Integrating knowledge of nutrient forms and dynamics

Integrating knowledge of nutrient forms and dynamics into improved nutrient management practices: A tribute to Re´gis Simard Cynthia Grant1, Noura Ziadi2, Bernard Gagnon2, Don Flaten3, and Jeff Schoenau4

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1

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Brandon Research Centre, Box 1000A, R.R.#3, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 5Y3 (e-mail: [email protected]); 2Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Soils and Crops Research and Development Centre, 2560 Hochelaga Blvd, Quebec, Quebec, Canada G1V 2J3; 3Department of Soil Science, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2; and 4Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, 51 Campus Dr, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 5A8. Received 10 October 2007, accepted 13 May 2008. Grant, C., Ziadi, N., Gagnon, B., Flaten, D. and Schoenau, J. 2009. Integrating knowledge of nutrient forms and dynamics into improved nutrient management practices: A tribute to Re´gis Simard. Can. J. Soil Sci. 89: 133
144. Re´gis Simard and his colleagues developed a research program focussing on the agronomic and environmental impacts of nutrients in agricultural systems. The success of this program resulted from an integrated approach, linking assessment of nutrient availability to an understanding of nutrient dynamics in the soil, and applying this understanding to development of improved management practices for a variety of nutrient sources. Research into nutrient availability conducted by Re´gis and his co-workers led to improvements in quantification of nutrient supply, using traditional soil analysis with batch chemical extraction as well as ionic exchange membranes (IEMs) and electro-ultrafiltration (EUF). Ion exchange membranes are now used as a tool in routine soil fertility assessments and in agronomic and environmental research to study nutrient ion release rates. Additionally, intensive analytical techniques, such as sequential extraction and X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) were developed and used to characterize the forms and relative availability of soil nutrients for plant uptake or environmental effects. Characterization of nutrient pools improved understanding of nutrient dynamics in the soil, allowing a more accurate assessment of the agronomic value and environmental risk of nutrients applied to agricultural systems. Building on this knowledge, Re´gis and his colleagues developed improved methods of utilizing manures, composts, paper mill sludge (PMS) and liming by-products, effectively diverting nutrients from the waste stream into a resource for crop production. This paper describes the contributions of Re´gis and his colleagues to the improvement of agronomically and environmentally sustainable nutrient management practices, based on an integrated research approach that provided a clear understanding nutrient availability and soil nutrient dynamics. Key words: Chemical extraction, integrated nutrient management, ion exchange membranes, paper mill sludge, soil phosphorus, soil potassium Grant, C., Ziadi, N., Gagnon, B., Flaten, D. et Schoenau, J. 2009. Inte´gration des connaissances sur la nature et la dynamique des nutriments en vue d’une meilleure gestion de ces derniers : hommage a` Re´gis Simard. Can. J. Soil Sci. 89: 133
144. Re´gis Simard et ses colle`gues ont e´labore´ un programme de recherche mettant l’accent sur les incidences agronomiques et environnementales des e´le´ments nutritifs dans les syste`mes agricoles. Le succe`s remporte´ par ce programme a de´bouche´ sur une approche inte´gre´e qui associe l’e´valuation des e´le´ments nutritifs disponibles a` une meilleure compre´hension de leur dynamique dans le sol, puis sur l’application de ces connaissances au de´veloppement de meilleures me´thodes de gestion pour diverses sources d’e´le´ments nutritifs. Les recherches sur la disponibilite´ des e´le´ments nutritifs poursuivies par Re´gis Simard et ses colle`gues ont permis une meilleure quantification des re´serves d’e´le´ments nutritifs en combinant l’analyse classique du sol a` l’extraction des compose´s chimiques par lots, mais aussi aux membranes d’e´xchanges ioniques et a` l’e´lectro-ultrafiltration. On se sert de´sormais couramment des membranes d’e´xchanges ioniques pour e´valuer la fertilite´ des sols ainsi que dans les recherches agronomiques et environnementales, pour e´tudier le taux de libe´ration des ions des e´le´ments nutritifs. Les chercheurs ont e´galement mis au point et utilise´ des techniques d’analyse intensives comme l’extraction se´quentielle et la spectrome´trie d’absorption des rayons X (XANES) pour caracte´riser la nature et la disponibilite´ relative des e´le´ments nutritifs du sol eu e´gard a` leur absorption par les plantes et a` leurs effets sur l’environnement. La caracte´risation des re´serves d’e´le´ments nutritifs nous a aide´s a` mieux comprendre la dynamique des nutriments dans le sol, donc a` e´valuer plus exactement la valeur agronomique et les risques environnementaux des e´le´ments

Abbreviations: AEM, anion exchange membranes; EUF, electro-ultrafiltration; IEM, ionic exchange membrane; PMS, paper mill sludge; XANES, X-ray absorption near-edge structure 133

134 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE nutritifs employe´s en agriculture. S’appuyant sur ces connaissances, Re´gis Simard et ses colle`gues ont imagine´ de meilleures me´thodes pour exploiter le fumier, le compost, les boues de papetie`re et les sous-produits craviants, ce qui a concouru a` transformer les re´sidus en sources d’e´le´ments nutritifs pour la production agricole. Cet article de´crit comment Re´gis Simard et ses colle`gues ont contribue´ au perfectionnement de pratiques de gestion des e´le´ments nutritifs durables sur le plan de l’agronomie et de l’environnement en recourant a` une approche scientifique inte´gre´e qui a abouti a` une compre´hension plus claire de la disponibilite´ des e´le´ments nutritifs et de la dynamique des nutriments dans le sol.

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Mots cle´s: Extraction chimique, gestion inte´gre´e des e´le´ments nutritifs, membranes d’e´xchanges ioniques boues de papetie`res, phosphore du sol, potassium du sol

Research conducted by Re´gis Simard and his colleagues focused on improving the sustainability of nutrient management through the accurate prediction of nutrient availability, understanding of nutrient dynamics and application of this knowledge to improve management practices for a variety of nutrient sources in agricultural systems. Re´gis Simard and his colleagues developed an integrated research program to address the agronomic and environmental challenges facing nutrient management in modern agricultural systems, to improve the long-term sustainability of agricultural production. Intensification in modern agriculture in Quebec and around the world has commonly led to specialization and separation of animal and crop production. Nutrients removed through crop exports must be replenished, often by importing synthetic fertilizers, to avoid nutrient depletion. In contrast, nutrients may accumulate to excess in intensive livestock systems, especially where nutrients are brought onto the farm in purchased feedstuffs and the manure produced on-farm is not spread over a large enough area (Sims et al. 2000). Many industrial by-products, such as pulp and paper mill sludge, municipal waste and food industry wastes contain significant amounts of available nutrients. Where these are disposed of as a waste, they create risk of nutrient losses to the environment. In addition, there is also a missed opportunity from paying for disposal, rather than gaining the benefit of recycling the nutrients. Effective recapture of nutrients in manures and industrial by-products in agricultural systems can reduce potential negative environmental effects and may reduce cost of nutrient inputs for crop production (Cabral et al. 1998; Charbonneau et al. 2001; Gagnon et al. 2004). Sustainable nutrient management should therefore utilize integrated nutrient management practices, including an evaluation of available nutrient supplies and reclamation of nutrients in waste materials. All nutrient resources, whether organic or inorganic, should be managed in a manner that ensures the optimum utilization by the plant, while minimizing excess accumulation in the soil or movement to the air or water. Both the rate and the timing of nutrient supply should be synchronized with crop demand. Re´gis recognized that this requires the ability to accurately assess nutrient availability and understand nutrient dynamics within the soil-plant system to allow application of the proper

