POTENSI KONKRIT BENTUK FOAM BERKETUMPATAN RENDAH SEBAGAI. BAHAN STRUKTUR KELESTARIAN MENGGUNAKAN PROSES OPTIMISASI.
i
POTENTIAL OF LIGHT WEIGHT FOAMED CONCRETE AS SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURAL MATERIAL BY OPTIMIZATION AND UTILIZATION OF WASTE MATERIALS
SUHAD M ABD
THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA BANGI 2010 POTENSI KONKRIT BENTUK FOAM BERKETUMPATAN RENDAH SEBAGAI BAHAN STRUKTUR KELESTARIAN MENGGUNAKAN PROSES OPTIMISASI DAN UTILISASI SISA BAHAN
ii
SUHAD M ABD
TESIS YANG DIKEMUKAKAN UNTUK MEMPEROLEH IJAZAH DOKTOR FALSAFAH
FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN DAN ALAM BINA UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA BANGI 2010
DECLARATION
iii
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations and summaries which have been duly acknowledged.
12 October 2010
SUHAD M ABD P38392
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As an expression of gratitude and appreciation, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Eng. Dr. Muhammad Fauzi Mohd Zain, who has been the vector guide of my Ph.D project and an admirable mentor from the very first day. It has been a privilege to work with such a brilliant supervisor and his vision will continue to enlighten me in the future. I am very thankful to Associate Professor Dr. Roszillah Binti Hamid who provided precious assistance throughout this Ph.D. program, she has shared her time, knowledge and experience with me, and she was a dependable source of support to me. I wish to give thanks to the SUCOMBS research group for participating in this project and for all the co-operation I received while performing my research there. I would specifically like to thank Civil and Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, and the National University of Malaysia Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM); their support was of great benefit to the successful completion of this project, without the financial support throughout the
iv
projects fund no: 03-01-02-SF0238 and 03-01-02-SF084 , this project would not have been possible. The author acknowledges and appreciates the excellent cooperation of Associate Professor Dr. Hamidah Mohd Saman and Associate Professor Dr. Azmi Ibrahim, UiTM for their theoretical and technical advices during the experimental work. Thanks and gratitude to my beloved brothers and sister for their motivation and supporting, and prays for my father, mother and my brother; Al-Shaheed Jasim whom I wished them to see my work. I thank my husband; Abbas, the supporter, who insists on the achievement, despite of our difficult circumstances, he continued to give contributions and encouragement generously throughout the duration of the study. Last but definitely not least, my deepest appreciation goes to my home country, Iraq, my University, Diyala University, and my colleagues whom have inspired me and helped me in every step of this process.
ABSTRACT This study was conducted in response to the need for improved concrete in economic and ecological manner while maintaining the existing goal toward creating sustainable building materials. Foamed concrete was investigated in this study as a lightweight building material that can be of significant importance if the strength is optimized and the cost is minimized. This work consists of three stages. The first stage include trial mixes for light weight foamed concrete (LFC).These trial mixes comprise on studying the effect of number of variables such as water to binder ratio, sand to cementitious materials ratio, types of sand and utilization of different waste materials for different densities in the range of 1200-1800 kg/m3. Waste materials were investigated to improve economics associated with the use of LFC in construction without compromising the performance and sustainability goals. These materials were added to the mix as partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement with different percentages in order to determine their effects and to specify the optimum content for higher strength for each material. Trial mixes were done with silica fume 5-15 %, fly ash 20-40 % while ground granulated blast furnace slag was in range of 15-25 % by weight of cement. These mixes were tested in the laboratory for a number of
v
performance criteria such as fresh density, dry density and compressive strength at different ages. It was found that these materials improve strength development for LFC. To get the most suitable mix for the designed LFC panels, optimization of LFC mix design was carried out in the second stage. First, optimum content for each material was specified then all these materials were used to perform mixes with densities in the range of 1200-1600 Kg/m3. Fibers were introduced in this study to optimize the LFC mix and to improve the behaviour and properties. Polypropylene fibers and steel fibers were used in the range of 0.25-0.5% by volume of mix. Results revealed that fibers contribute to the strength of LFC in term of compression and tension. Superplasticizers (SP) were investigated with different amounts to enhance properties of LFC mix. It was found that the use of SP is crucial for LFC but with extensive care during the production process. The hardened LFCs were tested for compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and flexural strength to study the mechanical properties of LFC. In this stage, two types of curing were performed to determine the effect of curing regime on strength development. Also, Resonance frequency test was performed in this stage to calculate the dynamic modulus of elasticity. Last stage was the utilization of optimized LFC mix for the designed panels with different densities. Numbers of tests were conducted on these panels to investigate their behaviour and suitability for building construction. Based on the results obtained, light weight foamed concrete with desired density 1200-1600 Kg/m3 and compressive strength of 15-34 MPa respectively was produced for the first time through utilization of waste materials and optimization of mix design including the use of SP and fibers. It can be concluded that this study has met its objectives via achieving the goal of sustainability and the goal of potential application of LFC to produce lightweight structural elements.
