glade, the Savelovskie mountains wood-park complex. These natural parks are part of Saratov’s “green structure”. A distinctive feature of Saratov’s green infrastructure is their central “nuclear” consisting of parks and gardens designed in pre-revolutionary time (before 1917). Later in 20th century these green areas were supported by "green" elements. Saratov’s pre-Revolutionary parks and gardens can subdivided into following types (Sokolskaya, 1993): • Places created on a particular place connecting to a historical event (e.g., the Square of the Revolution Fighters of 1905); • Created on the base of an ancient manor (e.g., the Gorky Park);

166 • • • •

•

Created next to a cathedral or on a place of a cathedral (e.g., the garden of the Museum Square); Created on the basis of the pre-revolutionary public spaces connected with development of culture and science (e.g., Lipky Garden); Based on natural landscapes (e.g., the Cosmonauts quay); Based on “Green corridors”- streets and boulevards (the prospect name after Kirov, the Volzshskaya street, a part of the Oktiabrskaya street; boulevards – Astrakhanskiy and Rachovskiy, etc.); Based on natural large forests (e.g., "Kumisnaya glade"park and the Victory park).

Pre-revolutionary parks and gardens of Saratov have compact or linear-dynamic compositional structure. There are several architectural decorative elements which were introduced to the parks and gardens in Saratov by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries (Sokolskaya, 2006). For example: · · · · · · ·

The pig-iron fences created by workers of forge-metalwork shop in workshops of Alexander vocational school; Electric advertising with the display of pictures from the Tretiakov Art Gallery in Moscow and advertising of various trading firms; Summer dance halls; Benches; Lanterns and colour small lamps; Arches, wooden trellis; Sculptures, grottos and small fountains.

The modern development of Saratov’s parks is directly depended on urban ecological conditions. According to the Saratov’s Motor Licensing and Inspection Departments latest data, there are 213,000 registered motor vehicles. This is 9000 more compared to 2005. The volume of pollution emissions in 2006 was 113340 tones. The contribution of motor transport to total emissions in Saratov was 79.16%, including sulphur dioxide (SO2 -20.49%), nitrogen oxide (N2O, NO and N2O5 -81.23%,), hydrocarbons (50.41%,), carbon dioxide (CO and CO2 93.97 %) and soot (85.6%). Pollution emissions to the atmosphere from the motor vehicles were in total 89720 tones. On results of the inventory led by the Institute "RosGiproLes", Saratov has about 270 hectares of general public green areas. Each person in Saratov has approximately 3 square meters of green areas. In Leninskiy District of the City one citizen has only 1.3m2 of green areas, in Oktiabrskiy -2.3 m2, Kirovskiy -1.4 m2, Volzshsiy -15.6 m2, Frunzinskiy -0.3m2 and in Zavodskoiy -1.3 m2. The existing norm of the green areas per person is 28 m2. There is a shortage of recreational and natural green areas. Gardens and boulevards are spread very irregularly (State Report, 2007). There are some potential areas for creating parks and gardens in Saratov (about 994 hectares). More than 100 species of trees and 87 shrubs are planted in city green areas. Despite of quite a variety of species, most of the trees and shrubs have very low aesthetic value. However, these tree species are very tolerant of existing harsh climatic conditions and do not need high

167 maintenance. Prevailing tree species are: Ulmus scabra, Fraxinus lanceolata, Acer negundo and Populus pyramidalis. Dominant shrub species are Cononeaster lucida, Syringa vulgaris and Ribes aureum. Coniferous trees have just 3.2 % from total number of urban trees. The average age of trees is between 16 and 40 years. About 10 % of deciduous trees reach maturity. The main atmosphere pollutants in Saratov are: nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxide, dust, carbon oxide, phenol, H2S, formaldehyde and bensopiren (C6H5NH2). After the analysis of the content of these substances in the urban atmosphere for the period 2002 to 2007, the schedule of dynamics of pollution of atmospheric air of Saratov (using the basic and specific substances in shares of maximum concentration) has been produced. We can clearly conclude that the maximum concentration belongs to formaldehyde, nitrogen dioxide and bensopiren. For the last year the content of these pollutants in the air (except for formaldehyde) has increased (Fig.). Fig. Dynamics of pollutants in the air of Saratov on the basis of specific substances, shares of maximum concentration limit

After carrying out of the comparative analysis of quantity of pollutants in different areas of Saratov, it was concluded that the Frunzenskiy District was the worst for the concentration of harmful substances such as formaldehyde and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide strongly irritates mucous membranes of human respiratory systems. It has negative functional and pathological effects on the human body in general. Pollution of atmospheric air by nitrogen dioxide threatens not only the people’s health, but also influences the environment. The negative biological influence of nitrogen dioxide on plants is shown in discoloration of leaves, withering of flowers and the termination of growth. Formaldehyde (HCOOH) is gas with a sharp irritating smell. It is one of the most harmful kinds among the toxic gases. It can irritate eyes, throat, skin and cause dizziness and even as it is considered, death if its concentration in air will exceed 50 units. The main contributors to air pollution by formaldehyde are motor vehicles. It is important to work with the plant selection and choose species which are tolerant to formaldehyde. Objects for our research were leaves of 7 species of wood plants: Acer platanoides, Fagus silvatica, pyramidal poplar, Betula pendula, Populus tremula, Aesculus hippocastanum, and Canadian poplar. Trees were 40-45 years old. The results show the following order in the process of decreasing tree species stability to formaldehyde: Populus tremula - Betula pendula - Aesculus hippocastanum – Acer platanoides. Differences to the formaldehyde tolerance of wood plants should be considered in designing and

168 creation of urban green areas in industrial city environment, as well in street and highways planting (Table). Table. Sensitivity of woody species to sulphur dioxide, phenol and formaldehyde Plantings

Sulphur dioxide

Phenol

Formaldehyde

Berberis vulgaris

*

*

++

Ligustrum vulgare

-

+

*

Sambucus nigra

-

++

*

Betula verrucosa

++

-

-

Ulmus pinnato-ramosa

+

+

+

Quercus robur

-

+

-

Cornus sanguinea

-

-

*

Salix alba f. vittelina pendula nova

*

+

-

Viburnum opulus

*

++

+

Caragana arborescens

+

+

*

Aesculus hyppocastanum

++

+

-

Acer:

*

*

*

A. platanoides

-

-

*

A. pseudoplatanus

-

-

+

A. negundo

-

-

-

A. campestre

-

*

+

A. saccharinum

-

-

-

++

+

++

Elaeagnus angustifolia

-

-

*

Syringa vulgaris

+

++

++

Padus vulgaris

+

++

*

Malus domestica

+

++

*

Tilia cordata

«++» - high sensitivity; «+»- average sensitivity; «-» - low sensitivity; «*» - reaction is unknown It is also important to consider decorative flowers for flowerbeds, many of which are capable of absorbing pollutants from the atmosphere. For example, formaldehyde can be neutralised by some ferns, Bellis perennis, and Chrysanthemum can absorb ammonia. Some plants that are capable of absorbing complex pollutants: ·

Lily: ammonia, benzene, formaldehyde, C6H4(CH3)2

·

Tulip: ammonia, formaldehyde, C6H4(CH3)2

·

English ivy: ammonia, benzene, C6H4(CH3)

169 According to our survey, citizens of Saratov believe that the ecological situation in Saratov is worse, than across Russia as a whole. The majority (84 %) believes that the ecological situation in Saratov more likely to be worse, 14 % people of Saratov estimate ecological position as average, and only 2 % of inhabitants consider ecology of our area is good. References Luzin, Е.S (1987). On parks and squares of Saratov. Saratov, Russia.

Sokolskaya, O.B. (1993). « Green architecture » Saratov’s Volga region. Saratov: SSU. Sokolskaya, O.B. (2006). Feature of adaptation of steady elements of gardening of settlements Saratov Right banks. . Saratov: SSAU. The State report on a condition and on preservation of the environment in the Saratov area in 2006 [TXT] / on the Saratov area. (2007). Saratov.

“Usadba” Complexes (End of XVIII-Beginning of XX Centuries) as a Sustainable Element of Green Areas System in Saratov

Olga Sokolskaya, O.A. Shachina Saratov’s State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova Acceptance by the majority of the countries - participants of Conference of the United Nations of 1992 year (Rio de Janeiro) of sustainable development concept, proclaimed necessity of the balanced decision of social and economic problems and problems of preservation of the environment. It demands from town-planners the search of new models of city development based on real opportunities of the nature. A long orientation of Soviet town-planning practice towards extensive development of city territories from a position of inexhaustibility of natural resources had led to creation of unsuitable urban environment and degradation of natural landscapes. Perspective of realisation of the sustainability concept in Russia, especially in large cities, directly connected to landscape reconstruction of urban environment. Integration of Russia in the world and regional nature protection organisations allows us to use existing international experience in transformation of spatial structure of city landscapes. Study of old “Usadba” complexes of Privolzskaya Height can be a very important element of the city – “the urban architectural and ecological skeleton”. We researched “Usadba” complexes created in Saratov in the end of XVIII- the beginning of XX centuries. During the end of XVIII- the beginning of XIX century’s country “usadba” complexes had been developed. Usadba belonged to noblemen, clerics and government officials. Usadba complex usually consisted of a house-private residence, a wing, service building and a garden. Today classical usadba is a rarity in the urban environment. The active urban development in the downtown area ruthlessly destroys most of historical buildings of Russian provincial towns. Most old buildings were wooden and were often destroyed by fires, and accordingly reconstructed. Saratov still has unique usadba complexes within the urban boundaries. Most of Saratov’s “usadba” complexes were built along the river Volga and in the centre of the city (for example usadba of Chernishevskiy, Pypin, Phedin, Barataev and Rejnik (Sokolskaya, 1993).

170

Usadba complexes along the river Volga were located on three terraces. The top terrace was used for the house construction and the lower terrace for the fruit garden. A special viewing pavilion is usually located on the highest point of the complex. Gardens used to grow not only fruit trees but a lot of decorative trees and shrubs for example dog rose, lilac, white and yellow acacias and silver willow. Elm was planted for the perimeter hedges. The architecture of houses and some structures were mostly in the Empire style (columns, attics and big verandas). Gardens were usually used for utilitarian purposes and for recreation. Famous Russian author Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernischevky named the central part of his usadba’s garden the "Asia Minor" and wrote about playing here ‘lapta’ game (Russian version of cricket) and climbing trees. The famous usadba of I. Barataev had an amazing park which was “famous all around Saratov”. Unfortunately most of beautiful “usadbas” in Saratov are neglected and need immediate restoration and maintenance. As a result of our research the following peculiarities of the design development of usadba’s (as a potential part for sustainable green areas system) were identified: 1) usadba complexes located along the river Volga were greater in size compared to urban, complexes located in the city center; 2) usadba complexes had front gardens which decorated also urban streets; 3) usadba complexes had mostly deciduous trees and bushes which had special functions: trees protecting slopes from landslips: elms, poplar and oaks; decorative shrubs: Syringa vulgaris, Philadelphus, Rosa canina, Caragana arborescens, Viburnum opulus and Ribes aureum; fruit trees and shrubs – apple trees, pears, cherries, black currant, raspberry, quince; front gardens has mostly Syringa vulgaris and Sorbus; 4) usadba complexes had flower beds with typical plants of the end of the XIX century: phlox, peony; tulip, lily; Malva moschata ; Tagetes, Calendula and Cynoglossum; 5) usadba complexes in the city had a number of architectural elements: benches, fences, rotundas, sometimes grottos, small fountains and sculptures; 6) lay-out of roads was very rational. Today these usadba complexes are subjected to various ecological factors, especially to urban pollution. The analysis of usadba’s plantings according their pollution resistance has been carried out (table) Table. Dustproof Ability of Recreational-Protective Plantings of Usadba Complexes in Saratov (case studies: usadbas of Chernishevskiy, Phedin and Barataev) Plantings

Number of the row from road

Height of sample (metres)

Weight of a dry dust, mg/m

For June, 2006

Quercus robur Betula verrucosa Ulmus pinnato-ramosa Syringa vulgaris Ribes aureum

7 4 1 2 2

4.0 4.0 1.5/4.0 1.5/3.0 1.5/2

7890 11788 18526 6580 6318

For September (after a rain) 2006 Traces Traces 0.30/traces 0.201/traces Traces

171 Results clearly show that the Ulmus pinnato-ramosa which has very rough leaf blades collects much more dust than other species. This elm also has a very well developed root system which allows it to protect the slopes (Sokolskaya, 2006). We has also analysed pollutants in the air of those usadba complexes. The first place among pollutants was formaldehyde (Fig.). Interesting enough the most resistant to formaldehyde pollution woody plants Ulmus pinnato-ramosa, Betula verrucosa, Acer platanoides, balsam poplar, Syringa vulgaris. These species can be found in most usadba complexes. Our main recommendations are: 1) Restore (whenever possible) historical plantings and flower cultures and fruit orchards or their fragments; 2) Restore historical palisades (front gardens) and make this feature as a main for Saratov’s “sense of place”; 3) Replace existing economic buildings by the laser image of those constructions, and use that free space for cultural events; 4) Actively use usadba complexes in cultural and tourist activity. Fig. Comparative analysis of polluting substances in Volzhskiy area

References Sokolskaya O.B. (1993). Green architecture of Saratov,s Volga region. Saratov: SSU.

Sokolskaya O.B (2006). Feature of adaptation of study elements of gardening of settlements Saratov Right river banks. Saratov: SSAU.

172 Eco-reconstruction of Urban Communication Spaces: Case Study of Volgograd, Russia

Inna Sotnikova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering Volgograd is situated 1073 kilometres south-east of Moscow on Lower Volga River, with population of 1032.9 thousand people. A peculiarity of the planning structure of Volgograd (former Stalingad) is the unique linear structure extended over 70 km along the river Volga. This structure was formed by the merger of Tsaritsyn City (founded in 1589) and separate settlements stretched along the river. Development of Stalingrad’s general planning scheme in 1945 marked its further progress of linear structure landscaping system. New city’s master plan (2025) the creation of effective transport infrastructure (now this system covers 3382 ha) - (MGPSV, 2006). Main tendencies of city’s development are: 1. Intensive development of high-speed transport – railway and high-speed tram (metrotram) with overland and trestle zones. 2. Creation of multipurpose serving and business complexes in the zone of a bypass motorway and development and increased infrastructure of suburban zone. 3. Partial compression of industrial areas (occupying 70 sq km of the city territory) and their transformation into business zones and their maximal exposure to the Volga River. 4. Organisation of recreational and supporting complexes along Volga waterfront. 5. Formation of entrances to the transport-terminal complexes. 6. Introduction of bicycle infrastructure. 7. Improve the accessibility to main historical sites. UCS (urban communication spaces) are territories which have certain economic potentials and social effectiveness. Ecological aspect is one of the most important in the concept of urban communication spaces. System of the main transport highways is a primary source of acoustic and air pollution (Chistyakoa, 1988). It is necessary to identify areas with ecological tension such as railways and railway stations and express tramway lines. The condition of urban communication spaces in Volgograd is very insufficient and has incidentally chosen methods of vegetation arrangement and treatment of topography situations. Among conflict situations in the organisation of urban communication spaces are the following: • • • • •

Problem of organisation of public transport and its interaction with private transport which creates traffic jams and as a consequence deterioration of ecological situation. Expansion of spontaneous parking connected with insufficient quantity of parking places and intensive growth of individual transport. Reduction of green buffers between districts due to arrangement of municipal facilities on the main city highways. Absence of a waterfront equipped for recreation and transit traffic. Absence of antinoise equipment (from high-speed highways and rail transport in structure of residential development)

173

It is crucial too define approaches for decisions to urban communication spaces ecoreconstruction. It has been suggested to choose basic urban communication spaces typology according to their zoning– boundary spaces, and accordingly, their consideration in respect to their various functions: with objects of special purpose – sanitary-protective zones, residential development, public buildings and constructions, buffer zones, natural dominants and transport facility. We suggest the creation of a system of differentiated communication corridors in which pedestrians and transport move at different speeds. Several methods of urban communication spaces reorganisation were suggested for examination: method of restructuring of route-side zones, method of landscape structure regeneration of rail transport routes and the method of multilevel stratification. The method of restructuring of urban communication spaces route-side zones is based on the principle of differentiation of space with allocation of strips of guaranteed and safe traffic for individual and public transport, pedestrians and organisation of bicycle traffic by using vegetation and change of street profile as it is used in European countries. This method can be applied to main urban arteries with regulated traffic of regional subordinance of Volgograd. Besides increase in street and road capacity, traffic condition on the basic roadways will be considerably improved with removal of slowly moving public transportation vehicles. Separating and planting green traffic strips with natural components (as it is very common in China) is considered as a traffic safety. Method of creation compositions of certain height allows countermovement drivers not to blind each other with headlamps. In places where boundary urban space serves as residential development, it is important to use the latest European approaches (for example “green walls” in the Museum of Modern Art of J. Nouvel in Paris). Filling buffer spaces with antinoise plantings, terrain geoplastics, screens on basic transit directions, in residential development, on pedestrian areas is not surprising today. The application of "green" screens with use of the latest technologies is very interesting. An example is city streets in Tokyo where environmental problems are solved not only in a relation to antinoise but to the formation of favourable microclimate (Gaventa, 2006). For urban communication spaces along the Volga River (for waterfront especially) is a very good example of creating verdant piers as spaces of public purpose from New York City. According to the new master plan the usual types of public transport will be used in areas away from high-speed rail lines. For communications between neighbouring areas within the city, the method of landscape structure regeneration and new landscape organisation of rail transport lines is suggested (for streets structure and redesigned industrial enterprises). The railway system will be 65km long (MGPSV, 2006). Method of multilevel urban communication spaces stratification is based on integration principle and ecological safety. Transformation of existing street model can be optimal on main urban arteries with partially uninterrupted traffic (2nd lengthways road) and uninterrupted traffic (3rd lengthways road). The inspiration for this idea came from multilevel street in Barcelona, where urban noise problems from public transport were solved by creation of exploitable screens from trees (Topos 53, 2005). Creation of parks above highways and design of landscape “bridges” can be used also for Volgograd. All these methods are based on an ecological approach and principle of safety as well as decreasing conflict situations between pedestrians and traffic.

174 One of the basic resources that can improve the ecological situation in urban communication spaces of Volgograd is vegetation. About 80 % of Volgograd green areas are mature plantings which are in decline. Urban communication spaces are a huge resource for increasing the parameters of green areas. Choice of vegetation forms for urban communication spaces is dependent on the character of street spaces: 1. Long-distance street – "line" where it is necessary to consider architecture of tree crowns and tree size for: • сreation of visual barriers; • сreation of background along transport communications of various purpose; • сreation of transformable environment for pedestrian streets depending on the season 2. Island elements –"pauses" in street structure: as identification of entrance zones to public buildings; emphasis of island spaces at crossroads and pedestrian zones - «warning zones»; • landscape design of pedestrian-transport crossings for pedestrian safety.

Due to climatic peculiarities of Volgograd all the methods of urban communication spaces ecoreconstruction demand special engineering solutions and maintenance methods. Due to the dry climate it is very important to use effective watering systems (drip irrigation). The foresight of stem protections with lattices, fillings with inert materials which effectively start to be applied in our country will protect root system of trees from damages and drought (Teodoronosky et al, 2006). Now this method is applied in different conceptual projects in Volgograd. In some cases to achieve economic effectiveness we can speak about differentiable level of landscape design depending on financial opportunities. Offered methods of urban communication spaces ecoreconstruction will allow an improvement in the ecological situation in Volgograd. References Carmen Fiol Costa (2006). «The Gran Via in Barselona» Callway. Topos 53 Traffic : 94-97.

Chistyakoa, S.B. (1988). Preservation of the environment. Мoscow.: Stroyizdat Gaventa, S. (2006). New public spaces. Octopus Publishing Group Ltd. Materials of the general planning scheme of Volgograd city carried out by ООО VNII of spatial planning «ENKO» (2006) Spb. (MGPSV) Teodoronosky, V.S., Sabo Е.D., Frolova V.А. (2006). Construction and exploitation of landscaping objects. Мoscow: ACADEMIA, pp.163.

175 Mapping and Evaluation of Belgrade Biotopes As an Ecological Foundation for Sustainable Planning of the City’s Green Areas System

A.Teofilović1, J.Cvejić2, K.Čavić3, A.Tutundžić4 1

Detailed Planning Department, Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, Serbia2 Department for the Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade Serbia, 3 Detailed Planning Department, Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, 4 Department for the Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Introduction The key issue and strategic option of Belgrade, defined by national legislation 11 and other regulations, is the planning of the City based on principles of sustainable development. Contemporary planning founded on these principles needs various information frameworks. One of the significant information frameworks implicates perceiving space from an ecological point of view, i.e. observing it through basic topographic units in ecology - biotopes12. The instrument enabling such an insight of space is the mapping of city biotopes. Due to a lack of such information database in up-to-date planning practice and in accordance with the strategic option/choice of the City, its formation for the territory of Belgrade was initiated.

