Effective use of computer graphics in CAI: A ;eview of ... Florida International University ... there are three distinct schools of intrinsic motivational thought.
')
Rieber, L., & Hannafin, M.J. (1988). The effects of textual and animated orienting activities and practice on learning from computer-based instruction. Computers in the Schools, 5, 77-89. Rigney, J., & Lutz, K. (1976). Effects of graphic analogies of concepts in chemistry on learning and attitude. Journal 0/ Educational Psychology, 68,305-311. Siliauskas. G. (1986). Effective use of computer graphics in CAI: A ;eview of the literature. Canadian Journal a/Educational Communications, 15,75-84. Szabo, M., Dwyer, EM., & DeMelo, H.T. (1981). Visual testing: Visual literacy's second dimension. Educational Communication and Technology Jour1/01, 29. 177-187. Wells, R.F. (1973). Effectiveness of three visual media and two study formats in teaching concepts involving time, space and motion. AV Communication Review, 2 I, 235-247. Willows. D. (1978). A picture is not always worth a thousand words: Pictures as disiruciers in reading. Journal ofEducationol Psychology, 70,255-262.
USing Computer-Managed Instructional Software to Increase Motivation and Achievement in Elementary School Children Steve Terrell Nova Southeastern University
Paul Rendulic Florida International University Abstract This study provides
evidence
that the use of computer-nunvaged
instructional
(CMI),/(,£'dl}(lck
can have a positive effect on student motivation ami achievemrnt. 1\1/ l'XI)('l'im(,l1raf r("I'f'on'" study, based on the Cognitive Evaluation Theory's propositk»: (hClt extrinsic. infonnutional feedback will result in higher levels of achievement, compared two /?TOUpJ oj students. One of the groups received computer-generated. graphiclIlgradejeec/lwckjt)r 27 weeks, while 'hl' other received traditional achievement feedback. In this study, the group receiving the computer-generated feedback showed Q significant increase in intrinsic motivation and achievement, thereby supporting the theory and demonstrating heretofore untested manner, (Keywords: achievement. cognitive instruction. feedback, motivation.}
the efficacy of eMI ill a skills, computer-managed
Research shows there is a significant, positive correlation between a student's level of motivation and academic achievement. Therefore, if a student's motivation is enhanced, higher academic achievement will be realized (Lepper & Hodell, 1989): Having recognized this, researchers over the past forty years have recognized two distinct types of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic (Bruner, 1965; Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Haner, 1981; White, 1971). Persons are said to be extrinsically motivated if an activity is performed in order to receive a reward at the completion of the task and intrinsically mati vated if the actual performance of the activity is, in itself, the reward. Most educators believe it is imperative that motivation for scholarly activity be intrinsic because only then will true learning take place (Biehler, 1974; Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 1989; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Higgins & Sorrentino, 1990). Although there are three distinct schools of intrinsic motivational thought (cognitive, attribution, and competency), the Cognitive Evaluation Theory combines the attributional theorist's construct of personal causation with the cognitive school's idea of mastery as an intrinsic motivator (Deci, 1980; Deci & Porac, 1978; Deci & Ryan, 1981,1985). One of the main propositions of the theory is that external events, normally thought to increase extrinsic motivation for a task, can also enhance students' levels of intrinsic motivation if the 402
Spring 1996: Volume 28 Number 3
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message of the extrinsic events are perceived as informational in nature. Such events provide information about competence, which can make students feel good about themselves. These good feelings cause changes in achievement-oriented behavior and are ultimately reflected in higher motivation and achievement. Along these same lines, Skinner (1938) argued that the control and prediction of behavior is a direct ramification of reinforcement. This feedback or reinforcement, however, must be delivered as soon as possible after the act that initiated it. Success, he argued, is a very powerful reinforcer when properly scheduled. with correct responses and signs of progress being the most powerful and appropriate kinds of reinforcers. In defending his ideas on programmed instruction. Skinner (1986) stated "By carefully constructing certain 'contingencies of reinforcement,' it is possible to change behavior quickly and to maintain it in strength for long periods of time" (p. 106). Unfortunately. for many students. achievement feedback or reinforcement is limited to comments about examinations and the periodic report card. While both of these events are extrinsic. it can be argued that they are of very little value informationally and, very often, come weeks or months after the activity upon which they are based. Very rarely does feedback of this type address cause and effect. an issue with which students, especially at the primary levels, wrestle. Many younger students simply do not understand why they make the grades they do (Terrell, 1992). It would seem, given the technology and information available to today's teachers, that it would be a simple matter to keep students apprised of their performance, both from a normative as well as a criterion-based perspective. A review of literature, however, suggests that teachers are using technology in two commonly accepted manners: computer-assisted instruction, CAI, and computer-managed instruction, CM!. (see, for example, Assink & van der Linden, 1991; Lewis. 1992; Szabo & Montgornerie, 1992; Tolman & Allred, 1991). While performance feedback is commonplace from both perspectives, it is limited primarily to performance on a given chapter, unit, or module. Less emphasis is placed on performance feedback from a curricular perspective and studies have shown mixed reviews as to the effectiveness of such feedback (Croy, Cook, & Green, 1994: German, 1990; Hayden, 1992; Hunter & Chen, 1992; Kohl, 1985).
COMPUTER
MANAGED
INSTRUCTIONAL
TEST
100
Spring
-
MATH
0
I
90 80
70 60 50 40 )0
20 10
1/01
0=
1/08
Student
0
=
1/15
1/22
Class
•
1/20
=
St enr os
Figure 1. Initial graphic feedback given in a structured manner) would cause a significant, positive intrinsic moti vat ion with a corresponding shift in achievement.
shift toward
An initial experimental study, in which selected students received graphic feedback for 18 weeks, failed to support this hypothesis (Terrell, 1992; Terrell, Greenberg & Rendulic, 1995). In an effort to address suggestions emanating from this initial work, two major changes were made to the graphic feedback. The first modification included changing the format of the entire graph to include only the student's weekly grade and their cumulative average for the current nine-week grading period. The second major change involved adding an informational message to the bottom of each graph to further explain the content of the graph (Figure 2). It was bel ieved that the textual feedback would clarify and emphasize the content of the graph. It was also felt that there was a potential for a negative effect if a child misinterpreted or misunderstood the meaning of a graph, especially a graph showing low grades. With this in mind, the design of these messages was approached from two perspectives. Students showing improvement or having a high overall average received praise and congratulatory messages. Students maintaining a low average, failing to improve in a given time period or showing a decline in their average grade were given messages that provided encouragement and positive reinforcement. It was felt that this type of feedback was especially important in order to build confidence and combat the "I can't do any better than this" syndrome often associated with low grades. It was theorized that these changes would increase the impact of the graph's informational content and would be reflected in higher levels of achievement and intrinsic motivation.
FEEDBACK
In 1991. the authors initiated a project in the Dade County, Florida, public school system to investigate the feasibility and effect of providing grades, presented in a graphical format. to elementary school students. A CMI system was developed specifically for the project. Unlike other CMI software traditionally used by teachers to collect demographic, enrollment, and grade information for their students. this system enabled the teacher to provide meaningful feedback to each student in the class. On a weekly basis, a graph was printed for each child (Figure I) that showed the student's subject grade for a given week, the average grade for the student's stanine group, and the class average. It was hypothesized that grades provided in this format (an external, informational event
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