Griffiths: Introduction to elementary particles (Wiley-VCH verlag). Halzen, Martin:
... Bettini: Introduction to elementary particle physics (Cambridge. University ...
Introduction to Particle Physics 1 Spring 2013, period III Lecturer: Katri Huitu, C325, puh 191 50677,
[email protected] Assistant: Paavo Tiitola, A313, puh 191 50548,
[email protected] Lectures: Tue 12-14, Wed 10-12 Exercises: Wed 16-18, E206, return homework by Tuesday noon on the second floor, 20 % of the total grade Textbooks: Martin, Shaw: Particle physics (John Wiley and sons, Inc) Griffiths: Introduction to elementary particles (Wiley-VCH verlag) Halzen, Martin: Quarks and leptons (John Wiley and sons, Inc) Perkins: Introduction to particle physics (Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc) Bettini: Introduction to elementary particle physics (Cambridge University Press) Examinations:
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Course outline: Intro 1 Introduction. Short history. Particles. Interactions. Symmetries: P, C, T. Isospin. G-parity. Quark model. Color factor. Confinement. Cross sections and decay rates. Invariant variables. Experimental detection.
Intro 2 Dirac equation. QED. Feynman rules. Parton model. Deep inelastic scattering. Color interaction. QCD. Weak interaction. V-A theory of weak interactions. Weak mixing angles. GIM. Electroweak interactions. Gauge symmetries. The Standard Model.
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Theoretical High Energy Physics in Finland: Beyond the Standard Model phenomena: K. Huitu (AFO), K. Tuominen (JU) Hadron physics and QCD: P. Hoyer (AFO), M. Sainio (HIP) Computational field theory: K. Rummukainen (AFO) String theory and quantum field theory: E. Keski-Vakkuri (AFO), A. Tureanu (AFO) Cosmology: K. Enqvist (AFO), K. Kainulainen (JU), H. Kurki-Suonio (AFO), T. Multamäki (TU), I. Vilja (TU) Neutrino physics: J. Maalampi (JU) Ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions: K.J. Eskola (JU)
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Experimental High Energy Physics in Finland: CERN LHC (Switzerland): -CMS-experiment (Paula Eerola, Ritva Kinnunen, Mikko Voutilainen,…) -TOTEM-experiment (Risto Orava, Kenneth Österberg, …) -ALICE-experiment (Juha Äystö, Jan Rak, …)
Fermilab Tevatron (USA): -CDF-experiment (Risto Orava, …)
Linear collider: -CERN CLIC-experiment (Kenneth Österberg,…) 4
AFO summer internships: http://www.opetus.physics.helsinki.fi/kesaharjoittelu. html Application deadline 31.1.
HIP and CERN summer internships: http://www.hip.fi/educations/kesaharjottelu.html Application deadline 31.1.(HIP), 27.1.(CERN)
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Basic tools: Quantum mechanics
Quantum Field Theory
Special relativity
-Group theory -Relativistic kinematics -Spinor algebra -Path integrals -…
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INTRODUCTION Partly from http://www.cern.ch/ and http://particleadventure.org/
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Found in 2000
Found in 1995
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Size in atoms
Size in meters
at most
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Leptons and quarks have in addition antiparticles (with opposite electric charge). All the quark ’flavours’ have three ’colours’ :
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Matter particles are fermions: they obey the Pauli exclusion principle – identical particles are not in the same place. Particles mediating interactions are bosons, which do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Quarks are always bound together by strong interactions: Two bound quarks: mesons (pion, kaon,...) Three bound quarks: baryons (proton, neutron,...)
Of the observable particles, the stable ones are: electron, positron, proton, neutrinos, photon 12
Heavy unstable particles In nature heavy particles can be found in cosmic rays. 85% protons, 12% alpha particles (=helium nuclei), 1% heavier nuclei, 2% electrons collide in the air , K, other +(-)
0
+(-)+(anti-)
e+e-
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Do we know that there are three generations of particles?
At CERN (Geneva, Switzerland) in the LEP-experiments (1989-2000) it was found that the number of almost massless neutrino generations is three.