nutrient rate, at the proper time and in the proper position to optimize crop production and minimize negative environmental impact. The objective of this paper therefore is to outline the contributions of Re´gis Simard and his colleagues to agronomic and environmental sustainability through research integrating accurate prediction of nutrient availability, understanding of nutrient dynamics and the application of this knowledge to improve management practices for alternative sources of nutrients in agricultural systems. ASSESSMENT OF NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY Assessment of nutrient availability is critical in agricultural systems, both agronomically and environmentally. Agronomically, prediction of nutrient availability over the growing season is required to allow the producer to match the nutrient application to crop nutrient demand. Environmentally, assessment of nutrient form and availability is required in order to identify and manage risk of nutrient movement to the air and water. Traditionally, nutrient supply has been evaluated using various laboratory methods of chemical extraction (Carter 1993). These batch extraction methods selectively remove different pools of nutrients in the soil in order to estimate the nutrient that will be available for plant uptake or that may be at risk of negatively affecting the environment. The chemical extractants provide an index of the availability that is normally calibrated empirically against actual crop uptake or likelihood of crop response to fertilization, or against nutrient movement through leaching or run-off (Simard et al. 1996; Angers et al. 1997; Beauchemin and Simard 1999; Ziadi et al. 2000; Maguire et al. 2005). Although many studies have been reported on this subject, soil test information and fertilizer recommendations require continual updating and re-evaluation with changes in production practices. Intensification of cropping sequences, shifts in the types of crops grown, changes in tillage management and increases in crop yield potential due to genetic improvements or improved agronomic practices can alter both the availability of nutrients from the soil and the crop nutrient demand. Soil testing procedures need to be evaluated and calibrated for the soils and production systems where they will be used. For example, the amount of nutrient extracted and its relation to crop uptake will vary depending on soil

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characteristics such as pH, organic matter content, texture, and carbonate content, as well as with agronomic management practices (Simard et al. 1994b, 1995). In addition, for a soil test to be commercially viable, it must be economically affordable, relatively rapid and suitable for automation. During his career, Re´gis developed and adapted several soil test methods for routine analysis, especially in Quebec, making a significant contribution to the recommendations for fertilizer use and assessment of environmental risk. Re´gis, with his research team, evaluated the effectiveness of the ammonium acetate (NH4C2H3O2 abbreviated as NH4OAc) and Mehlich-3 extractable P and K for use in nutrient management recommendations in Quebec. An evaluation of the dynamics of K release showed that the NH4OAcextractable K was highly correlated with the rate and cumulative amount of K released over 1800 h, a period chosen to represent the slowly exchangeable nutrient supply over a 75-d growing season, and hence would be a good indication of the long-term K availability for perennial crops like alfalfa or trees such as sugar maple (Simard et al. 1989). Including soil texture and nitric acid-extractable K with measurements of soluble and rapidly exchangeable K improved prediction of the long-term K supply, important for the maintenance of perennial crops such as alfalfa (Simard et al. 1990). Mehlich-3 extractable P relative to Al expressed as a percentage (P/Al)III provided a reliable criterion for making P recommendations for environmentally acceptable and agronomically efficient P fertilizer management in potatoes (Khiari et al. 2000). However, Mehlich-3 P was not related to plant uptake of P by barley on heavy clay soils, possibly because the highly acidic extractant dissolved unavailable Ca- and Albound P and did not account for mineralization of organic P (Zheng et al. 2003). As a result of this observation, different fertilizer recommendations are provided in Quebec for potatoes and corn grown on clayey soils (
30% clay) and non-clayey soils (B30% clay) (Centre de re´fe´rence en agriculture et agroalimentaire du Que´bec 2003). The Mehlich-3 extraction was not as effective at high soil P concentrations as at low concentrations, and hence the research demonstrated that this method may underestimate the environmental risk of P loss on high-P soils. Re´gis and his colleagues also determined that the strontium chloride-citric acid extraction method (Srcitrate) could be used to provide simultaneous determination of NH4, NO3, P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn and B. In a comparison with water, NaHCO3, Bray 1, Bray 2, Mehlich-3 and 0.1 M HCl as extractants for soil P on 34 soils collected from pastures in different regions of Quebec, the Sr-citrate solution extracted more P than water, Olsen, Bray 1 and Mehlich-3 solutions but less than Bray 2 and 0.1 M HCl solutions in acid and neutral to calcareous soils (Simard et al. 1991b; Simard and Zizka 1994). The amount of P extracted with the

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Sr-citrate solution was very closely related to the amounts extracted by the Olsen and Mehlich-3 solutions. The Sr-citrate extractant was among the best predictors of P uptake by oat and corn in both high and low pH Quebec soils, with the relative yield of corn being closely related to the log of the Sr-citrate extractable P (Simard et al. 1991b). The Sr-citrate analysis also proved effective for prediction of K availability. When compared with water, 0.002 M SrCl2, 0.1 M BaCl2, 0.1 M HCl, 1 M ammonium acetate and Mehlich-3 soil extractants in 34 soils, the Sr-citrate solution was the best among the extractants evaluated for predicting K uptake by alfalfa from soils with low cation exchange capacity and was adequate for predicting K uptake from soils with higher cation exchange capacity (Simard and Zizka 1994). The Sr-citrate also adequately predicted the relative yield of alfalfa in all soils. The Sr-citrate solution was time efficient, easy to adopt and permitted the simultaneous determination of availability of soil N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S and micronutrients. Therefore, it could be used routinely for multiple nutrient extraction and prediction of available nutrients, including P and K on a range of Quebec soils. A number of soil tests, including Mehlich-3, Srcitrate, hot water, mannitol-CaCl2, CaCl2 and cold water, were also evaluated for their ability to predict B uptake and response of crops to B applications (Simard et al. 1996). The 0.01 M CaCl2 solution was most closely related to barley B uptake, while the Mehlich-3 best predicted fertilizer response. Including soil pH in the equation improved the relationship between fertilizer B responsiveness by barley and amounts of soil B extracted. The critical level of Mehlich-3-extractable B, above which a fertilizer response did not occur, was higher in these studies than in the literature, likely because the high clay and ammonium oxalate-extractable aluminum contents in the tested soils increased soil B sorption capacity and decreased B intensity. Although chemical extraction methods have proved useful in estimating the concentration of plant-available nutrients, a major limitation is that they are only an index of true nutrient availability during a growing season (Yang et al. 1991; Skogley 1994; Skogley and Dobermann 1996). The chemical extractants may also mobilize fractions that are not plant-available under field conditions, leading to overestimation of nutrient supply. They may also fail to extract nutrients that will become available over the growing season, leading to underestimation. As an alternative to chemical extraction, several studies attempted to assess the availability of plant nutrients using other techniques as electroultrafiltration (EUF) and ionic exchange membranes (IEM), The electro-ultrafiltration technique has been successfully used, especially in Europe and Asia, to predict the short- and long-term nutrient availability from soils (Nemeth 1979) and fertilizers (Judel et al. 1985; Steffens

