Workplace Empowerment, Work Engagement and ...

NURSING RESEARCH

Workplace Empowerment, Work Engagement and Organizational Commitment of New Graduate Nurses Julia Cho, MScN, RN Knowledge Transfer Specialist Nursing Secretariat Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care Toronto, ON

Heather K. Spence Laschinger, PhD, RN Professor and Associate Director, Nursing Research Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nursing University of Western Ontario London, ON

Carol Wong, MScN, RN Assistant Professor Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Nursing University of Western Ontario London, ON

Abstract As a large cohort of experienced nurses approaches retirement, it is critical to examine factors that will promote the engagement and empowerment of the newer workforce, allowing them to provide high quality patient care. The authors used a predictive, non-experimental survey design to test a theoretical model in a sample of new graduate nurses. More specifically, the relationships among structural empowerment, six areas of work life (conceptualized as antecedents of work engagement), emotional exhaustion and organizational commitment were examined. As predicted, structural empowerment had a direct positive effect on the areas of work life, which in turn had a direct negative effect on emotional exhaustion. Subsequently, emotional exhaustion had a direct negative effect on commitment. Implications of these findings for nursing administrators are discussed.

The views expressed in the article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the Government of Ontario

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Nursing Leadership Volume 19 Number 3 • 2006

The recruitment and retention of healthcare professionals, particularly nurses, has become a high-priority policy issue that is inherently related to the quality and sustainability of our healthcare system. Projections indicate that Canada will experience a shortage of 78,000 Registered Nurses by 2011 (CNA 2002). As more nurses approach retirement, it is clear that effective strategies must be developed to improve current working conditions, which are characterized by limited resources, increased workloads and high rates of absenteeism (CNAC 2002). High quality patient care requires the presence of a committed nursing workforce that is fully engaged in its work and settings that empower nurses to provide the care they are educated to provide. In light of the impending nursing shortage, particular attention must be paid to ensuring that new graduate nurses are able to practise in supportive work environments. Retention of new nurses is essential if nursing resources are to be adequate in the future to sustain high quality patient care. Previous research has identified aspects of the work environment that are relevant to new graduate nurses as they begin their practice. New graduate nurses describe the transition into their professional role as highly stressful (Charnley 1999; Gerrish 2000). Common themes in the literature relate to the gap between ideals and actual practice in the workplace; fear of making mistakes because of demanding workloads and responsibilities; lack of confidence with clinical skills; and the critical role that experienced nurses play in new graduates’ learning (Boychuk Duchscher 2001; Charnley 1999; Delaney 2003; Ellerton and Gregor 2003; Evans 2001; Gerrish 2000; Whitehead 2001). According to Kramer (1974), new nurses can experience “reality shock” when they realize that their years of training have not prepared them to deal effectively with job situations. This can be a frustrating and difficult time as new nurses try to reconcile the values learned in school with the realities of the workplace (Kramer 1974). Working conditions can affect the amount of time and support provided to new graduate nurses. Studies have linked work environment factors and positive preceptorship experiences to job satisfaction, organizational commitment and retention (Beecroft et al. 2001; Duncan 1997; Roche et al. 2004; Winter-Collins and McDaniel 2000). Kanter (1977, 1993) offers a useful theoretical framework for understanding how empowering work settings can lead to positive organizational outcomes for newly graduated nurses. She argues that access to empowering workplace structures influences employee attitudes and behaviours. Empowered employees are highly motivated in their jobs and find meaning in their work. This motivation allows them to achieve work-related goals and empower others, leading to greater organizational effectiveness (Kanter 1979). In contrast, employees who lack access to these empowerment structures are more likely to experience feelings