POTENSI KONKRIT BENTUK FOAM BERKETUMPATAN RENDAH SEBAGAI BAHAN STRUKTUR KELESTARIAN MENGGUNAKAN PROSES OPTIMISASI DAN UTILISASI SISA BAHAN ABSTRAK Kajian ini dilakukan sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk mempertingkatkan aspek keberkesanan kos dan ekologi konkrit tetapi masih mengekalkan tujuan utama kearah menjadikan bahan binaan yang lestari. Dalam kajian ini, konkrit berbusa telah dikaji sebagai bahan binaan ringan yang boleh digunakan jika kekuatannya dioptimumkan dan kosnya diminimakan. Kajian ini mengandungi tiga peringkat. Peringkat pertama adalah bancuhan cubaan untuk menghasilkan konkrit berbusa (LFC). Bancuhan cubaan ini melibatkan kajian terhadap kesan bilangan variasinya seperti nisbah air kepada bahan campuran simen, pasir kepada bahan campuran simen, jenis pasir yang digunakan dan bahan sisa yang berbeza dengan ketumpatannya dalam julat 1200–1800 kg/m3. Bahan sisa digunakan untuk memperbaiki aspek ekonomi yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan LFC dalam pembinaan tanpa mengabaikan tahap kecekapan dan ketahanannya. Bahan ini digunakan sebagai gantian kepada Simen Portland Biasa dengan peratusan berbeza bertujuan mengenalpasti kesannya dan menentukan bahan optimum untuk kekuatan yang lebih tinggi bagi setiap bahan. Dalam
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kajian ini, bancuhan cubaan dijalankan dengan perkadaran wasap silika sebanyak 5-15%, abu terbang sebanyak 20-40% dan sangar relau bagas pula adalah 15-25% daripada berat simen. Campuran ini diuji di makmal untuk mengenalpasti beberapa kriteria seperti ketumpatan basah, ketumpatan kering dan kekuatan mampatan pada umur berbeza. Didapati bahawa bahan ini dapat meningkatkan tahap pembentukan kekuatan untuk LFC. Bagi mendapatkan campuran yang sesuai untuk panel LFC terubahsuai, pengoptimuman campuran LFC dilakukan dalam peringkat kedua. Pertama, kandungan optimum untuk setiap bahan telah ditentukan kemudian bahan-bahan ini digunakan untuk menghasilkan campuran dengan ketumpatan dalam 1200-1600 kg/m3. Fiber telah digunakan dalam kajian ini untuk mengoptimumkan campuran LFC dan memperbaiki sifat dan kelakuannya. Fiber polipropylena dan fiber keluli digunakan dalam julat 0.25-0.5% daripada isipadu campuran tersebut. Keputusan ujikaji menunjukkan bahawa fiber keluli memberi impak lebih berbanding fiber polipropylena terhadap kekuatan LFC dalam mampatan dan tegangan. Superpemplastikan (SP) pula dikaji dengan jumlah yang berbeza untuk memperbaiki sifatsifat bancuhan LFC. Didapati penggunaan SP memerlukan penjagaan sangat rapi semasa proses pembuatan. Kekerasan LFC telah diuji untuk kekuatan mampatan, kekuatan tegangan dan kekuatan lenturan bagi mengkaji sifat mekanikal LFC. Di peringkat ini, dua jenis penambahbaikan telah digunakan untuk mengkaji kesan terhadap regim pengawetan dalam pembentukan kekuatan. Ujian Resonance frequency telah juga dijalan di peringkat ini untuk mengira dinamik modulus elasticiti. Peringkat akhir adalah penggunaan campuran optimum LFC untuk panel rekabentuk dengan ketumpatan dan bilangan ujian yang berlainan dikaji pada panel tersebut untuk mengkaji sifat dan kesesuaian dalam pembinaan bangunan. Berdasarkan kepada hasil ujikaji yang dicapai, ianya boleh menghasilkan konkrit berbusa dengan ketumpatan 1200-1600 kg/m3 dan kekuatan mampatan pada 15-34 MPa untuk kali pertama melalui penggunaan bahan sisa dan pengoptimuman rekabentuk bahan campuran termasuk penggunaan SP dan fiber. Sebagai rumusan, kajian ini telah mencapai objektifnya melalui pencapaian terhadap misi kelestarian dan potensi penggunaan LFC dalam menghasilkan struktur elemen berketumpatan rendah.