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1994). This technique was developed by Bechold in 1925 (Nemeth 1979) by combining ultrafiltration with electrodialysis. Briefly, a three cell-apparatus is required for this technique. The middle cell is used for the soil suspension (soil:water 1:10). At each side of this middle cell, there is a micropore filter attached to the platinum electrodes that separate the middle cell from the two outside compartments. When an electrical potential is applied to the soil solution, different reactions can occur at the cathode and at the anode. Thus, the soil solution, rapidly exchangeable, and slowly exchangeable forms of different nutrients could be determined by varying desorption voltage, chamber temperature and contact time of the EUF. Mengel and Uhlenbecker (1993) used EUF to measure the K release rate and to evaluate its availability to ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). They found that plant K uptake was closely related to the soil K release rate as described by a parabolic diffusion equation and suggested that the K release rate represents a reliable indicator for the plant-availability of non-exchangeable soil K. The EUF technique (EUF at 50V and 208C, EUF at 200 V and 208C, and EUF at 400 V and 808C) was compared with a range of other soil testing methods (water, 0.5 M NaHCO3, HCO3 resin, and Sr-citrate) for prediction of P availability to oat and corn under greenhouse conditions (Simard and Tran 1993). The P desorbed by EUF between 30 and 55 min at 400 V and 808C was equivalent to chemical methods but less precise than the HCO3 resin in predicting the P uptake by oat and corn and the fertilizer responsiveness of oat under greenhouse conditions. Phosphorus desorbed by EUF was also closely related to P uptake by ryegrass, except where sparingly soluble Ca phosphates were present in the soil, in which case the EUF desorbed more P than the other methods evaluated (Tran et al. 1992b). Potassium desorbed by EUF at 808C was effective at predicting the long-term availability of K to alfalfa and the relative yield of alfalfa over 10 cuttings and was superior to the methods in place at the time for evaluating the K-supplying power of Quebec soils (Simard et al. 1991a). The EUF technique was used by Re´gis and his colleagues to describe the P and K status and kinetics of K release of the fine textured soils (Humic Gleysols) of the Abitibi-Temiscaming region (Quebec, Canada) (Table 1) (Ziadi et al. 2001b). The EUF technique showed, for the first time, that these soils had very large reserves of inorganic P and K, and this could explain the limited crop responses to P and K fertilizer in that region. While the EUF and chemical extraction techniques have proven relatively effective at estimating nutrient availability in soils, use of IEMs has been a better indicator in a range of studies ((Tran et al. 1992a; Ziadi et al. 1999, 2000; Simard et al. 2000; Qian and Schoenau 1995). Under field conditions, IEMs accumulate nutrients from soils through exchange reactions by a similar mechanism to the soil-root system, which is different from EUF or chemical extraction; therefore, the nu-

Table 1. Pearson correlation coefficients between cumulative forage P and K uptake and soil P and K desorbed by electro ultrafiltration (EUF) and chemical methods (Ziadi et al. 2001a, b) Method

EUF Fractionz 50 V 200 V 400 V (50200) V (50200400) V Chemical methods Mehlich 3 Water Olsen 1 M NH4OAC 1 M HNO3

Correlation with cumulative forage P uptake

Correlation with cumulative forage K uptake

0.4** 0.39** 0.40* 0.44** 0.41**

0.53*** 0.38** 0.08** 0.45** 0.37**

0.58*** 0.60*** 0.54***

0.21 0.14 0.24

z 50 V P or K desorbed by EUF at 50 V and 208C during 10 min; 200 VP or K desorbed by EUF at 200 V and 208C during 20 min; 400 VP or K desorbed by EUF at 400 V and 808C during 15 min; (50 200) V the total of 50 V and 200V; (50200400)Vthe total of 50 V, 200 V and 400 V. ***,**,*Significant at P 50.001, P50.01, and P 50.05, respectively.

trient supply measured by IEMs is affected by factors that influence nutrient availability to the crop, such as the solution concentration, the ability of the soil to replenish the solution concentration and the mobility of the ion in the soil (Yang et al. 1991; Abrams and Jarrel 1992). Both anionic and cationic exchange resins can be used to extract a wide range of nutrients (Qian and Schoenau 2002). Therefore, use of IEMs can potentially provide a more precise indication of soil N, P, K and micronutrients availability under different soils and climatic conditions than can batch chemical extraction techniques (Ziadi et al. 1999; Zheng et al. ‘2003). In addition, IEMs are simple (no soil sampling), rapid and inexpensive (IEMs are recyclable), offering many practical advantages over chemical extractants for estimation of soil availability of nutrients (Qian and Schoenau 2002). Consequently, work by Regis and colleagues has contributed to the successful application of ion exchange membranes in routine soil testing for fertilizer recommendations and as a tool to assess nutrient ion supply rates in the laboratory and field by researchers across the world. Studies conducted in Eastern (Ziadi et al. 1999, 2006; Simard et al. 2000) and Western Canada (Qian and Schoenau 1995, 2002) under different crops, soils, mineral/organic fertilization and climatic conditions concluded that the IEM technique provides one of the most reliable indices of plant nutrient availability. For example, in grassland dominated by either timothy or orchardgrass and fertilized with varying rates of N fertilizer, the grass yield and N uptake were more closely related to nitrate measured in situ by anion exchange membranes (AEMs) than by water-extractable soil

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nitrate (Ziadi et al. 1999). Furthermore, the economically optimum N fertilizer rate for forages could also be predicted more accurately by the amount of soil NO3-N in spring as measured in situ by AEMs (R2 0.60) than by water extraction (R2 0.08) (Ziadi et al. 2000, Fig. 1). In a comparison of four types of resins for evaluation of plant-available P (F, Cl, HCO3 and a mixed anioniccationic exchange resin in H-OH-form), Re´gis and coworkers found that the Cl  and HCO3 resins best predicted the P uptake and relative yield of oats on 34 Quebec soils and the exchange resins were better predictors of P-supply power of soils than were chemical extractants (Tran et al. 1992a). Similarly, a HCO3 resin was more effective at predicting P uptake by oat and corn under Quebec conditions than were a range of commonly used chemical extractants or EUF (Simard and Tran 1993). Ion exchange resins have also proved valuable for estimating the environmental risk from nutrient movement in water due to excess nutrient applications in agricultural systems. In studies conducted by Benali (2002), phosphorus fluxes as measured using AEMs were shown to be well correlated with total P present in

Fig. 1. Relationship between the relative forage yield, calculated by dividing the estimated seasonal DM yield without N by the predicted maximum seasonal DM yield, and the extractable NO3-N present in spring (1995 and 1996) at the 0- to 15-cm depth as measured by anion exchange membranes (NO3AEMs) (a) and by water extraction (NO3w) (b). NS  not significant. (adapted from Ziadi et al. 2000).