Workplace Empowerment, Work Engagement and Organizational Commitment of New Graduate Nurses

of powerlessness, resulting in disengagement from work and decreased organizational commitment. Maslach and Leiter (1997) propose that fit between employees and their work environments results in greater engagement in their work and lower levels of burnout. They argue that supportive organizational structures in the work environment promote greater fit, which results in positive work outcomes. The purpose of this study was to test a model that integrates Kanter’s theory of work empowerment with Maslach and Leiter’s work engagement/burnout model. Specifically, a model was tested linking new graduate nurses’ perceptions of structural empowerment to work engagement/burnout and organizational commitment in Ontario acute care hospital settings. Kanter’s Theory of Structural Power in Organizations Within Kanter’s (1977, 1993) framework, power is defined as the ability to mobilize human and material resources to accomplish organizational goals. The employee’s position in the organizational hierarchy plays a more significant role in acquiring power than individual personality traits. Kanter argues that empowerment is highly influenced by structural elements within the organization. An empowering work environment ensures that employees have access to information, resources, support and opportunities to learn and grow. Other factors that facilitate access to these empowerment structures include specific job characteristics and interpersonal relationships that foster effective communication. Both formal and informal systems influence employees’ perceptions of power. Employees have access to formal power when their jobs are flexible, visible to others within the organization and central to achieving organizational goals. Informal power is developed through alliances with sponsors, peers and subordinates. These interpersonal networks are found within and outside the organization and promote cooperation so that work can be accomplished more effectively. Kanter (1977, 1993) maintains that having access to opportunities for learning, growth and advancement in the organization plays a key role in employees’ work satisfaction and productivity. Those with access to these opportunities are more motivated, committed and innovative in their jobs. In contrast, employees in positions with low opportunity are described as feeling “stuck” in their jobs, resulting in lower career aspirations and lower levels of organizational commitment. The structure of power includes having access to lines of resources, information and support (Kanter 1977, 1993). Access to resources relates to one’s ability to acquire the financial means, materials, time and supplies required to do the work. Access to information refers to having the formal and informal knowledge that is necessary for effectiveness in the workplace. Employees must possess the technical knowledge and expertise required to accomplish the job, as well as an understand-

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ing of organizational policies and decisions. Finally, access to support involves receiving feedback and guidance from subordinates, peers and superiors. Previous research with staff nurses has shown that structural empowerment is related to job satisfaction (Manojlovich and Laschinger 2002), autonomy (Laschinger et al. 1997), trust (Laschinger et al. 2000), respect (Laschinger 2004) and burnout (Hatcher and Laschinger 1996). Several studies have linked empowerment to commitment (Baguley 1999; Laschinger and Finegan 2005a; Laschinger et al. 2000; McDermott et al. 1996; Wilson and Laschinger 1994). This study is the first to test Kanter’s (1977, 1993) theory in the new graduate nurse population. However, the application of an empowerment model based on her theory has been described in the new graduate nurse literature (Roche et al. 2004). This empowerment model was used to create a supportive work environment for new graduate nurses and experienced nurses who had been hired by the organization. The program included a 12-week precepted orientation, activities to increase communication, support groups and opportunities for clinical and educational learning. Sixty-seven new graduate nurses and 23 recently hired nurses participated. The retention rate for new graduate nurses after six months was 92.5%, with an overall retention rate of 90% for all hired RNs. Over 95% of new nurses indicated that they were satisfied with the orientation, and 84% reported that the environment was highly supportive of learning. Significantly, while empowerment strategies were incorporated into the program design, they were not formally measured using the Conditions of Work Effectiveness Questionnaire, a standardized measure of empowerment as conceptualized by Kanter (1977, 1993). Duncan (1997) examined the relationship between organizational climate (which represents intrinsic workplace factors) and organizational commitment with 63 senior nursing students before and after graduation. A supportive organizational climate for nursing consists of “… team work, acceptance, a sense of personal importance, the freedom to ask questions, and good fellowship” (Duncan 1997: 225). Organizational climate was positively related to pre-entry (r = .46, p < .01) and one-year commitment (r = .57, p < .01). The results of these studies suggest that having access to information, resources, support and opportunities to learn are important for creating work environments that promote new graduate retention and commitment. Six Areas of Work Life and Work Engagement/Burnout Maslach and Leiter (1997) describe six areas of work life (workload, control, rewards, community, fairness and values) as organizational antecedents of employee engagement or burnout. Workload is the relationship between the work


