Aug 29, 1993 - Water shortage, flood-prone, double-crop area. â« Ethno-linguistic heterogeneity (Kho, Gujar, Pashtun,. Afghan refugees: Pashtun, Taji, Usbek).
Irrigation and Water Management in the Eastern Hindu Kush (Chitral, Pakistan)
Universitetet i Oslo – Morgenstierne Lecture Arnd Holdschlag 30th April 2012
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1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion
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Central/High Asia: Recent climatically determined landscape classification
(Böhner/Langkamp 2010: 38)
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Central/High Asia: IPCC (2000) A2-Projection landscape classification
A2-scenario (2100): global warming of 4.7 °C
(Böhner/Langkamp 2010: 43)
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1. Introduction World‘s mountains as „watertowers of humankind“ Global environmental change: conflicts about water distribution more likely Debates on quantitative & technological aspects sometimes disguise the significance of the nexus with societal properties & institutional setups Water economies of scale: specific localities with own entitlements & sets of rules
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1. Introduction High Asia‘s inhabitants of arid & semi-arid mountain regions depend to a substantial degree on irrigation Irrigation systems are based on decentralized & local management practices & institutions (construction, maintenance, distribution) Land use patterns are modified & framed by changing power constellations & external interventions
Aim: to understand better social-ecological structures & change by examining the organization of water-user communities with an integrated socio-hydrological approach 6
High mountain water management system (Kreutzmann 2000)
Ecological context • Climate • Topography IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Agricultural features • Irrigation techniques • Selection and rotation of crops • High mountain agriculture
WATER MANAGEMENT Resource use Resource endangerment • Aggregate state of water in store
endogenous realm
Socio-economic and local political factors • Institutional aspects • Social organization 7
High mountain water management system (Kreutzmann 2000) Ecology
Agriculture Irrigation
endogenous realm exogenous realm Conflict fields • Resource exhaustion and distribution conflicts • Demands for revenue, levies and taxes • Constr. of storage dams • Competition: irrigation versus generation of hydro-electricity • Water requirements for lowland irrigation
Resource use
Socio-politics
Regional planning and development approaches and strategies • Application of agro-technical inputs (high yielding varieties, mechanization of tillages oil preparation and harvesting inorganic fertilizers, pesticides etc.) • Organizational measures (agricultural advisory and extension services, formalization of water management) • Financial support (construction of irrigation network, improvement of existing systems, introduction of new irrigation techniques, 8 amelioration projects)
1. Introduction
2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion
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Chitral
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Chitral: Topography du n i H
sh u K
e g n Ra
H
u d in
e g n a jR a R
14 850 km² 34 % above 4500 m asl Study villages
Altitude (m asl)
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Arid subtropicalmediterranean climatic influence from the west Humid monsoon disturbances from the south Higher glacier regions: 4 x
(Holdschlag 2011: 34)
or more higher precipitation
Climate diagrams Chitral Town & Drosh
- yomoon: Winter - bosoon: Spring - grishpo: Summer - shoro: Autumn 12
(Haserodt 1996: 7)
Variation of yearly precipitation at Chitral Town (1965-82) & Drosh (1945-82)
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Eastern Hindu Kush
Geo-referenced Color composite Landsat TM Image (29.8.1993) 4,3,2 = RGB 14
(Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)
Eastern Hindu Kush: Vegetation belts
subnival alpine subalpine montane
submontane
colline
15
(Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)
Eastern Hindu Kush: Vegetation map
Subhumid to arid desert milieu
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(Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)
Torkho Valley
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Mulkho Valley
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Harsh montane environment: Limitations and hazard risks Inter- & intra-annual variations in precipitation Low precipitation in summer Low temperatures Short growing seasons Dependence on altitude
Mudflow in Khot Valley (Torkho)
Frost Water shortage Heavy rains Flooding Mass movement
Photos: A. Holdschlag 1999 ff.