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soil water, extracted using suction cups. The P measured using AEMs and soil water total P was related across a range of rates of composted paper mill waste that supplied significant amounts of P. Therefore, the AEMs provided a simplified method of estimating the potential for movement of P into water systems and hence the environmental risk to water from excess nutrient applications. DEEPENING OUR UNDERSTANDING OF PHOSPHORUS FORMS AND DYNAMICS IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS Re´gis and his colleagues investigated the availability and management of a wide range of nutrients in a variety of agricultural systems throughout Quebec. However, a large portion of Re´gis’s research was directed towards understanding the chemical forms and transformations of phosphorus in soil. As a result, Re´gis and his colleagues developed and refined the techniques to investigate phosphorus behaviour and used the knowledge generated by these investigations to improve the agronomic efficiency and environmental sustainability of agricultural phosphorus management. This section will focus primarily on the agronomic applications of this work and the basic processes and procedures that formed the foundation for Re´gis’s phosphorus investigations. During his Ph.D. studies at the University of Guelph, Re´gis worked with Bates and Evans to examine the effects of liming and phosphorus fertilization on the soil solution chemistry and early growth of corn in Podzolic soil (Simard et al. 1988a, b). Those studies demonstrated the complex interactions among lime, phosphorus fertilizer, and the chemical availability and plant uptake of a variety of macro- and micro-nutrients. The negative effects observed at high liming rates demonstrate the importance of not over-applying lime onto these soils. Identification of the specific pools of nutrients present in a soil can help to predict both the availability of the nutrient for crop uptake and the risk of movement of the nutrient into water. Sequential extraction techniques (Hedley et al. 1982) use a sequence of increasingly strong extractions to characterize the types of phosphorus in soils. These separate P into a number of ‘‘pools’’ with varying availability for movement and crop uptake. The Resin
P, NaHCO3
Pi, NaHCO3
Po, and NaOH
Po provide an indication of the labile or moderately labile fractions, while NaOH
Pi, HCl
P and residual P (H2SO4
H2O2
P) extract the more resistant fractions. Following the path of Hedley et al. (1982) and O’Halloran et al. (1987), Re´gis used a sequence of increasingly strong extractions to characterize the types of phosphorus in soils under a wide variety of management systems. For example, Simard et al. (1995) showed that application of high rates of dairy and pig manure to agricultural land resulted in much larger increases in labile than recalcitrant phosphorus forms, compared with nearby

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138 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

undisturbed forest soils (Fig. 2). One of the soils from the sequential extraction study was then used to investigate the effect of dairy and pig manure on the kinetics of phosphorus adsorption and desorption (Beauchemin et al. 1996). This study showed that the degree of hysteresis, which is the difference between the rates of adsorption and desorption, varied greatly among the soil horizons and land uses in the watershed. As a result, a soil’s capacity to retain phosphorus should be measured in addition to its capacity to release phosphorus in order to fully assess the risk of contamination of drainage waters by P leaching. Application of the sequential P extraction technique to reveal P speciation in manured soils has continued in western Canada (Qian and Schoenau 2000; Kashem et al. 2004), building on the earlier work of Re´gis. A more specific determination of the form of P in soils can be derived using synchrotron X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy, a nondestructive chemical-speciation technique to directly determine the forms of P in soil. Re´gis collaborated with Suzanne Beauchemin and several researchers in North Carolina to conduct the first Canadian studies using XANES spectroscopy (Beauchemin et al. 2003). The work indicated that phosphate was adsorbed to Feand Al-oxides and that all of the Quebec soils studied contained Ca-phosphates, including hydroxyapatite, regardless of pH. However, their research team observed some problems with insensitivity of XANES analysis for differentiating among forms of organic P. Subsequent to those studies, Canadian soil scientists at the University of Saskatchewan and the University of Manitoba (Kar et al. 2006; Ajiboye et al. 2007) have continued to advance this technique for determining the forms of P in soil as an alternative and/or complement to wet chemical extraction techniques. A wide variety of scientists worked with Re´gis to investigate the interactions between agricultural management, including nutrient management practices, and the biological systems in soil. For example, in collaborative studies, Re´gis and his colleagues examined the effect of tillage, lime, and phosphorus fertilization on mycorrhizae populations in soils and plants (Hamel et al. 1994). In these particular studies, none of the treatments had a significant effect on the diversity of the population. However, liming increased mycorrhizal colonization of barley roots and soil infectivity; phosphorus fertilization decreased root colonization, but did not affect soil infectivity and reduced tillage resulted in slightly higher soil infectivity. At the same site, Re´gis worked with other colleagues to explore the impact of tillage, lime and phosphorus on spring barley and weed populations (Le´ge`re et al. 1994). They demonstrated that phosphorus fertilization increased barley growth and yields, but had detrimental effects on weed growth, especially in treatments where tillage was intensive. Further collaborative studies on this site determined that phosphorus fertilization had

no significant effect on organic C, microbial biomass C, total N, or various measures of N mineralization (Simard et al. 1994a). However, moderate applications of lime and decreased intensity of tillage decreased the retention of added phosphorus fertilizer (Simard et al. 1994b). Several years later, Re´gis worked with Zheng, Lafond and Parent to examine the changes in soil P fractions in response to crop rotations (barley monoculture vs. barley-forage rotation), tillage systems (moldboard vs. chisel plow), and nutrient sources (mineral fertilizer vs. liquid dairy manure) over an 8-yr period (Zheng et al. 2001; Zheng et al. 2002). Although P application exceeded P removal in all treatments, P fractionation analyses of the surface soil (0
15 cm) revealed that concentrations of organic P responded more to C inputs in the cropping systems than to simple surpluses of added P (Zheng et al. 2001). For example, in spite of an increase in total P over the duration of the experiment, barley monoculture in combination with mineral fertilization decreased the concentration of labile organic P (NaHCO3-PO and NaOH-PO). However, concentrations of organic P increased in most of the barley-forage rotation treatments, with the increase in NaHCO3-PO highly correlated with increases in total soil C. As a result, there was eight times more labile P in forage rotations combined with application of dairy manure and chisel plow tillage than in monoculture barley with mineral fertilizers and moldboard plow tillage, even though the P surplus for the forage system was less than twice as large as for the barley system. The prominent role of tillage, rotation and nutrient source on accumulation of soil organic matter and labile P at this site was reinforced by another study, co-authored with Bissonnette and Angers (Bissonnette et al. 2001). Although this large increase in labile P showed benefits from an agronomic perspective, the research team expressed concerns that these cropping system practices may increase the risk of surface runoff losses (Zheng et al. 2001). In a related study at the same site, path analysis of the crop rotation and nutrient source factors showed that the relationships between P pools in the 0- to 30cm layer of soil was more strongly influenced by nutrient source than crop rotation; however, the opposite was observed in the 30- to 90-cm layer (Zheng et al. 2002). For example, the NaHCO3 extractable inorganic and organic fractions in the 0- to 30-cm layer were sensitive to both nutrient source and crop rotation, but were also transitory, resulting in relatively small differences among treatments. These types of results not only expanded our knowledge of P dynamics associated with different crop management practices, they also demonstrated the value of this innovative statistical technique. Re´gis was concerned about the effect of water management, drainage and redox on the transformation and transport of phosphorus in agricultural soils.