The project “Mapping and evaluating of Belgrade biotopes” (Town Planning Institute of Belgrade, 2007) was set about during 2005. This is the first project of the sort in Serbia. The project was financed by the City of Belgrade, Secretariat for Environmental Protection, and the project design was entrusted to Town Planning Institute of Belgrade. During two years, the working team including experts of different professions, elaborated mapping and evaluating of the biotopes in the space of 77460 hectares. The applied methodology of Belgrade Biotope Mapping derived mainly from the experiences of German cities and the instructions made by the “Working Team for Biotope Mapping in the Built Areas” in Stuttgart, Germany (Ermer, K., Hoff R., Mohramann, R., 1996). The most important phase of work in applying the selected methodology referred to the preparation of the key for biotope mapping, adjusted to natural and man-made spatial conditions of the referent area and its definition founded on specific, particular field samples. A hierarchic structure of the key with nine main groups was applied; with four levels within each of the groups: main group – type – subtype – variation (- community). The applied methodology for the evaluation of Belgrade biotopes actually introduces criteria according to Kurtz, H. & Haack, A. (2000) as well as Knospe F. (1998), modified and adjusted by the working team to local Belgrade conditions, to be used for our project. Representative Biotopes are evaluated using the following criteria: 1. Basic biotope significance - Criteria according to which the value of biotope is assessed in relation to the presence of edifikators13 and international list of significant habitat; 2. Inherence for natural space - Criteria according to which the value of biotope is assessed in relation to the degree of successive development of ecosystem, i.e. stabilized relations of abiotic and biotic factors; 11

List of national legislation is annexed in the reference list Biotope [Greek bios=”life or organism” + topos=”place”] is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals. (http://www.thefreedictionary.com). 13 Edifikator is the term, introduced by Sukachev, V. (I925), for species which exert a strong influence on the environment for the other species of the community. 12

176 3. Age and regeneration ability - Criteria according to which the value of biotope is in function of the biotope structure compensation ability, i.e. its regeneration in the other place; 4. Resourcefulness (diversity) - This criterion assesses the value of biotope in relation to representation of autochthonous species of flora and fauna with a significant participation of generic – distinctive species; 5. Singularity (endemism, value as a relicts, rarity) - This criteria assesses the value of biotope in relation to the number of endemic, relict or rare species of flora and fauna; 6. Significance as habitat of endangered species - This criteria assesses the value of biotope as a habitat of critically endangered (CR) or endangered (EN) species of flora and fauna, vulnerable (VU) species, as well as the species of flora and fauna in the lists of internationally and/or nationally protected species; 7. Load degree of a biotope - Criteria assesses the value of biotope in accordance to its position in relation to neighbouring spaces conditioned by human influence on biotope; 8. Biotope size, isolation, i.e. the distance to adjacent biotopes and fragmentation Integrated criteria assesses the value of biotope according to logic of „minimal biotope size“ making this biotope stabile, as well as „minimal distance between two biotopes“ of the same type enabling unobstructed communication between biotopes /groups of biotopes. Within the mapping of representative biotopes, for the set of selected representative plots, detailed information of the chosen representative plots, on flora, fauna, preservation, etc. were collected. The evaluation of representative biotopes was founded on the defined criteria and collected database. The preservation of habitat and species variety, their presence and distribution, was the key issue of evaluation. The outcome of the working process is Belgrade biotopes database. The established database consists of 161.484 geometrically separated biotopes, each one described with a specific set of attributes. Attained database provides possibility for multiply appliance. The Map of Belgrade Biotopes represents a unique data survey about the share and spatial distribution of 181 subtypes in the territory of the City (classified in 51 type and 9 main groups). The Evaluation Map of Belgrade Biotopes presents the evaluation results of the representatively selected biotopes in the form of seven-degree values scale (Significantly barren biotopes, often strong significance for adjacent valuable living spaces (Mark 1) to Natural biotopes, or biotopes very close to natural, with distinguished values (Mark 7)). Such information is one of the important ecological frameworks for planning of the green spaces set up and for urban planning in general. Additionally, the significant results of work are various topical maps (the map of soil porosity, map of ruderal vegetation). In the research area, from 506 representatively selected biotopes, particularly significant, from the standpoint of biodiversity preservation, are biotopes estimated as: Valuable biotopes, extensively used and with rich structure. Habitats rich with species with an important function as a refugium or buffer in the built environment, or in intensive agricultural areas (for example: old fallows, extensive meadows and pastures and partially close to nature field trees, hedges, production forests close to nature and so on.) (Mark 5);

177

Highly valuable, nearly natural biotopes with an important function as a refugium, deserving nature preservation, slightly loaded remnants of former natural landscape, or older cultivated ecosystems. Ceased to be used extensively, habitats of endangered species (for example: old forests close to nature, slightly degraded swamps and wetlands, brooks close to nature, old hedges (ridges), old grass communities and so on) (Mark 6); Natural biotopes or biotopes very close to natural, with distinguished values for biotope preservation and protection of species, deserving nature preservation of international and national significance, remnants of former natural landscapes, or older cultivated ecosystems. Ceased to be used extensively; habitats of many endangered species (e.g. swamps (peat bogs), natural climatic forests, natural lawns and primary underbrush, brooks and lakes left to nature, with significant accumulation of sediments zone) (Mark 7).

Among the given, for this occasion following biotopes will be emphasized: 1. Riversides deciduous brush-wood (Bara Reva vicinity), space 1.3 hectares, mark 5. From the total of 138 recorded species of flora and fauna14, 22 species are on national and global red list, 44 are protected according to Berne convention, 3 are protected according to Bonn convention, and 76 of the species belong to rare, relict and endemic. 2. Complex, structurally rich turf with mosaic distribution of vegetation in various stages of succession (Makiš field), space 8.1 hectares, mark 5. From the total of 224 recorded species of flora and fauna, 42 are on national and global red list, 33 are protected according to Berne convention and 7 are protected according to Bonn convention. 3. Green space under the tree tops and bushes ≥ 50% (park Košutnjak), space 4 hectares, mark 5. From the total of 109 recorded species of flora and fauna, 24 are on national and global red list, 20 are protected according to Berne convention and 2 are protected according to Bonn convention. 4. Constant small standing waters (Bara Reva), space 11.6 hectares, mark 6. From the total of 118 recorded species of flora and fauna, 45 are on national and global red list, 44 are protected according to Berne convention and 18 are protected according to Bonn convention. 5. Thermo - mesophilic deciduous forest (part of the city forest Košutnjak), space 3.8 hectares, mark 6. From the total of 197 recorded species of flora and fauna, 36 are on national and global red list, 21 are protected according to Berne convention and 5 are protected according to Bonn convention. 6. Group of trees of the wetland habitats (wetlands of Makiš field), space 0.5 hectares, mark 7. The habitat defined as Priority for conservation habitats / Habitats of special conservation interests in the international lists; with primary and relatively well preserved forms of vegetation, age (app. 75-250 year), hardly renewable. From the total of 182 recorded species of flora and fauna, 82 are on national and global red list, 71 are protected according to Berne convention, and 22 are protected according to Bonn convention. Such an information for the specific spaces of the City is documented ecological framework to be used for the planning process of green spaces, urban spaces, and consequently for urban design. From the ecological facet, biotopes evaluated as highly valuable should be preserved by the process of planning and development of the City.

14

Insects, birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles

178 Conclusion Elaboration of the urban plan of the system of Belgrade’s green spaces is the forthcoming task, where the database concerning biotopes will find its practical implementation. The basic planning conception of such a significant ecological structure of the City is founded on planning of the green belt in the border zone of the City, planning of the system within the green spaces of the City, their mutual connection via green corridors, though the connection with green spaces in the region as well. Each of the mentioned elements of the system is planned on the principle base-connection, which enables netting of multifunctional green spaces, open spaces and water surfaces and corridors as well.

Founded on adopted principle, classified highly valuable biotopes should be integrated as either basic or connective element of the system as a whole. Integration of the valuable biotopes in the system of green spaces will provide multiple benefits such as: conditions for preservation of variety of habitats and species; conditions for functioning of natural processes (species movement, water circulation...); better accessibility aimed for preservation and research; enriching of the tourist offer, for example by establishing paths to knowledge, where visitors would have detailed information about the space; improvement of the cityscape and region landscape, etc. . References Drachenfels von, O. (1994). Kartierschluessel fuer Biotoptypen in Niedersachsen. Niedersaechsisches Landesamt fuer Oekologie, Naturschutz und Landespflege in Niedersachsen A/4, Niedersachsen, Germany Ermer, K., Hoff, R., Mohrmann, R. (1996). Landschaftsplanung in der Stadt. Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany Gyllin, M., (1999). Integrating biodiversity in urban planning. Department of Landscape Planning, Alnarp, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Jedicke, E. (1994). Biotopschutz in der Gemeinde, Praktischer naturschutz. Neimann, Germany Knospe, F. (1998). Handbuch zur argumentativen Bewertung - Methodischer Leitfaden für Planungsbeiträge zum Naturschutz und zur Landschaftsplanung. Kojić, M., Popović, R., Karadžić, B. (1994). Fitoindikatori i njihov značaj u proceni ekoloških uslova staništa. Beograd: IP Nauka. Kuestler, H., Fietz, M. (2003). (Büro Luftbild + Vegetation) Biotoptypenliste Berlins Kurz, H. (1998). Aktuelle Entwicklungen in der Bewertung von Biotoptypen, Buero fuer Biologische Bestandsaufnahmen, Hamburg und Kiel, Vortrag gehalten auf dem VSÖ-Seminar „Aktuelle Bewertungssystem in der naturschutzfachlichen Planung Town Planning Institute of Belgrade (2007). Mapping and Evaluation of Belgrade Biotopes. Belgrade. National legislation Law on Environment Protection (“The Republic of Serbia Official Gazette”, No. 135/04)

179 Law on planning and construction (“The Republic of Serbia O. Gazette”, No. 47/03) Law on strategic environmental impact assessment (“The Republic of Serbia Official Gazette”, No. 135/04) Wild species of flora protected by means of controlling the picking, usage and trade – Decree on controlling the usage of wild flora and fauna (“The Republic of Serbia Official Gazette”, No. 22/2007) Protected species as natural rarities – Decree on protection of natural rarities (“The Republic of Serbia Official Gazette”, No. 50/93 and 93/93) National Red List of vascular flora, Master Plan of Belgrade 2021 (“The Republic of Serbia Official Gazette”, No. 47/03) Fig. Integration of valuable biotopes in green system planning.

180 State and Using Prospects of the Protective Afforestation in Planting Trees and Shrubs In Towns’ Steppe System (Case Study of Saratov)

Alexandr Tereshkin, O.V. Azarova Saratov State Agrarian University named after N.I.Vavilova, Saratov, Russian Federation There is an insufficient level of planting trees and shrubs in urban areas in steppe conditions. It is important to create new plantings and maintain the existing green areas, if they fulfill their functions very efficiently. The protective afforestation (wind breaks) can be successfully included in the system of urban green areas thereby increasing their aesthetic attractiveness. The protective functions should be also retained at the same level. Urbanisation has transformed a lot of agricultural landscapes into urban environments. Our research task was to study the opportunities for protective afforestation zones in urban environments using a case study of Saratov. Yadov’s method was used for sociological questioning. Planting evaluation was carried out according to accepted Russian methods (OCT 56-69-83; Ogievski & Khirov, 1964; Anuchin, 1986; Kabanov, 2004). Life state of species was determined by Alexeev’s methods (1989). Generally accepted methods were used for growth stage and phytomass study. Complex estimation scale of recreative and aesthetic properties for green plantings (Table) were developed by obtaining the comparative characters of existing green areas belonging to the different categories. Table. Criteria of recreational and aesthetical estimation. Estimated feature Species variety Community layers Sanitary and life state of green areas Age Landscape visibility Availability of green areas The level of species contrast Seasonal planting attractiveness Condition of ground cover Peculiarities of blooming Colour of fruits Variety and species mixture Level of presence of rubbish Vista availability Distance from water

Number 1–6 1–5 1 – 10 1–2 1–6 1–5 1 – 10 1 – 10 1 – 10 1 – 10 1 – 10 1- 3 1–5 1–3 1–5

One (1) is minimal and 10 is maximum mark for the criteria. The protective afforestation green areas cover up to 23.4 % (601 ha) of all green areas in Saratov. They are represented by plant communities on slopes (35%), anti-erosion plantings (24%), forest belt plantings along roads (21%), shelterbelts (16%), and protective zones (4%). About nine

181 percent of Saratov citizens use these plant communities for recreation. This number could be increased up to 61% with more complex management and maintenance. Condition of timber species such as oak, linden and elm in protective forest plantings is a little bit poorer than in urban plantings. Such distinction is explained by an absence of thinning that resulted in increased density of plantings in comparison with normal (up to 1.5 times). The study of growth of woody species has shown that height of maple (Acer negundo) and Robinia pseudoacacia in the city is higher than the average of 1.5 m. Maple has completed growth at the age of 50 years. Robinia pseudoacacia are characterized by fast growth until the age of 60. The height of oak (Quercus robur) increases until an age of 75. Our research has shown better growth of plantings in the city environment due to better growing conditions and regular watering. The comparative parameters of vital condition of woody species in protective woodlots and green areas of Saratov, are shown in the figure Fig. The characteristic of a vital condition of woody species

index of a vital condition

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 italica

Populus

Robinia

pseudacacia

negundo L.

Acer

lanceolata

Fraxinus

sylvestris L.

Pinus

0 P rotec tive wood plantings Urban green platings

The results of recreational and aesthetic evaluation of protective afforestation and urban green areas show that the average mark for town green areas is 55 and for protective afforestation is 43. However there is opportunity to increase these numbers by improving maintenance practice for example with aid of tree felling and rubbish collection. Tree felling can help to improve viewing, passage and ground cover conditions. For example after tree felling in one of the forest zones the recreational and aesthetic estimation of people for forested areas was comparable to the boulevards. The most popular species both in the protective afforestation areas and in town green plantings in Saratov are Bolle’s poplar (Populus pyramidalis), ash lancet (Fraxinus lanceolata), Acer platanoides, Acer negundo, Tilia cordata, Robinia pseudoacacia and Betula pendula.

182 The influence of tree plantings on snow pollution was also determined during our research experiment. Mathematical models of process were developed. They indicated that the most effective design structure for the protection against transport pollution protection are coarse (thick) and delicate. The protective afforestation along urban roads can absorb over 30% more pollutants compared to other types of green areas. The dense forest belts (20 metres wide) with edges from dense shrub layer provide the best defense against pollution. Green plantings help create a good comfortable microclimate in Saratov. Park plant communities improve microclimate conditions up to 2.5 oC, boulevards, up to 1.7 oC, thick strips of forest up to 3.1 oC. Wind speed is reduced in the park up to 60-80%, in boulevards 34-70% and in thick strips of forest 75-90%. Protective afforestation plantings are comparable to other types of green plantings. They are capable of producing 5.1 tonne/ha of oxygen and absorb CO2 (1.6 tonne /ha) as well as reduction of 15.3 kg /ha of pollutants. Protective afforestation plantings can retain more pollution (up to 30%) compared to other green plantings. Conclusion Our main recommendation based on the research in Saratov’s afforestation plantings are to maximise protection of existing forested plantings. These types of plant communities can be used as a core for future design in urban green areas. Using different landscape techniques such as thinning, one cutting and planting it is possible to transfer such forest plantings into gardens and boulevards. It is especially relevant in areas with special topographical features (slopegully type) where use of artificial dams can raise recreational attractiveness of the area up to 3 times. At present existing forest afforestation can be seen as an ecological framework of the area. References Alexeev, V.A. (1989). Life state Trees diagnostics . Forestry. Vol. 4: 51-57

Anuchin, N.P. (1977). Forest taxation. Moscow.: Timber industry. Azarova, O.V., Tereshkin A.V., Upolovnikov D.A. (2007). Estimation of aesthetic state forest forestations’ in planting trees and shrubs system in Saratov. Bulletin of Saratov State Agrarian University named after N.I. Vavilov. Vol. 1:5-7. Ogievsky, V.V and Khirov, A.A. (1964). Research and study of forest cultures. Moscow: Lesnaya Promischlennost. 50 p. OST 56-69-83 Test forest areas. Laying method (1983). Moscow: Forestry USSR, 60 p. Kabanov, S.V., Trus M.V., Tereshkin A.V. (2004). Forest areas taxation. Saratov: SGAU, 72 p.

183 Open Spaces Planning: Relationships between Urban Morphology and Climate – The Study of a City of Hot and Humid Tropical Climate

Virgínia Maria Nogueira de Vasconcellos¹ & Oscar Daniel Corbella² ¹ Escola de Belas Artes – Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ² Programa de Pós-Graduação em Urbanismo – PROURB, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo – Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Introduction Environmental problems in developing countries, where a disorderly urbanization has been carried out with no integrated planning, are difficult to resolve. Over the last several decades, many studies around bioclimate applied to urban spaces have been developed in Brazil - a country with continental dimensions and with a predominantly tropical climate, to address the kind of relationship between natural and built spaces and climate. These studies aim at understanding the interference of some urban morphology elements (urban grid, height gauge, occupation of the building lot, trees, among other elements) with microclimate alterations in each local site under study – which in turn also modify the use of outdoor spaces by people. This article makes initial recommendations for a bioclimatic project of outdoor spaces in cities with hot humid climate, based on a study [2004–2006] of three squares in the City of Rio de Janeiro, during summer and winter. The squares: Irmãos Bernadelli, Serzedelo Corrêa and Edmundo Bittencourt, are located in Copacabana, and exhibit similar climate conditions, even though each one is not located equidistantly from the sea. Microclimate parameters were measured during the field research, also including an analysis of the built environment and of the human use in such squares (de Vasconellos 2006). Study area The City of Rio de Janeiro is in the South-eastern region of Brazil – latitude 22º 54’ south and longitude 43º 10’ west. The Copacabana district is at the south of the City, having the ocean and hills as its boundaries. It has one of the highest rates of built density, with buildings jammed together and with a maximum building height of 12 storeys (approximately 40 m high), blocking the winds blowing through and the availability of solar radiation within the blocks. Methods Sites were selected on four basic criteria: space typology, characteristics of the built environment, climate and distance and “opening”, in relation to the sea. Since all of them are located in the same district, they share the same local climate characteristics and the sea and hills’ influence, as well as a similar solar orientation. The three squares’ main difference refers to each one’s distance from the sea and to the space “confinement”, when considering the built environment.

The first square (Irmãos Bernardelli) faces the beach, and receives the S/SE wind influence directly which prevails over the others in this area. In this location, the ratio between the square’s maximum dimension and the buildings’ height is of 1:3; consequently, the Sky View Factor corresponds to 59.66%, since the square infinitely opens towards the sea. In the case of Serzedelo Corrêa, its four sides are limited and the ratio between the square’s maximum dimension and the buildings’ height is of 1:2.3; the SVF index is 39.66% - not including trees. The third and last square (Edmundo Bittencour) is further away from the sea and it is also bounded in its four sides; the SVF is 54.89%. The latter differentiates from the second one in that the immediate built height is low (up to 6 storeys), holding a ratio of 1:9 between the buildings’ height and the square’s maximum dimension. These characteristics allowed verifying the main microclimate variations arising out of the wind behaviours, given by the different

184 morphologic arrangements (Trancik 1985). Since our study is an experimental approach, and given the characteristics of the area, we started by comparing elements between the squares and the sea – measuring sites on the squares and a fixed point on the sand, close to the sea. According to the chosen methodology, the study was divided into three categories of analysis: built environment (Trancik 1985), microclimate (Corbella & Yannas 1997, 2003) and uses of the area (Whyte 1980). The built area analysis was based on field survey and urban mapping, as well as on observation of the urban grid shape (where the block of the square is inserted), the height gauge, the presence of trees, identification of the projection of shadows by trees and buildings, the SVFs study, the settlements of the measuring points, their quantification and characteristics. We also consider the training of the student team(s) for the survey, the gauge of the measuring instruments and the data forms preparation. The microclimate study was developed based on field squares’ and beach’s measurements, considering: air temperature and relative humidity and winds (speed and prevailing directions), as well as direct solar radiation, temperature of the surfaces and the fixed point position (in the sun or in the shade) (Silva 2003). Each square’s different uses were analysed based on direct observation, recording of use and activities zoning, user characteristics (percentage according to age and sex) and passageways. At the same time, the space-use intensity, the main meeting points and other possible areas of activities (to sit about, to stroll around, to play games, to pass-by and so on) were observed, to investigate climate and space use. Field measurements were accomplished over three successive days, with similarities in terms of weather and within three shifts: morning, midday and afternoon (around one hour each, at 9:00am, at noon and at 3:00pm), during summer and winter. Measurements followed a path, determined by the measuring point’s location. Each one was visited twice in each shift, for a period of five minutes: four minutes to stabilize instruments and one minute for measurements. The measurement instruments were: two data loggers (recording temperature and relative air humidity), one piranometer, a surface thermometer and two anemometers. Two data loggers and one anemometer were used at the beach. All sensors were protected from direct solar radiation. Results The first results indicate that the main climate parameters observed (direct solar radiation, air temperature and wind behaviour) drive environmental comfort in outdoor places in cities with hot and humid tropical climates. All other climate variables are considered secondary.