Thunderstorms
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Chitral: Land cover and land use 2001 Sparsely populated region
Partly densely populated settlements 20
Village resources
Arable land Pastures
Agricultural & pastoral products
Water resources
Human resources
Precipitation Perennial & seasonal streams, springs & snowfields Glaciers Drinking water Irrigation Water mill operation Electricity generation
Population structure & composition
Biological reproduction Domestic labour force Export of labour
Domestic needs Basic input for farming Source of energy
Subsistence household economy
21
(Modified after Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 49)
Land resources
Yak keeping in the northern upper valleys
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Yarkhun
Mobile pastoralism (Yakhdiz Village)
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Thorn-cushions (Tirich Valley): conspicuous plants in the montane & subalpine belts fuel
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Photos: Nüsser 1997
Forest utilisation (Kesu, southern Chitral)
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Various (rainfed &) irrigated (> 90 %) agricultural systems Alluvial fans of tributary valleys River terraces
Orghuch
Kesu
Broz Gol
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Chitral main valley
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1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources
3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion
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(Government of Pakistan: various Census data)
29
30
(Strand 1999)
Chitral: Languages & population estimates (ca. 1990) Indo-Iranian Language Group Indo-Aryan
Iranian
NuristanLanguages
West-Iranian East-Iranian
New IndoAryan Gujri
Khowar
Dameli
Madaklashti
Yidgha
(3000)
(173-200000)
(5000)
Persian
(5000-6000)
Palula
Eastern Katavari
(2000-3000)
Pashto
(8600)
(3700-5100)
(3000)
Kalasha
Kamviri/
Wakhi
(2900-5700)
Shekhani
(450-900)
Gawar-Bati
(1500-2000)
(1300-1500) (Modified from Decker 1992:11) 31
Chitral: Ethno-linguistic diversity
Group-specific histories, identities & modes of
Data: Decker (1992: 11)
socio-political organization
83 % 32
Principles of social structure: Historical power and clan systems Dichotomy (adamzada – ghalamus) Clans (qaum) & lineages Milk kinship (shirmush) Patronage systems
-
Partly relevant to date (e.g. resource control, local elections)
-
No homogenous groups
-
Decrease of significance 33
Current categories of local & translocal social networks Household Neighborhood/ gram
Marriage
Resource user group
Clan
Patronage-/ tenancy
Individual
Milk kinship
Ethno-linguistic category
Religious community NGOnetwork
Education network Village community
State
Profession network
34
gram Informal institution with a defined spatial territory Neighborhood relations (grambeshi) Reciprocal social security system based on mutual trust Political unit & respected conflict solving institution
Vibrant system: Restructuring due to internal conflicts, population growth & migration, external influences
35
Resource user groups (Entitlement groups) Local labor exchange systems
yardoyee: household-level arrangement of labor, reciprocity is not expected moan: mutual, obligatory contribution of the same kind (often rotation system), strict control hoyou: reciprocal consensus between two households, duty
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NGO-initiated groups NGO-projects (e.g. Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, AKRSP; Chitral Area Development Project, CADP) Village Organizations (VOs) Women Organizations (WOs) Community-based decision making, community savings groups etc.
… add to or reform existing local governance institutions 37
1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization
4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems 5. Conclusion
38
Tirich Mir area
Chitral: Snowline 4800-5300 m 22 glaciers with lengths > 10 km Great thickness Plentiful meltwater
Geo-referenced Color composite Landsat TM Image (29.8.1993) 4,3,2 = RGB 39 (Nüsser/Dickoré 2002)
Chiantar Glacier (Yarkhun, length: ca. 30 km)
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Darkot Glacier (Yarkhun)
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Tirich Glacier (Mulkho)
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Tirich Concordia
43
44
(Sarikaya et al. 2012: 78)
(Sarikaya et al. 2012: 80)
a) b)
c) d)
45
46
(Sarikaya et al. 2012: 81)
Chitral: Stream & river system
47
Chitral River: Average monthly discharge (Chitral Town, 1965-1981)
(Holdschlag 2011: 37)
Spatio-temporal variations of water availability Shortages in spring (cool, dismal weather) & autumn Abundance in summer (high temperatures & radiation) Chitral River: Average monthly discharge 48 (Chitral Town, 1970-1976)
(Haserodt 1996: 9)
Mountain irrigation in Chitral Mountain villages (deh) are sharply defined oases in an arid environment Steep gradients of water flow & limited space for cultivated fields Agrarian production depends on absolute quantity of water supply and onset & duration of reliable runoff Sophisticated canal systems & techniques and decentralized, small-scale institutional patterns on communal basis (co-owner communities) Shareholder water management as basic framework for social organization and collective action 49
The state as actor Chitral District: Governmental irrigation channels (1999) of integration No.