CONTENTS Page DECLARATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
vii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
xx
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Sustainability of construction materials
2
1.3
Exceptionality
3
1.4
Problem statement
4
1.5
Objectives
5
1.6
Scope and limitations
7
1.7
Structure of the thesis
8
CHAPTER II FOAM CONCRETE, MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS 2.1
Introduction
10
2.2
Conventional concrete
11
2.3
Lightweight concrete
12
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3
12 14 15
Classifications of lightweight concrete Definition, history and background Characteristics of lightweight foamed concrete
2.4
Density
18
2.5
Water to cement ratio (w/c)
18
2.6
Mechanical properties of foamed concrete
19
2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 2.6.7
19 21 26 29 32 34 35
2.7
Compressive strength Factors affecting compressive strength of foamed concrete Splitting tensile strength Flexural strength Modulus of elasticity Water absorption Thermal conductivity
Materials
37
2.7.1
37
Portland cements
viii
2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.8
2.9
Sand Foam Superplasticizers
38 40 41
Industrial waste by-products materials
43
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7
44 45 46 47 48 49 51
The use of by-products materials in concrete Fly ash The use of fly ash in concrete Silica fume The use of silica fume in concrete Ground granulated blast furnace slag Fibers
Applications of light weight foamed concrete
56
2.9.1 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5 2.9.6 2.9.7 2.9.8 2.9.9 2.9.10 2.9.11 2.9.12 2.9.13 2.9.14 2.9.15
57 57 58 58 58 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 60 61
Trench reinstatement Void Filling Replacement of existing soil Lateral load reduction Soil stabilization Bearing capacity enlargement Raft foundation Roof slopes Floor levelling Blinding Sports field and athletic trucks Filling of pipes Support of tank bottoms Shock-absorbing concrete (SACON) Thermal insulation
2.10
Fiber reinforced concrete
61
2.11
Structural application
64
2.12
Typical uses of foamed concrete as structural elements
65
CHAPTER III
SUSTAINABILITY
3.1
Introduction
66
3.2
Criticisms of cement and concrete industry
67
3.3
Sustainable building
70
3.4
Concrete and environment
72
ix
3.5
Facts about foamed concrete
74
3.6
Economics of mineral admixtures usage
76
3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5
77 78 79 79 80
3.7
Ground granulated blast furnace slag Sustainability of ggbs Use of fly ash in concrete Sustainability of fly ash Sustainability of silica fume
Sustainable concrete solutions
CHAPTER IV RESEARCH PROGRAM
81
AND
EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE 4.1
Introduction
83
4.2
Experimental plan
83
4.3
Materials
83
4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 4.3.7 4.3.8 4.3.9
84 84 85 86 86 87 87 87 88
Cements Sand Water Silica fume Fly ash Ground granulated blast furnace slag content Superplasticizer Fibers Foaming agent
4.4
Proportioning and designing of foamed concrete mix
89
4.5
Mix proportions
90
4.6
Foamed concrete production
91
4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5
91 93 93 94 94
4.7
Foamed concrete mixing techniques Sampling Moulding Demoulding Curing
Test Methods
94
4.7.1
95
Compressive strength
x
4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 4.7.6
Splitting tensile strength Flexural strength Resonance frequency test Water absorption Thermal conductivity
96 96 97 97 98
CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1
Introduction
98
5.2
Stage I : Trial mixes for all constituents
98
5.2.1
98
5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6
5.3
101 103 106 114 120
Stage II: Optimization through incorporating superplasticizers and fibers in LFC mix
128
5.3.1
129
5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5 5.3.6 5.3.7 5.3.8 5.3.9 5.3.10 5.4
Effects of filler size on the compressive strength of light weight foamed concrete Effect of sand to cement ratio on the compressive strength of light weight foamed concrete Effects of w/c ratio on the compressive strength of light weight foamed concrete Effects of silica fume on the compressive strength of LFC Effects of ground granulated blast furnace slag Effects of fly ash on the compressive strength of light weight foamed concrete
