Working Together

A D v A Nc E S i N C H i L E A N A N T A rcT i C S Ci E Nc E n 4 – 2 0 1 8

Working Together Karpuj * Subglacial Lakes * Lichens * Adaptations to Cold * Interviews * Antarctic Culture * WoS Publications * Science Program 2018

A Dv A Nc E S i N C H i L E A N A N T A rcT i C S Ci E Nc E

Official publication of inach. Its goals include dissemination of information on the Chilean Antarctic Science Program and related activities. Ilaia has a circulation of 1,000 copies, distributed free of charge to regional and national authorities, international Antarctic institutions, Chilean and foreign libraries, universities, and researchers. Ilaia is an annual publication. The opinions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the positions of inach. Total or partial reproduction is allowed with mention of the source. “Ilaia” is a Yagan word that means “beyond the South.” director Marcelo Leppe editor Reiner Canales [email protected] editorial advisory committee Marcelo Leppe, Edgardo Vega, Marcelo González, Paulina Rojas, Elías Barticevic translation Robert Runyard photography inach archives, René Quinán, Harry Díaz, Pablo Ruiz, Felipe Trueba/efe. design Luis Rojas H. production www.negro.cl cover ilustration Manuela Montero Printed by Ograma

Co�TE�T�

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editorial

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advances in chilean antarctic science

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The hardworking “Karpuj” with the 54th Antarctic Scientific Expedition

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Science beyond the Antarctic Circle

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Lichens on the edge: Studying the lichens at the Union glacier

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Research into salinity resistance in the Antarctic pearlwort

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The ideal Center: Meeting some of the challenges in measuring global change impacts on Antarctic marine ecosystems

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Recent glaciological studies in the interior of West Antarctica: Discovery of subglacial “Lake CECs”

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What it takes to live in below-zero Antarctic waters

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internacional collaboration

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Marcelo Leppe, inach Director

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Albert Lluberas, Secretary-General of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat

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Kelly K. Falkner, comnap Chairwoman

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Steven Chown, scar President

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antarctic spirit

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Building an Antarctic culture

Instituto Antártico Chileno - inach Plaza Muñoz Gamero 1055 Punta Arenas, Chile Phone (56-61) 229 81 00 [email protected]

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list of 2017 antarctic science publications (Web of Science)

Reg. Prop. Int. nº 224.246

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chilean antarctic science program 2018

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What it takes to live in below-zero Antarctic waters Antarctic organisms have evolved according to powerful geological and climate factors which, over millions of years, have shaped the marine fauna. The majority are stenotherms, which is to say that they can live only within a narrow temperature range, generally between -1.8 and 2 degrees C, which means that all of their cellular and molecular processes take place in a very cold environment. Accordingly, periods of drastic change have resulted in extinction or local disappearance of groups which are considered important species. In order to understand the chain of events, it is essential to have advanced knowledge of the cellular and molecular "machinery" which is adapted to work at very low temperatures and is now faced with a new context associated with the changes taking place in the Southern Ocean. This should influence Chile's need to define requirements for Antarctic marine research over the next 20 years.

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1 http://www.scar. org/srp/ant-era

ne of the key environmental factors for Antarctic marine fauna relates to the ability to withstand low water temperatures. Under a climate change condition, the mechanism for functioning at low temperatures may be adversely affected and have unexpected consequences for the Antarctic marine populations and communities, as a result of the low genetic variability in some marine species that have lived for millions of years under conditions of very little thermal variability. We see in many adaptations that these organisms have been driven to the loss of certain capabilities. For example, some Antarctic fish species do not produce the respiratory pigment called hemoglobin. On the other hand, many species dedicate a high energy expenditure to the production of anti-freeze proteins needed to deal with the extreme cold. However, this evolutionary strategy has resulted in a lower capacity for facing increasing water temperatures. What is concerning about this situation is that some of the Antarctic ecosystems are changing at a rapid rate, while others are relatively stable. Responses to the environmental stress factors that could affect Antarctic biota could result in cascading reactions at a molecular

level, passing through the organism and reaching a community level. In this context, studying the change processes in polar ecosystems is the key for entering into a wider debate about the ecological nature of biota stability, and the potential changes in the entire biosphere. Currently, world-wide Antarctic science is attempting to focus part of its effort on the examination of changes in biological processes, ranging from the micro (molecular level) to the macro (or ecosystem level), and dealing with not just marine systems but also those in fresh water and terrestrial environments. The challenge lies in determining the limits of thermal tolerance in those organisms, in the acidification of the Southern Ocean, and the threshold values for resistance and resilience in species facing environmental changes.