demands that are placed on an employee given a specified amount of time and resources. Control refers to the employee’s decision-making and autonomy in the job. Reward involves recognition for work contributions and can be monetary, social, personal or some combination of these. Community is defined as the quality of social interactions in the workplace. Fairness is related to the extent that trust, openness and respect are present in organizations and their decisionmaking processes. Finally, values refers to the congruence of organizational priorities and values with those of its employees. According to Maslach and Leiter, when positive levels of these work life factors are in place, employees experience a good fit between themselves and their work environments, are less likely to experience burnout and are thus more engaged with their work. Fit with these areas of work life has been related to the presence of empowering work conditions (Laschinger and Finegan, 2005b). Maslach and Leiter (1997) consider work engagement and burnout as opposite ends of a continuum. They describe burnout as “… a psychological syndrome of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy, which is experienced in response to chronic job stressors” (Leiter and Maslach 2004: 93). This study focused on emotional exhaustion in engagement/burnout. While burnout is considered to be multidimensional, emotional exhaustion is often viewed as its core component and denotes the individual’s experience of stress (Leiter and Maslach 2004). Emotional exhaustion has been associated with negative mental and physical health outcomes (Laschinger et al. 2004). Further research has revealed a negative relationship between emotional exhaustion and organizational commitment (Lee and Ashforth 1996; Leiter and Maslach 1988). Maslach and Leiter (1997) maintain that in the best situations, people start their jobs feeling engaged with their work. Over time, however, a mismatch between the expectations of the employee and the demands of the job in some or all of the six areas of work life results in the erosion of work engagement, moving employees to the burnout end of the continuum. Energy is replaced by emotional exhaustion, which in turn results in feelings of cynicism and inefficacy. Leiter and Maslach (2004) found significant relationships between all work life areas and engagement/burnout in a large study of 6,815 employees. Stable relationship patterns among the areas of work life and engagement/burnout across three timeframes supported the validity of this model. Recently, Laschinger and Finegan (2005b) tested a model linking structural empowerment, work engagement and health outcomes of staff nurses. Empowerment had a direct effect on all areas of work life, with the exception of values congruence. In turn, all areas of work life except control had direct effects on burnout, which subsequently had strong direct effects on measures of physical and mental health. This study was the

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first to link structural empowerment to work engagement/burnout through the six areas of work life, providing further illumination of the mechanisms through which empowerment affects important work outcomes. Numerous studies have linked structural empowerment to variables that are similar to the areas of work life. Empowerment has been related to nurses’ perceptions of control over practice, autonomy and effort–reward imbalance (Kluska et al. 2004; Laschinger et al. 1997; Manojlovich and Laschinger 2002). Laschinger and Wong (1999) found a significant relationship between empowerment and informal alliances or networks, consistent with the concept of community. Trust in management, organizational justice and respect in the workplace represent the area of fairness and have been positively related to structural empowerment (Laschinger 2004; Laschinger and Finegan 2005a; Laschinger et al. 2000). Job meaningfulness has also been positively related to empowerment (Manjolovich and Laschinger 2002) and is consistent with the area of values, since it represents the congruence between one’s job requirements and beliefs (Spreitzer 1995). Previous research also has shown a negative relationship between structural empowerment and burnout (Hatcher and Laschinger 1996). In another study, structural empowerment was a significant predictor of burnout after a three-year period through its effect on psychological empowerment (Laschinger et al. 2003). Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment is an important variable to consider in light of the high costs associated with turnover. It has been defined as “… a psychological link between the employee and his or her organization that makes it less likely that the employee will voluntarily leave the organization” (Allen and Meyer 1996: 252). Commitment relates to an employee’s attachment, identification and involvement with the organization (Meyer and Allen 1991). Employees with strong organizational commitment stay with the organization because they want to (Meyer and Allen 1991). Organizational commitment has been positively related to job performance, organizational citizenship behaviours and job satisfaction (Allen and Meyer 1996; Meyer and Allen 1997). Moreover, Lum and colleagues (1998) found that organizational commitment had a direct impact on nurses’ intentions to leave their position. Model Tested in the Study A model was tested that linked structural empowerment to the six areas of work life, engagement/burnout and organizational commitment. Theoretically, it was expected that employees who have access to the workplace empowerment structures outlined by Kanter (1977, 1993) would be able to accomplish their work more effectively, resulting in greater perceived fit in the six areas of work life. Thus, empowered employees would likely feel they had more manageable workloads