Effects of super plasticizers on the compressive strength of LFC Combined utilization of waste materials in concrete Optimization of LFC by the combined use of waste materials with SP Effects of fibers Further optimization of LFC mix proportion Flexural strength Splitting tensile strength of LFC Dynamic modulus of elasticity Water absorption Thermal conductivity
136 139 147 156 158 166 171 174 179
Stage III: Light weight foamed concrete wall panels
181
5.4.1
185
Testing light weight foamed concrete panels
CHAPTER VI MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR STRENGTH OF FOAMED CONCRETE
xi
6.1
Introduction
194
6.2
Historical background
194
6.3
Derivations of the mathematical regression model
197
6.4
The variables suggested for the mathematical model and their effect on compressive strength
198
6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5
198 198 198 198 199
6.5
Effect of cement content Effect of foam content Effect of density Effect of water to cement ratio (w/c) Effect of sand to cement ratio or sand to cementitious ratio (s/c)
The mathematical model
199
CHAPTER VI I CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 7.1
Introduction
202
7.2
Compressive Strength
202
7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.2.7 7.2.8 7.2.9 7.2.10 7.2.11
203 203 203 204 204 204 205 206 206 207 207
Effect of filler size The Effect of Sand to Cement Ratio(S/C) Effect of W/C Ratio Effect of Fly Ash Effect of Silica Fume Effect of Slag Effect of SP Mix Optimization by Combined Use of Waste Materials Further Optimization Effect of Foam Effect of Fibers
7.3
Flexural Strength of LFC
209
7.4
Splitting Tensile Strength of LFC
210
7.5
Dynamic modulus of elasticity
211
7.6
Water Absorption
211
7.7
Thermal conductivity
213
7.8
Wall panels
213
xii
7.9
The mathematical model
214
7.10
Overall conclusions
215
7.11
Recommendations
216
219
REFERENCES
APPENDICES A
List of Publication and Awards
236
B
Photos for experimental work
238
C
Details of mix proportions for foamed concrete
252
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Page
2.1
An overview of compressive strength of foam concrete for various mixture composition and densities reported in literature
20
2.2
Splitting tensile strength of concrete
28
2.3
Effect of the addition of polypropylene fibers on properties of foamed concrete
32
2.4
Types of cement suitable for the production of foamed concrete (BS)
37
xiii
3.1
The likely impact of climate change on the built environment
72
3.2
The effectiveness of GGBS in reducing the embodied CO2 of concrete
79
4.1
Silica sand of size < 4.75mm
85
4.2
Silica sand of size < 2.36mm
86
4.3
Silica sand of size 600 µm - 250 µm
86
4.4
Silica sand of size 250 µm - 150 µm
86
4.5
Chemical analysis of silica fume used in this study
87
4.6
Chemical analysis for fly ash
87
4.7
Chemical analysis for ground granulated blast furnace slag
88
4.8
Specifications for polypropylene fibers
89
4.9
Specification for steel fiber
89
4.10
Properties for EABASSOC Concrete Foaming Agent
90
5.1
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for different sands, w/c and S/C
102
5.2
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for different target density and silica fume content
102
5.3
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for different target density and GGBFS content
117
5.4
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for different target density and fly ash content
122
5.5
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for different SP dosages
137
5.6
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of different foamed concrete mixes for different target density, waste materials content and SP
144
5.7
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed concrete for mixes with different fiber type and content for two types of curing
151
5.8
Fresh density, dry density and compressive strength of foamed
158
xiv
concrete for final mixes with two types of curing 5.9
Flexural strength of foamed concrete for selected mixes
165
5.10
Splitting tensile strength of foamed concrete for selected mixes
169
5.11
Dynamic modulus of elasticity of foamed concrete for selected mixes
174
5.12
Water absorption of foamed concrete for final mixes
177
5.13
Thermal conductivity for final mixes of foamed concrete
181
5.14
Axial load and compressive strength for LFC wall panels on short direction
189
5.15
Axial load and compressive strength for LFC wall panels on long direction
189
6.1
Summery On Strength Prediction Models for Foam Concrete
201
6.2
Correlations between variables and 28 day compressive strength
6.3
Values for regression parameters
202
LIST OF FIGURES No.