Author:

Marcelo González Aravena Head of the Science Department for the Chilean Antarctic Institute (INACH) mgonzalez @inach.cl

An international crusade From 2013 to 2021, one of the international level initiatives that has received attention in this area is the Antarctic Thresholds-Ecosystem Resilience and Adaptation (AnTera) program, under scar (Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research1). For this the international scientific community has attempted to respond to questions related to whether Antarctic organisms will be

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2 Rogers AD, Tyler PA, Connelly DP, Copley JT, James R, Larter RD, et al. (2012) The Discovery of New Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Communities in the Southern Ocean and Implications for Biogeography. PLoS Biol 10(1): e1001234. doi:10.1371/journal. pbio.1001234.

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capable of adapting to future environmental conditions. What will be the genetic basis for these organisms to respond to change? Which species will be best adapted to the environmental transformation? Or, what might be the possible consequences of climate change for the functioning of the Antarctic ecosystem? These are some of the unknowns that will shape the discussion. This is a special time since, in the last ten years, science has discovered new marine invertebrate species in the Southern Ocean. In 2005, following the collapse of a large ice platform in the Weddell Sea, it was possible to gain access to an astonishing array of marine diversity. More than 250 new species of invertebrates were described, while for the majority the nature of their special physiological adaptations for temperature or acclimatization is unknown. In June of 2017, an iceberg four times the size of London, called A-68, broke off from the Larsen C ice shelf, opening an area of nearly 6000 square kilometers. This would have allowed the study of a sea bottom isolated for more than 120,000 years. Unfortunately, the 2018 efforts by the British Antarctic Survey (bas) and the Korean Polar Research Institute (kopri) with the icebreakers James Clark Ross and the Araon, respectively, were unable to reach this remote location due to the extreme thickness of the ice cap (more than 5 meters). Once again, the extreme climatic conditions in Antarctica stymied the efforts of the international scientific community. During the International Polar Year 2007-2009 there was an increase in the knowledge about the sea-bottom of the Antarctic peninsula, with discoveries of new marine


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communities associated with hydrothermal sources. This was made possible through the use of special oceanographic ships with sophisticated instruments and the ability to work at great depths, due to the availability of remotely operated underwater vehicles (rovs) employing advanced technology to monitor environmental parameters, take samples, and obtain high-resolution photos2. In 2009, toward the eastern edge of the Scotia Arc, at depths of 24002500 meters, hydrothermal vents were discovered, with temperatures of nearly 380 degrees Celsius, with nearby endemic fauna. The vents formed submarine chimneys, which spew chemical compounds (particularly hydrogen sulfide) from the deep interior of the earth. Here, where life has adapted to extreme conditions, micro-organisms and marine invertebrates feature unusual metabolism. Their ecosystem is not based on sunlight, as is normally the case for terrestrial and marine environments. Rather, it operates on a process known as chemosynthesis. The bacteria near these fumaroles produce energy through the oxidation of these chemical compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide. Thus there is a close food relationship between bacteria and marine invertebrates, as in the case of a newly discovered crustacean species, whose common name is the Yeti Crab (Kiwa n. sp) due to its white color and silky blond setae covering its pereiopods. This crab feeds on the bacteria that grow on its body, which in turn receive their energy from the chemical compounds flowing from the fumaroles. Another milestone in knowledge of the ocean depths was the de-

cade-long work of researchers from 80 countries for the first Census of Marine Life in 2010,proposed by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (scar) as a major activity for the International Polar Year. This allowed global access to information and the use of molecular dna-level technologies which has strengthened the taxonomic classification process for Antarctic marine fauna. Surprisingly, the benthic habitats of the extreme south present even greater marine life than the tropical environments of Hawaii or the temperate conditions of the United Kingdom. Polychaetes, isopods, echinoderms, sponges, pycnogonids, bryozoans, and hydroids are well represented in the Southern Ocean, far more than in others we think of as more diverse. This paradigm shift has taken place thanks to the joint work of the developed nations with research leadership, by promoting long-term international cooperation. Studying the diversity in bacteria and endemic marine organisms associated with these hydrothermal vents poses unique opportunities for improving scientific knowledge about the origins of life on Earth, the relationships between these extreme-environment submarine ecosystems, and their influences on diversity in the Antarctic. The case of Chile Antarctic science in Chile during the decade of the 1980s was focused on the South Shetland Islands, the gateway to the Antarctic peninsula. Several oceanographic studies were undertaken as multi-national projects, such as the Biological Investigation on Marine Antarctic System and Stocks (biomass), in-