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Fig. 2. The effect of animal density on water-extractable P (Pw), Mehlich-3 extractable P (Mehlich 3 P), and selected P fractions of A, B, and C horizons of soils taken from the forest, and from dairy and surplus manure-N farms of the Beaurivage River watershed. (Simard et al. 1995)

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140 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE

Preliminary data showed that the solubility of soil phosphorus increased ten fold after two weeks of submergence (Simard 2001b). A recent publication with Re´gis as a posthumous coauthor confirmed the nature of his observations and concerns, showing a three to twenty fold increase in water soluble P in manured soils from Quebec after 2 weeks of submergence (Ajmone-Marsan et al. 2006). Sequential extraction analyses showed that the increase in soluble P came from all P fractions in soil, including those fractions usually regarded as recalcitrant under aerobic conditions. These transformations have significant implications for the management of tile and surface drains, as well as wetlands on the risk of P loss to ground and surface water. For example, recent experiments in Quebec with controlled drainage combined with subirrigation showed that maintaining a shallow water table increased the solubility of P and the magnitude of tile drain P loss compared with freely drained treatments (Sanchez Valero et al. 2007). Thus, Re´gis Simard and his colleagues demonstrated the importance of expanding our fundamental knowledge of phosphorus forms and dynamics, so that nutrient management tools and practices could be designed on a sound science base. Such knowledge is vital for meeting the combined agronomic, economic and environmental goals of sustainable agricultural systems. USE OF LEGUMES, COMPOSTS AND INDUSTRIAL RESIDUES IN AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS The long-term sustainability of agricultural production also depends on integrating a variety of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients into our cropping systems, a fact that was well-recognized by Re´gis and his colleagues. Furthermore, the specialization and separation of animal and crop production occurring in commercial agriculture can lead to problems with both nutrient depletion and nutrient excess. Nutrients removed from the soil through crop exports must be replenished to avoid nutrient depletion and a decline in soil organic matter that will reduce soil fertility and long-term soil productivity. In contrast, nutrients may accumulate in intensive livestock systems or with excess application of industrial by-products, leading to environmental concerns. To maintain soil productivity and environmental quality as agricultural production is intensified, nutrient removal must be balanced with nutrient inputs, avoiding either excess or depletion. Synthetic fertilizers have become the predominant source of nutrients for replenishing soil fertility in contemporary agricultural systems. However, replacing or augmenting synthetic fertilizers with nutrients supplied through biological N fixation or recycling from manure or industrial by-products can have both economic and environmental benefits. Efficient use of such alternative forms of nutrients can transform manures and industrial ‘‘wastes’’ from a disposal problem to a

nutrient resource and reduce the requirement for purchased synthetic fertilizers, reducing production costs and potential negative environmental impact. Inclusion of legume crops is a well-established method of introducing non-synthetic N into cropping systems. Intercropping clover with wheat was investigated as a method of reducing fertilizer N requirements, while still allowing a cereal crop to be produced each year. Under Quebec conditions, under-seeded clover supplied up to 82 kg of N ha 1 to wheat, allowing the rate of fertilizer application to be reduced significantly from the recommended application rate of 90 kg ha1 (Garand et al. 2001). However, the N input from the clover was not evident until the second year of intercropping. The primary benefit of the intercropping appeared to be from N release, although there may have been some benefits of the clover on soil structure and biological activity. Under-seeded clover had been proposed as a method of reducing the risk of denitrification and leaching by reducing the nitrate in the soil solution during the fall to early spring period. However, there was no apparent reduction in either leaching or denitrification with the use of under-seeded clover. The livestock industry in Quebec produces large volumes of manure that can provide a valuable source of nutrients for crop production. Composting livestock and waste stabilizes the organic component of the material and reduces odour and volume, making it easier to transport and apply. Composted livestock and industrial wastes can provide nutrients for crop growth and enhance soil quality, but the availability of nutrients from composts will differ from that of the raw materials (Gagnon and Simard 1999). Re´gis and colleagues characterized several on-farm and industrial composts produced in the province of Quebec and evaluated the nutrient release potential of some of them in an incubation study and in the field. Source materials, management intensity and degree of decomposition were the major criteria differentiating composts, in particular electrical conductivity, total N and K, water-soluble NH4-N, PO4-P, K, Al and organic C (Gagnon et al. 1999). The short-term availability of N and P was mainly related to the origin of residues and duration of the composting process, and appeared to be governed by the inorganic N and P content of materials (Gagnon et al. 1998; Gagnon and Simard 2003). These studies also demonstrated that composting farm manure did not increase NO3-N in the soil profile and gave lower labile P than uncomposted manure (Gagnon et al. 1998; Gagnon and Simard 1999). These studies provided valuable guidelines for use of composted wastes in Quebec’s crop production systems. Land application of paper mill sludge (PMS) could be another tool to replenish soil organic matter levels, supply nutrients such as N, P and other essential micronutrients, improve soil structure and water-holding capacity, reduce nutrient leaching, and have beneficial effects on microbial biomass and activity (Cabral et al.

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GRANT ET AL. * A TRIBUTE TO REGIS SIMARD

1998; Camberato et al. 2006). In the province of Quebec, Canada, the area of agricultural land where PMS is applied and the amounts used have increased significantly over the past decade due both to the recognition of the nutrient value of sludge and to the environmental risks associated with other traditional disposal methods. Two-thirds of the recycled waste materials used on agricultural land in Quebec consisted of PMS (Fleury et al. 2004). In 2005, 26% of the volume generated as sludge from the pulp and paper mill industry (2 billion wet tonnes) was directly land applied in agriculture, mostly as combined sludge, a mixture of primary and de-inking sludge blended with the secondary sludge that is produced by partial treatment at the pulp and paper plant (Gouvernement du Que´bec 2007). The combined sludge is a superior source of nutrients to de-inking or primary sludge alone. The secondary sludge included in the combined sludge is rich in N and P as a result of the microbial decomposition of a part of primary sludge. Therefore, the C to N and C to P ratios are lower in secondary and combined sludge than in primary sludge. Most of these residues meet the most stringent environmental metal limit criteria (Charbonneau et al. 2001;

141

Environment Quebec 2004). In addition, 12% of the ash and alkaline residuals from kraft pulping were land applied as lime substitute (Gouvernement du Que´bec 2007). Recognising the importance of land-application of PMS, Re´gis and his colleagues initiated a series of studies in Eastern Canada to evaluate these residues as a soil amendment and as sources of plant nutrients (Table 2). A summary of this research along with others conducted under similar climates has been previously published (Gagnon and Ziadi 2004). Results indicated that spring application of de-inking or primary sludge without N fertilizer improved soil organic matter and P and K availability, but reduced plant-available soil N in the growing season, primarily due to the high C to N ratio of these residues. Primary sludge can therefore be seen as a valuable soil amendment, but must be managed properly due to its tendency to immobilize plant-available N. The detrimental effects on soil N availability may be overcome by using legumes, delaying crop planting, supplementing with mineral fertilizers or animal manure, or cocomposting with materials with a high N concentration. The combined sludge when applied alone can increase