and control over their work, feel rewarded for their contributions and efforts, have stronger interpersonal relationships with their colleagues, experience respectful and fair treatment and, finally, feel that their own values and those of the organization were congruent. Consequently, this would promote higher levels of work engagement (or lower levels of burnout) and lead to higher levels of organizational commitment (see Figure 1). This model expands Kanter’s model by further elaborating the mechanisms by which Kanter’s empowering work conditions affect organizational outcomes (organizational commitment).

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Method Design and sample A predictive, non-experimental survey design was used to examine the relationships described in the model. Four hundred ninety-six new graduate nurses working in acute care areas within hospital settings were randomly selected from a registry list obtained from the College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO). The CNO does not have a standard definition of a “new graduate nurse,” and studies in the literature use varying timeframes for new graduate nurses. Therefore, a decision was made to sample nurses who had indicated less than two years of nursing experience on their annual registration forms. Owing to the timing of membership renewal, which occurs early in the year, the inclusion criteria were later modified to include new graduate nurses with nursing experience of less than or equal to two and a half years. Further, this timeframe was thought to be relevant, as two of 10 nursing graduates are reported to opt out of the profession within three years of graduation (CNA 2000). Strategies suggested by Dillman (1978) were used to maximize return rates. Questionnaire packages were mailed to participants’ homes; two weeks later, a reminder letter was sent to non-respondents. Three weeks after that, nonrespondents were sent a replacement questionnaire package. In the end, 226 useable surveys were received (response rate, 58%). New graduate nurses from all areas of Ontario were represented in this sample. The majority were female (93.4%), married or cohabitating (52.2%) and diploma prepared

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(57.1%). Nurses averaged 27 years of age, with 20 months of experience in nursing. Most worked full time (64.6%) and had been employed at their current organization for an average of 20 months. Most worked in medical–surgical areas (59.2%), followed by maternal–child (20.6%) and critical care (19.7%). Data collection instruments All instruments in this study contained items rated on a Likert scale which, when summed and averaged, yielded high scores that reflected high levels of the construct. The Cronbach alpha reliability estimates for all study scales and subscales are presented in Table 1. Structural empowerment was measured by the Conditions of Work Effectiveness Questionnaire–II (CWEQ-II) (Laschinger et al. 2001a), a measure of employees’ perceptions of their access to opportunity, information, support and resources. The CWEQ-II also includes the Job Activities Scale–II (JAS-II) and the Organizational Relationships Scale–II (ORS-II), which measure formal and informal power, respectively. All 19 items are measured on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (none) to 5 (a lot). A total empowerment score is created by summing the six CWEQ-II subscale scores (possible score range, 6–30). Internal consistency in previous studies ranged from 0.84 to 0.93 (Kluska et al. 2004; Laschinger et al. 2001b); in this study, the Cronbach reliability coefficient was .87. The two-item Global Empowerment Scale was included as a validity check for the CWEQ-II. In this study, the Cronbach alpha was .84, and a strong correlation with the CWEQ-II (r = .57, p < .01) provided further evidence of construct validity. The six areas of work life (workload, control, rewards, community, fairness and values) were measured using the 29-item Areas of Worklife Scale (AWS) (Leiter and Maslach 2002). Items are rated on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A high score (> 3.00) for each of six subscales indicates congruence between the workplace and employee’s preferences; a low score (< 3.00) signifies a mismatch (Leiter and Maslach 2004). Acceptable Cronbach alpha values ranging from .70 to .82 have been reported for the AWS (Leiter and Maslach 2004). The reliability estimates in the current study were within acceptable range for a new instrument (.72 – .85), with the exception of the control subscale, which was low (.53). In this study, subscales were summed to create a measure of overall degree of fit in the six areas of work life (alpha = .89). Five items from the emotional exhaustion subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (Schaufeli et al. 1996) were used to measure the engagement/burnout variable. This subscale measures how often individuals experience particular feelings on a scale ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). Cronbach alpha reliability estimates of .90–.91 have been previously reported for this subscale (Laschinger et al. 2004; Leiter and Maslach 2004); in this study, it was .91.