Page
2.1
Effects of the types of cement and plastic density on compressive strength of 1200 and 1400 kg/m3 foamed concrete
21
2.2
Development of the compressive strength of foamed concrete with density of 1400, 1600 and 1800 kg/m3
24
2.3
The effect of curing regime on the 28 days compressive strength of foamed concrete PC/PFA mixes and PC/sand mixes
25
2.4
The relationship between splitting tensile strength and 28 days compressive for PC/sand mixes and PC/PFA mixes strength
28
xv
2.5
Bending moment diagrams for center-point loading and third-point loading
30
2.6
The relationship between E value and 28 days compressive strength for sand mixes and PFA mixes
34
2.7
Types of fibers; Steel, glass, synthetic and natural fibers with different lengths and shapes can be used in concrete
55
3.1
Steps of converting limestone into Portland cement
69
4.1
Foam Generator and Junior Foam Generator
94
4.2
The cube specimen positioned under axial load
96
4.3
Splitting tension test (ASTM C496): top diagrammatic arrangement of the test
97
4.4
Flexural strength test by third-point loading according to (ASTM C 78)
97
4.5
Resonance frequency test
98
5.1
Effect of sand size on the strength of foamed concrete
102
5.2
Effect of s/c ratio on the compressive strength of foamed concrete
104
5.3
Effect of w/c ratio on the compressive strength of foamed concrete
107
5.4
Effect of silica fume on the strength of 1200 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
110
5.5
Effect of silica fume on the strength of 1400 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
110
5.6
Effect of silica fume on the strength of 1600 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
111
5.7
Effect of silica fume on the strength of 1800 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
114
5.8
Optimum content of silica fume
115
5.9
Effect of slag on the compressive strength of 1200 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
117
5.10
Effect of slag on compressive strength of 1400 Kg/m3 foamed concrete 118
5.11
Effect of slag on compressive strength of 1600 Kg/m3 foamed concrete 118
5.12
Effect of slag on compressive strength of 1800 Kg/m3 foamed concrete 119
5.13
Optimum slag content for foamed concrete
119
5.14
Effect of fly ash on compressive strength of 1200 Kg/m3 foamed
123
xvi
concrete 5.15
Effect of fly ash on compressive strength of 1400 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
123
5.16
Effect of fly ash on compressive strength of 1600 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
124
5.17
Effect of fly ash on compressive strength of 1800 Kg/m3 foamed concrete
124
5.18
Optimum content of fly ash
125
5.19
Effect of SP dosage on the compressive strength of foamed concrete
136
5.20
Effect of SP dosage on compressive strength of foamed concrete with waste materials
142
5.21
Effect of w/c ratio on strength of SP foamed concrete
145
5.22
Effect of SP and waste materials on strength of foamed concrete for different densities
147
5.23
Effect of multifilament polypropylene fibers of strength of 1400 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
152
5.24
Effect of fibrillated polypropylene fibers of strength of 1400 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
153
5.25
Effect of steel fibers of strength of 1400 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
153
5.26
Optimum content of different fibers types of strength of 1400 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
154
5.27
Effect of different types of fibers of strength of 1200 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
155
5.28
Effect of different types of fibers of strength of 1600 kg/m3 with different curing regimes
155
5.29
Final optimized mix with SP and waste materials only
159
5.30
Final optimized mix containing SP and waste materials with fibrillated polypropylene fibers
159
5.31