Location
Length [feet]
Irrigated area [acres]
Year of compl.
Costs of maintenance p.a. [Rs]
1
Attani (Ayun, Bumburet)
35000
690
1981-82
286900
2
Kaldam (Shishi)
47000
590
1978-79
261900
3
Kalkatak
42000
270
1976-77
61000
4
Lovidam (Shishi)
15000
200
1992-93
227000
5
Batrik (Bumburet)
10000
70
1987-88
68700
6
Bakarabad
15000
218
1970-71
63400
7
Danin
19500
225
1976-77
153400
8
Mori Bala
9000
500
1978-79
52000
9
Mori Lasht (Istan Gol)
18250
450
1971-72
43100
10
Girim Lasht (Reshun Gol)
13500
650
1972-73
99000
11
Zait (Reshun Gol)
22000
450
1996-97
284400
12
Lon (Owir)
55000
2500
1997-98
889000
13
Murdan Kuh (Garam Chashma)
12500
200
1992-93
100000
14
Harchin (Mastuj)
4600
150
1990-91
35400
15
Ghochar Kuh (Bumburet)
50000
500
1998-99
50 4644000
(Irrigation Department, Chitral)
“The system nobody knows” (Netting 1974) Own complex non-written regulations & customs for water use, distribution & infrastructure maintenance Share = responsibility & duty (sanctions) Water shortage: turn systems (sorogh, niawa, sawa, nabat) sorogh: 1-24 hours time Local units of channel measurements for yearly repair (ber, phi) Channel watchmen (mer zhoi) depending on channel length - Old, well adapted & maintained, stable but dynamic systems (population growth, land divisions & transactions, land use changes, state, NGO) - Possessing control means to wield supreme political power (entitlements) 51
Khot Valley (Torkho)
ra zhoi
(Israr-ud-Din 2000: 56)
52
Buzund (Torkho)
53
Arkari Valley (Lotkuh)
54
Water mill (Shotkhar, Torkho)
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Case study Odier (Torkho)
Odier
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Case study Odier (Mehlp Valley, Torkho, 2800-3500 m) Single-crop area, seasonally varying water shortages, land slide prone Comparatively egalitarian social structure (former nonadamzada clans) Highly variable land ownership Water: common property resource Irrigation water (13 main channels) usually associated with transaction of arable land Water rights: rotation cycle system per channel Individuals can buy or sell water shares Households sharing 1 channel = user group Households are members of up to 4 user groups 57
Case study Odier (Mehlp Valley, Torkho, 2800-3500 m) User group organizing committees Practically follow regulations of their ancestors Formulate new or change existing rules Impose fines and penalties on defaulters Grant new water turns Upgrade the status or increase the duration of existing turns
Process of general consensus: a lot of lobbying required 58
Odier: Clan-based water turns (sorogh) in the irrigation channels
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 108) 59
Annual irrigation related work (water allocation, distribution, [night] operation, crisis management): predominantly men‘s work Spring: Repairing channels, first watering (pastegh) of cereal crops Summer: Second watering (amunek) of crops, irrigating maize
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: 129)
Method of field irrigation in Odier
Successful NGO cooperation No conflicts among co-owners in living memory 60
61
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: suppl.)
62
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: suppl.)
63
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: suppl.)
64
(Fazlur-Rahman 2007: suppl.)