Organizational commitment was measured using the Affective Commitment Scale, a subscale of the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (Meyer et al. 1993). This scale consists of six items measured on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Acceptable reliability for this subscale has been reported by Meyer et al. (1993). In this study, the reliability coefficient was .79. Data analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program, version 11.0 (SPSS Inc. 2001) and AMOS statistical package within SPSS-PC (Arbuckle 1997). Descriptive statistics were performed on all study variables. One-tailed tests of significance were used for the correlational analyses, as the theoretical framework suggests a strong basis for directional relationships between the variables (Polit and Beck 2004). Path analysis based on structural equation modelling techniques was used to test the hypothesized model. Results Descriptive results The means and standard deviations for the study variables are found in Table 1. New graduate nurses reported only moderate levels of empowerment and organizational commitment. They reported a strong degree of fit (scores > 3.00; Leiter and Maslach 2004) in four of the six areas of work life. The strongest match ��

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between participants and their work settings was in the area of community, followed by values, reward and control. Participants reported a greater degree of mismatch in the area of workload than fairness. Disturbingly, 66% of new graduate nurses in this sample reported severe levels of emotional exhaustion according to the norms (> 3.00) of Maslach and colleagues (1996). Test of hypothesized model The initial test of the hypothesized model did not meet the criteria for a good fit according to the goodness-of-fit statistics (χ2 = 89.2, df = 3, GFI = .85, CFI = .72, IFI = .72) (Bentler and Bonnet 1980). Modification indices suggested that the fit of the model would be improved if a path were added between structural empowerment and organizational commitment. Theoretically, this was plausible, and so it was added to the model. The final model revealed an adequate fit (χ2 = 32, df = 6, GFI = .94, CFI = .90, IFI = .90), and all paths in the model were significant (Figure 2). Structural empowerment had both a direct effect (b = .47) and an indirect effect (b = .05) on organizational commitment through the overall degree of fit in the areas of work life and emotional exhaustion. Structural empowerment had a direct positive effect on the overall degree of fit in the areas of work life (b = .69), which, in turn, had a direct negative effect on emotional exhaustion (b = –.51). Finally, emotional exhaustion had a direct negative effect on organizational commitment (b = –.13).

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Additional analyses Further correlational analyses were conducted to examine the interrelationships between the empowerment structures, the six areas of work life, engagement/ burnout and organizational commitment (Tables 2 and 3). Access to support and formal power were found to be the most important factors related to the degree of fit in the six areas of work life (r = .57, p < .01 in both cases), followed by access to resources (r = .55, p < .01) and informal power (r = .52, p < .01). For new graduate nurses, access to opportunity was weakly related to the fit in the six areas of work life (r = .17, p < .01). Of the empowerment dimensions, access to support was particularly important for rewards and value congruence. Not surprisingly, access

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to resources was associated with workload, and access to support and formal power were most strongly related to fairness. Emotional exhaustion was most strongly related to lack of perceived fit in the areas of workload (r = –.67, p < .01), followed by fairness (r = –.34, p < .01) and community (r = –.30, p < .01). Access to support and formal power were found to be the most highly correlated with new graduate nurses’ organizational commitment (r = .49, p < .01 and r = .48, p < .01, respectively).