Table 2. Summary of studies initiated or conducted by Simard and co-workers (1996 2003) on paper mill sludge Crop

Soil type

Barley Winter cabbage

Silt loam Loam

Potato

Sandy loam

Mixed grass-alfalfa Snap bean

C to N ratio

Application rate (Mg dry ha 1)

Yield increase over the control

288 0, 5.5, 11 and 16 169, 47 and 43, 0 to 21, 0 to 15 and respectively 0 to 18, respectively

Decrease 50% Highest yield with combined, linear 183%

Simard et al. (1998a) Simard et al. (1998b)

15 to 46

0 to 60

Cambouris et al. (2000)

Clay loam

combined

14
28

0 to 29

Increase from 28 to 99% in the B3.0% SOM zone Linear 55
87%

Silt loam

composted de-inking poultry manure combined combined and residual effect combined

32

0, 14, 28 and 42

Linear 24%

42 28

0, 8, 16, 32 and 64 0, 3.5, 7, 14 and 28

Linear 360% Linear 79%

Baziramakenga and Simard (2001) Simard (2001a) Simard (2001a)

44

0, 8.5, 17 and 34

Quadratic 165%

Gagnon et al. (2003)

40

0, 11.5, 23 and 34.5

Quadratic 152%

Lalande et al. (2003) Gagnon et al. (2004)

Sand

51

0 to 30

Barley

Loamy sand and clay loam Clay

composted de-inking hog manure de-inkingpoultry manure combined

11

0, 8, 15.5 and 31

No effect on both sites Quadratic 21%

Orchard grass

Silty clay

combined

31
42

0, 8, 15 and 30.5

Linear 42%

Potato

Loamy sand

combined

24

0, 4, 8.5 and 17

Linear 112%

Potato

Loamy sand

combined

46

0, 21.5, 43 and 64

Linear 113%

Grain corn

Loam

combinedN

24

0, 11 and 22

No effect

Soybean

Loamy sand

de-inking

79

0, 13 and 26

No effect

Grain corn

Reference

de-inking de-inkingN, composted de-inking dairy manure and combined de-inkingN and combinedN

Winter cabbage Silty clay Sweet corn Silty clay Lowbush blueberry Potato

Paper sludge type

Loamy sand

Arfaoui et al. (2001)

Gagnon and Ziadi (2004) Gagnon and Ziadi (2004) Gagnon and Ziadi (2004) Gagnon and Ziadi (2004) Ziadi (2007), unpublished data Ziadi (2007), unpublished data

142 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE Table 3. Cumulative effects of combined paper mill sludge and alkaline residuals addition during 3 consecutive years on soil pH, nitrates and Mehlich-3 nutrient content in the 0- to 30-cm layer of a loam cropped in grain corn Treatmentz

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Control Paper sludge Paper sludge Lime mud Wood ash Calcitic lime Mg by-product

Mean annual rate (Mg dry ha 1)

pH water

0.0 10.5 21.0 2.2 1.7 3.0 1.6

6.2bc 5.9c 6.3abc 6.8a 6.4abc 6.6ab 6.2bc

N-NO3

P

K

Ca

Mg

Zn

Cu

Cd

—————————————————(mg kg1)————————————————— 20a 24a 23a 25a 21a 25a 21a

108a 82a 93a 98a 118a 120a 94a

137a 103a 120a 129a 146a 128a 119a

1437ab 1395b 1621ab 1793a 1543ab 1752ab 1463ab

104b 100b 108b 106b 107b 101b 156a

6.2a 5.8a 7.0a 6.1a 6.6a 6.6a 6.6a

5.6b 5.5b 6.0ab 7.2a 5.7b 6.0ab 6.1ab

0.077a 0.084a 0.087a 0.079a 0.079a 0.077a 0.083a

All alkaline residuals were added to 10.5 Mg ha1 combined paper sludge.

z

crop yields and improve soil nutrient status due to its lower C to N ratio, as compared with primary sludge. Based on these studies, the apparent use efficiency of the N in combined sludge averaged 40% of that of mineral N fertilizers, whereas the P availability was comparable with that of mineral P fertilizers. However, combined sludge must not be applied at rates
10 Mg dry ha 1 annually, to avoid soil quality degradation through acidification, excess accumulation of major nutrients and metals, and reduced soil enzymatic activity (as compared with lower rates of sludge application) (Gagnon et al. 2000, 2003; Gagnon and Ziadi 2004). Increased leaching of nitrate and phosphate from excess sludge application may, in turn, lead to groundwater contamination (Gagnon and Ziadi 2004). Building on the early works of Re´gis, other studies are currently in progress to determine cumulative effects of combined sludge and other paper mill by-products such as wood ash, Mg by-products and lime mud on crop yield and metal accumulation in soils and plants. After 3 consecutive years of application at agronomically suitable rate, there was no effect of combined sludge and alkaline residuals on soil nitrates, P, K, Zn and Cd (Table 3). Lime mud, a Ca-rich by-product from the kraft pulping, caused the largest increase in pH and soil available Mehlich-3 Ca and Cu. The Mg by-product was the only amendment to increase soil Mehlich-3 Mg. The project is expected to continue for at least 6 additional years. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Research conducted by Re´gis Simard and his colleagues has contributed greatly to understanding of nutrient management in agricultural systems. Improved methods were developed for assessing nutrient availability for crop production and environmental risk. For example, Re´gis’s work with resin membranes helped establish the value of the IEM technique in providing a dynamic measure of nutrient ion supply. Sequential extraction techniques and the earliest Canadian work using XANES provided detailed information of the speciation of P in Quebec soils. These and other techniques were

applied to improve understanding of chemical and biological interactions of nutrients in the soil that affected their fate and availability both for crop uptake and environmental impact. Building on this knowledge helped in the development of improved management practices for synthetic and organic nutrient sources, including N and P fertilizers, manures and composts, underseeded clover, paper mill sludge and other industrial by products. In conclusion, Re´gis’s work in the area of agronomically and environmentally sustainable nutrient management stands on its own as a remarkable achievement for such a short career. Abrams, M. M. and Jarrel, W. M. 1992. Bioavailability index for phosphorus using ion exchange resin-impregnated membranes. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56: 1532
1537. Ajiboye, B., Akinremi, O. O., Hu, Y. and Flaten, D. N. 2007. Phosphorus speciation of sequential extracts of organic amendments using nuclear magnetic resonance and x-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopies. J. Environ. Qual. 36: 1563
1576. Ajmone-Marsan, F., Coˆte´, D. and Simard, R. R. 2006. Phosphorus transformations under reduction in long-term manured soils. Plant Soil 282: 239
250. Angers, D. A., Bolinder, M. A., Carter, M. R., Gregorich, E. G., Drury, C. F., Liang, B. C., Voroney, R. P., Simard, R. R., Donald, R. G., Beyaert, R. P. and others. 1997. Impact of tillage practices on organic carbon and nitrogen storage in cool, humid soils of eastern Canada. Soil Till. Res. 41: 191
201. Arfaoui, M. A., Simard, R. R., Be´langer, G., Laverdie`re, M. R. and Chabot, R. 2001. Mixed papermill residues affect yield, nutritive value and nutrient use of a grass-alfalfa sward. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81: 103
111. Baziramakenga, R. and Simard, R. R. 2001. Effect of deinking paper sludge compost on nutrient uptake and yields of snap bean and potatoes grown in rotation. Compost Sci. Util. 9: 115
126. Beauchemin, S., Hesterberg, D., Chou, J., Beauchemin, M., Simard, R. R. and Sayers, D. E. 2003. Speciation of phosphorus in phosphorus-enriched agricultural soils using X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy and chemical fractionation. J. Environ. Qual. 32: 1809
1819.