The climate and environmental data cross-examination, at each point, verified that air humidity changes do not modify the use nor the activities carried out at a particular place. Nevertheless, excessive shade darkens those places, creating unhealthy and insecure environments. On the other hand, prolonged direct solar radiation causes unpleasant thermal conditions, limiting the use of these locations. Thus, the study ratifies the significance of treed areas in outdoor spaces in cities with hot and humid climate, to guarantee natural shading, reducing air temperature and protecting against direct solar radiation (Corbella & Vasconcellos de.2007). It suggests a minimum shading of 50% of the squares’ areas in use, including, and this is fundamental passageways. This proposal aims at a balanced distribution of trees throughout the space, to avoid excessive shading of areas under direct sunlight.

185 Another recommendation refers to tree planting, using tree crowns with variable density, to allow for sparse, moderate or strong shading, in all sectors. This planting should utilize native species to minimize urban negative effects, reducing costs and problems related to the species’ adaptation (Vasconcellos de, Terra & Trindade 1996). The elements of urban morphology could also be described as significant for the analysis about outdoor environments. The relationship between the square’s maximum dimension and the built area’s height could be considered as one of the main elements. Its study should consider the urban design and dimension of the streets, together with the buildings’ height gauge, to avoid heat islands, to lower air pollution indices and to allow wind flow. The beach area, allowing free air movement, showed less variation in wind direction, compared to that observed in the squares. This fact confirms the built environment’s great influence on wind behaviour. Conclusions Squares are significant elements of urban space and they have an extraordinary role to perform in the city’s day-by-day activities. The blocks where they are located become real “islands”, making the urban design become more pleasant and breaking the stiffness imposed by high rates of land occupation. The latter creates architectural barriers, which hinder appropriate ventilation and solar radiation, compromising the city’s hygiene.

The growth rate of the cities together with the globalisation process many times has lead to abandoning integrated studies, which could allow the evaluation of the advantages of having psychological and physical well-being for humankind. Thus, minimizing environmental problems that most cities suffer, especially those related to the urban climate and to the population’s thermal comfort. City squares in tropical climates, contrary to what is needed in cold climates, should contain garden areas as well as trees, which will allow protected spaces from high temperatures and direct solar radiation. Nevertheless, the cold climate typology is still used in hot climate regions, with an intensive use of large paved extensions, using very effusive materials and spaces lacking vegetation. The significance of urban morphology is reaffirmed when it comes to the study of the urban climate. This study should become the starting point for any kind of intervention in outdoor spaces, to bring environmental comfort to the city. It is not possible to pursue urban climate studies without previous acknowledgement of the elements and characteristics of the cities shape. Likewise, it is not possible to intervene in urban spaces without knowing the local climate characteristics or without evaluating microclimate variations, which are, in their turn, modified by the urban environment. It must be acknowledged that this is a dynamic, cyclic, continuous and uninterrupted process. And that it should follow the urban growth and development, to guarantee better sustainable functioning conditions for the city to promote environmental comfort. References Corbella, O.D. & Yannas, S. (1997). Posto 3. Copacabana. Rio de Janeiro. IV ENCAC (Salvador – Brasil).

Corbella, O.D. & Yannas, S. (2003). Em busca de uma arquitetura sustentável para os trópicos – conforto ambiental. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Revan Ltda. 287p.

186 Corbella, O.D. & Vasconcellos, V.M.N. de (2007). A opção bioclimática no desenho urbano in: COUTINHO, Rachel, M. da S.(0rg.) A Cidade pelo avesso. Desafios contemporâneos. Rio de Janeiro:Viana & Mosley Editora. Silva, Carlos Abrantes de Souza (2003). Critérios de aquisição e análise de dados microclimáticos urbanos em espaços abertos visando o conforto ambiental. Master’s Dissertation. PROARQ – Programa de Pós-Graduação em Arquitetura. Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, UFRJ, 180 p. Trancik, R. (1985). Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Vasconellos, V. M. N. de. (2006). O entorno construído e o microclima de praças em cidade de clima tropical quente e úmido: uma contribuição metodológica para o projeto bioclimático. Rio de Janeiro, Doctoral Thesis, PROARQ, Faculdade de Arquitetura e Urbanismo, UFRJ. Vasconcellos, V. M. N. de; Terra, C.G. & Trindade, J.A. da. (orgs.) (1996). I Seminar on Urban Tree Planting in Rio de Janeiro Annals. Rio de Janeiro, 192 p. Whyte, W.H. (1980). The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. Washington, DC: The Conservation Foundation.

Low Impact Development, Green Infrastructure, and Green Highways: Moving from the Industrial Age to Technology Based Landscapes

Neil A. Weinstein and Ann English The Low Impact Development Center, Inc MD, USA Introduction Stormwater management in the United States has historically focused on the use of end-of-pipe or centralised solutions, such as ponds or vaults. Typically, these land intensive uses have been designed to detain stormwater to reduce the peak runoff rates from storm events and settle out pollutants without consideration of ecological or landscape design features. Low Impact Development (LID) is a site-based decentralised stormwater management design method whose goal is replicating pre-development hydrology through a water balance approach integrated into site and building features. LID technologies include rain gardens, vegetated roofs, water harvesting, and permeable pavers. Functional landscapes are created using naturally occurring ecological and biochemical processes to treat stormwater with this new paradigm for site planning and landscape design. Development of new technologies and new uses for existing landscapes is occurring. Landscape processing of pollutants and other environmental values can now be factored into the design of stormwater systems. The broader concepts of Green Infrastructure (GI) and the Green Highways Partnership (GHP) incorporate LID into their projects. GI refers to watershed scale planning directed at preserving, creating, and sustaining natural systems which provide water, air, habitat and social benefits to communities. GHP

187 efforts apply LID practices to linear transportation projects to create GI links with highways which exceed minimum environmental regulations. “Industrial” Age Landscapes Industrial age landscapes were characterized by poor air and water quality caused by coal-fired factories and crowded urban conditions (Newton, 1971). Urban parks were created to mitigate public health problems; Central Park in New York City was established to improve urban sanitation and Philadelphia’s Fairmont Park secured a clean water supply. Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., promoted parks as a democratic way to bring in healthful air to the city in the summer and to prevent disease (Schuyler, 1988). Park plantings were designed to provide shade, cooling summer breezes and to provide protection from winter winds. Water features were created from channelised streams or impoundments of water from large drainage areas to create ponds or fountains for social benefit in an idealized concept of nature (Sullivan, 2002). The 19th century vision of “idealized Nature….true to the character of the country and climate to which it belongs..but Nature arranged for the use and comfort of man” (Newton, 1971) continued into the 20th century. Large centralised parks and open space were built, independent of links to either individual properties or a comprehensive environmental approach. Pollution was treated independently from landscape features.

In the late 1960’s, an integrated systems approach to regional planning was developed and applied using information from the emerging field of landscape ecology science (McHarg, 1969). The resulting connection between science and land use management recognized ecosystem functions and values and protected fragile ecosystems from development. This ecological layer approach translated directly into GIS systems and has allowed meta-analysis not previously possible. McHarg’s system led to conservation design, and other efforts, such as conservation of water, water wise landscaping (US-EPA, 2008), solar orientation and energy efficiency, channelling of wind, reforestation, and vegetative management (Clar et al, 2005). The initial effort was geared toward resource protection, with broad watershed, ecological and political boundary analysis and planning tools that were not necessarily linked to the design of individual properties or developments (McHarg, 1969). Green Building rating systems, such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) (USGBC, 2008), were developed in an effort to work across design disciplines and establish standards for “green” and sustainable projects. These rating systems often have prescriptive criteria (such as % coverage of a site) rather than performance measures for assessing and ranking the stormwater and ecological functions of the site. Few, if any benchmark a site within the context of its watershed or existing ecological and hydrologic functions. Moving Toward a Technology Based Landscape LID, the GHP, and GI concepts form the foundation of an environmental performance approach which works at both regional and local scales. LID design strategies mimic the natural watershed functions of the site (Clar, 2005). The first step is employing design strategies that reflect the overall watershed goals and objectives including preserving flow patterns, site runoff storage, evapotranspiration, filtration, and infiltration. Runoff is controlled at the source, (DDNREC, 1997). Natural unit processes (i.e.. evapo-transpiration rates, infiltration rates) are determined to calculate how to replicate the water cycle and the biochemical processes found in the landscape to treat pollutants. Efforts are underway to develop metrics such as Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL), stated in mg/l of allowable discharge levels that are protective of water quality (GHP, 2008).

188 The GHP is a watershed-based approach to stormwater management which adds ecosystem protection and Context Sensitive Solutions (solutions that consider local conditions) to highway projects. Key elements are recycling, stormwater and ecosystem management. Small scale LID practices for the stormwater component are used and projects exceed minimum regulatory compliance standards for pollutant treatment (LID Center, 2006). The GHP integrates knowledge from other ecosystem based approaches due to the enormous value that the systems provide (Brown, 2006). GHP projects support and enhance urban biodiversity, watershed restoration efforts, and harness ecosystem services. The GHP brings agencies responsible for environmental protection and transportation together with industry representatives to achieve both mobility and environmental goals through balance rather than trade off. GI strategies expand on LID site based practices and evaluate community networks of green systems to include restoration of hydrologic function at a watershed scale and determination of placement of LID practices to accomplish desired environmental and community goals. The end of pipe solutions which have failed to solve stormwater problems may be replaced or augmented by LID decentralized source controls which have demonstrated stormwater benefits and provide other ecosystem service benefits (Brown, 2006). A decentralized network of smaller source controls approach is an alternative or supplement to Combined Sewer Overflow and Wet Weather Flow compliance projects that typically include large, capital intensive, centralized storage facilities. LID, GHP and GI approaches accept that watersheds are, and should be, dynamic ecosystems, but seek to manage watersheds so that human-made changes are minimized or remediated (GHP, 2008). Large scale initiatives have been translated to local scales through various urban green streets programs and design standards (Metro, 2002) (DCDOT, 2005). Whether local or regional, the use of GI, GHP and LID techniques will become more prevalent as communities implement retrofits and redevelopment due to limited pipe infrastructure capacity and increasing stringency of regulatory goals (US-EPA, 2008). The Technological Landscape Through a technological approach, planners, engineers, and landscape architects can analyze stormwater management at many scales with specific metrics. The landscape’s ability to process pollutants, restore soil moisture, and increase evapotranspiration is factored into the design and sizing of stormwater treatment. Site design effects during a precipitation event can be analyzed within the context of local water balance using modelling tools (LID Center, 2008). Performance-based approaches determine the best placement of technologies to meet the design or watershed goals within the local context.

The focus of these three integrated aspects has been stormwater treatment, but many LID tools have multiple benefits including water conservation, flood control, healthy air quality, heat island reduction, carbon footprint reduction, resource conservation and green-collar (environmental sector) jobs creation. Rainwater cisterns reduce potable water demand by supplying water for irrigation or cooling while reducing runoff volumes. Green roofs reduce heat island effects and increase building energy conservation, as well as extend the lifespan of roofs. Rain gardens can be easily maintained by landscape crews and can create green-collar jobs and increase native plant populations within a watershed. Recycled materials in roadways reduce emissions and conserve resources by reducing the need for mining raw materials. Coatings which absorb smog and atmospheric deposition of pollutants are now available to be added to permeable pavers or concrete to improve air quality while providing the paved surface

189 (Beeldens, 2008). Permeable pavements in Chicago, initially selected for flood control are being evaluated for such coatings. Potentially, four planning objectives (stormwater volume reduction, flooding control and air quality improvement and improved alley surfaces) may be met with one project expenditure (CDOT, 2006). Combinations of techniques are used to achieve multiple performance objectives such as a permeable pavement parking area used for water storage, infiltration, water quality treatment, evaporation and air quality improvement (Knapton, 2006). Materials and products are developed and selected through a competitive process based on performance metrics and cost. The competitive process creates the opportunity for new and emerging materials and products to be developed which will provide the most environmentally and cost effective practices to address multiple programs and objectives. Conventional prescriptive requirements use predetermined values and presumed results for selection criteria. With the development of LID, a performance based, site specific, creative and iterative approach that integrates state-of-the-art science is now possible. Technology selections are made to ensure that predevelopment ecologic function is not compromised by development. Optimal environmental and economic solutions may be determined using linear programming such as is used in other environmental programs (Revelle, 1993) but which are not common place in stormwater management or landscape architecture.

References Beeldens, A. (2008). Air purification by pavement blocks: final results of the research at the BRRC. Brussels, Belgium: Belgian Road Research Centre Transport Research Arena, Europe 2008, Ljubljana.

Brown, J. (2006). Eco-Logical: An Ecosystem Approach to Developing Infrastructure Projects. USDOT-FHWA. pdf 96 pp. Chicago DOT (2006). The Chicago Green Alley Handbook: An Action Guide to Create a Greener, Environmentally Sustainable Chicago. Chicago, IL: CDOT. Clar, M.,Gaadt, J.& Haggerty, G. (2005). The Integration of Low Impact Development and Conservation Design: The New Castle County, Delaware, Experience in Proceedings of the 2005 World Watershed and Environmental Resources Congress, May 15-19, 2005, Anchorage, AK. Reston, VA:ASCE/EWRI. Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control and the Brandywine Conservancy, (1997). Conservation Design for Stormwater Management – A Design Approach to Reduce Stormwater Impacts from Land Development and Achieve Multiple Objectives Related to Land Use, September, 1997. Dover, DE.: DDNR. District Department of Transportation (2005). Anacostia Waterfront: Transportation Architectural Design Standards. Washington, DC: DDOT. Forman, R.T.T, Spelling, D., et al. (2003). Road Ecology: Science and Solutions (1st ed.). Washington, DC: Island Press.

190 Goss, D. (2005). The Greening of America’s Transportation System, Designing a Blueprint for Success: Green Highways Initiative Executive Charette, June 2, 2005, Philadelphia, PA.: American Coal Ash Association (ACAA) International. Green Highways Partnership website (2008). Web site: http://www.greenhighways.org/WatershedManagement.cfm. Knapton, J., & Cook, I..(2006) Innovative Features of Jersey Airport’s New Fire Training Ground. San Francisco, CA: 8th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Nov. 6-8, 2006. The Low Impact Development Center, Inc., GeoSyntec Consultants, University of Florida, Oregon State University (2006). Low Impact Development Design Manual for Highway Runoff Control: Design Manual. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board. The Low Impact Development Center, Lee+Papa and Associates, University of Maryland Environmental Finance Center, ETEC, LLC, Oregon State University (2008 (in publication)) Decentralized Stormwater Controls for Urban Retrofit and Combined Sewer Overflow Reduction - Phase 2. Alexandria, VA: Water Environment Research Foundation. McHarg, I. (1969). Design with Nature (paperback ed., 1973). Garden City, NY: Doubleday /Natural History Press. Metro (2002). Green Streets: Innovative Solutions for Stormwater and Stream Crossings (1st. ed.). Portland, OR: Metro. Newton, Norman T. (1971). Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (3rd. ed. 1974). Cambridge, MA, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Oregon State University, GeoSyntec Consultants, University of Florida, The Low Impact Development Center (2006). NCHRP Report 565: Evaluation of Best Management Practices for Highway Runoff Control. Washington, DC: Transportation Research Board. Pack, C. A. (2004). Design Methodology for Highway Vegetated infiltration BMPs. MS Thesis, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. Revelle, C. S., Whitlach, E.E., & Wright, J.R. (1993). Civil and Environmental Systems Engineering (2nd ed.). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Schuyler, D. (1988). The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in NineteenthCentury America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Sullivan, C (2002). Gardens and Climate (1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. United States Green Building Council (2008). Web site: http://www.usgbc.org. US-EPA (2008). Greenscapes. Retrieved http://www.epa.gov/GreenScapes/pubs.htm.

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US-EPA website (2008). National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, Website: http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/.

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Transformation of Landscape in the Urban Low-Storey Residential Area from the Position of Real Ecological Values (for example in the City of Moscow)

Elena Zaykova St Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, St Petersburg, Russia The increase in scale of Low-Storey houses construction around the biggest cities, such as Moscow and St Petersburg, connected with the changes in economical status of some urban groups and their understanding of the quality of life. Before most Russians lived in the multistorey houses (apartment buildings) and had no opportunity to have direct contact with the natural environment. Based on our sociological survey results, almost 60 per cent of Russians would prefer to live in low-storey houses. People who are now living in low-storey houses would not like to change their houses for a flat in multi-storey (apartment) housing complexes. Low-Storey building is one of the rapidly developing areas of the Russian real estate market. However the borders of the City of Moscow for example are already defined and suburban development is very fast growing part of the urban market. The natural components of the landscape are disappearing very quickly during construction works especially in the downtown areas and residential microdistricts. Due to the increase in private vehicles urban pollution is also dramatically increasing. These leads to the degradation of public urban green areas. In such conditions it is very natural to have a strong demand in low-storey housing neighborhoods. There are some specifics of existing systems of design and construction of such areas where they are surrounded by high fences and have no chance to organise “green corridors” or “natural islands” where people can engage in recreation and social interaction (due to the present economic situation). During the establishment of low-storey housing areas it is very important to carry out a structural analysis of of new developments, aimed at economical construction and ecologically proven design. In some cases we are talking about full or partial reconstruction of the lost natural components (Kurbatova, 2007). One of the crucial criteria in the conceptual framework of lowstorey housing can be the protection of existing natural plant communities and using these natural areas as an ecological sustainable foundation for future housing development. LowStorey dwelling has an advantage over multistorey dwellings especially because of this involvement of a natural component in the structural development. Moscow is the largest northern mega-polis capital with very ambitious plans for the construction of low-storey dwellings. There are 28 villages at the moment which will be transferred into lowstorey settlements in the near future. In our opinion the principle of maximing use of existing natural plant communities or reconstruction (the “compensation” of the lost natural biosystems) should be one of the essential strategies in the process of low-storey housing planning. We suggest to take into consideration the existing European experience of using “green corridors” and “green wedges” which handle quite a substantial recreational pressure without loss of ecological integrity (Pesonen and Lintunen, 2007). On the periphery of Moscow special attention should be given to the integration of future lowstory house complexes into the existing forest belt. Large-scale projects such as ”Istra Project” – square 1150 hectares at Istra reservoir; “Rubliovo-Arkhangelskoye” – square 430 hectares on the bank of the Moscow river; “A 101” – square of the project 13000 hectares in south-west of

192 Moscow, can offer new possibilities of “soft” integration of low-storey housing in the existing natural forest (Kurbatova, 2007). The following classification of low-storey residentional areas is used in the modern Russian literature: Economy, Business, Elite and Premium-Class. The category of low-storey housing depends on location, distance from the city (Moscow) and the character of natural landscapes. Projects of individual houses and surrounding properties are very different in shape and size and include private houses (up to 3 storeys) or townhouses. There are three main principles of planning organisation of low-storey settlements which can help to achieve ecological stability: Principle of priority of nature means use of plants in ‘green corridors” and “green islands” based on native plant communities. These communities are naturally sustainable for the climate and need minimum maintenance. Principle of collective environmental space suggests the organisation of a system of “green corridors” with recreation functions for safe movement of different groups of people from the centre to the periphery. The principle of economic purpose means reserving common urban green space for different recreation activities.

We also suggest three methods of landscape organisation of collective spaces in low-storey housing: The principle of restructure means the process of optimal organisation of transport and pedestrian spaces (system of “green corridors”) for safe recreation. Method of nature regeneration is aimed at the restoration of lost natural elements. Revitalisation of natural areas is based on the adaptation of existing landscapes to the new planning and design purposes.