65
Case study Yakhdiz (Torkho)
Yakhdiz
66
Water sufficiency: 74 % of HH Inter-village cooperation Successful NGO cooperation No water conflicts reported 67
Upper limit of irrigation (3070 m)
Shotkhar Lasht Zhoi (2960 m)
68
Case study Rayeen (Torkho)
Rayeen
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Case study Rayeen (Torkho, ca. 2100-2300 m) Water surplus, single-crop area Age-old history, location of forts First settlement area of the Khoshey-clan: (perhaps) the most powerful clan in Torkho Two dominant adamzada-clans (Khoshey, Zondrey) Absentee landlords in the whole Torkho Valley (Istaru, Werkup, Mehlp, Odier, Khot, Uzhnu) Wealthy village, part of the regional elite (functions in Chitral Town)
70
Rayeen (Gol-a-tori): Irrigation & the social construction of history Pachili zhoi Sayyid Beg (Khoshey)
Gol-a-tori zhoi Qazi Jabbar (Zondrey)
Shut Bap (Zondrey)
Nadir (Khoshey)
1932
Shah Abab (Khoshey)
Purdan Wali (Zondrey)
Channel development as indicator & representation of local history & power Clan leaders responsible for channel construction Arrangements between two dominating adamzada-clans Today: mer zhoi, moan-system of maintenance, sufficient water availability = no restrictions
71
Kesu
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Case study Kesu (southern Chitral, ca. 1300-1450 m) Water shortage, flood-prone, double-crop area Ethno-linguistic heterogeneity (Kho, Gujar, Pashtun, Afghan refugees: Pashtun, Taji, Usbek) “urbanization” processes Socio-economic polarization (Katoorey landlords) Clan-wise land & settlement structure
73
Kesu: Clan-wise land and livestock ownership Clan
Land (area/household) [chak]
Livestock (number/household) cattle
goats
sheep
Katoorey
15,8
2,1
8,4
0,3
Quraishey
6,5
2,2
2,0
0,0
Charshambey
2,6
2,0
7,0
0,0
Wahbhaphey
2,3
1,4
0,2
0,0
Dashmaney
2,1
1,3
0,1
0,0
Jahaney
2,0
1,6
0,0
0,0
Charwaley
1,7
1,5
0,7
0,0
Julumey
1,2
1,7
6,8
0,0
Dolbegey
0,8
1,2
0,2
0,0
Malgasiey
0,6
1,4
0,0
0,0
Other
2,6
1,6
0,4
0,0
Source: Author’s own survey 1999 (random sample, n = 100), 1
chak = 1084 m² = 0,27 acre
74
Kesu (southern Chitral)
75
Kesu (southern Chitral)
76
Case study Kesu (southern Chitral, ca. 1300-1450 m) Water shortage, flood-prone, double-crop area Ethno-linguistic heterogeneity (Kho, Gujar, Pashtun, Afghan refugees: Pashtun, Taji, Usbek) “urbanization” processes Socio-economic polarization (Katoorey landlords) Clan-wise land & settlement structure Kesu Gol: 75 % of irrigation water Katoorey fields Water shortage for non-Katoorey clans after July/Aug. (occasionally only 1 cereal crop possible) Clan-wise turn system Successful NGO cooperation but “elite capture” criticism (CADP projects) Eroding local cooperation systems
77
Types of water management in Chitral
Water availability
Water surplus
Distribution system
No restriction
Water right per clan
Water right per canal/settlement unit
Case Study
Rayeen
Kesu
Odier
Water shortage
Yakhdiz 78
British colonial government (1895-1947)
(Develin 1896: 62)
Chitral Town 1895 79
British colonial government (1895-1947) Fixing of unequal social structures Installation & strengthening of the regional ruler (Mehtar of Chitral) Property extension of the Katoorey by amelioration (forced labor) Greater amelioration projects by Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk (1895-1936) Balach (Chitral), Merin (Chitral Gol), Bronshal (Chitral), Birmoghlasht (Chitral), Kasawir & Gokhshal (Chitral Gol), Bakarabad (Chitral) & Chumurkhon, Gumbas (Broz), Balawusht (Ayun), Maskor (Ayun, Birir Nisar), Kalkatak, Suwirlasht, Mirkhani, Shi-eli (Ashret), Arandulasht, Bohtuli (Lotkuh), Shoghor, Susum (Ojhor), Garam Chashma, Ughutilasht (Parabek, Lotkuh) & Bumbagh (Kosht, Charun) (Ghulam Murtaza 1962: 238 ff.) 80
(Holdschlag 2011: suppl.)