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GRANT ET AL. * A TRIBUTE TO REGIS SIMARD Beauchemin, S. and Simard, R. R. 1999. Soil phosphorus saturation degree: review of some indices and their suitability for P management in Que´bec, Canada. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79: 615
625. Beauchemin, S., Simard, R. R. and Cluis, D. 1996. Phosphorus sorption-desorption kinetics of soil under contrasting land uses. J. Environ. Qual. 25: 1317
1325. Benali, M. S. 2002. Dynamique du phosphore dans des sols amende´s par des boues de papetie`res. The`se de doctorat. Universite´ Laval, Sainte Foy, QC. Bissonnette, N., Angers, D. A., Simard, R. R. and Lafond, J. 2001. Interactive effects of management practices on waterstable aggregation and organic matter of a Humic Gleysol. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81: 545
551. Cabral, F., Vasconcelos, E., Goss, M. J. and Cordovil, C. M. d. S. 1998. The value, use, and environmental impacts of pulpmill sludge additions to forest and agricultural lands in Europe. Environ. Rev. 6: 55
64. Camberato, J. J., Gagnon, B., Angers, D. A., Chantigny, M. H. and Pan, W. L. 2006. Pulp and paper mill by-products as soil amendments and plant nutrient sources. Can. J. Soil Sci. 86: 641
653. Cambouris, A. N., Nolin, M. C. and Simard, R. R. 2000. Effects of located application of papermill residues on crop yields and soil quality. Proc. of the 5th Intern. Conf. on Precision Agriculture, Bloomington, MN, USA, 16
19 July, 2000: 1
16. Carter, M. R. (ed.) 1993. Soil sampling and methods of analysis. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Centre de re´fe´rence en agriculture et agroalimentaire du Que´bec. 2003. Guide de re´fe´rence en fertilisation. 1st ed. Centre de re´fe´rence en agriculture et agroalimentaire du Que´bec, Que´bec, QC. 297 pp. Charbonneau, H., He´bert, M. and Jaouich, A. 2001. Portrait de la valorisation agricole des matie`res re´siduelles fertilisantes au Que´bec. Partie 2: Contenu en e´le´ments fertilisants et qualite´ environnementale. Vecteur Environnement 34: 56
60. Environment Quebec. 2004. Guidelines for the beneficial use of fertilizing residuals. Reference criteria and regulatory standards. Reference criteria and regulatory standards. Ministe`re de l’Environnement du Que´bec, Direction du milieu rural, Que´bec, QC. 127 pp. Fleury, C., He´bert, M. and Lefebvre, M. P. 2004. Portrait de la valorisation agricole des MRF anne´e 2004. [Online] Available: www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/matieres/valoris-agri. Gagnon, B., Lalande, R., Simard, R. R. and Roy, M. 2000. Soil enzyme activities following paper sludge addition in a winter cabbage-sweet corn rotation. Can. J. Soil Sci. 80: 91
97. Gagnon, B., Nolin, M. C. and Cambouris, A. N. 2004. Combined de-inking paper sludge and poultry manure application on corn yield and soil nutrients. Can. J. Soil Sci. 84: 503
512. Gagnon, B., Robitaille, R. and Simard, R. R. 1999. Characterization of several on-farm and industrial composted materials. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79: 201
210. Gagnon, B. and Simard, R. R. 1999. Nitrogen and phosphorus release from on-farm and industrial composts. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79: 481
489. Gagnon, B. and Simard, R. R. 2003. Soil P fractions as affected by on-farm composts in a controlled incubation study. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83: 223
226. Gagnon, B., Simard, R. R., Goulet, M., Robitaille, R. and Rioux, R. 1998. Soil nitrogen and moisture as influenced by

143

composts and inorganic fertilizer rate. Can. J. Soil Sci. 78: 207
215. Gagnon, B., Simard, R. R., Lalande, R. and Lafond, J. 2003. Improvement of soil properties and fruit yield of native lowbush blueberry by papermill sludge addition. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83: 1
9. Gagnon, B. and Ziadi, N. 2004. Value of paper mill sludge in agriculture: crop yield, soil properties, and environmental impacts. Recent Res. Devel. Crop Sci. 1: 1
10. Garand, M. J., Simard, R. R., MacKenzie, A. F. and Hamel, C. 2001. Underseeded clover as a nitrogen source for spring wheat on a Gleysol. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81: 93
102. Gouvernement du Que´bec. 2007. Bilan annuel de conformite´ environnementale 2005
Secteur des paˆtes et papiers. Ministe`re du De´veloppement durable, de l’Environnement et des Parcs. Direction des politiques de l’eau. Gouvernement du Que´bec, Quebec, QC. 215 pp. Hamel, C., Dalpe´, Y., Lapierre, C., Simard, R. R. and Smith, D. L. 1994. Composition of the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi population in an old meadow as affected by pH, phosphorus and soil disturbance. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 49: 223
231. Hedley, M. J., Stewart, J. W. B. and Chauhan, B. S. 1982. Changes in inorganic and organic soil phosphorus induced by cultivation practices and laboratory incubations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 46: 970
976. Judel, G. K., Gebauer, W. G. and Mengel, K. 1985. Yield response and availability of various phosphate fertilizer types as estimated by EUF. Plant Soil 83: 107
115. Kar, G. and Peak, J. D. 2006. Phosphorus speciation in biosolids-amended soils using both sequential extraction method and XANES spectroscopy. Poster presentation to the annual meeting of the Canadian Society of Soil Science, Banff, AB. Kashem, M. A., Akinremi, O. O. and Racz, G. J. 2004. Phosphorus fractions in soil amended with organic and inorganic phosphorus sources. Can. J. Soil Sci. 84: 83
90. Khiari, L., Parent, L. E., Pellerin, A., Alimi, A. R. A., Tremblay, C., Simard, R. R. and Fortin, J. 2000. An agrienvironmental phosphorus saturation index for acid coarsetextured soils. J. Environ. Qual. 29: 1561
1567. Lalande, R., Gagnon, B. and Simard, R. R. 2003. Papermill biosolid and hog manure compost affect short-term biological activity and crop yield of a sandy soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83: 353
362. Le´ge`re, A., Simard, R. R. and Lapierre, C. 1994. Response of spring barley and weed communities to lime, phosphorus and tillage. Can. J. Plant Sci 74: 421
428. Maguire, R. O., Chardon, W. J. and Simard, R. R. 2005. Assessing potential environmental impacts of soil phosphorus by soil testing. Pages 145
180 in J. T. Sims and A. N. Sharpley, eds. Phosphorus: Agriculture and the environment. Mengel, K. and Uhlenbecker, K. 1993. Determination of available interlayer potassium and its uptake by ryegrass. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57: 761
766. Nemeth, K. 1979. The availability of nutrients in the soil as determined by Electro-ultrafiltration (EUF). Adv. Agron. 31: 155
188. O’Halloran, I. P., Stewart, J. W. B. and De Jong, E. 1987. Changes in P forms and availability as influenced by management practices. Plant Soil 100: 113
126.