As an inspiration for ecological sustainable solutions in the organisation of low-storey residential housing different European examples can be used, for example Lehtovuori in Helsinki (Pesonen and Lintunen, 2007) where living space was organised on the basis of natural landscapes and gently designed with additional green corridors for transitional and recreational purposes. A combination of functions of city spaces and quality of environment allows people to live in sustainable and healthy landscapes. References Pesonen, H., Lintunen, M. (2007). LEHTOVUORI. Konalan Pikkukaupunki. VVO-ehtyma, 160: 36

Kurbatova, A. (2007). Ecological score for investor . ECOREAL. №2 (9):13-15 Kurbatova, A. (2007). Benefit of Landscape Design. Moscow

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Значение санаторных парков в городской среде г. Воронежа и Воронежской области Гурьева Елена Воронежская государственная лесотехническая академия, г. Воронеж, Россия Наука о курортах развивалась по мере накопления знаний о целебных природных факторах и в связи с расширением сети курортов и развитием курортного дела в России. Одним из важных разделов современной курортологии является изучение вопросов организации, планировки и строительства курортов. Применение природных лечебных средств на территориях, входящих ныне в состав России, и на территориях, заселенных славянами, началось еще в доисторические времена. Все земли, на которых открывались и строились курорты, принадлежали государственной казне, но заботы о благоустройстве курортов не проявлялось. Как правило, лечебные местности передавались в арендное пользование городам, земствам, частным компаниям. Многие ведущие курорты принадлежали членам царской семьи. Их благоустройство сводилось к постройке роскошных дворцов и вилл, фонтанов, разбивке парков с редкими породами деревьев. В годы Великой Отечественной Войны большинство санаториев и домов отдыха было использовано для размещения в них госпиталей и для лечения раненых и больных защитников Родины. В этих госпиталях наряду с новейшими способами лечения раненых широко применялись и санаторно-курортные методы. В послевоенные годы были проведены работы по восстановлению сети курортов, санаториев, домов отдыха, освоены новые курортные местности, реконструированы старые и построены новые санатории и курортные учреждения. К 1950 году в стране функционировали свыше 2 тысяч санаториев. Развитие сети санаториев и домов отдыха и совершенствование их работы продолжалось и в последующие годы. Объектами наших исследований стали местные Воронежские здравницы - санатории имени М. Горького, имени А.Д. Цюрупы, Ф.Э. Дзержинского, "Углянец", дом отдыха "Петровский", которые входят в учреждение "Воронежкурорт". В процессе исследований выяснилось, что эффективность санаторного лечения в значительной мере зависит от организации пространства и эстетических характеристик мест лечения. В связи с этим, перед ландшафтными архитекторами появился целый ряд задач, решение которых требует переосмысления методов и принципов проектирования. Одной из таких задач является пространственная организация санаторного парка (Кругляк, 2004). Зеленая зона города Воронежа была выделена в 1944 году в радиусе 30 км вокруг города. Ее основу составили естественные леса. Кроме того, в самом городе выделяются объекты озеленения, которые можно разделить на группыобщего пользования и ограниченного пользования. Наши исследования проходили на объектах озеленения ограниченного пользования – на участках учреждений здравоохранения и санаториев г. Воронежа и Воронежской области. В городе выделяются объекты озеленения, которые можно разделить на следующие группы: - общего пользования – общегородские и районные парки, специализированные парки; городские сады, сады жилых районов, межквартальные или при группе жилых домов, скверы на площадях, в отступах застройки; бульвары вдоль улиц, пешеходных трасс, насаждения на набережных;

195 - ограниченного пользования – на участках жилых домов, детских учреждений, школ, вузов, техникумов, культурно-просветительских учреждений, спортивных сооружений, учреждений здравоохранения и санаториев, промышленных предприятий, складских зон; - специального назначения – магистрали и улицы; водоохранные, ветрозащитные, противоэрозионные насаждения; насаждения кладбищ; питомники, а также объекты, расположенные в пригородной зоне, на участках санитарно-защитных зон вокруг промышленных предприятий. Зеленые насаждения играют важную роль в изоляции населения от источников шума. Кроны лиственных деревьев поглощают 26% попадающей на них звуковой энергии, отражают и рассеивают 74% (Кругляк, 2004). Насаждения санаториев имеют особое значение в поддержании газового состава атмосферы. Один гектар лесонасаждений способен поглощать за час количество углекислого газа, выделяемого 200 человек. Многие из растений способны выделять фитонциды (фитонцидность – способность растений выделять летучие защитные вещества, которые губительно действуют на микробы). Фитонциды в свою очередь способны трансформировать часть кислорода и озона и выделять относительно большое число легких ионов. Высокая степень ионизации благоприятствует нормальным физиологическим процессам в организме человека. Влияние санаторного парка на здоровье человека многообразно. Прежде всего, это связано с формированием внутри лесопарка санатория особых условий, которые существенно отличаются от городских. Эти отличия проявляются в изменении газового состава воздуха, его биологических и электрических свойств, и способности формировать собственный микроклимат и акустический фон. Так, с изменением газового состава связывают целебное воздействие лесного воздуха на функцию дыхательной и сердечнососудистой систем, с изменением биологических свойств – повышение сопротивляемости к заболеваниям, а с изменением электрических свойств лесного воздуха - улучшение деятельности центральной нервной системы, с изменением микроклимата лучшую терморегуляцию организма. Как правило, пребывание в лесу оказывает общеукрепляющее действие, в некоторых случаях дает лечебный эффект. Парк санатория является частью функциональной и структурной организации лечения на курорте и предназначен для организации ландшафтотерапии, имеющей целевую установку на лечение определенных заболеваний. К курортному парку в условиях Центрального Черноземья предъявляется целый ряд требований: - создание комфортного микроклимата (регулирование температурно-влажностного режима, воздухообмена при помощи зеленых насаждений); - создание целебного воздуха при помощи летучих фитонцидов (подбор ассортимента насаждений по биологическому соответствию их органических выделений данным видам заболеваний); - ароматизации воздуха (максимальное использование приятных запахов растений и исключение дискомфортных); - звукового комфорта (исключение всех неблагоприятных шумов); - обеспечение микробиологической, физической и химической чистоты воздуха (регулирование при помощи зеленых насаждений); - ионизация воздуха (каскадные бассейны, водопады и т.д. до уровня меньше единицы). Оптимальность условий для лечебного процесса в парке санатория зависит от правильности и рациональности организации:

196 – климатотерапии, представляющей собой комплексное единство специальных процессов аэротерапии (лечение воздухом), гелиотерапии (лечение солнцем), фитотерапии (лечение ароматами растений в специально предназначенных для этого павильонах фитотерапии) и ионотерапии. Принято считать, что степень ионизации воздуха определяется коэффициентом униполярности, т.е. отношением количества положительных ионов к количеству отрицательных ионов. Оптимальным считается коэффициент униполярности меньше единицы. Доказано, что ионизация воздуха с преобладанием отрицательных ионов оказывает исключительно благоприятное воздействие на организм человека при курортном лечении. В настоящее время известно три способа искусственного понижения коэффициента униполярности: 1) при помощи аэрогидроионизаторов – искусственные установки распыления под давлением воды в воздух; 2) при помощи гидроаэроионизации природного характера – водопады, каскадные бассейны и т.д.; 3) при помощи зеленых насаждений. Эстетический комфорт парка должен быть организован с учетом специализаций заболеваний, которые лечатся в данном санатории. Новизна эстетики современных садов и парков санаториев во многом определяется уровнем переосмысления традиционных приемов компоновки растительности и нестандартностью подхода к формированию пространственных композиций насаждений. Мы предлагаем несколько конкретных приемов использования садово-парковых композиций: – для усиления циркуляции крови и улучшение обмена веществ – боскет из сосны обыкновенной, черной, Веймутова. Воздух в таких группах, особенно во время летней жары, сильно насыщен эфирными выделениями, что действует как полезный раздражитель органов дыхания. – ежедневные прогулки и тренировка сердечной деятельности на аллеи с уклоном минимуи до 5 ‰; с одной стороны она обсажена деревьями и кустарниками (липа мелколистная или клен остролистный и бересклет европейский или калина-гордовина. – медленные, ритмично размеренные прогулки и отдых на уединенных скамьях и креслах по аллеи из широокраспростертых зонтикообразных форм деревьев (дуб черешчатый горизонтальный, лещина обыкновенная как подрост). – для устранения нервного напряжения – массив из деревьев и кустарников (клен-явор, каштан конский, слива, черемуха и бирючина обыкновенная). Такой массив имеет общий мягкий темно-зеленый тон листвы, рассеивающий резкость прямого освещения. Исследования парков санаториев Воронежской области показывают, что подлинный комфорт для отдыха и лечения, может быть, достигнут только при правильной организации и благоустройстве территории лесных насаждений. Заключение 1. Зеленые насаждения, входящие в состав современного стационарного объекта отдыха, обеспечивают благоприятные микроклиматические и санитарные условия для отдыхающих и в значительной степени формируют архитектурный облик учреждения. 2. Насаждения при лечебно-профилактических учреждениях представляют озелененный участок для прогулок, отдыха и специальных лечебных процедур. Парковая структура

197 включает главные и второстепенные прогулочные маршруты, охватывающие все функциональные зоны парка и его живописные пейзажи. 3. Пространственное построение всех типов зеленых насаждений определяется характером взаимосвязи и размещением их основных элементов – массивов, отдельных деревьев, групп, полян, лужаек, цветников, водоемов, дорог и рельефа. 4. Высокая санитарно-защитная значимость насаждений санаториев обуславливает необходимость регулярного мониторинга их состояния и выполнения комплекса мероприятий, обеспечивающих формирование долговечного, здорового и красивого насаждения, устойчивого к неблагоприятным условиям среды. 5. По результатам обследования проведен анализ полученных данных: видового состава древесной и кустарниковой растительности; возрастной структуры насаждений; состояния обследованных растений и объемно-пространственной структуры территории. Список литературы Кругляк В. (2004). Зональные особенности паркостроения. Часть 1. Санаторий им. Ф.Э. Дзержинского: Учебное пособие/ В.В. Кругляк, Е.И. Гурьева. Воронеж: ВГЛТА. 64 с.

Преобразование ландшафтна городской малоэтажной застройки с позиций реальных экологических ценностей (на примере города Москвы) Зайкова Елена Санкт-Петербургский архитектурно-строительный университет, Санкт-Петербург, Россия Увеличение масштабов малоэтажного строительства вокруг крупных городов, таких как Москва и Санкт-Петербург, связано, прежде всего, с изменением представления горожан о качестве жизни в природном окружении, заметно отличающегося от жизни в спальных районах именно благодаря реальной возможности контактов с природой и проведении досуга вблизи мест проживания. По результатам социологических опросов, почти 60% россиян предпочли бы жить в малоэтажном загородном доме, а 75%, имеющих такое жилье, не хотели бы менять его на квартиру в многоэтажном комплексе. Несмотря на то, что малоэтажное строительство – один из самых развивающихся сегментов российского рынка недвижимости, приходится констатировать: границы Москвы определены, а темпы строительства продолжают возрастать. Сокращение природных компонентов ландшафта в процессе строительства городских жилых районов, высокая плотность строений в центральной части города, увеличение доли высотной точечной застройки, загрязняющие выбросы транспорта и промышленных предприятий – всё это приводит не только к деградации отдельных компонентов «зелёных» пространств, но и стремительно ухудшает экологическую устойчивость городского ландшафта. Поэтому, с одной стороны новое строительство создаётся в старых границах и на «старых» территориях, а с другой – баланс возможностей и потребностей должен решаться с позиции новой системы мышления, сочетающей экологическую устойчивость вовлечённых в развитие застройки природных территорий с интересами сообщества людей, проживающих в непосредственной близости.

198 Однако при всей динамичности освоения территорий под малоэтажную застройку ряд принципиально важных вопросов в части создания пространств для реально востребованных форм досуга в природном окружении вблизи жилища остался далеко не всегда решённым. Сложность ситуации состоит в том, что дефицит городских и периферийных территорий, а также погоня за возведёнными квадратными метрами преобладали над минимально необходимыми усилиями по созданию среды для совместного досуга проживающих рядом людей и просто для их контактов с природным окружением. Непрерывная структура жилых строений в малоэтажных поселениях, обнесённая по периметру заборами, не оставила шансов для создания «зелёных коридоров» или «природных островов» с оздоровительными функциями, которые жители могли бы использовать в целях рекреации. Другой стороной вопроса возведения малоэтажного жилья является структурный анализ отводимых под застройку территорий, который направлен на экономически доходное и экологически допустимое развитие городских периферийных пространств. В этой связи освоение пространств антропогенного городского ландшафта под жилую застройку необходимо направлять не только на поиск путей рационального использования имеющихся природных ресурсов, но и на частичное восполнение естественного потенциала территорий. Ведь во многих случаях речь идёт о полной или частичной реконструкции таких земель, утративших, как правило, в результате эксплуатации исходные компоненты природы, которые могли бы обеспечить экологическую устойчивость территории в целом (Курбатова, 2007). При восстановлении подобных пространств необходимым условием является поиск путей сохранения естественных экосистем и создание на основе природного каркаса преобразованных территорий, сочетающих экологическую устойчивость вовлечённых в развитие застройки природных и восстанавливаемых территорий с интересами сообщества людей, проживающих в непосредственной близости (Курбатова, 2007). Малоэтажная застройка обладает несомненным преимуществом перед высотной застройкой в виде доступной для использования природы, что заставляет по-новому взглянуть на возможности её организации в периферийных частях города при формировании среды с вовлечением природных компонентов в структуру застройки и учётом реальных интересов современного человека в вопросах рекреации вблизи мест проживания. Москва – это крупнейший северный мегаполис-столица с самыми грандиозными планами реконструкции, в которых строительство малоэтажного жилья позволит обеспечить экологически безопасное развитие территорий и формирование комфортной жизненной среды. Осуществление экологической реабилитации природоподобных пространств возможно лишь при условии создания на основе естественного каркаса интегрированных участков с компонентами «второй природы», выполняющих стабилизирующую роль для обеспечения экологически сбалансированного развития городских и периферийных территорий. Одним из вариантов обеспечения экологической стабильности при реконструкции пространств может стать создание устойчивых биосистем, либо за счёт уже сложившегося на данной территории сообщества растений, либо за счёт их воспроизводства в виде необходимой компенсации компонентами «второй природы». Восстановление растительного покрова на преобразуемых участках в качестве важного этапа регенерации

199 утраченных качеств среды является действенным вариантом возвращения к относительному равновесию искусственных и естественных компонентов ландшафта и необходимой частью экологической реконструкции территорий с целью частичного или полного восстановления их природного потенциала и оздоровления окружающей среды. Преобразованные в «зелёные коридоры» пространства с рекреационными функциями будут включаются в структурный каркас застройки в виде проникающих клиньев, способных воспринимать возрастающие рекреационные нагрузки без утраты экологического баланса (Pesonen and Lintunen, 2007). Важным направлением качественного и системного подхода в организации жилой среды периферийных пространств города является обращение особого внимания при строительстве малоэтажных поселений на территории существовавшего когда-то лесопаркового пояса столицы. Масштабные проекты, такие как: «Истра Проект» площадью – 1150 га на Истринском водохранилище; «Рублёво-Архангельское» площадью – 430 га на берегу реки Москвы; «А 101» площадь проекта – 13 000 га на юго-западе Москвы, предполагают новые возможности «мягкого» интегрирования малоэтажной застройки в существующий природный каркас и рассмотрение его как средства структурирования территории и ландшафтного сопровождения коммуникаций (Курбатова, 2007). На сегодняшний день существует следующая классификация малоэтажных поселений: Эконом, Бизнес, Элита и Премиум-класс. Класс посёлка определяется, прежде всего, по основным факторам, влияющим на спрос. К ним относятся, в первую очередь, местоположение и удалённость от города, а затем – природный ландшафт и окружение посёлка. Реализуемые в Подмосковье проекты малоэтажных поселений отличаются разнообразным сочетанием типов зданий как индивидуальных домов до 3-х этажей с участками разной площади, так и малоэтажного многоквартирного жилья, к которому относятся и таунхаусы. Общность социального статуса жителей малоэтажной застройки предполагает мотивированную консолидацию усилий в организации «жизненного пространства», обустроенного с учётом не только реальных потребностей населения в природных территориях вблизи мест проживания и доступных для повседневного пользования, но и структурированного на экологическую стабилизацию реконструируемых территорий путём поэтапного наполнения среды компонентами природного ландшафта. Теоретическую основу изложенных выше преобразований составляют принципы поэтапного преодоления конфликтных ситуаций при планировочной организации ландшафта малоэтажного поселения и обеспечении его поддержания в состоянии экологической устойчивости. К ним относятся: - принцип приоритетности природы, - принцип безбарьерности среды коллективного пространства, - принцип экономической целесообразности. Принцип приоритетности природы означает создание устойчивых во времени и наших климатических условиях сообществ растений в «зелёных коридорах» или «природных островах» за счёт их самовоспроизводства и следует той логике природы, в которой виды растений обладают максимальной долговечностью с минимальными потребностями в

200 поддержании. Формирование на этой основе коммуникационного каркаса территории должно обеспечивать сохранение сообществ растений, целенаправленно перераспределяя основные потоки посетителей на менее ценные природные участки. Принцип безбарьерности среды коллективного пространства предполагает структурный анализ отводимых под застройку территорий, с учётом которого возможно создание пространств, учитывающих особенности коммуникационного каркаса природного ландшафта и возможна организация системы «зелёных коридоров» с рекреационными функциями для безопасного передвижения возрастных и социальных групп населения от центра застройки к её периферии. Принцип экономической целесообразности означает возможность территориального резервирования пространств либо в структуре малоэтажной застройки, либо на её периферии с последующим освоением мест совместной рекреации. Такой вариант развития стимулирует устойчивость каркаса территории малоэтажного поселения, а также сохранение и интеграцию окружающих его природных пространств. В качестве методов ландшафтной организации коллективных пространств малоэтажной застройки предлагаются: - метод реструктуризации фрагментов природного каркаса, - метод регенерации природы, - метод ревитализации присоединяемых природных территорий. Под реструктуризацией в данном случае понимается процесс осуществления оптимального разграничения транспортных и пешеходных пространств при создании системы «зелёных коридоров» и определении природных ниш с использованием средств ландшафтного дизайна для безопасного использования рекреационной территории. Использование метода регенерации природы направлено на восстановление тех территорий в контуре малоэтажного поселения, которые утратили свои функции в результате их освоения. Речь идёт об экологической реконструкции пространств с целью частичного или полного восстановления их природного потенциала и оздоровления окружающей среды. Ревитализация природных территорий основана на проведении работ по ландшафтной адаптации вновь присоединяемых территорий к новым условиям их функционирования, включая закрепление конфигурации дорожно-тропиночной сети с привязкой к природному каркасу малоэтажной застройки, а также определение набора открытых пространств игрового, спортивного и рекреационного назначения для возрастных групп и обеспечение более продолжительного использования территории в зимний и вечерний периоды. Европейский опыт в возведении малоэтажной и средне-этажной застройки с успехом демонстрирует строительство жилых комплексов, особенно на периферии городов, которые обеспечивают формирование полноценной жизненной среды с обязательным включением ближайшего природного окружения или его воссоздание средствами «второй» природы для экологической стабилизации территорий и дальнейшего использования пространств в целях рекреации.

201 В качестве примера реконструкции бывших промышленных территорий можно привести район малоэтажной и средне-этажной застройки Арабианранта в Хельсинки, в котором рекреационные пространства – это восстановленная природа с местами дифференцированного отдыха. Соединенные с системой пешеходных коммуникаций в структурном каркасе территорий, места коллективного досуга являются, в данном случае, буферными преобразованными территориями, в границах которых появляются и детские площадки, и места «тихого отдыха», и спортивные площадки. Береговые территории выступают в качестве природного ресурса, обладающего дополнительной привлекательностью для рекреации. В аналогах из Европейской практике представляется уместным привести пример малоэтажной застройки посёлка Бушмэн в районе города Анже, в котором естественные «зелёные коридоры» с минимальным набором спортивных снарядов обеспечивают создание пространств в природном окружении для импровизированных спортивных занятий. С одной стороны, удовлетворяются потребности в динамичном проведении досуга, включая дозированный бег, езду на велосипеде, занятия на простейших спортивных снарядах, а с другой, обеспечивается положительное психологическое взаимодействие человека с природой. План малоэтажного поселения Лехтовуори в Хельсинки позволяет оценить организацию пространств на основе выявления и сохранения природного каркаса, дополненного системой «зелёных коридоров» с транзитными и рекреационными функциями. Выбор планировочной организации с учётом безбарьерного передвижения различных возрастных и социальных групп населения в границах территории застройки предполагает освоение транзитных участков и глубинных природных пространств и обеспечивает их доступность не только для жителей близлежащих зданий, но и для находящихся на относительном удалении. Такое освоение природных пространств может способствовать решению не только проблем интегрирования среды малоэтажного поселения с природным окружением, но и является проявлением возможности преобразования участков, прилегающих к существующей застройке или осваиваемых в настоящее время. В заключение необходимо отметить, что главным моментом проведения экореконструкции пространств, выделяемых под городское малоэтажное строительство, является сохранение природного потенциала территорий. Сочетание функций городских пространств и качества среды позволяют горожанам полноценно жить в городском ландшафте и способствуют регенерации территорий с позиций поддержания равновесия между искусственными и естественными компонентами. Список литературы Pesonen, H., Lintunen, M. (2007). LEHTOVUORI. Konalan Pikkukaupunki. VVO-ehtyma, 160: 36. Курбатова А.С. (2007). Экологические очки для Инвестора //ЖУРНАЛ: ЭКОREAL/ стр.120, №2(9), стр.13-15. Под руководством А.С.Курбатовой (2007). Благо-ландшафтное устройство. Москва, 141: стр. 64-65.