Discussion The results of this study support the proposition that structural empowerment has an impact on the work engagement and organizational commitment of new graduate nurses. More specifically, new graduate nurses felt that greater access to workplace empowerment structures resulted in higher degrees of overall fit in the areas of work life. Employee–job fit resulted in greater work engagement (less burnout), which ultimately led to greater organizational commitment. Structural empowerment also had a strong direct effect on organizational commitment, supporting Kanter’s (1977, 1993) assertion that structural conditions of the work environment play a significant role in influencing employee attitudes and work behaviours. The results provide support for an expanded model of work empowerment that links Kanter’s theory to Maslach and Leiter’s theory of work engagement, thereby illuminating the mechanisms through which empowering work conditions affect organizational attitudes and behaviours. New graduate nurses in this study reported having the most access to opportunity. This finding is logical, as new graduates are in the early stages of their professional careers and would have many opportunities to learn through orientation programs, hands-on clinical preceptorship experiences and unit inservice presentations. Dealing with different clinical situations also creates a milieu for continuous learning and challenging work. The nurses reported having the least access to information and formal power. Lacking information about organizational policies and decision-making may speak to the pace and workload of today’s work environment, since the main priority is dealing with the daily challenges of the work itself. Formal power involves having flexible, visible and central jobs that allow employees to contribute to organizational goals (Kanter 1977, 1993). The lower position of new graduate nurses within the bureaucratic structure may impede autonomy in decision-making or visibility at a broader organizational level. Their rulesoriented perspective regarding nursing practice as novices (Benner 1984) may also contribute to their perceptions of having to follow established routines and


maintain the status quo. Taken together, these factors may contribute to the finding that new graduate nurses experienced only moderate levels of empowerment. New graduate nurses’ perceptions of structural empowerment were positively related to fit in the six areas of work life. Access to support and formal power were most strongly related to overall fit in the areas of work life. This finding is consistent with the literature, which emphasizes the need for administrators to facilitate strong professional relationships and job flexibility to promote positive reactions to work among new graduate nurses (Beecroft et al. 2001; Duncan 1997; Winter-Collins and McDaniel 2000). Both empowerment and overall degree of fit in the six areas of work life were predictive of higher work engagement (lower burnout). Sixty-six percent of new graduate nurses in this study experienced high levels of burnout. This finding is disconcerting in light of the negative impact of burnout on nurses’ mental and physical health (Laschinger and Finegan 2005b). Access to resources was the empowerment structure most strongly related to emotional exhaustion, supporting Maslach and Leiter’s (1997) assertion that a major source of burnout is related to having too little time and too few resources to do the job. Interestingly, access to opportunity was weakly but positively correlated with emotional exhaustion. While having access to opportunities is generally associated with positive outcomes, new graduates may feel pressured to perform at a higher level in a shorter period of time. New graduate nurses in this study reported having access to only moderate levels of support. As opportunities for development arise, consideration of the amount of guidance and support required by new nurses may be especially important. Organizational commitment was significantly related to all aspects of empowerment, particularly access to support and formal power. This finding supports previous research that links new graduate nurses’ organizational commitment and retention to orientation programs that include preceptorship, activities that recognize employees and hands-on training (Beecroft et al. 2001; Roche et al. 2004). The strong effect of empowerment on the organizational commitment of new graduates supports previous knowledge about the positive effects of structural empowerment on organizational commitment in the general nursing population. The indirect effect of structural empowerment on organizational commitment through the areas of work life and work engagement/burnout also links Kanter’s model to Maslach and Leiter’s (1997) Areas of Worklife model. These findings further our understanding of different mechanisms that influence new graduate nurses’ commitment. Research has shown that organizational