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Antarctic sea urchins are stenotherms, which means they can live only within a narrow temperature range, in this case -1.8 to 2 degrees C. These are considered an indicator species to reveal the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.

volving three ship missions during the years 1981 and 1984-85.This primarily involved a physical-chemical characterization of the Antarctic waters in the area around Bransfield and Gerlache straits in the Weddell Sea, along with studies of phytoplankton and zooplankton. These efforts concentrated for the most part on the study of krill (Euphausia superba), a fundamental element in the food chain in the Antarctic ecosystem, and proposed in those years as a source of important protein for humanity. Currently, krill has become an interesting component of products with high nutritional value, and compounds considered beneficial for human health. Its high quality protein, low levels of fatty acids, and high concentration of omega-3 have made this resource very attractive for world-wide industry. There were also several studies for taxonomic and ecological characterization of pelagic species associated with notothenioids, mollusks, and sponges in shallow water. Later, from 1990-95, research was carried out on populations of fur seals, whales, and marine birds, primarily penguins. The later years were affected by the science work surrounding the Antarctic marine life diversity identified in the Census of Antarctic Marine Life and the life

sciences program proposed by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (scar), known as “Evolution and Biodiversity in Antarctica.” The data that grew out of that work was added to two databases: obis (Ocean Biodiversity Information System) and scar-MarBIN (Marine Biodiversity Information Network). The Chilean Antarctic Science Program (procien) has supplied support for characterizing echinoderm and mollusk populations in efforts to identify phylo-geographic and evolutionary connections between these species, including researching possible connections between South America and the Antarctic peninsula. Likewise, there have been efforts related to determining the biodiversity of local marine life, particularly in the Fildes Bay area (King George Island), using innovative, noninvasive techniques for sampling of the sea bottom. In this way, new findings have been described for an important group of Antarctic hydrozoans (medusas) and mollusks present in the Bellingshausen Sea. These last inputs related to isolated efforts from Chilean researchers onboard oceanographic ships of other nations, since Chile lacked an adequate platform for long-term marine studies. Today, more than ever, it is essential for the country to invest in the acquisition of a true

icebreaker or oceanographic research ship for use in Antarctica. Fortunately, Chile has decided to construct its first icebreaker, which is expected to be in service around 2022-2023. This would allow for work in the future to understand, for example, the processes associated with global change taking place in the Southern Ocean, which could affect the marine resources of interest to Chile. The Driving Force of the Cold From a climatic standpoint, marine environments are quite stable. This situation has facilitated the development of particular adaptations in marine organisms. It is interesting to observe that in the case of most fish and Antarctic marine invertebrates that from the point of their thermal physiology, they are "stenotherms" in that they can only tolerate small variations in the temperature of their environment. The relatively unchanging temperature of the Southern Ocean has been an important factor in the evolution towards stenothermia in these species. Once they have adapted to the low temperatures, these organisms tend to lose their capacity to adapt to higher temperatures, and so response to thermal stress in certain individuals has been lost in some Antarctic fish, such as the emerald rockcod (Trematomus bernacchii). In this fish, the heat shock proteins (hsps) are present but cannot be activated when the environmental temperatures increase. These hsps protect other proteins so that they don't lose their biological function by being affected by the cold or heat, which could destabilize their structure. Paradoxically, some species respond to thermal stress by over-producing these hsps, while others are incapable of such production. In the future this situation could result in considerable differences between “winners” and “losers” if these organisms are faced with significant variations in temperature as an outcome of climate change, for


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Example of the giant isopod Glyptonotus antarcticus, which plays the role as the dominant species among the invertebrate scavengers.