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Анализ средств и приемов устойчивого ландшафтного дизайна, используемых при благоустройстве городов (на примере Санкт-Петербурга и городов Нидерландов) Керимова Н.А.1,Черепанова И.В., к.б.н. 2 1 - Ландшафтно-архитектурная компания «Дом», Санкт-Петербург, Россия, 2 - Ландшафтная студия «Ботаник», Гронинген, Нидерланды, Введение Для Санкт-Петербурга, как и для большинства городов Голландии, характерно значительное расширение масштабов современного строительства. Глобальные процессы урбанизации и во многом сходные по существу проблемы городской среды, дают основание сопоставить приемы ландшафтной организации открытых городских пространств Санкт-Петербурга и Нидерландов. Растущие города все больше вытесняют и видоизменяют природную составляющую окружающей среды. В результате в современных мегаполисах возникает ряд важнейших экологических и социальных проблем: нарушается тепловой баланс, ухудшается качество воздуха, уплотняются почвы, не эффективно используется дождевая вода, резко снижается зеленая составляющая в городском пространстве. В данной статье мы обращаемся к решению некоторых из перечисленных проблем, с помощью приемов и методов устойчивого ландшафтного дизайна, используемых при организации городского открытого пространства Нидерландов, а также обсуждаем возможность их применения в условиях СанктПетербурга. Проблемы Современные исследования устойчивости городской среды доказывают необходимость сохранения и увеличения в ней зеленой составляющей. Растения являются одной из ключевых компонент в планировании современных городов. Их положительное воздействие распространяется не только на окружающую природную среду, но и на эмоциональную, психологическую и рекреационную сферу жизни человека. Рассмотрим подробнее основные проблемы экосистем современной городской среды. Проблема уменьшения площадей зеленых насаждений, присущая всем современным мегаполисам, в том числе, и городам Нидерландов, особенно актуальна в С-Петербурге. В основании данной проблемы лежит естественное расширение городских территорий, нарастающее давление городской застройки на окружающий ландшафт, и снижение устойчивости существующих зеленых насаждений в агрессивной городской среде. Качество и количество зеленой составляющей постоянно снижается, не получая необходимой поддержки от окружающей среды. Проблему усугубляет и то, что уже на стадии планирования зеленых буферных зон зачастую не учитываются принципы, лежащие в основе создания устойчивых к городским условиям сообществ растений. В результате возрастает потребность в такой ландшафтной организации городских открытых пространств, которая не только позволит сохранить биоразнообразие, характерное для каждой местности, но и создаст не требующий постоянного вложения средств и затрат зеленый «слой», что повысит устойчивость окружающей среды. Другой важный негативный фактор городской среды - неконтролируемое увеличение транспортных потоков и рост стихийных парковок. Городской транспорт является

203 одним из основных источников риска для населения с точки зрения охраны здоровья и окружающей среды, способствует загрязнению воздуха, воды и сокращению благоприятной среды обитания человека. Возрастающая опасность для пешеходного и велосипедного движения сокращают возможности физической активности для населения, что, в свою очередь, повышает риск возникновения серьезных заболеваний (Transport, Health and Environment Pan-European Program, http: // www.thepep.org). Типичные для Санкт-Петербурга стихийные парковки влекут за собой разрушение нижнего яруса растительности, в особенности газонов, и уплотнение почвы. Планомерное структурирование открытого пространства и экранирование проблемных участков и пешеходных зон с помощью зеленых насаждений играет городском открытом пространстве Нидерландов основную роль в решении этой проблемы. Следующей серьезной проблемой, свойственной Санкт-Петербургу, является большая площадь открытой поверхности земли, не защищенной растительностью. Это влечет за собой эрозию верхнего слоя почвы. Негативными следствиями этого процесса являются повреждение и угнетение растительности, снижение почвенного плодородия, загрязнение воздуха частицами пыли, продуктами жизнедеятельности домашних животных и вредными выбросов автотранспорта, которые попадают в органы дыхания, оседают на всех окружающих предметах, придавая отталкивающий вид зданиям снаружи и внутри (Жирмунская, 2004). Нидерланды. Проблемы и методы их решения При сравнении приемов ландшафтной архитектуры Нидерландов и С.Петербурга важны исторические, политические и экономические различие эти стран. Такие факторы как контролируемое планирование в советские годы и хаотичная застройка времен начала экономических реформ во многом определили различия в векторах развития дизайна этих стран. Рассмотрение исторических вопросов выходит за рамки темы данной статьи и может стать еще одним интересным исследованием. С момента основания Санкт-Петербурга Голландия оказывали большое влияние на строительство города и его планировку (Лихачев, 1982). Обращаясь к современному опыту Нидерландов в области ландшафтной архитектуры и дизайна, неизменно обнаруживаешь примеры качественного, экономичного и гармоничного с эстетической точки зрения использования природного ресурса (Den Ruijter, 2002; Raxworthy, 2007). Из проведенного ниже сравнения среднемесячных температур (Рис.) видно, что климат Нидерландов во многом сходен с петербуржским климатом. Исключение составляет более мягкая зима. Поэтому применяемый в ландшафтном дизайне ассортимент значительно отличается именно в той части, которая касается нехолодостойких растений.

204 Рис. Сравнение среднемесячных температур Санкт-Петербурга и Амстердама. Среднемесячные температуры 20 15

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Нидерланды одна из наиболее населенных стран Европы, поэтому ландшафты страны в существенной мере носят антропогенный характер (до 70% территории), в то время как природных территорий сохранилось сравнительно немного, и они тщательно охраняются. В прибрежной части внутреннего моря Zuiderzee, отделенного от Waddenzee и Noordzee дамбой Afsluitdijk, преобладают польдеры (искусственно осушенные участки земли, находящиеся ниже уровня высокой воды в море во время приливов), которые возникли в результате строительства дамбы в 1932 году и образовали целую провинцию Голландии Flevoland. Они пересечены множеством каналов для сбора дождевой воды и подземных вод и откачивания их в море с помощью специальной помпы. Вместе с мелиоративными работами на этой территории началось новое время в истории ландшафтного дизайна. Рекламация этих земель потребовала совместной работы ландшафтных архитекторов и специалистов в области сельского хозяйства, чтобы создать новые формы дизайна и растительных сообществ для комфортной жизни обитателей польдеров (Deunk, 2002). Существенная часть растительных сообществ Нидерландов — также искусственного происхождения. Тем не менее, деятельность человека отчасти приводит и к увеличению разнообразия ландшафтов (International Exchance center SIA www.iec.lv). Государство успешно регулирует состояние окружающей среды, постоянно увеличивая взаимодействие между ландшафтной архитектурой и прогрессирующим ростом городов (Den Ruijter, 2002). Примеры решения городского общественного пространства в Нидерландах демонстрируют возможности современного ландшафтного дизайна эффективно использовать преобразованные компоненты природы в целях поддержания устойчивости городской среды. Так одним из путей решения проблемы уменьшении площадей зеленых насаждений в результате урбанизации городского пространства стало возрождение природных компонентов не только в ближайшем окружении архитектурных объектов, но и в структуре самих объектов. В число приемов, воссоздающих утерянные фрагменты в

205 структуре зданий, входят создание дополнительного растительного слоя (газон, сад) на крышах, фасадах, террасах здания или частичное погружение здания в рельеф поверхности и заполнение покрытия растительным материалом, например газоном. Так называемая «ландшафтнообразующая архитектура» позволяет компенсировать утерянные в процессе строительства зеленые пространства (Lee, 2007). Одновременно она выполняет важную экологическую функцию, вносит вклад в восстановление природного местообитания и биоразнообразие городских территорий. Примером такого дизайна служит Amsterdam’s Museum Square. Склон, покрытый газоном, предоставленный для отдыха туристов и жителей города, одновременно является крышей подземной парковки и супермаркета (Brummel, 2002). Увеличить или сохранить уже существующую зеленую компоненту позволяет прием ее интродукции в структуру здания. Такой прием может служить одновременно достижению выразительности и привлекательности фасада, повышению комфортности внутренних помещений. Однако такой прием требует иного подхода к формообразованию архитектурных объектов и совместной работы архитекторов и ландшафтных архитекторов (Нефедов, 2002). Проблема организации пешеходных и рекреационных зон, парковок для автомобилей и велосипедов, и других фрагментов городского пространства, которые соответствуют требованиям безопасности и комфорта для людей и природной среды, решается в Нидерландах с помощью приемов структурирования открытого городского пространства с обязательным включением компонентов растительности. Интересным примером неформального подхода к структурированию пространства стал реализованный в 2006 году проект привокзальной площади в Гронингене. Он состоит из «городского балкона» высоко поднятой над площадью искусственной платформы, на которой расположена пешеходная зона и зона отдыха. Внизу организована парковка для 4 000 велосипедов. Отверстия большого диаметра, соединяя пространство над и под платформой, позволяют деревьям расти сквозь нее (Raxworthy, 2007). Внимательный и творческий подход к организации безопасного велосипедного движения и скоростного трамвайного сообщения позволяет уменьшить количество автотранспорта в городах Нидерландов и, как следствие, улучшить их экологическую обстановку. Подобный путь повышения устойчивости городской среды может стать примером для создания в Санкт-Петербурге выделенных комфортных велосипедных дорожек, удобных велопарковок, изолированных путей для скоростных трамваев, организации безопасного пешеходного движения с помощью дорожной разметки, мощения, подпорных стенок, зеленых буферных зон. В других случаях, варьирование цвета и фактуры растений, использование силуэтной стрижки и формовки, в соответствии с многовековыми традициями топиарного искусства и современными эстетическими концепциями, позволяет достигать не только функционального разграничения пространства, но одновременно его масштабирования, визуально экранирования, создания характерных линий и очертаний, декоративного и семантического эффекта. При этом необходимо подбирать такие породы растительности, которые обладают оптимальными показателями для разграничения пространства: плотностью, устойчивостью к загазованности и возможным повреждениям. В Нидерландах для этих целей используются многочисленные вечнозеленые кустарники: падуб (Ilex.), магония падуболистная (Mahonia aquifolium), лавровишня лекарственная (Prunus laurocerasus), пираканта (Pyracantha), и, конечно, самшит (Buxus). Среди хвойных

206 часто встречаются виды туи и их формы и гибриды кипариса (Cupressus), тисы (Taxus), стелющиеся формы можжевельников (Juniperus) и кипарисовиков (Chamaecyparis). Среди деревьев для структурирования больших пространств особенно распространены платаны (Platanus), буки (Fagus), ясени (Fraxinus), липы (Tilia), ивы (Salix), березы (Betula), дубы (Quercus). Для создания декоративных эффектов служат многочисленные виды кленов (Acer), цветущие ранней весной виды магнолии (Magnolia) и деревья рода Prunus семейства розоцветных. Среди кустарников в зимнее время цветет хамамелис (Hamamelis), ранней весной – форзиция (Forsythia), следом дрок (Genista), виды спиреи (Spiraea), дейция (Deutzia), затем цветет очень популярная в последнее время гортензия (Hydrangea). Для Петербурга среди кустарников необходимыми качествами обладают: кизильник блестящий (Cotoneaster lucidus), арония черноплодная (Aronia melanocarpa), различные виды спиреи (Spiraea), некоторые виды боярышника (Crataegus macracantha). При использовании по примеру Нидерландов в некоторых случаях подпорных стенок, которые, приподнимая уровень посадки растений, защищают их от повреждений и вредных выбросов транспорта, ассортимент можно расширить и использовать кизильник горизонтальный (Cotoneaster horizontalis) и крошечный (C. perpusillus), сосну горную (Pinus mugo), стефанандру (Stephanandra incise) (Аксенова и др., 1989). Участки открытой поверхности совершенно несвойственны городской среде Нидерландов. Все пространства, не покрытые мощением, в обязательном порядке заполнены растительным или, в случае его недостаточной массы в начальной стадии роста, инертным материалом. Этот практика не только позволяет поддерживать свойственную этому государству чистоту улиц и площадей, но и защищает почву от разрушения, позволяет обеспечивать необходимый для растений баланс влажности и температуры, решая задачу повышения устойчивости окружающей среды. В целях художественной выразительности, композиционной целостности поверхности и окружающих архитектурных объектов ландшафтные архитекторы, дизайнеры и инженеры, используют многообразные приемы обработки нижнего яруса растительности, которые будут рассмотрены ниже. Прием геопластики рельефа, который позволяет увеличить площадь озелененной поверхности в буферном пространстве, создать лучшие условия для растительности (увеличение инсоляции, сток излишней дождевой воды), защитить растительные компоненты от воздействия транспортного и пешеходного движения, снизить уровень шума между транспортными потоками и зонами отдыха. С помощью этого приема организовано террасирование буферного пространства перед зданием Hogeschool в Наймехене. Используя многообразные комбинации из классических стриженых газонов, злаков и суккулентов, расположенных в растре, почвопокровных и декоративноцветущих многолетников и луковичных: галантусов, крокусов, мускари, нарциссов, тюльпанов. Добавляя инертные материалы, дизайнеры добиваются интересных современных эффектов, прорисовки контурных линий и очертаний, создания визуальных эффектов. В результате варьирования средств растительности и способов их посадки достигается разнообразие, выразительность и привлекательность поверхности, морфологическая связь ее элементами здания, создается характерный образ места. Высокий творческий потенциал специалистов позволяет создавать композиции, несущие смысловую нагрузку, информацию, вызывающие ассоциации или ощущения, связанные по смыслу с данной точкой пространства. Хорошим примеров такой работы, в которой четко прослеживается

207 выбор средств дизайна в зависимости от назначения территории можно назвать De Nieuwe Ooster berggraafplaats, Amsterdam, Karres en Brands; Gevangenismuseum, Veenhusen Buro Lubbers; Tuin Van Bezinning (Nederlands politie), Varnsveld, Buro Poelmans Reesink (Lutten, 2007). При использовании вышеописанных приемов организации пространства в практике Санкт-Петербурга, необходимо: -подбирать такие растения, которые остаются декоративными как можно более длительное время в течение календарного года и экономичны в уходе. Примером таких растений являются: пихта сибирская (Abies sibirica), пихта цельнолистная (A. holophylla), пихта бальзамическая (A. balsamea), ель сибирская (Picea obovata), ель белая (канадская) (P. glauca), сосна кедровая корейская (Pinus koraiensis), сосна кедровая стланниковая (P. pumila), сосна веймутова (P. strobus), сосна балканская (P. peuce), сосна обыкновенная (P. silvestris), сосна горная (P. mugo), С. горная стланниковая (P. mugo ssp. pumilio), кипарисовик нутканский (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis), туя западная (Thuja occidentalis.), микробиота перекрестнопарная (Microbiota decussata), можжевельник обыкновенный и сибирский (Juniperus communis, J. sibirica), можжевельник горизонтальный (J. horizontalis), тис ягодный и остроконечный (Taxus baccata, T. cuspidata), рододендрон даурский, или багульник (Rhododendron dauricum), рододендрон кавказский (R. caucasicum), рододендрон Шлиппенбаха (R. schlippenbachii), рододендрон кэтевбинский (R. catawbiense), подбел (Andromeda polifolia) (Булыгин, 2000), вереск (Calluna vulgaris), бергения (Bergenia), вейник (Calamagrostis epigeios) и др. -использовать растения, характерные для нашей местности и экологически-совместимые друг с другом. Например, сосна обыкновенная и вечнозеленые кустарники и кустарнички: брусника, клюква, подбел, вереск, водяника, багульник, характерные для сфагновых болот; сосна, молиния, пушица, мхи, лишайники, - для сосновых дюн; сосна, береза, папоротники, вейник, таволга, медуница для влажных сложных боров (Булыгин, 2000) Заключение Мы рассмотрели ряд проблем организации открытого городского пространства СанктПетербурга и способы решения аналогичных задач в государстве Нидерланды. Таким образом, в условиях Санкт-Петербурга, возможно, использовать приемы: ландшафтообразующей архитектуры, интродукции природного ресурса в архитектурные объекты, структурирования городской среды с помощью компонентов растительности, геопластики рельефа, различные приемы комбинирования газонов, травянистых многолетников и инертных материалов. Однако анализ показывает, что необходимо учитывать различия в ассортименте растений, в особенности теплолюбивых и незимостойких. Такой подход позволит не только создавать выразительный ландшафт, но повысить устойчивость и комфортность городской среды в условиях активной урбанизации. Литература Аксенова Н.А., Фролова Л.А.(1989). Деревья и кустарники для садоводства и озеленения. Москва: Московский Университет. Brummel, K. (2002). Amsterdam: A square makes room for museums. The Netherlands in Focus. Munich: Callway. Булыгин Н.Е., Фирсов Г.А., Тогерсен К.Г. (2000). Хвойные в озеленении Северо-Запада России и Северной Швеции. Санкт-Петербург: ЛТА.

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Lee, J.S. (2007). “Living the Land” C3 272:136-137. Лихачев, Д.С. (1982). Поэзия садов. (с.121-122). Л.: Наука. Lutten, E. (2007). Landschaps-Architectuur en Stedenbouw in Nederland 2003\2007 Wageningen. Нефедов, В.А.(2002). Ландшафтный дизайн и устойчивость среды. Санкт-Петербург: Полиграфист Raxworthy, J. (2007). Bike Park in Groningen, The Netherlands. Urban space, Topos. Munich: Callwey.

Долинные и природные парки в системе озеленения г. Петрозаводска Лантратова Антонина 1, Шредерс Мария 2, Еглачева Арина 3 1

Кафедра ботаники и физиологии растений, Эколого-биологический факультет 2 Отдел информационных технологий,3Ботанический сад Петрозаводский государственный университет, Петрозаводск, Россия

Многочисленные исследования свидетельствуют о том, что на протяжении XX века наметилась тенденция миграции населения мира в города. Если в 1830 году в городах проживало всего лишь 3% населения, ученые предполагают, что к 2020 году 57% населения мира планируют жить в городах (Осипов, 1997). Увеличение численности городского населения вызывает увеличение плотности застройки, транспортных и других коммуникационных сетей. Все это снижает уровень состояния биосферной среды городов и комфортность жизни человека. Единственными компонентами, обеспечивающими благоприятные экологические условия на урбанизированных территориях, являются озеленительные комплексы – сады, парки, скверы. В связи с этим целью наших исследований является разработка стратегии озеленения на новом историческом этапе градостроительства.

209 В задачи исследований входило: • Проведение инвентаризации зеленых насаждений в исторической части города, расположенной в двуречье рек Лососинки и Неглинки. • Разработка на основе инвентаризации мероприятий по реконструкции и сохранению редких исторических природоохранных и ландшафтных комплексов на территории города. • Выявление новых территорий, пригодных для расширения площадей озеленения в условиях уплотненной городской застройки. Исследования проводились на территории Петрозаводска, крупного, исторического, промышленного, научного, культурного и туристического центра в течение 2001-2007 гг. Площадь города 121,8м2, население - 282,2 тыс. чел. Он расположен в среднетаежной подзоне. Климат континентальный, с чертами морского, благодаря близости Атлантического океана и его теплого течения Гольфстрим. Рельеф территории города сформировался под влиянием древних вулканических процессов, несколько сглаженных четвертичными озерно-ледниковыми и моренными отложениями. Ландшафт террасовидный, с узкими речными долинами, на отдельных участках с красивыми кристаллическими уступами. Природа города создала неповторимую по красоте и своеобразию гармонию воды и суши. Реки Лососинка и Неглинка, устремляясь к Онежскому озеру, образовывают живописные зеленые рукава, обнимая историческую застройку города. Главным элементом городского ландшафта является акватория губы Онежского озера, которая придает ему характер морского. С юга и юго-востока Петрозаводск окружен лесным массивом, что обеспечивает визуальную пространственную связь между городским и лесным ландшафтами. Лесные массивы сформированы экосистемами хвойных лесов среднетаежной подзоны с элементами неморальной флоры. Основными типами лесов являются: Piceetum myrtillosum, Piceetum vacciniosum, Piceetum oxalidosum, Piceetum polytrichosum, Pinetum vacciniosum, Pinetum myrtillosum, Piceeto-Pinetum herbosohylocomiosum. В составе этих лесов доминантами являются Picea abies (L.) Karst., Pinus sylvestris, Betula pubescens, B. pendula, Populus tremula, в подлеске – Rosa accicularis, R. majalis, Lonicera xylosteum, в травянистом покрове – Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea, Oxalis acetocella и другие. В смешаных лесах с участием неморальных элементов наряду с Picea abies встречаются Ulmus laevis, U. glabra, Tilia cordata, Acer platanoides. Под их пологом наряду с широко распространенными травянистыми растениями встречаются представители Orchidaceae. Инвентаризация зеленого фонда города проводилась с помощью приемов и методов, разработанных на кафедре ботаники и физиологии и в отделе Геоинформационных систем Регионального центра новых информационных технологий ПетрГУ. Созданные тематические карты, с учетом полученных таксономических параметров позволили разработать стратегию оценки и перспектив развития зеленых насаждений в городе. В процессе исследований установлено, что первая парковая композиция – «Березовая роща» была создана в 1712 году вблизи дворца Петра I с эстетическими приемами барочных садов Франции XVI в.