Final optimized mix containing SP and waste materials with steel fibers
160
5.32
Relationship between flexural strength and compressive strength of foamed concrete for two types of curing
163
xvii
5.33
Effect of mix proportions and different fibers on flexural strength of foamed concrete
163
5.34
Observed versus predicted flexural strength of foamed concrete for dry curing compressive strength
166
5.35
Observed versus predicted flexural strength of foamed concrete for wrapped curing compressive strength
166
5.36
Relationship between splitting tensile strength and 28 day compressive strength of foamed concrete with two types of curing
170
5.37
Relationship between splitting tensile strength and dry density of foamed concrete with different mix constituents
170
5.38
Observed versus predicted splitting tensile strength of foamed concrete 171 for dry curing compressive strength
5.39
Observed versus predicted splitting tensile strength of foamed concrete 171 for wrapped curing compressive strength
5.40
Relationship between dynamic modulus of elasticity and 28 day compressive strength
174
5.41
Water absorption of 1200 Kg/m3 for different mixes
178
5.42
Water absorption of 1400 Kg/m3 for different mixes
178
5.43
Water absorption of 1600 Kg/m3 for different mixes
179
5.44
Relationship between water absorption and dry density for different mixes
179
5.45
Thermal conductivity for final mixes of foamed concrete
181
5.46
Figure 5.46 Types of forces subjected on the panels
184
5.47
Testing of panels on (a) long direction and (b) short direction
185
5.48
Behaviour of different mixes for 1200 wall panel under axial load on short direction
190
5.49
Behaviour of different mixes for 1400 wall panel under axial load on short direction
191
5.50
Behaviour of different mixes for 1600 wall panel under axial load on short direction
192
5.51
Behaviour of different mixes for 1200 wall panel under axial load on long direction
193
xviii
5.52
Behaviour of different mixes for 1400 wall panel under axial load on long direction
194
5.53
Behaviour of different mixes for 1600 wall panel under axial load on long direction
195
6.1
Observed versus predicted 28 days compressive strength obtained from mathematical model
202
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Slag
Ground granulated blast furnace slag
SP
Superplasticizer
LFC
Lightweight Foamed Concrete
MPa
Mega Pascal
W/mK
Watt/meter. Kelvin
PC
Portland cement
S/C
Sand to cement ratio
xix
W/C W/B
Water to cement ratio Water to binder ratio
NRMC CIP
National ready mix concrete –concrete in practice
Ed
Dynamic modulus of elasticity
HRWR
High Range Water Reducers
HVFA
High volume fly ash
PFA
Pulverized fly ash
SF
Silica fume
CSF
Condensed silica fume
MK
High-reactivity metakaolin
SFRC
Steel fiber-reinforced concrete
WRAP
Waste and resources action program
RSA
Recycled and secondary aggregates
PVA
Polyvinyl alcohol fibers
MOE
Modulus of elasticity
CPDT
Chloride penetration depth test
MOR
Modulus of rupture
FRLACC
fiber-reinforced, lightweight aggregate, cellular concrete
SFRLACC
Steel fiber-reinforced, lightweight aggregate, cellular concrete
CLC PCA GHGs
Cellular lightweight concrete Portland cement association Green house gases
OPC
Ordinary portland cement
CSMA
Cementitious slag maker association
CS-H
Silicate hydrate
dW Ed./f28
Unit weight of fresh concrete (Kg/m3) Ratio of dynamic modulus of elasticity to 28 day compressive
xx
strength f flex
Flexural strength
f comp
Compressive strength
f split
Splitting tensile strength
T
Temperature difference between inner (heated) and outer (ambient) surface Thermal conductivity
Q
Time rate of heat flow
V
The volume of the foamed concrete sample
M Ddry
The oven-dry mass of the foamed concrete sample Dry density of foamed concrete test specimen
w1
The weight of sample after immerse in water till constant weight
w0
The weight of 50°C oven dried sample
C
Cement content in (Kg)