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example. This peculiarity in the polar marine world has generated our interest in studying the Antarctic sea urchin and the giant isopod, for the purpose of determining whether or not these animals have an effective mechanism for responding to thermal stress. We know that within this process of cold adaptation, fish have also reached certain organism-level modifications, in the development of a circulatory system without respiratory pigments, due to the high concentration of oxygen in the water, but in compensation they have evolved a comparatively more robust circulatory system. This is seen, first, in a heart that is larger and stronger, along with similarly stronger blood vessels. Secondly, these fish may have a more powerful ability to exchange respiratory gases, taking into account their body surface. A more powerful circulatory system allows more fluid to be transported, without the presence of respiratory pigments. In the case of humans, the production of hemoglobin is essential; without it, there would be serious inefficiency with gas exchange, which is to say the supply of oxygen to the lungs through blood flow and the subsequent re-


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moval of carbon dioxide from the blood via the lungs. We know that the pigment combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide as it travels to and from the lungs. On the other hand, in Antarctic fish, the excess of oxygen in cold water means that it is not necessary to expend energy in producing respiratory pigments such as hemoglobin, for gas exchange. However, for the fish's cells to efficiently transport oxygen or other molecules of biological importance, and keeping the cell membranes from freezing, the molecules form what are called phospholipids which provide molecular-level modifications to reduce fluidity. As mentioned, in the organism's response to the production of thermal stress proteins, some genes are absent in the genomes of Antarctic marine animals. Certain fish are lacking the gene nadh-6- nadh-6-dehydrogenase (nd6), which is expressed in the mitochondria of notothenioid examples. It's currently unknown how these fish compensate for this deficiency. Nevertheless, increases in the number of these cellular corpuscles have been observed in Antarctic fish, which would be explained by the high concentration of oxygen available in the ocean environment.

Another interesting phenomenon found in this polar region is the presence of genes in fish which are able to withstand extreme cold, through the production of anti-freeze proteins (afps) which prevent the formation of ice crystals and thus prevent damage to cells and tissue, which would affect an organism's physiological functions. afps prevent ice crystal formation by coming into direct physical contact with incipient ice formation. These proteins are produced constantly when temperatures fall to the point of freezing. The acquisition of anti-freeze genes can be seen in many fish and marine invertebrates, including those in New Zealand and Patagonia. The absence of these in non-Antarctic fish demonstrates the driving force of cold in the maintenance or loss of these molecules. It's important to take note of the potential bio-technological applications for these anti-freeze genes, which have captured the imagination of many, as it may be possible to chemically synthesize these peptides and develop applications in the food industry, in agriculture, and in medicine. A third and even more radical example involves the loss of respiratory

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3 http://earthsky. org/earth kristino brien-antarctica sicefish-havetranslu centbodiesandblood. 4 Giordano, D., Russo, R., di Prisco, G., Verde, C. (2012). Molecular adaptations in Antarctic fish and marine microorganisms, Marine Genomics, 6, 1.

pigments on the part of vertebrates and even lower animals. To lose the ability to produce a respiratory pigment such as hemoglobin could prove fatal to the exchange of gases. That is the case with Antarctic fish such as the Chaenocephalus aceratus, commonly known as the “icefish.”3 It produces no hemoglobin pigment. It has also lost the ability to produce myoglobin, which serves a similar function but operates at the muscle level of the animal. These fish have colorless blood, the result of having no respiratory pigment, so it lacks the classic red coloration. During their evolution, the notothenioid have lost the ability to express proteins such as hemoglobin and myoglobin. This situation, which seems paradoxical, is compensated for by the organisms' low metabolic rate in the cold, and the high degree of solubility of oxygen at such low temperatures. This situation is seen also at a genetic level, since their genomes no longer show information related to their earlier evolutionary adaptation to the cold. A new molecule called neuroglobin was recently discovered in notothenioids and in various species of ice fish4. It is quite remarkable that these fish can express this protein, while they are unable to express hemoglobin and myoglobin, or to do so adequately. Neuroglobin is capable of combining oxygen and nitric oxide, since one of its principal functions is to neutralize toxic effects (cytotoxins) in cerebral tissue, in what are known as “reactive oxygen species” or ros. This molecule plays a fundamental role in the protection of the brain in fish that live in highly oxidative conditions. In ros the phospholipids that make up the cell membrane