210 Первый план городской застройки был разработан архитектором А. С. Ярцевым в 1785 году. Его основу составляла радиально-лучевая планировка. Этот прием получил широкое распространение в России. И во всех последующих генеральных планах прослеживаются его черты, включая современную застройку микрорайонов города. Исследования показали, что XIX век был временем наиболее активного градостроительства и создания городских садов, бульваров, скверов. Первый бульвар был создан на улице Мариинской (К. Маркса). Активное строительство озеленительных комплексов продолжалось и в первой половине XX века. В эти периоды вся историческая часть города была озеленена красивыми парками, садами, бульварами, скверами, включая создание аллей на внутриквартальных территориях и групповые посадки на дворовых участках. Во время оккупации города в период Второй мировой войны значительная часть древесных растений в зеленых насаждениях была вырублена или сожжена. Их активное восстановление происходило после войны в 60-80 гг. XX века (Лантратова и др., 2003). Использование приемов и методов ГИС-технологий позволило установить горизонтальную пространственную структуру зеленых насаждений с учетом положения отдельных видов на данной территории, провести учет категорий их состояния, эстетической значимости и характера повреждений. В составе зеленых насаждений города произрастает 167 видов древесных растений с преобладанием лиственных (табл.1). Таблица 1. Систематический спектр дендрофлоры г. Петрозаводска Число видов Отделы

абсолютное

Pinophyta 17 Magnoliophyta 150 Всего 167

Число % от общего Число родов семейств числа 11,1 9 3 88,9 58 30 100 67 33

Пропорции флоры (сем:род:вид) 1:3:5,7 1:1,3:5 1:2:5

Для обогащения видового состава на озеленительных территориях следует вводить большее число хвойных, которые украшают городские ландшафты во все времена года. Соотношение аборигенных и инорайонных видов cоставляет 1:4, что свидетельствует о бедности местной дендрофлоры. Из числа аборигенных видов в озеленении города широко используются такие виды как Betula pendula, B. pubescens, Acer platanoides, Ulmus glabra, U. laevis, Tilia cordata, Sorbus aucuparia L., Rosa majalis, реже Larix sibirica, Pinus sylvestris, Lonicera xylosteum. В спектре ведущих семейств преобладают представители Rosaceae (55 видов - 32%), Salicaceae (26 видов - 15%), Pinaceae (13 видов - 8%). Большее участие представителей семейства Rosaceae обусловлено широким использованием плодовых растений в формировании ландшафтного дизайна в начале XX века. В настоящее время они сохранились лишь на природоохранных территориях (сквер мужской семинарии).

211 В составе зеленых насаждений произрастают виды древесных растений из различных флористических регионов (табл. 2). Таблица 2. Географический диапазон древесных растений в системе озеленения города № п/п

Интродукционный центр

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Североамериканский Западно-европейский Восточно-европейский Сибирский Восточно-азиатский Ирано-туранский Космополиты Гибриды Всего

Хвойные (число видов) 6 2 5 3 1 0 0 0 17

Лиственные (число Всего видов видов) 23 36 26 17 25 11 10 2 150

29 38 31 20 26 11 10 2 167

Процент общего числа, % 17 23 19 12 16 6 6 1 100

от

В составе зеленых насаждений высокий процент составляют виды, интродуцированные из западно-европейского интродукционного центра (23%). Это обусловлено тем, что в процессе озеленения использовался посадочный материал из Латвии, Эстонии, Германии и других европейских стран. Высокими декоративными качествами и устойчивостью отличаются элементы северо-американской флоры. Особенно эти свойства характерны для ели колючей Picea pungens, отличающейся фенотипическими формами хвои, зеленые и голубые, образующие декоративные группы в составе зеленых насаждений. Довольно разнообразна своими фенотипическими формами и Thuja occidentalis. Выявленный видовой состав, категории жизненности, декоративности, устойчивости являются основным ассортиментом для создания парковых и других форм озеленения территорий – резерватов (Лантратова и др., 2007). В связи с уплотняющей застройкой в исторической части города были проведены работы по установлению значимых природоохранных озеленительных территорий. Кроме того, в процессе застройки, как было установлено, были уничтожены внутриквартальные и дворовые озеленительные территории. Это резко снизило состояние биосферной, особенно воздушной среды, и вызвало необходимость установления территорий – резерватов для реконструкции и создания новых зеленых насаждений. Среди таких территорий особенно выделились долины рек Лососинки и Неглинки, а также береговая часть Онежского озера. На этих территориях в 60-80 гг. XX века были начаты работы по благоустройству речных долин. Парковая территория реки Лососинки составляет более 50га. Она включает четыре сквозных парка. Эти парки отличаются генезисом, функциональным назначением, видовым разнообразием. Функциональная роль их велика: это не только регуляторы чистого воздуха. Они также играют большую водоохранную и санитарно-гигиеническую роль и служат местом для «пляжного» и прогулочного отдыха. На их береговой части располагаются спортивные площадки. Среди них выделяется видовым многообразием парк для отдыха, созданный в процессе рекультивации, примыкающий к исторической части города.

212

Долина реки Неглинки имеет исток в пригородном лесном массиве и впадает в Онежское озеро. Площадь ее около 40га. Пойму реки Неглинки условно можно разделить на 5 частей в соответствии с последовательностью их размещения в системе застройки города. Более освоенной её частью является устье реки и приозерная часть поймы. Первым Олонецким губернатором Г.Р. Державиным на прибрежной, покрытой лесом, территории этой части реки была построена первая больница. В настоящее время здесь располагаются корпуса городской больницы. Долина реки Неглинки отделяет историческую часть города от промышленного микрорайона «Первомайский». На территории второго крупного резервата имеется детский парк и исторический сквер бывшей мужской педагогической семинарии. В соответствии с новым Генеральным планом здесь будут созданы два новых парка в ландшафтном стиле. Часть облесенной речной долины, связанной с вновь строящимся микрорайоном Древлянка II, может служить зоной отдыха для его жителей. В новом Генеральном плане 2007 года предусмотрено проведение реконструкции зеленых насаждений на набережной Онежского озера. Сейчас на ее территорию выходят два бульвара, будет заложен третий. Но наибольшие преобразования предусмотрены в приозерной части, где располагается Прибрежный парк, созданный в ландшафтном стиле на площади 14га. Отличительной чертой его является наличие здесь памятника Петру I – основателю Петрозаводска, архитектурно-скульптурной галереи под открытым небом, которая включает произведения, выполненные в стиле авангарда и пост-модерна. Это подарки городов – побратимов из Финляндии (Варкаус, Йоэнсуу), США (Дулут), Германии (Нойбранденбург, Тюбинген), Швеции (Умео), Франции (Ла-Рошель) и др. В плане реконструкции этого парка предусмотрено использование средств топинарного искусства для создания аллейных и групповых посадок со стилизованными кроновыми структурами древесных растений: Picea pungens, Abies balsamea, Larix sibirica, Pseudotsuga caesia, Thuja occidentalis, Quercus robur, Betula pendula var. carelica, Salix alba, Tilia cordata, T. Platyphyllos, Malus baccatа, Padus maackii, обеспечивающих гармоничную связь с галереей. В системе городского озеленения возникает острая необходимость в реконструкции зеленых насаждений ограниченного пользования. Это территории детских садов, школ, гимназий, поликлиник, больниц. На территориях их землепользования необходимо границы окантовать миксбордерами и создать красивые газоны в мавританском стиле. В городах севера при длительном сезонном затемнении формируются редкостойные зеленые насаждения. В связи с этим большую биосферную роль играют газоны. Идея их создания на городских озеленительных территориях, к сожалению, разработана недостаточно. Исследования показали, что с момента застройки города он несет черты радиальнолучевой симметрии. В прошлом при создании парков, бульваров и скверов (ПКИО, Губернаторский сад) широко применялся классический стиль с эстетическими элементами барокко, а в конце XIX века парки стали планироваться в ландшафтном стиле. При разработке стратегии развития город рассматривается как университетский молодежный. В связи с этим и со сложившейся плотной застройкой наряду с ландшафтным озеленением водно-парковых артерий Лососинки и Неглинки, акватории береговой части Онежского озера предусматривается локальное мозаичное озеленение с применением малых архитектурных форм в стиле модерн с созданием курденеров вокруг супермаркетов, линейное озеленение вдоль транспортных путей. Предложенный

213 ассортимент древесных растений позволит с помощью элементов топинарного искусства повысить дизайн озеленительных комплексов города. Список литературы Лантратова А.С., Ициксон Е.Е., Марковская Е.Ф., Куспак Н.В. (2003). Сады и парки в истории Петрозаводска. Петрозаводск: Петро-Пресс. 160с. Лантратова А.С., Еглачева А.В., Марковская Е.Ф. (2007). Древесные растения, интродуцированные в Карелии. Петрозаводск: ПетрГУ. 196с. Осипов В.И. (1997). Москва: геология и город. М.: Московские учебники и картография. 400с. Фото. Парковая территория р. Лососинки

Формирование и развитие садово-парковых объектов Саратова Ольга Сокольская Саратовский государственный аграрный университет им. Н.И.Вавилова, г.Саратов, Россия В дореволюционном Саратове площадь искусственных насаждений была незначительна. Создание первого парка с утилитарными функциями (производство шелка, где находились шелковичные плантации) датируется 1764 годом. Парк занимал площадь 65 га. Первые указания о мощение улиц Саратова упоминаются в 1804 году. Мощение выполнялось из мягкой породы камня, и камень быстро превращался в пыль, которая смешивалась с уличной грязью. К 1871 году в городе на 43 версты всех улиц вымощено всего лишь 11. Ремонт мостовых должны были производить сами домовладельцы, но они уклонялись от ремонта или делали его недобросовестно (Лузина, 1987).

214

С 1877 года для мощения улиц стали употреблять твердые породы камня. Так, например, мостовая Астраханского бульвара выкладывалась из серого финского гранита. Вдоль улиц впоследствии устраивались тротуары, залитые асфальтом. Бульвары Саратова являются основными “зелеными коридорами”. Сегодня площадь зеленых насаждений селитебной территории в Саратове составляет более 2000 га, в том числе насаждений общего пользования - более 600 га. Помимо парков, скверов, бульваров и ботанического сада жители приблизились и к таким периферийным ландшафтам, как Смирновское и Октябрьское ущелья, Кумысная поляна, Савеловские горы, входящие в единый лесопарковый комплекс, примыкающий к Саратову и непосредственно вливающийся в его “зеленую структуру”. Отличительной особенностью является то, что система озеленения Саратова в центральном ядре строилась на основе дореволюционных объектов садово-паркового искусства (ОСПИ) и подкреплялась новыми «зелеными» элементами ландшафтноэкологического каркаса. В Саратове по историческим предпосылкам возникновения ОСПИ подразделяются на типы: − созданные на местах исторических событий (например, сквер на площади Борцов революции 1905 года); − созданные на базе старинной усадьбы (например, парк Культуры и Отдыха им.Горького); − созданные при соборе или на месте собора (например, сквер на Музейной площади); − созданные на основе дореволюционных общественных объектов, связанных с развитием культуры и науки (например, сад “Липки”); − созданные как архитектурно-ландшафтные объекты на базе естественных ландшафтов (например, набережная Космонавтов); −созданные на основе улиц – «зеленые коридоры» (пешеходные артерии проспект им.Киров, ул. Волжская, часть ул. Октябрьской; бульвары – Астраханский, Раховский и др.); - созданные на базе естественных лесных массивов (лесопарк «Кумысная поляна», парк «Победы» (Сокольская, 1993). Было установлено, что ОСПИ Саратова формировались на основе следующих композиционных приемов: компактного приема (сад «Липки», сквер Борцам революции 1905 г., сквер на Музейной площади и пр.) и линейно-динамического приема (бульвары, например, Астраханский и Раховский; пешеходные улицы, например, проспект Кирова и ул.Волжская, набережная «Космонавтов» и др.). Данные композиционные приемы ОСПИ во многом зависят от прилегающей к «зеленым» ансамблям жилой застройки. Малые архитектурные формы, имеющие декоративные черты появляются на объектах садово-паркового строительства в конце XIX – начале XX вв. К ним относятся: • чугунные ограждения, создаваемые рабочими кузнечно-слесарного цеха в мастерских Александровского ремесленного училища; • светящаяся электрическая реклама с показом картин Третьяковской галереи и реклам различных торговых фирм; • летние залы для танцев; • скамьи; • фонари и цветные фонарики;

215 • •

арки, трельяжи из дерева; скульптуры, гроты, миниатюрные фонтанчики (Сокольская, 2006).

Современное развитие паркостроения Саратова так же зависит и от экологических условий территорий. Так, по данным ГИБДД на территории г.Саратова зарегистрировано 213000 единиц автотранспорта, что на 9000 больше, чем в 2005 г. Объем выбросов загрязняющих веществ (ЗВ) в атмосферу в 2006 году составил 113340 т. Вклад автотранспорта в суммарный выброс по г.Саратову составил 79,16%, в том числе по диоксиду серы 20,49%, по оксидам азота- 81,23%, по углеводородам -50,41%, по окиси углерода -93,97%, по саже 85,6%. Выбросы ЗВ в атмосферу от автотранспорта составили 89720 тонн (Государственный доклад, 2007). По итогам инвентаризации, проведенной институтом "Росгипролес", в городе насчитывается около 270 га насаждений общего пользования, что составляет 3 квадратных метра зеленых насаждений на одного жителя, в том числе по районам: Ленинский- 1,3 м2, Октябрьский-2,3 м2, Кировский-1,4 м2, Волжский-15,6 м2, Фрунзенский-0,3м2, Заводской-1,3 м2, при существующей норме – 28 м2 на одного жителя. В городе недостаточно городских парков, обеспечивающих горожан разнообразными видами отдыха и приближенных к природным условиям. Сады, скверы и бульвары в городе размещены неравномерно. Общая площадь участков под перспективное озеленение составляет 994 га: в Волжском районе - около 500 га, в Кировском – 55 га, во Фрунзенском – 88 га. По Октябрьскому району, исключая Горпарк, - 13 га. Наиболее перспективными представляются Заводской (165 га) и Ленинский (191 га) районы. На территории города произрастает более 100 видов деревьев и 87 видов кустарников. Однако, несмотря на довольно широкий видовой состав, основную массу деревьев и кустарников составляют породы, имеющие низкую эстетическую ценность, но устойчивые к тяжелым климатическим условиям и отсутствию ухода за зелеными насаждениями. Преобладающими древесными породами являются: вяз мелколистный, ясень ланцетный, клен ясенелистный, тополь пирамидальный. Преобладающими кустарниками являются: кизильник блестящий, сирень обыкновенная, смородина золотистая. Хвойные породы занимают 3,2% от общего количества деревьев. Основное количество деревьев имеет средний возраст от 16 до 40 лет. При этом около 10% лиственных пород относится к спелому возрасту. Основные примеси, содержащиеся в атмосфере города Саратова это: диоксид азота, оксид азота, пыль, оксид углерода, фенол, сероводород, формальдегид, бензапирен. После проведения анализа содержания этих веществ в атмосфере за период с 2002 по 2007 г, был составлен график динамики загрязнения атмосферного воздуха г. Саратова основными и специфическими веществами в долях ПДК. Мы видим, что самые высокие доли ПДК приходятся на формальдегид, диоксид азота и бензапирен. Причем за последний год содержание их в воздухе (за исключением формельдегида) возросло (Рис.).

216 Рис. Динамика загрязнения атмосферного воздуха г. Саратова основными и специфическими веществами, доли ПДК

После проведения сравнительного анализа количества загрязняющих веществ по районам г. Саратова, было установлено, что Фрунзенский район находится на первом месте по содержанию в воздухе таких вредных веществ как, формальдегид и диоксид азота. Диоксид азота сильно раздражает слизистые оболочки дыхательных путей. Диоксид азота вызывает сенсорные, функциональные и патологические эффекты. К сенсорным эффектам можно отнести обонятельные и зрительные реакции организма. Функциональным эффектом, вызываемым диоксидом азота, является повышенное сопротивление дыхательных путей. Иными словами, диоксид азота вызывает увеличение усилий, затрачиваемых на дыхание. Патологические эффекты проявляются в том, что диоксид азота делает человека более восприимчивым к патогенам, вызывающим болезни дыхательных путей. У людей, подвергшихся воздействию высоких концентраций диоксида азота, чаще наблюдаются катар верхних дыхательных путей, бронхиты, круп и воспаление легких. Таким образом, роль данного загрязняющего вещества в формировании патологии населения высоко значима. Загрязнение атмосферного воздуха диоксидом азота содержит в себе угрозу не только для здоровья людей, но и наносит экологический вред всей природной среде. Отрицательное биологическое воздействие диоксида азота на растения проявляется в обесцвечивании листьев, увядании цветков, прекращении плодоношения и роста. Формальдегид - это газ с резким раздражающим запахом; это один из наиболее вредных видов токсичных газообразных органических соединений. Он может раздражать глаза, горло, кожу, вызывать тошноту, головокружения и даже, как считается, летаргию, - если его содержание в воздухе превысит 50 частей на миллиард, проще говоря - 50 единиц. Основной вклад в загрязнение воздуха формальдегидом вносят передвижные источники, особенно автотранспорт. Для оптимизации окружающей среды средствами озеленения необходим подбор устойчивых к формальдегиду видов древесных растений, эффективно отфильтровывающих воздух от техногенных загрязнений. Для оптимизации окружающей среды средствами озеленения необходим подбор устойчивых к формальдегиду видов древесных растений.

217 Объектами исследований были полностью сформированные листья 7 видов древесных растений: клена остролистного (Acer platanoides), вяз мелколистный (Ulmus pumila), тополь пирамидальный, березы повислой (Betula pendula), тополя дрожащего (Populus tremula), конского каштана (Aesculus hippocastanum), тополь канадский. Возраст деревьев 40-45 лет. Исследованные виды древесных растений можно расположить в следующем порядке по мере снижения их устойчивости к формальдегиду: тополь дрожащий - береза повислая конский каштан обыкновенный - клен остролистный. Различия в устойчивости древесных растений к формальдегиду следует учитывать при проектировании и создании системы зеленых насаждений в условиях промышленно-городской среды, в уличных посадках и районах размещения автотрасс. (Таблица). Не следует забывать и про цветочные культуры, многие из которых способны эффективно поглощать ЗВ из атмосферы. Так, например, формальдегид нейтрализует папоротник, хризантема, маргаритка, аммиак поглощает хризантема. Некоторые растения «усваивают» несколько ЗВ одновременно: • • •

Лилия: аммиак, бензол, формальдегид, ксилол. Тюльпан: аммиак, формальдегид, ксилол. Английский плющ: аммиак, бензол, ксилол.

В целом же, жители нашего города считают, что экологическая ситуация в г. Саратове несколько хуже, чем по России в целом. Так, подавляющее большинство (84%) горожан полагают, что экологическая ситуация в Саратове «скорее плохая», 14% саратовцев оценивают экологическое положение как «среднее», и лишь 2% жителей нашего города считают экологию нашей области «хорошей». 1% - затруднились ответить на поставленный вопрос. Развитие ландшафтно-архитектурного наследия Саратова, а также формирование новых объектов садово-паркового строительства создали ландшафтно-экологический каркас города. Таблица. Чувствительность зеленых насаждений к диоксиду серы, фенолу, формальдегиду Насаждения

Диоксид серы Фенол Формальдегид

Барбарис обыкновенный

*

*

++

Бирючина обыкновенная

—

+

*

Бузина черная

—

++

*

Береза повислая

++

—

—

Вяз перистоветвистый

+

+

+

Дуб черешчатый

—

+

—

Дерен кроваво-красный

—

—

*

Ива белая плакучая

*

+

—

218 Калина обыкновенная

*

++

+

Карагана древовидная

+

+

*

Каштан конский обыкновенный

++

+

—

*

*

*

остролистный

—

—

*

явор

—

—

+

ясенелистный

—

—

—

полевой

—

*

+

серебристый

—

—

—

Липа мелколистная

++

+

++

Лох узколистный

—

—

*

Сирень обыкновенная

+

++

++

Черемуха обыкновенная

+

++

*

Яблоня домашняя

+

++

*

Клен:

Примечание. Знак «++» - высокая чувствительность; «+» - средняя чувствительность; «» - низкая чувствительность; «*» - реакция неизвестна Список литературы Лузина Е.С. (1987). По паркам и скверам Саратова. Саратов. 115 с. Сокольская О.Б. (1993). «Зеленое зодчество» Саратовского Поволжья. Саратов: СГУ. 128 с. Сокольcкая О.Б. (2006). Особенности адаптации устойчивых элементов озеленения населенных пунктов Саратовского Правобережья. Саратов. ФГОУ ВПО «Саратовский ГАУ им.Н.И.Вавилова». 178 с. Государственный доклад о состоянии и об охране окружающей среды Саратовской области в 2006 году (2007). ГУПР МПР России по Саратовской области. Саратов. 274 с.