Chitral Town (around 2000)
81
Chitral Town (Bazaar) 2001
82
Chitral Town (Danin) 2001
83
1. Introduction 2. Montane environment & resources 3. Social organization 4. “Hydro-logic”: Irrigation systems
5. Conclusion
84
Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” endogenous realm Ecology
Agriculture Irrigation
Resource use
Conflict fields
Socio-politics
Regional planning & development approaches & strategies exogenous realm
85
Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” Complexity & local socio-hydrological variety of irrigation systems are principle features Irrigation systems as “creative adjustment” are integral part of the local culture & reflect social organization & power asymmetries (water entitlements) Irrigation systems are sustainable & dynamic systems driven by both endogenous & exogenous factors Change, stress & disturbances must be acknowledged as common system features (“Living with risk” ) Disputes over irrigation water & water theft are common Quarrels on land distribution during new ameliorations
86
Conclusion – Chitral as “socio-hydroscape” Shareholder water management organized by respected institutions as “social capital” for social organization and collective action Reciprocal and collective subsistence strategies are under huge pressure (precarious for low-income households) Exogenous change: institutional pluralism, new crop varieties, input prices, pluri-local livelihoods strategies Socio-economic changes appear to be more influential than ecological Potentials for future amelioration Main limitation: financial resources Failed irrigation projects often lack community participation 87
Conclusion – Outlook Existence of locally adapted irrigation systems have long been neglected (“backwardness”, limited growth orientation) Importance & necessity of inter- & transdisciplinary cooperation in studying complex systems & local knowledge A retrospective approach can reveal system dynamics & path dependencies
“Scarcity can occur at every level. Proper understanding of the local and regional expressions of deficiency, resource pressure and societal challenges and constraints can be enhanced only by acknowledging local diversity and decentralized systems.” (Kreutzmann 2011: 533)
88
Thank you very much!
89
Bakarabad – Kesu – Yakhdiz Level of household self-sufficiency with cereals [%] Self-suffiency [%]
Bakarabad
Kesu
Yakhdiz
< 20
6,5
17,1
9,4
20-39
18,2
36,8
45,3
40-59
24,7
15,8
32,1
60-79
23,4
15,8
3,8
80-100
27,3
14,5
9,4
Mean
60,0
45,3
41,2
Random sample, n = 100
Random sample, n = 100
Compreh. survey, n = 57
Source: Author‘s own survey 1999
90
Structure of non-agrarian income
Kesu Ziviler Staatsdienst 50 40 32
Rimessen
Armee/Scouts
30
31
20 6 10
Saisonale Arbeitsmigration
5
24
21
0
Pensionen
18
Lohnarbeit
46
Dienstleistung/Handel
Handwerk
Yakhdiz Ziviler Staatsdienst 30 25
Rimessen
Armee/Scouts
20 15 14
10
10
11
5
Sais. Arbeitsmigration
19
0
Pensionen
7
Quelle: Eigene Erhebungen 1999 Kesu: Stichprobe, n = 100
17
8
Yakhdiz: Vollerhebung, n = 57
26
Lohnarbeit
Dienstleistung/Handel Handwerk
(Mehrfachnennungen möglich)
91
Yakhdiz: Durchs. Viehbesatz pro Haushalt nach Clans 14
12
Rinder
Ziegen
Schafe
Esel
8
6
4
2
0
Sh eg hn ie Sh y ak hm ire y La lik Sh ey ak hr aw ey A ta m B eg ey B ai ke y K ho sh ey Zo nd re y Fa iz ey B eg al ey Q ou be le y
Stück
10
Quelle: Eigene Erhebungen 1999 (Vollerhebung, n = 57)
92