can be damaged through a molecular process called cellular aging. Since cellular aging can be the result of oxidation processes, we would expect that Antarctic fish –as well as some species of marine invertebrates– can well endure the processes of this cellular aging. And this mechanism may be the key to their brain rejuvenation and in turn evolutionary advantages, while also presenting promising material for the biochemistry of aging and the industries related to cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. These adaptations may lie at different levels of biological organization, ranging from simple molecules to an entire organism. If we analyze this from a cellular perspective, these generally possess an internal skeleton made up of filaments called intermediaries, consisting of actin and tubulin. These filaments, under normal temperature condition, can grow or polymerize in order to respond to essential cell processes, such as movement or cell division. What is truly interesting is that the Antarctic fish feature microtubules of tubulin molecules which, unlike those in temperate waters, can polymerize at very low concentrations and at a slow rate. This is likely the result of timely modifications of certain amino acids, which allow this polymerization at temperatures of -1.8 degrees C. Marine Invertebrates as Case Studies In the case of Antarctic invertebrates with limited mobility, we have determined that they can produce a significant quantity of proteins, similar to the production we see in warm waters. They may show a greater rate of protein synthesis since they

demonstrate greater speed in protein stretching. This allows compensation for or equaling the stretching rates observed in similar organisms in temperate waters. For example, the high rate of protein synthesis shown in Antarctic spiny urchins is compensation for the low respiration rate in cold environments or with low metabolism. Likewise, krill offer a good example of how a species can help us understand the functioning of the Antarctic marine ecosystem. In recent years, a great deal of data has been collected concerning the physiology, reproduction, feeding, and interaction implications for components of the food chain to which krill belong. Today, thanks to a study of this euphausiid crustacean, which are some 3 to 5 cm long and externally similar to shrimp, we have the most extensive biological information of any Antarctic marine invertebrate. It is now possible to construct a closed system to accommodate the entire life cycle for this organism, including the light and temperature conditions of the Southern Ocean. This level of understanding of krill was doubtlessly brought about due to the commercial significance of this resource. The same thing should be done with some Antarctic fish which are subjected to commercial fishing. Just a few decades ago it would have been unthinkable to have the complete genetic data for an organism. But with the dna revolution of the 1980s it became possible to access part of this genetic information. It is now possible to construct the entire genome of an organism at low cost and in a short period of time. There is now a world-wide practice using new sequencing technologies,


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called Next Generation Sequencing, or ngs. This has brought about a great deal of information about krill, revealing that it has a high expression of antioxidant and thermal stress proteins. The knowledge base has grown quickly and it is now possible to access the genome for a Antarctic fish such as Notothenia coriiceps, the black rockcod. In the same way, the genes for an echinoderm (specifically, ophiuroids: brittle stars) are being deciphered due to the implications for their capacity to regenerate this organism's arms after amputation. A further understanding of the processes for cellular regeneration could have a tremendous impact on human health in the future. procien has funded genome studies for the Antarctic limpet (Nacella polaris) while others are underway for Glyptonotus antarcticus, the giant Antarctic isopod, and the Antarctic sea urchin (Sterechinus neumayeri). These latter studies revealed the great variety of thermal stress proteins involved in the protection of these organisms from the cold. Even so, they can't match the thermal stress response proteins of other Antarctic species such as the Antarctic limpet (Nacella polaris) or the saltwater clam known as Laternula elliptica. Around the beginning of the year 2000, Chilean scientists were able to characterize and patent some of the enzymes produced in the stomach of krill. These may help in the breakdown of fats and proteins at low temperatures. This is a good example of 28

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the competitive nature of science in Chile and how it can generate applied knowledge, in this case for example, new detergents which can work well at low temperature. The interest in this actually took off some time earlier. Since 1978 the number of patents related to krill has grown significantly. In the year 1982 there were about 100 patents while by 2000 this number had nearly quintupled, and in the year 2008 there were more than 800 patents. This interest is not reflected in our scientific program since there are currently no projects that deal with krill. Nevertheless, in recent years krill fishing in Chile has grown, along with interest in the industry. Today, krill may provide opportunities for innovations in science and technology. Challenges for the next 20 years This approach to the study of Antarctic marine biodiversity, for both benthic and shallow-water organisms, is our primary path to further development of our polar science effort. We have an excellent opportunity to continue our discoveries of new molecules, genes, and chemical compounds from previously unknown species of marine organisms, which may hold valuable applications in industry or in bio-medicine. However, gaining access to the depths of the waters of the Antarctic peninsula calls for an oceanographic ship with adequate capabilities. This is a task still pending for our country in order to join the world's major players in oceanographic research. But we