Особенности формирования городских успдебных комплексов периода конца XVIIIначла XX веков как устойчивых элементов системы озеленения Саратова Сокольская Ольга, Шачина О.А. Саратовский государственный аграрный университет им.Н.И.Вавилова Принятие большинством стран - участников Конференции ООН 1992 года (Рио-деЖанейро) концепции устойчивого развития, провозгласившей необходимость сбалансированного решения социально-экономических задач и проблем сохранения благоприятной окружающей среды, требует от градостроителей поиска новых моделей развития городского пространства на основе реальных возможностей природы.

219 Продолжительная ориентация отечественной градостроительной практики на экстенсивное освоение городских территорий с позиции неисчерпаемости природных ресурсов привела к формированию качественно неполноценной среды обитания человека в крупных городах, где началась деградация природного ландшафта. Перспективы реализации концепции устойчивого развития в России, особенно в крупных городах, напрямую связаны с проведением архитектурно-ландшафтной реконструкции городских территорий. Это предполагает целенаправленное увеличение их природного потенциала на основе структурной реорганизации существующих экосистем. Реконструкция относится к тем формам развития города, которые осуществляются в условиях уже радикально измененного природного ландшафта с нарастающей интенсивностью воздействия техногенных факторов. На различных этапах развития городской структуры содержание и. преобладающая направленность реконструктивных мероприятий, как правило, существенно различаются. Как показывает опыт многих стран, выбор подходов к преобразованию ландшафта в ходе подобных мероприятий определяется степенью, уравновешенности составляющих его естественных, природных и искусственных, антропогенных элементов. Именно в их сбалансированном; развитии или нарушенном равновесии содержатся либо предпосылки существования антропогенного ландшафта в течение длительного периода, либо постоянного накопления определённой напряженности с обострением экологических проблем. Вхождение России во всемирные и региональные организации, целью которых является развитие природоохранной деятельности, позволяет использовать накопленный международный опыт и подойти к вопросам преобразования пространственной структуры городских ландшафтов на новой качественной основе. В связи с этим на территории Приволжской Возвышенности проблемам восстановления и применения устойчивых городских усадебных комплексов как элементов ландшафтно-экологического каркаса, должно уделяться большое внимание. Поэтому нами проводятся исследования в данном направлении, которые выявили устойчивые во времени городские усадебные комплексы конца XVIII- начала XX веков, в частности, в г.Саратове. В период конца XVIII- начала XIX веков сложились городские усадебные комплексы, принадлежавшие дворянам, священнослужителям и чиновникам из мелкопоместного дворянства. В них входят: дом-особняк, флигель, службы и обязательно сад. Сохранившиеся до настоящего время усадьбы данного типа являются большой редкостью. Активное градостроительство, все более проникающее в центральные городские районы, безжалостно уничтожает остатки исторической застройки провинциальных городов. Строения в городских усадебных комплексах были в основном деревянными, поэтому часто уничтожались пожарами, а соответственно перестраивались. Так, например, на территории Саратова появились усадебные комплексы для дворянского и мелкопоместного сословья. Они строились вдоль берега реки Волга и в городской застройке (Чернышевских, Пыпиных, Фединых, Баратаевых, Рейник и и др.) (Сокольская, 1993). Усадебные комплексы вдоль реки Волга располагались на спускающихся трех террасах. Верхние две занимали здания и сооружения, например, усадьбы Чернышевских и Пыпиных, а нижняя терраса была засажена садом, в основном из яблоневых и вишневых деревьев. На самом берегу Волги находились беседки. На территориях усадеб росли не только плодовые кустарники и деревья, но и декоративные, такие как шиповник, сирень, белые и желтые акации, ветла и т.д. По периметру участков высаживали вяз приземистый.

220 Архитектура жилых домов и флигелей, и некоторых строений, в частности, Чернышевских-Пыпиных, носила ампирный характер: с колонными, мезонином, большой верандой. Два флигеля на территории усадьбы сдавались квартирантам, в сад служил как для утилитарных целей, так и для отдыха и для игр детей. Центральную часть сада Николай Гаврилович называл «Малой Азией», вспоминая, как здесь играли в лапту, в козны, запускали змея, взбирались на столб, прыгали через яму, катались на качелях. Земельные участки Чернышевских и Пыпиных были единым целым, их не разделял забор, а сад и строения использовались обеими семьями, что характерно для многих усадебных комплексов, где их представители прибывали в родстве. В настоящее время данный усадебный комплекс уменьшился в размерах из-за создания набережной, появились поздние строения, имеющие прямое отношение к младшим потомкам рода Чернышевских и Пыпиных. Усадебные комплексы, расположенные в городской застройке небольшие по размерам. Таким примером является усадьба И.Баратаева. К ней приводит узкий, крутой переулок, берущий свое начало от набережной Волги и получивший название Князевский взвоз с тех пор, когда были возведены дом князя и заложен парк с садом. Здание построено в начале XIX века, ранее - до конца XVIII века здесь, по линии взвоза, проходили городские укрепления - ров и вал, за ненадобностью их уничтожили в конце века. За тем поперек взвоза обосновалась городская усадьба И.Баратаева. Одиннадцать окон первого этажа, лоджия и мезонин с балконом обращены на волжские просторы. С пригорка дом казался еще выше, легче, стройнее. В этом помогли и колонны, и лоджия, и балкон. Изумительный парк с фруктовым садом “...славился на всю округу...” Однако ничего из былой прелести не осталось, разве что есть сам дом, колонны, мезонин с балконом. Теперь больше не благоухает сад и “не шепчутся” по вечерам деревья старого парка, так как нет этой «жемчужины». Вместо нее потомкам достались ряд домовкооперативов, кое-где чудом, уцелевшие лиственные деревья и кустарники (сирени и акации), сбиты капители колонн, пропали точеные дубовые балясины, сам фасад словно облит грязно-белой краской. Но досаднее всего то, что все это варварство прикрыто уродливой панельной стеной, которая не дает проследить остатки прежней красоты. Исследуя городские усадебные комплексы г.Саратова были определены особенности их формирования как устойчивых элементов системы озеленения: 1) городские усадебные комплексы, расположенные на берегу реки Волга были больших размеров, чем усадебные комплексы в центре города; 2) усадебные комплексы имели палисадники, которые украшали не только сами объекты, но и улицы; 3) усадебные комплексы имели на территории лиственные деревья и кустарники определенных видов: лиственные деревья, защищающие склоны от оползней: вязы, тополя, акация белая, дубы; из кустарников - сирень обыкновенная, чубушник, шиповник, желтая акация, калина обыкновенная (ф.бульденеж), смородина золотистая; из плодовых деревьев и кустарников – яблони, груши, вишни, черная смородина, малина, айва; в палисадниках – сирень обыкновенная, рябина, калина; 4) усадебные комплексы имели цветники с ассортиментом XIX века: многолетники – флокс, лилейник, пион; из луковичных – тюльпан, лилия; из двулетников – мальва; летники - тагетес, календула, космея;

221 5) городские усадебные комплексы имели малые архитектурные формы: скамьи, ограды, беседки, иногда гроты и фонтанчики, скульптур было мало; 6) территории усадебных комплексов расположенных на берегу позволяли строить там флигели, которые сдавались внаем, т.е. практически имели различных хозяев; 7) планировка дорог на территории – рациональная, от входа к жилым и хозяйственным постройкам. 8) Городские усадебные комплексы подвержены различным экологическим факторам, особенно преобладанию пыли из-за близко расположенных автодорог. Пыль не только вредит здоровью людей и растений, но оказывает значительное влияние на привлекательность объектов садово-паркового искусства, одними из которых являются городские усадебные комплексы. Поэтому был проведен анализ некоторых рекреационно-защитных насаждений на территориях городских усадебных комплексах по их пылезащитной способности. Сводные данные представлены в таблице. Таблица Пылезащитная способность рекреационно-защитных насаждений усадебных комплексов г. Саратова (усадьбы: Чернышевских, Пыпиных, Баратаева, Федина) Древеснокустарниковые породы Дуб черешчатый Береза повислая Вяз приземистый Сирень обыкновенная Смородина золотистая

Номер ряда от дороги 7 4 1 2

Высота отбора образца, м 4,0 4,0 1,5/4,0 1,5/3,0

2

1,5/2

Масса сухой пыли, мг/м² на июнь на сентябрь 2006 г. (после дождя) 2006 г. 7890 Следы 11788 Следы 18526 0,30/следы 6580 0,201/следы 6318

Следы

В результате было установлено, что вяз приземистый с шершавыми листьями накопил пыли больше, чем остальные насаждения. Из этого следует, что вяз приземистый хорошо очищает воздух от пылевых частиц, а соответственно удерживает их на границах парка или сада. Это дает возможность остальным рекреационным насаждениям оставаться более привлекательными. Важно и то, что вяз приземистый из-за своей развитой корневой системы позволяет удерживать оползни, часто встречающиеся в городе, особенно в прибрежной зоне. Рис.. Сравнительный анализ загрязняющих веществ в Волжском районе

222

Нами сделаны анализы по вредным веществам на территориях усадеб и на их границах. Так, например, в Волжском районе, где сохранилось большинство усадебных комплексов, первое место среди загрязняющих веществ занял формальдегид. (Рис.). Именно это вещество вызывает тошноту, головокружение, раздражение глаз, горла, кожи. Для оптимизации окружающей среды средствами озеленения необходим подбор устойчивых к формальдегиду видов древесных растений. И одним из основных является вяз приземистый, а также береза повислая, клен остролистный, тополь бальзамический, сирень обыкновенная, т.е. те насаждения, которые существуют в этих усадебных комплексах. В сложившихся экологических условиях необходимо применять следующие цветочные культуры, которые поглощают формальдегид – лилии и тюльпаны, а также растения, нейтрализующие данное вещество – папоротники, маргаритки, хризантемы. В итоге, сделаны предварительные рекомендации: 1) восстановить (по возможности) древесно-кустарниковую растительность и цветочные культуры, а где возможно – плодовые сады или их фрагменты, учитывая экологические факторы; 2) восстановить палисады для включения данных объектов в систему озеленения Саратова; 3) хозяйственные постройки можно заменить лазерным изображением сооружений, тем самым свободное пространство использовать для культурных мероприятий и газонов; 4) использовать данные комплексы в культурной жизни гостей и жителей Саратова, а именно в туристических и других рекреационных целях. Список литературы Сокольская О.Б. (1993). Зеленое зодчество Саратовского Поволжья. Саратов: СГУ. 128 с.

Экореконструкция городских коммуникационных пространств (на примере г. Волгограда) Сотникова Инна Санкт-Петербургский государственный архитектурно-строительный университет Волгоград расположен в 1073 км. К юго – востоку от Москвы на изгибе нижнего течения Волги, с населением 1032,9 тыс.чел. Особенностью планировочной структуры Волгограда, определяющей его дальнейшее ландшафтно – экологическое преобразование, является уникальная линейная структура, вытянутая более чем на 70 км вдоль р.Волги и сложившаяся путем слияния г.Царицына (1589г.) и отдельных населенных пунктов, растянувшихся вдоль реки. Разработка генерального плана Сталинграда 1945г заложила его дальнейшее развитие линейной структуры и системы озеленения. В новом генеральном плане города до 2025г., прослеживаются устойчивые тенденции развития Волгограда с акцентом на формировании эффективной транспортной инфраструктуры, уже в настоящее время занимающей территории около 3382ГА. (МГПгВ., 2006)

223 Актуальность исследования вопросов экореконструкции системы существующих ГКП (городских коммуникационных пространств) Волгограда непосредственно связана с очевидной необходимостью повышения эффективности использования транспортных и пешеходных пространств в условиях реализации нового генерального плана города. Среди основных тенденций развития города можно выделить следующие: 1. Интенсивное развитие высокоскоростного транспорта – железнодорожного и скоростного трамвая (метротрама) с наземными и эстакадными участками. 2. Создание многофункциональных обслуживающих и деловых комплексов в зоне обходной автодороги с развитием и увеличением мест приложения труда в пригородной зоне. 3. Частичное свертывание функций промышленных территорий, которые занимают 70кв.км. территории города, и превращение их в зоны общественно-деловой активности в соответствии с их максимальным раскрытием на природную доминанту – реку Волгу. 4. Организация рекреационно-обслуживающих комплексов вдоль набережной Волги. 5. Формирование въездных транспортно-терминальных комплексов. 6. Введение инфраструктуры велосипедных сообщений. 7. Возрастание роли и соответственно возрастание потребности в удобной доступности к основным историческим достопримечательностям города. (МГПгВ., 2006) В соответствии с этим, можно говорить, что именно ГКП в настоящее время – территории не только с определенным экономическим потенциалом, но и территории с их возрастающей ролью в повышении социальной эффективности городских пространств, а также определенными ресурсами в плане нормализации экологической ситуации в городе. Экологический аспект – один из основных, который должен быть учтен при разработке предложений по ландшафтному преобразованию ГКП. Система главных транспортных магистралей является приоритетным источником акустического и воздушного загрязнений. (Чистякова С.Б.,1988) Уровень шума на основных улицах города превышает предельно допустимые нормы. Необходимо выделить проблемы, связанные с существованием зон повышенной экологической напряженности на прирельсовых территориях вблизи линий железной дороги и вокзалов, трассах скоростного трамвая, участках городских территорий вдоль автодорог с движением грузового транспорта и на перекрестках. Состояние ландшафта коммуникационных пространств Волгограда усугубляется недостаточной обоснованностью и зачастую случайностью выбранных приемов размещения растительности и трактовки рельефных ситуаций. К числу конфликтных ситуаций в организации ГКП в условиях экореконструкции можно отнести следующие: •

Проблема организации трасс общественного транспорта во взаимодействии с индивидуальным, что создает большое количество аварийных ситуаций и автомобильные пробки в общественном и административных центрах города и как следствие ухудшение экологической ситуации.

•

Экспансия стихийного паркинга, связанная с недостаточным количеством парковочных мест и интенсивным ростом индивидуального транспорта. В настоящее время обеспеченность жителей Волгограда автомобилями составляет 117 на тысячу жителей.

•

Сокращение зеленых разрывов между районами из-за размещения коммунальных объектов на основных транспортных магистралях города.

224 •

Отсутствие обустроенных набережных для рекреации и транзитного движения.

•

Недостаточная координация системы пространств общественного транспорта и экологических походов.

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Отсутствие благоустроенных зеленых разделительных полос с точки зрения безопасности движения.

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Отсутствие шумозащитных элементов (от скоростных автомагистралей и рельсового транспорта в структуре жилой застройки)

Для определения подходов и поиска решений к экореконструкции ГКП предложено выделение основных типов ГКП в зависимости от зон влияния - граничных пространств, и соответственно, рассмотрения их с точки зрения различных функций: с объектами специального назначения – санитарно-защитными зонами (СЗЗ), жилой застройкой, общественными зданиями и сооружениями, буферными зонами, природными доминантами, транспортными объектами – железнодорожными, речными и автовокзалами. В данном случае можно говорить о формировании системы дифференцированных коммуникационных коридоров, в которых с различной скоростью передвигаются пешеходы и транспорт, начиная от «вылетных» коммуникаций и кончая пешеходными улицами, разделенными между собой буферными пространствами и заполненными шумозащитными экранами, складками рельефа и компонентами растительности. Предлагается рассмотреть несколько методов реорганизации ГКП: метод реструктуризации притрассовых зон ГКП; метод регенерации ландшафтной структуры трасс рельсового транспорта; метод многоуровнего расслоения ГКП. В основе метода реструктуризации притрассовых зон ГКП лежит принцип дифференциации пространства с выделением полос гарантированного и безопасного движения для индивидуального, общественного транспорта, пешеходов и организации велосипедного движения с помощью растительности, изменения профиля улицы, как это выполнено в европейских странах. Данный метод может быть применим к магистралям общегородского значения регулируемого движения, районного значения Волгограда. Как свидетельствует европейский опыт, приход общественного транспорта нового поколения требует ландшафтной реструктуризации существующих транспортных пространств, но именно это изменение может радикально повлиять на решение многих экологических проблем современного города. Кроме увеличения пропускной способности улицы и дороги значительно улучшится режим движения по основной проезжей части, сняв с него медленно идущие транспортные средства общественного транспорта. Выделение и заполнение зеленых разделительных полос природными компонентами, как это выполнено в Китае, рассматривается еще и с точки зрения безопасности движения. Применение приема создания композиций определенной высоты, позволяет водителям, противоположного друг другу движения не слепить фарами глаза. В местах, где граничным пространством служит жилая застройка, общественные здания и сооружения, применимы новейшие подходы к вертикальному озеленению, особенно при проектировании новых архитектурных сооружений, примером может служить музей современного искусства Ж. Нувеля в Париже.

225 Заполнение буферных пространств шумозащитными посадками, геопластикой рельефа, экранами на основных транзитных направлениях, в жилой застройке, на пешеходных зонах не удивительно, но применение «зеленых» экранов с использованием новейших технологий их возведения и поддержания, примером которых могут служить городские улицы Токио, дает возможность решить экологические проблемы не только с точки зрения шумозащиты, но и формирования определенного микроклимата на различных участках ГКП, с возможностью замещения в каком то смысле долго растущих конструкций шумозащитных посадок. (Gaventa.S., 2006) В ГКП, где граничным пространством является р.Волга, прием создания озелененных пирсов как пространств общественного назначения, примером реализации которых может служить система пирсов Нью-Йорка, представляется применимым для проектируемых и реконструируемых набережных Волгограда, т.к. дает возможность формирования ландшафтных микросистем. Т.к. в соответствии с новым генеральным планом города обычные виды транспорта будут использоваться в основном в районах, удаленных от скоростных рельсовых линий, и на связях между соседними районами города, может быть предложен метод регенерации ландшафтной структуры и соответственно ландшафтной организации трасс рельсового транспорта (в структуре улиц и перепрофилируемых промышленных предприятий), которые в соответствии с новым генеральным планом составят 65км. (МГПгВ., 2006) Следует создавать ландшафтно-организованные рельсовые пространства в структуре линейных парков на территориях перепрофилируемых промышленных предприятий, с заполнением инертными материалами, включением невысоких компонентов растительности. Метод многоуровнего расслоения ГКП, основан на принципе интеграции и экологической безопасности. Трансформация существующей модели улицы может быть оптимальна в данном случае на магистралях общегородского значения частично непрерывного движения (2 продольная) и непрерывного движения (3 продольная). Создание улицы в 3-х уровнях в жилом районе, в Барселоне, решает проблемы шумозащиты за счет заглубления общественного транспорта и создания эксплуатируемых экранов, формируя озелененное пространство общественного назначения. (Topos 53., 2005) Включение надтрассовых парков в структуру ГКП, объектов «зеленой» архитектуры, ландшафтно-оформленных пешеходных мостов, может быть эффективно с точки зрения принципа экологической безопасности и комплексного подхода к экореконструкции улиц Волгограда, граничными пространствами которых являются: СЗЗ – «биофильтров» городской среды, типовая жилая застройка, буферные пространства, пойменные территории и природная доминанта р.Волга. Все предложенные методы основаны на экологическом подходе и принципе безопасности для человека. Пересечение транспорта и пешеходов неизбежно, поэтому большую роль играет подбор тех или иных средств в минимализации конфликтных ситуаций и грамотном обозначении зон приоритетности транспортного и пешеходного движения. Одним из основных ресурсов, средств нормализации экологической ситуации в ГКП является растительность. Около 80% зеленых насаждений Волгограда старовозрастные посадки с выраженными процессами усыхания, в том числе и в структуре ГКП. На

226 магистральных улицах насаждения занимают 10-18% общей ширины, при рекомендованных 25. ГКП имеют огромный ресурс для повышения показателей норм обеспеченности зелеными насаждениями районов города, исключением является Центральный район, имеющий самый высокий показатель по озеленению – 27,9кв.м/чел, наименьший в Советском районе – 6,0кв.м/чел. (МГПгВ., 2006) Выбор форм растительности для формирования ГКП можно предлагать в зависимости от характера фрагментов уличных пространств: 1. Протяженная улица-«линия», где необходимо учитывать архитектонику кроны, масштабность, высоту для: • создания визуальных разделительных барьеров; • создания фона вдоль транспортных коммуникаций различного назначения; • создание трансформируемой среды улицы пешеходных коммуникаций в зависимости от сезонности в целях формирования индивидуального облика улицы и создающие ветровой и теневой комфорт; 2. Островные элементы-«паузы» в структуре улиц: • как средство идентификации входных зон в общественные здания и сооружения различного назначения; • акцентирования островных пространств на перекрестках, в пешеходных зонах – «предупреждающих зон»; • ландшафтного оформления пешеходно – транспортных пересечений в целях безопасности пешехода. В условиях резкоконтинентального климата Волгограда все предлагаемые приемы экореконструкции ГКП требуют инженерного обеспечения и поддержания соответственно. Формирование эффективной поливочной системы с капельным орошением, предусмотрение приствольных ограждений с решетками, отсыпок инертными материалами, которые эффективно начинают применяться и в нашей стране, предохранят корневую систему деревьев от повреждений и пересыхания. (Теодоронский В.С., Сабо Е.Д., Фролова В.А, 2006) Почва служит важным поглотителем многих загрязнителей атмосферы, поэтому предусмотрение максимального количества натуральных покрытий в пешеходных зонах этому способствует. Применение тех или иных средств зависит от их назначения, свойств, выбор определяется ситуацией, подчиненностью основному композиционному замыслу. В настоящее время данная методика концептуальных проектов Волгограда. экономической эффективности, можно ландшафтного дизайна в зависимости от различных инвесторов.