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commitment is related to job performance and retention variables (Meyer and Allen 1997); therefore, it is important to identify factors that increase commitment. Given the direct and indirect influences of structural empowerment on organizational commitment, increasing access to job flexibility, strong interpersonal relationships, information, resources, support and opportunities to learn can be a potentially effective strategy for retaining new graduate nurses. Implications for Nursing Administrators The results of this study highlight the importance of positive work life conditions for ensuring the commitment of new graduate nurses. In light of the nursing shortage, hospital administrators must look beyond quick-fix solutions and implement evidence-based strategies that support nurses’ workplace empowerment and effectiveness. Administrators can use strategies guided by Kanter’s (1977, 1993) theory to create the structural conditions that contribute to increased work engagement and commitment among new graduate nurses. Access to information can be improved by providing timely communication regarding unit-specific and organizational issues through regular staff meetings, open forums, e-mail updates, written materials, telephone hotlines and brown-bag lunches (Baguley 1999; Cline 2001). Emotional support, advice and hands-on assistance provide access to support in the workplace (Chandler 1986). Information and support are crucial for new graduate nurses because of the importance of professional relationships and information sharing in their transition process. A comprehensive program consisting of orientation and mentoring would serve this purpose. Mentoring may be difficult for experienced nurses, who are already carrying heavy workloads. Therefore, managers must consider the implications of staffing levels. Regular performance appraisals help maintain open communication and feedback (Laschinger et al. 2003). Organizing collaborative learning opportunities can also help to build informal networks and collegial teamwork. Staffing adequacy to provide high quality care is a key resource for nurses. Support staff, such as clerks and housekeepers, is also vital. Aiken et al. (2001) found that more than a third of Canadian nurses in their study reported performing non-nursing tasks during their last shift. Further, a similar proportion of these nurses reported that important nursing activities, such as skin care, health teaching and talking with clients, were left undone. With increasing workloads and rising acuity of clients, managers must rise to the challenge to ensure that resources are adequate to meet nursing care needs and prevent burnout.


Access to opportunities for learning can be facilitated through educational bursaries or scholarships to support ongoing education. Encouraging nurses to pursue leadership positions on the unit, hospital councils and committees can also promote skill development and growth (Laschinger et al. 2003). However, maximizing the benefit of these development opportunities hinges on the provision of appropriate support to new graduates. Involvement in these activities can simultaneously improve new graduate nurses’ access to informal power, as they are able to network with others within and outside of the organization (Baguley 1999). Lastly, access to formal power can be facilitated by involving new graduate nurses in decision-making from the outset. They should be given the opportunity to provide input into their orientation, length of training and learning plans. Managers share authority with staff nurses by involving them in such activities as making up patient assignments and creating their own work schedules (Laschinger et al. 2003). This involvement helps create a positive work environment in which nurses shape the provision of care. Finally, managers must encourage new graduate nurses to use evidence-based practice to support decision-making and be open to creative ideas that could improve nursing practice. Limitations The limitations of this study are related to the cross-sectional design and its inability to support strong causal claims (Polit and Beck, 2004). This study should be replicated using larger samples of new graduates working in other specialty areas and provinces. The potential for response bias as a result of using self-report questionnaires must also be taken into consideration (Polit and Beck 2004). Another limitation is the accuracy of the CNO database, since it depends on the information provided by nurses on their registration forms. Some nurses may have been excluded from the sampling frame if they refused to release their names for research purposes. Finally, the relatively low alpha reliability of the AWS control scale suggests that further work is needed to refine this measure. In addition, this low reliability may have attenuated the correlations between the control subscale and other study variables. Conclusion The results of this study provide support for Kanter’s (1977, 1993) theory of empowerment in the new graduate nurse population. In addition, this study adds further empirical support for the link between empowerment, Maslach and Leiter’s (1997) six areas of work life and work engagement/burnout. The findings suggest that when new graduate nurses have access to empowerment

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structures, they feel more engaged in their work and more committed to the organization. The Canadian healthcare system faces many challenges associated with limited resources. Following a decade of restructuring and downsizing, administrators must take a proactive approach to ensure the delivery of high quality care through the creation of empowering working conditions for new graduate nurses that promote engagement and organizational commitment.

Correspondence may be addressed to: Dr. Heather K. Spence Laschinger, Professor, Associate Director of Nursing Research, School of Nursing Health Sciences Addition, H3A, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, ON, N6A 5C1; e-mail: [email protected]

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