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would only be deceiving ourselves to think that merely having a proper icebreaker would be enough to face the challenges of research for the next 20 years and beyond. This year, scar identified the essential requirements for future Antarctic research. The principal challenges include those at a technological level, as well as logistics, infrastructure, international cooperation, the development of human capital, development of alternate energy sources, and reliable long-term funding5. These are the objectives we are facing for the future of Antarctic science and particularly in ocean sciences research. Our efforts have historically concentrated on the study of local marine biodiversity and the possible effects that climate change could

5 Kennicutt, M.C, Kim, Y. D, RoganFinnemore, M., Anandakrishnan, S., Chown, S.L. et al (2016) Delivering 21st century Antarctic and Southern Ocean science. Antarctic Science 28 (6): 407-423.

Along one side of the scientific base "Professor Julio Escudero" biologist Marcelo González (INACH) holds a seastar specimen, showing the remarkable size that these organisms can attain in Antarctic waters.

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The Chilean Antarctic Science Program (PROCIEN) has supplied support for characterizing echinoderm and mollusk populations in efforts to identify phylogeographic and evolutionary connections between these species, including researching possible connections between South America and the Antarctic peninsula.

have, and this work was restricted to areas near our bases. In the year 2015 this situation began to change, with the inauguration of the science base “Yelcho” (62° 14‘ South, 58° 48‘ East), which was specially outfitted for marine studies. Likewise, in the year 2017 we saw the construction of new laboratories at the "Carvajal" base at Margarita Bay. As a result of the new bases, our range of action for scientific research increased significantly, but the challenges of the associated logistics and infrastructure were still to be resolved, taking into account a 20-year perspective. What sort of positive impact could our research have in the future if we might have a fiber-optic connection to Antarctica, with a submarine cable linking Puerto Williams with King George Island? In another 20 years, a researcher in the field could sequence the genome of an Antarctic organism using a sequencer called MinIon, which is about the size of a usb pen drive, and subsequently send that information to his or her distant colleagues. What is remarkable about this condition is that the nano-sequencer already exists, but not the fiber-optic connection which would allow the transmission of large volumes of data to every part of the world. Currently, the Antarctic continent lacks a connection with this type of technology, though we hope that the austral fiber-optic project for the Magallanes region will begin service in early 2020, with the possibility of crossing the Drake Passage

becoming a reality a few years later. As we have seen in this specific example, some of the barriers restricting the general development of the biological sciences in Antarctica are related to the five following challenges: 1. The development of micro- or nano-sensors with high resolution for monitoring the marine ecosystem in real time, with self-calibration features 2. Autonomous monitoring systems and multipurpose vehicles for in situ sampling in remote locations 3. High capacity computing systems to process the large amount of data from dna sequencing from sampling environments and organisms 4. New technology for instrumentation platforms for sequencing genes and proteins, which allow the integration of bio-data analysis in situ 5. High-volume broadband for capture and analysis of data both within and outside of work sites in Antarctica. The decision to broaden our research towards the south will allow the national and international communities access to locations and on-site data which could be used for modeling the effects of climate change on Antarctic ecosystems, using comparative methods and a local perspective employing a latitude component (62º to 67º S). This would allow comparisons, for example, of the responses of marine invertebrates of the same species at three

locations on the Antarctic peninsula, for analysis to see if all respond in the same way to increases in water temperature. The second part of the study of adaptations in the Antarctic environment will allow us to understand the short-term and long-term responses for biota on a changing continent. The Antarctic peninsula is the ideal place for these studies and where many researchers wish to be. But it is important to keep in mind the five scientific-technological challenges previously mentioned. Due to the presence of many bases on the Antarctic peninsula, Chile enjoys an advantageous position for the development of scientific research of international interest. Our science program is studying several organisms that can serve as “sentinel” species to measure the impacts of global climate change. This interconnected research, dealing with the same climate issue, may provide one or two stages of the growing knowledge surrounding the complexity of Antarctic ecosystems. We hope that these efforts of the Chilean scientific community may provide the basis for this information and assist decision-makers in making public policies for facing and adapting societies to the new environment of global change.


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This publication has been composed with the typefaces Hoefler Text, by Hoefler & Co. (www.typography.com);

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and Chercán, by the Chilean typographer Francisco Gálvez (www.pampatype.com).

issn 0719-5036