применяется в ряде разрабатываемых и В некоторых случаях для достижения говорить о дифференцируемом уровне финансовых возможностей с привлечением

Таким образом, предложенные методы экореконструкции ГКП позволят, если не радикально, то последовательно улучшить экологическую ситуацию в Волгограде. Список литературы Материалы генерального плана г. Волгограда, выполненного пространственного планирования «ЭНКО» (2006). СПб. (МГПгВ) Gaventa.S.(2006). New public spaces.Octopus Publishing Group Ltd

ООО

ВНИИ

227 Теодоронский В.С., Сабо Е.Д., Фролова В.А. (2006). Строительство и эксплуатация объектов ландшафтной архитектуры. М.: ACADEMIA, стр.163 Topos 53 Traffic (2005). Carmen Fiol Costa, «The Gran Via in Barselona» Callway. стр.94-97 Чистякова С.Б. (1988). Охрана окружающей среды. М.: Стройиздат, стр.88-92.

Состояние и перспективы использования защитных лесных насаждений в системе озеленения городов степи на примере г. Саратова Терешкин А.В., Азарова О.В. Саратовский государственный аграрный университет им.Н.И.Вавилова Недостаточный уровень озеленения городского пространства в условиях степи необходимо компенсировать созданием новых насаждений, а так же сохранением уже существующих, если они достаточно эффективно выполняют возлагаемые на них функции. Органичное включение защитных насаждений в систему озеленения возможно при их преобразовании и повышении эстетической привлекательности. При этом необходимо с повышением эстетической привлекательности сохранить на должном уровне средообразующие и защитные функции. В процессе урбанизации в площадь населенных пунктов активно вовлекаются территории, ранее занятые агроландшафтами. Защитные лесные насаждения, оказавшиеся в непосредственной близости от застройки, выполняют эстетические и рекреационные функции наряду с защитными, так как они перешли из пригородных насаждений в категорию внутригородских. Задачей наших исследований являлась оценка возможности улучшения состояния защитных лесных насаждений, вошедших в систему озеленения населенных пунктов в условиях степи Российской Федерации, их средообразующих и эстетических функций на примере г. Саратова. Проведение социологического опроса проводилось по методике Ядова В.А. (2004) с помощью анкетного закрытого опроса. Таксация насаждений проводилась по общепринятым методикам (ОСТ 56-69-83, Огиевский В.В., Хиров А.А, 1964, Анучин Н.П., 1986, Кабанов С.В., 2004). Обработку данных проводили с помощью программы Lifе (Кабанов С.В., 2004). Жизненное состояние пород определяли по Алексееву В.А. (1989), изучение хода роста и фитомассы – по общепринятым методикам. Для получения сравнительных характеристик существующих зеленых насаждений, относящихся к различным категориям была разработана шкала комплексной оценки рекреационноэстетических свойств зеленых насаждений (таблица) и проведена оценка их санитарно – гигиенических функций на основе общепринятых методик. Таблица. Критерии рекреационно-эстетической оценки Оцениваемый признак 1. Разнообразие породного состава насаждений 2. Форма (ярусность) 3. Санитарное и жизненное состояние насаждений 4. Возраст насаждений

Количеств о баллов 1-6 1-5 1-10 1-2

228 5. Глубина видимости пейзажа 6. Доступность и проходимость в насаждениях по прямой 7. Степень контрастности пород в насаждениях 8. Степень красочности насаждений по сезонам 9. Состояние травяного покрова 10. Особенности цветения пород в насаждениях 11. Окраска и наличие плодов деревьев и кустарников 12. разнообразие и смешение пород по площади насаждения 13. Захламленность и замусоренность территории насаждений 14. Наличие внешних видов, открывающихся с территории 15. Удаленность от водных объектов

1-6 1-5 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-10 1-3 1-5 1-3 1-5

В результате исследований установлено, что в системе озеленения г. Саратова доля защитных лесных насаждений достигает 23,4 % (601 га). Они представлены массивами на склонах (35 %), противоэрозионными насаждениями (24 %), лесными полосами вдоль дорог (21 %), полезащитными полосами (16 %), санитарно-защитными зонами (4 %). Все они являются социально востребованными. До 9 % населения города используют их в качестве мест кратковременного отдыха. При проведении комплексного благоустройства этот показатель можно довести до 61 %. Таксационные характеристики, показатели жизнеспособности пород в защитных лесных насаждениях, комплексные рекреационно-эстетические характеристики по сравнению с другими видами городских зеленых насаждений в целом несколько ниже, что объясняется отсутствием лесоводственных уходов и худшими условиями произрастания. При проведении соответствующих мероприятий существует возможность их увеличения до сопоставимых величин. Исследованиями установлено, что дуб черешчатый (Quercus robur) на всех пробных площадях характеризуется 5 – 5а бонитетом. С улучшением почвенных условий и увлажнения бонитет повышается до 4. Клен остролистный (Acer platanoides), как в городских насаждениях, так и в защитных лесных насаждениях характеризуется 3-4 классом бонитета. Тополь пирамидальный (Populus nigra ‘Italica’) характеризуется хорошими ростовыми процессами - в городских условиях и в лесополосах бонитет близок к 3. Вяз приземистый (мелколистный) (Ulmus pumila) в городских условиях характеризуется 4 и 5а бонитетом, в лесополосах – 5а. Липа мелколистная (Tilia cordata) при хорошем поливе и своевременных санитарных рубках в возрасте 120 лет имеет 4 бонитет, тогда как в лесополосах в 45 лет – 3, f в 70 лет – 5а. Ясень ланцетный (Fraxinus lanceolata) в городской среде в возрасте 60 лет имеет 4 бонитет. В лесополосах в возрасте от 58 до 78 лет практически на всех пробных площадях бонитет равен 4. Эта порода развивается одинаково в городских и защитных насаждениях при различных режимах увлажнения и плодородии почвы. Береза повислая (Betula pendula) в возрасте 20 лет имеет 2 бонитет. С увеличением загазованности территории данная порода выпадает из насаждений. Робиния лжеакация (Robinia pseudacacia) в городских условиях встречается достаточно часто и имеет в среднем 4 класс бонитета. Таксационные показатели таких древесных пород как дуб черешчатый, липа мелколистная, вяз приземистый (мелколистный) в защитных лесных насаждениях несколько хуже, чем в городских насаждениях. Такое различие объясняется отсутствием рубок ухода, что ведет к повышению полноты и густоты насаждений по сравнению с нормальными до 1,5 раз.

229

Изучение хода роста древесных пород показало, что высота клена ясенелистного и робинии лжеакации, развивающихся в городе на всем этапе развития выше в среднем на 1,5 м. Клен в 50 лет практически заканчивает рост в высоту. Робиния лжеакация до 60 лет характеризуется интенсивным ростом. Высота дуба черешчатого увеличивается стабильно вплоть до 75 лет. Для древесных пород в зеленых насаждениях города отмечена большая интенсивность роста, это связано с лучшими условиями роста, в первую очередь за счет их орошения. Сравнительные показатели жизненного состояния древесных пород в защитных лесных и зеленых насаждениях г. Саратова, показаны на рисунке. Рисунок. Характеристика жизненного состояния древесных пород, участвующих в составе защитных лесных насаждений и насаждений общего пользования

ЗЛН Зел. Насаждения

Pi nu s

sy lv Fr Q ue estr ax is r in cu L. us s la ro nc bu eo rL la . ta U Bo lm rk Ac us p h er um am il a Ac er L. ic R er an ob p a la in ta L. ia no ps id eu es Be da c L. a tu ci l a a Po La p u pe n m du lu s la ita Ro l ic th a M Ti oe l ia nc co h rd at a M i ll

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Результаты рекреационно-эстетической оценки защитных лесных насаждений и зеленых насаждений города по единой шкале с анализом критериев показали, что средний балл оценки для городских зеленых насаждений составляет 55, для защитных лесных насаждений – 43 балла. При проведении соответствующих мероприятий ( рубки леса и снижение захламленности) существует возможность их увеличения до сопоставимых величин. Проведенные опыты показывают, что при рубках изменение характеристик происходит за счет улучшения просматриваемости, проходимости, повышения качества травяного покрова, снижения количества мусора. После проведения рубок ухода в лесной полосе рекреационно – эстетическая оценка насаждений стала сопоставимой с бульварами. Наиболее жизнеспособными породами, как в защитных лесных насаждениях, так и городских в условиях г. Саратова являются тополь пирамидальный (Populus pyramidalis) ясень ланцетный (Fraxinus lanceolata), клены остролистный (Acer platanoides) и ясенелистный (Acer negundo), липа мелколистная (Tilia cordata), робиния лжеакация (Robinia pseudoacacia), береза повислая (Betula pendula).

230 В ходе исследований определялось влияние насаждений на загрязненность снежного покрова в городе. Были разработаны математические модели процесса. Они показывают, что наиболее эффективными конструкциями насаждений для защиты от загрязнения автотранспортом жилых территорий являются плотная и ажурная. Защитные лесные насаждения вдоль городских автомобильных дорог задерживают на 30 % загрязнителей больше, чем другие зеленые насаждения. Статистически достоверное влияние на этот фактор составляет до 20 высот. Наибольшая эффективность отмечена у лесных полос плотной конструкции шириной более 20 м с опушками из густого кустарника. Наибольшее количество загрязнителей они накапливают в зоне до 2 высот (20-40м). Снижение температуры и увеличение влажности воздуха зелеными насаждениями способствует приближению параметров микроклимата в Саратове к комфортным условиям. Парковые насаждения приближают микроклиматические условия к комфортным в среднем на 2,5 0С, бульвары – на 1,7 0С, плотная лесополоса – на 3,1 0С, ажурная – на 2,5, продуваемая – на 2,0 0С. Скорость ветра снижается в парке на 60-80 %, на бульварах – 34-70%, в плотной лесополосе – 75-90 %, в ажурной – 67-72 %, в продуваемой – 42-57 %. Санитарно-гигиенические свойства защитных лесных насаждений в системе озеленения города сопоставимы с другими видами зеленых насаждений, поскольку они способны обеспечить производство 5,1 т/га кислорода, депонирование СО2 – 1,6 т/га, поглощение 15,3 кг/га вредных газов и аэрозолей и осаждение пыли – 0,7 т/га. Здесь задерживается на 30 % загрязнителей больше, чем в других зеленых насаждениях. На основании проведенных исследований при проектировании новых жилых микрорайонов можно рекомендовать максимально сохранять имеющиеся в ландшафте лесные насаждения массивного и линейного типов, используя их как основу для последующего формирования зеленых пространств, в дальнейшем трансформируя их в скверы и бульвары путем реконструкции и рубок ухода. Размещение в массивах защитных насаждений на участках расчлененных ландшафтов склоново – овражного типа за счет строительства искусственных запруд повышает рекреационную привлекательность до 3 раз и делает ее сравнимой с лесопарками и пригородными парками. Сохранение и использование существующих защитных лесных насаждений полосного и массивного типов не исключает необходимости дополнительного размещения на территории других видов зеленых насаждений, но существующие насаждения уже сейчас являются своеобразным экологическим каркасом территории. Отмеченные уровни рекреационных нагрузок на территории не приводят к снижению защитных свойств насаждений. Список литературы Алексеев В.А. (1989). Диагностика жизненного состояния деревьев и древостоев // Лесоведение. №4. С.51-57 Анучин Н.П. (1977). Лесная таксация. М. : Лесная пром-сть. 512 с. Огиевский В.В., Хиров, А.А. (1964). промышленность. 50 с.

Обследование лесных культур.

М.: Лесная

231 ОСТ 56-69-83 (1983). Гослесхоз СССР. 60 с.

Площади пробные лесоустроительные. Метод закладки. М.:

Азарова О.В., Терешкин А.В., Уполовников Д.А. (2007). Оценка эстетического состояния защитных лесных насаждений в системе озеленения г. Саратова // Вестник Саратовского госагроуниверситета им. Н.И. Вавилова. №1. С. 5-7. Кабанов С.В., Трус М.В., Терешкин А.В. (2004). Таксация пробных площадей. Саратов: СГАУ. 72 с.

232

POSTERS

In English

233 Johannes Paulus II Park (Madrid, Spain): Design, Ecology ad Urban Landscape A. Morcillo, F. Sepúlveda, N. Bautista, S. Soria Directorate General of Green Areas, City Council of Madrid, Paseo de Recoletos, 12, E28001 Madrid, Spain, Tel +00 34 91 588 53 54, Fax + 00 34 588 53 13, Email [email protected] Madrid metropolitan area has more than 5.000.000 people. There are more than 21.000 hectares of green areas (34.6% of the total area). 5.626 hectares are preserved by the City Council. It is a growing city with new urban lands which involve big gardening areas. Big urban parks are designed and planned to be able to combine simplicity and resources preservation. It must fulfil specific regulations and requirements for sustainable urban design methods. Johannes Paulus II Park belongs to Madrid City Council, with 31 hectares of land. Its design reminds us of the legacy of the gardening culture in the Mediterranean area. It contains four areas which are linked to the water themes (canals, irrigation ditches, channels). These water features is easy to maintain. Two phases of this project have been finished and the other two are in the construction process. The following options of integrated maintenance has been chosen: vegetation elements, roads, lightening, irrigation and drinking water, street furniture and special features, reservoirs, pumping, drains, cleaning, and waste recollecting, machinery and vehicles maintenance. Water management is especially important to adapt to the natural environment and use natural dry tolerant species of plants. Lawn areas were reduced and low consumption and recycling irrigation systems were used. There are two web types: drinking water (used in fountains and auxiliary hydrants) and regenerated (drip irrigation). Irrigation programmes are managed with a remote centralised system and it is highly efficient.

Entomological Research as a Sustainable of Urban Environment Assessment Klemina I.E. Nizhnevartovsk State University of Humanities, Nizhnevartovsk Lenina str., 56, Nizhnevartovsk, Russian Federation, Tel./Fax +7 3466 43 6586, Email [email protected] The last century was characterised by intensive urbanisation. Protection of biological diversity has become the most urgent global ecological problem. Insects, being the object of the research, are considered to be а more complex component of a biocenose due to their mobility. Insects also present in all landscape zones, including urban ones. Insects have the immediate response to the ecological changes which make this group especially valuable for urban ecosystems research. Insects can be used as modeling groups to predict biota conditions of anthropogenic transformed territories and they also can be used for bioindication.

234 Ruderal plant communities occupy a particular place in the urban landscape. We have investigated the herbal ruderal plant community, where Agropiron cristatum and Artemisia austrica are the most dominant. As a rule in such communities, a specific complex of insects forms, e.g. the hemipterans. The insects were collected within the period of 1993 to 2005 in the boundaries of Orenburg, and a single gathering of insects was organised in the environs of the town of Bogdanovsk (the Totzky region). 47 species of hemipterans out of 8 families were registered in this biotope. The most diverse composition was marked in the family of Pentatomidea – 13 genera, and 17 species. The most common species are Graphosoma italicum Mull., Sciocoris deltocephalus fieb., Aelia klugi Hahn, Eurydema ornata L., Eu. Oleracea. Among other families the common types are Eurygaster integriceps Put., Eu. Maura l., Odontoterus purpureolineatus Reut., Chorosoma schillingi Schill., Nabis ferus L. According to trophic specialisation the most part of species are phytophagous, among them we might distinguish groups of narrow oliphagous (46%), wide oliphagous (19%), narrow poliphagous (23%), and wide poliphagous (12%). Analysis the life-forms of the hemipterans ruderal complex sepatated three basic groups: hortobionts, herpetobionts and dendrophil species. The overwhelming majority of species are hortobionts, for instance, such species as Psacasta exanthematica Scop., Leprosoma inconspicuum Bar., Stictopleurus punctatonervosus Goeze., Bagarda stolata Horv., Piezodorus lituratus F., Zicrona caerulea L., Corizus hyoscyami L. and others. We could find a smaller number of herpetobionts Podops inuncta F., Sciocoris deltocephalus Fieb., Biosus maritimus Scop., Peritrechus nubilus Fall., Emblethis verbasci F. We have also noticed insignificant presence of dendrophil species (Ortholomus punctipennis H.-S., Galeatus spinifrons Fall., Ortholypus flavosparsus C. Sahlb, Aldephocoris annulicornis R. Sahlb.). Thus, hemipterocomplex of ruderal biotopes can be characterised by a poor species composition that indicates unstable ecological connections in these biotopes. It is necessary to do the reconstruction of ruderal areas and improve the quality of urban environment.

235

Posters

In Russian

236

Вязовые заболонники в садах и парках г. Санкт – Петербурга Людмила.Щербакова Санкт-Петрбургская лесотехническая академия В садово-парковом строительстве г. Санкт-Петербурга широко используются вяз гладкий Ulmus laevis и вяз шершавый Ulmus glabra. Возраст наиболее старых деревьев вязов или ильмов в парках превышает сто лет, а их диаметр - более 80 см. Многочисленные посадки вязов производили в новых районах города в 60-70-е гг. прошлого века. До недавнего времени ильмы считались наиболее устойчивыми породами для использования в крупном промышленном городе. В пригородах Санкт-Петербурга вязовые заболонники впервые были обнаружены в парках г. Пушкина в 1995 году. В настоящее время в городе зарегистрированы два вида вязовых заболонников: вязовый или струйчатый заболонник - Scolytus multistriatus Marsch. и заболонник-разрушитель Scolytus scolytus Fabr . Сначала появились в Московском парке Победы г. Санкт Петербурга, сейчас от них усыхают вязы в различных районах города. Наиболее сильно страдают от заболонников вязы в парках Петроградского района, на Васильевском и на Каменном островах. Заболонник разрушитель S. scolytus поселяется под толстой корой на деревьях диаметром более 30 см. Струйчатый заболонник - S. multistriatus заселяет деревья по всему стволу, а на толстых деревьях предпочитает среднюю и верхнюю часть ствола и ветви. Особую опасность вязовые заболонники представляют как переносчики голландской болезни или графиоза, возбудитель болезни - сумчатый гриб Ophiostoma ulmi (синоним – Ceratocistis ulmi) c конидиальной стадией Grabhium ulmi. В старых садах и парках г.Санкт-Петербурга болезнь в основном имеет хронический характер. Однако, общее ухудшение экологической обстановки в городе, увеличение запаса короедов, разлет их на значительные расстояния привело к тому, что темпы усыхания деревьев за последние три года резко увеличились. Основной очаг заболонников в центре города расположен в Александровском парке. Здесь болезнь из хронической перешла в острую. В 2000 году погибло 50 деревьев. Но уже в 2006 году эта цифра возросла до 156 деревьев. Из 945 вязов, растущих в парке, за последний год было убрано 103 старых дерева и 2 молодых. Подсадка молодых вязов не дала положительных результатов, деревья погибали в течение одного вегетационного периода. В Летнем саду в 2006 году усохло 7 деревьев. В 2007 году было выявлено еще значительное количество вязов, требующих уборки. Таким образом, очаг заболонников в Летнем саду также разрастается. В настоящее время борьба с заболонниками в г. Санкт-Петербурге выражается в уборке полностью погибших деревьев. При этом очень часто в силу экономических причин невозможно оперативно проводить уборку сухостоя. Кроме того, большинство объектов

237 расположено в центральных районах города, в садах и парках с интенсивным движением транспорта. Здесь в любое время года находится много отдыхающих, все это затрудняет работы. Вязовые заболонники из рода Scolytus представляют серьезную опасность для посадок вязов в Финляндии, граничащей с Ленинградской областью, и поэтому являются карантинными объектами.