issue16 | feb2010 - RWTH Aachen University

ISSUE16 | FEB2010

www.gso.org.om

Page 02...President’s Message

Page 02...Note from the Editor Page 03...A World-class Exposure Page 08...Structural Evolution Page 12...Fault Geometries in North Oman Page 14...Sealing of Faults Page 19...Neogene Compressional Structures Page 22...Field Trip Report Page 25...International News Page 28...AGM Report Page 29...Publications 2009 Page 33...Upcoming Events

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President’s Message Dear GSO Members, On behalf of the GSO Executive Committee I welcome you to the 2010 GSO activity season. This year is going to be very special as GSO will be celebrating its 10th Anniversary which will coincide with the 40th National Day for Oman. Thus, please join us to make it a very special geological year for the Society and Oman. Since its inception, GSO has achieved much but many milestones are yet to be met. 2010 is going to be very challenging, as we need to diversify our activities and have a more

proactive approach to geological projects that serve preservation and knowledge dissemination of our geological heritage in Oman. For this, the Society needs your input and support. Geophysics and hydrogeology are two fields that we would like to see more contribution from in our activities. I urge all geophysicists and hydrogeologists to contribute to GSO activities for the coming season and share their knowledge and experience with Society members. This al Hajar issue is the first for the

2010 season and I would like you to come forward with your contributions to GSO activities. The Society is the best platform for discussion and sharing of your ideas and projects with the wider geoscientist community. In summary, I would like to thank all of you for your commitment and contribution, and to encourage you to stay connected to the Society though its activities and programs. Regards, Dr. Mahmood Saif Al Mahrooqi GSO – President

Note from the Editor Hi All, Welcome to the 16th Edition of Al Hajar. This edition focuses on the structural aspects of Oman’s geology with excellent contributions from GUTech, PDO and Shell. We would, as always, be delighted to hear your feedback on these articles. Drop a line to ‘The Ed.’ and we will publish any thoughts you wish to share. We also include a publications list detailing research in the Sultanate for 2009. I’m sure you will join me in thanking John Aitken for diligently providing this over the last few years. As always, IHS have generously

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contributed an International News section and our upcoming events section can be found on the last page. As the temperature starts to rise the field trip season draws to an end but we will still continue with talks. Upcoming talks include Measuring Climate Change in the Arctic & in April, one outlining EOR techniques applicable in Oman. I look forward to seeing you there. This is my last edition as Editor as shortly Carlos & I will leave Oman. Ru Smith will now take over this role. Ru is currently Programme

Manager for the Middle East Learning Hub for Shell Development Oman. He brings an infectious enthusiasm for Omani geology to the role and an undeniable passion for life!! I’m sure you will join me in extending a warm welcome to Ru as Editor. Just remains for me to say thank you for all of your support – I have thoroughly enjoyed the last two years as Editor and look forward to seeing the GSO go from strength to strength. Very best regards, Caroline

Al Hajar 16th edition Feb 2010

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A World-class Exposure of a Fossil High Pressure Cell on the Southern Flank of Jabal Shams in the Oman Mountains Max Arndt, Simon Virgo, Zoe Soebisch, Marc Holland, Christoph Hilgers, Janos L. Urai, Geological Institute, RWTH Aachen University and Department of Applied Geoscience, German University of Technology GUTech, Muscat, Oman.

Abstract

The

exhumed

Cretaceous

carbonates on the southern flank of Jabal Shams in the Oman Mountains offers a world-class, ultra high resolution look into the inner workings of high pressure cells which are common in sedimentary basins and contain large oil and gas deposits. This more than 2 km thick sedimentary pile develops a complex and rapidly changing set of continuously forming and re-sealing fractures, leading to a

complex mechanical stratigraphy

and producing several generations of pervasive regional fault and vein sets. Burial extension and the formation of overpressures led to the formation of numerous fracture generations in an anticlockwise rotating stress field. This was followed by bedding-parallel shear under lithostatic fluid-pressure conditions at a minimum temperature of 134–221°C.