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Particle properties (Particle Data Group, http://pdg.lbl.gov/) neutrino masses very small (0), charge=0 electron: 0.5 MeV, life time > 4 108 y, charge=-1 muon (1936): 106 MeV, life time 2 10-6 s, charge=-1 tau (1976): 1777 MeV, life time 3 10-13 s, charge=-1 up-quark: 5 MeV, charge =+2/3 down-quark: 8 MeV, charge =-1/3 charm-quark (1974): 1.2 GeV, charge =+2/3 strange-quark: 160 MeV , charge =-1/3 top-quark (1995): 175 GeV~3.17 10-25 kg, charge =+2/3 bottom-quark (1977): 4.2 GeV, charge =-1/3 proton mass ~1 GeV gauge bosons: W: 80.4 GeV, Z: 91.2 GeV, ,g massless 15
Relative strengths of interactions
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Are the interactions remnants of one basic interaction? Here 1 describes the strength of electromagnetic interaction, 2 the strength of the weak and 3 the strength of the strong interaction. Standard Model
Supersymmetric model
Amaldi, de Boer, Furstenau, Phys. Lett. B 260 (1991) 447 17
In the Standard Model, the Higgs boson gives mass to all particles
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As a physical system, the Universe is in the lowest possible energy state. The minimum of potential energy is not at the point where the Higgs field vanishes. The expectation value of the Higgs field in the minimum is not zero! The interaction between particles and Higgs field is called mass. Through the self-interaction also the Higgs boson becomes massive.
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Interactions between particles
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Higgs boson decays are known in the Standard Model, if the mass is known!
1 eV/c2=1.78 x 10-36 kg c=1
1 GeV~10-27 kg
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4.7.2012 LHC-experiments announced that a new, Higgslike boson had been detected!
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Accelerators (not a complete story) Synchrotrons: p(GeV)=0.3 B(T) R(m) uniform magnetic field; beam pipe with good vacuum; accelerating cavities; RF pushes to particles in bunches 1952 Brookhaven Cosmotron, proton p=3 GeV 1954 Berkeley Bevatron, p=7 GeV 1960 CERN(CPS), Brookhaven (AGS) p=30 GeV 1971 Fermilab, Main Ring p=500 GeV Storage rings or colliders 1961 1976 1983 1989 1991 2009
Frascati, ADA Ecm=500 MeV (e+e-) CERN, SPS Ecm=540 GeV (p anti-p) Fermilab, Tevatron Ecm=2 TeV (p anti-p) 2011 CERN, LEP Ecm>200 GeV (e+e-, practical limit) DESY, HERA 30 GeV + 920 GeV (e p) CERN, LHC Ecm=7 TeV, 8 TeV (pp)
Linear colliders 1987 ????
Stanford, SLC Ecm=91.2 GeV (e+e-) ILC, CLIC Ecm= 300 GeV – 3 TeV ?? 24
CERN in Geneva
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LHC: 7 TeV pp-collisions in 2010-11, 8 TeV in 2012
Kuva: CERN
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Aerial picture of CERN
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pp: Ecm=14 TeV
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Identified in the detector: Photon – energy in em calorimeter, but not in the hadron calorimeter, no track Electron – energy in em calorimeter, not in the hadron calorimeter, leaves a track Muon – leaves only little energy in the calorimeters, leaves a track and goes all the way to the muon chambers Jets = quarks and gluons, which hadronize to jets. A group of particles which are seen in the hadron calorimeter. The decay vertex can be seen for heavy quarks.
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E=mc2
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High Energy Physics laboratories.
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Not all the events are investigated! Triggering When the proton beams meet, approximately 108 collisions per second, of which 102 can be kept. Most of these test the Standard Model, which is background from the new physics point of view! It has to be decided beforehand, which is important and interesting and only such events are written: triggering This can be done mechanically or by software, e.g. only such electrons or muons are considered, which clearly can be isolated, and certain momentum for a particle is required. Background Standard Model is background for the new physics – it is well known and can be predicted. A model for new physics has to be separated from the Standard Model by various distributions, like distributions of leptons, jets, and missing energy. 33
H
decay
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Golden mode: H
ZZ
l+l-l’+l’-
+ -
Z
p
p
Z
e+ e-
all energy can be identified
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LEP: E=mc2
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A detector at LEP
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e+e-
Z*
ZH
qqq’q’ ?
August 2000
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Bubble chamber, around 1970
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Some unsolved mysteries: Why is there matter? Neutrino mass? Why three generations? What is dark matter? Are quarks and leptons elementary? (Strings?) How to explain gravity? Are the interactions united at higher energies? More profound theories: grand unified theories, supersymmetric models, string theories, … 42
matter antimatter radiation
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Neutrino mass In the Standard Model, neutrino is massless.
Physics World, 2002
Experimentally it is known that neutrino has a mass A more profound theory exists.
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Most of the matter in the universe is dark: it does not radiate. How do we know this? The elements in galaxies would fly apart, unless there is enough material! L. Bergström, Rep.Prog.Phys. 2000
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Two groups of galaxies collided 100 million years ago. The ordinary matter (pink) slows down, while the weakly interacting dark matter goes through. 47
Short history of particle physics from http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure /other/history/
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1964
Higgs, and separately Englert and Brout develop the Higgs mechanism.
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2000 -neutrino found at Fermilab 2012 discovery of a Higgs-like boson announced
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