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144 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE Qian, P. and Schoenau, J. J. 1995. Assessing nitrogen mineralization from soil organic matter using anion exchange membranes. Fert. Res. 40: 143
148. Qian, P. and Schoenau, J. J. 2000. Fractionation of P in soil as influenced by a single addition of liquid swine manure. Can. J. Soil Sci. 80: 561
566. Qian, P. and Schoenau, J. J. 2002. Practical applications of ion exchange resins in agricultural and environmental soil research. Can. J. Soil Sci. 82: 9
21. Sanchez Valero, C., Madramootoo, C. A. and Stampfli, N. 2007. Water table management impacts on phosphorus loads in tile drainage. Agric. Water Manage. 89: 71
80. Simard, R. R. 2001a. Combined primary/secondary papermill sludge as a nitrogen source in a cabbage-sweet corn cropping sequence. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81: 1
10. Simard, R. R. 2001b. High phosphorus soils: Management issues in Eastern Canada. Manitoba Agronomists Conf. Proc. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB. pp. 83
94. Simard, R. R., Angers, D. A. and Lapierre, C. 1994a. Soil organic matter quality as influenced by tillage, lime, and phosphorus. Biol. Fertil. Soils 18: 13
18. Simard, R. R., Bates, T. E. and Evans, L. J. 1988a. Effects of CaCO3 and P additions on corn (Zea mays L.) growth and nutrient availability of a Podzolic soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 68: 507
517. Simard, R. R., Baziramakenga, R., Yelle, S. and Coulombe, J. 1998a. Effects of de-inking paper sludges on soil properties and crop yields. Can. J. Soil Sci. 78: 689
697. Simard, R. R., Cambouris, A. N. and Nolin, M. C. 2000. Spatiotemporal variation of anion exchange membrane P in a corn field. Proceedings of the 5th Inter. Conf. on Precision Agriculture, Bloomington, MN. 2000 Jul. 16
19. pp. 1
15. Simard, R. R., Charron, G. and Pageau, D. 1996. Field calibration of boron soil tests for barley. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 27: 1631
1646. Simard, R. R., Cluis, D., Gangbazo, G. and Beauchemin, S. 1995. Phosphorus status of forest and agricultural soils from a watershed of high animal density. J. Environ. Qual. 24: 1010
1017. Simard, R. R., Coulombe, J., Lalande, R., Gagnon, B. and Yelle, S. 1998b. Use of fresh and composted de-inking sludge in cabbage production. Pages 349
361 in S. Brown, J. S. Angle, and L. Jacobs, eds. Beneficial co-utilization of agricultural, municipal and industrial by-products. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. Simard, R. R., Evans, L. J. and Bates, T. E. 1988b. The effects of additions of CaCO3 and P on the soil solution chemistry of a Podzolic soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 68: 41
51. Simard, R. R., Kimpe, C. R. D. and Zizka, J. 1989. The kinetics of nonexchangeable potassium and magnesium release from Quebec soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 69: 663
675. Simard, R. R., Lapierre, C. and Tran, T. S. 1994b. Effects of tillage, lime, and phosphorus on soil pH and Mehlich-3 extractable nutrients. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 25: 1801
1815. Simard, R. R. and Tran, T. S. 1993. Evaluating plant-available phosphorus with the electro-ultrafiltration technique. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57: 404
409. Simard, R. R., Tran, T. S. and Zizka, J. 1991a. Evaluation of the electro-ultrafiltration technique (EUF) as a measure of the K supplying power of Quebec soils. Plant Soil 132: 91
101.

Simard, R. R., Tran, T. S. and Zizka, J. 1991b. Strontium chloride-citric acid extraction evaluated as a soil-testing procedure for phosphorus. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55: 414
421. Simard, R. R. and Zizka, J. 1994. Evaluating plant available potassium with strontium citrate. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 25: 1779
1789. Simard, R. R., Zizka, J. and Kimpe, C. R. d. 1990. Uptake of K by alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and its dynamics in 30 Quebec soils. Can. J. Soil Sci. 70: 379
393. Sims, J. T., Edwards, A. C., Schoumans, O. F. and Simard, R. R. 2000. Integrating soil phosphorus testing into environmentally based agricultural management practices. J. Environ. Qual. 29: 60
71. Skogley, E. O. 1994. Reinventing soil testing for the future. Pages 187
201 in J. L. Havlin, ed. Soil testing: prospects for improving nutrient recommendations. SSSA Spec. Publ. 40. ASA and SSSA, Madison, WI. Skogley, E. O. and Dobermann, A. 1996. Synthetic ionexchange resins: soil and environmental studies. J. Environ. Qual. 25: 13
24. Steffens, D. 1994. Phosphorus release kinetics and extractable phosphorus after long-term fertilization. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58: 1702
1708. Tran, T. S., Simard, R. R. and Fardeau, J. C. 1992a. A comparison of four resin extractions and 32P isotopic exchange for the assessment of plant-available P. Can. J. Soil Sci. 72: 281
294. Tran, T. S., Simard, R. R. and Tabi, M. 1992b. Evaluation of the electro-ultrafiltration technique (EUF) to determine available P in neutral and calcareous soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 23: 2261
2281. Yang, J. E., Skogley, E. O., Georgitis, S. J., Schaff, B. E. and Ferguson, A. H. 1991. Phyto-availability soil test: Development and verification of Theory. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55: 1358
1365. Zheng, Z., Simard, R. R., Lafond, J. and Parent, L. E. 2001. Changes in phosphorus fractions of a Humic Gleysol as influenced by cropping systems and nutrient sources. Can. J. Soil Sci. 81: 175
183. Zheng, Z., Simard, R. R., Lafond, J. and Parent, L. E. 2002. Pathways of soil phosphorus transformations after 8 years of cultivation under contrasting cropping practices. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 66: 999
1007. Zheng, Z., Simard, R. R. and Parent, L. E. 2003. Anion exchange and Mehlich-III phosphorus in Humaquepts varying in clay content. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 67: 1287
1295. Ziadi, N., Cambouris, A. N. and Nolin, M.C. 2006. Anionic exchange membranes as a soil test for N availability. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 37: 2411
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