Our study area is located on the southwest flank of Jabal Shams, the highest peak of the Al Jabal al Akhdar domal structure (Figure 1a, e.g. Glennie et al., 1974; Beurrier et al., 1986; Loosveld et al., 1996; Breton et al., 2004; Glennie, 2005; Al-Wardi, 2006; Hilgers et al., 2006a; Searle, 2007). Several deep wadis cut the dip slope and offer impressive vertical profiles of which the tallest section at Wadi Nakhr offers a continuous vertical exposure of approximately 1 km. The strata expose the Sahtan, Kahmah and Wasia groups of the Hajar Supergroup (Figure 7). The emphasis of this study is the characterization of the structural evolution (Figure 2). These are predominantly brittle deformation fractures and faults (Figure 1b)

of which we find the vein density throughout the entire field area to be very high (Holland et al., 2009). The detailed field observations in excellent exposures provide the basis for a model of the multiphase evolution of the Jabal Shams high-pressure cell in accordance with the work of Hilgers et al. (2006a). This evolution is illustrated by the schematic drawing shown in Figure 2. The earliest structures (V1) are a series of anticlockwise rotating veins (Figures 3, 4 and 5). The first of these formed in a north-south trending direction (Figure 2b), followed by a set striking approximately 130º (Figure 2c), 090º (Figure 2d) and 045º (Figure 2e). All vein sets are perpendicular to the bedding, have large apertures

The high pressure cell was drained along dilatant normal faults that were also repeatedly cemented and reactivated.

Introduction

The southern flank of Jabal Shams in the Oman Mountains offers a world-class outcrop of high pressure cells. The Structural Geology group of RWTH Aachen and the Department of Applied Geoscience of GUtech in Muscat has been studying these unique outcrops for the past 5 years, in projects funded by Shell International and more recently by DGMK.

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Figure 1a: Landsat overlay on DEM showing the field area


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Figure 1b: Simplified map showing study area (rectangle) together with interpreted faults. The lithology of interest spans primarily the Wasia Group with the Nahr Umr and Natih formations as well as the Kahmah Group. After Holland et al., 2008

0 0 with blocky calcite cement. The geometry of the fracture shows no signs for interaction between the fracture sets in abutting or curving. Rapid sealing of the fractures and thereby a restored tensile strength is interpreted to be the major cause for the dense spacing of this pattern. The tensile effective stresses required for the formation of this regional vein system may have been formed in response to overpressure build-up during burial, perhaps in combination with outerarc extension during emplacement of the Hawasina and Semail nappes. The joints in the ramp are normal to bedding, suggesting that the ramp postdates the jointing process. The south to southwest vergence of the ramp could indicate its relation to the emplacement of the Hawasina and Semail nappes. The next stage is bedding parallel shear (Figure 6), which indicates a major change of the effective stress tensor. Beddingparallel veins indicate fluid pressures close to lithostatic. and Front Page

Figure 2: The evolution of the regional fracture network is interpreted to result from multiphase deformation: (a) sets of veins with prominent apertures. (b, c, d, e) These fractures are formed perpendicular to the bedding probably as a response to high fluid pressures. The open-mode fractures are cemented with white calcite. (f) An isolated ramp structure is interpreted to have formed next with a top-to-south-southwest movement. (g) Bedding parallel shear with a top-to-north and northeast movement postdates the bedding-perpendicular veins forming layer-parallel veins and shear zones. Normal faults (h) develop in the next stage, and nucleate partly along the anisotropy of the striking veins. (i) Exhumation, neotectonics and weathering lead to the opening of joints (simplified sketch, not to scale; arrow points north).


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Figure 3: Exposed carbonate bed with different sets of veins and joints. Cementation, spac-

Figure 4: Complex vein network on polished surface with mul-

ing and apertures differ between the different sets.

tiple strike directions.

Figure 5: Example of an overprinting relationship: A thin vein striking approximately 045º offsets two 130º striking veins.

cementation repeatedly restored the rock strength during deformation. The shear movement is top-to-north and top-to-east (Figure 2e). This direction – opposite to the nappes’ emplacement – suggests that these shear zones were formed after the nappe emplacement. An event like this is discussed in detail by AlWardi and Butler (2006). The next major change in effective stress, under continuously high fluid pressures, led to strongly dilatant normal faults (Figure 7) with strike-slip components that offset the bedding-parallel shear zones. These have a distinct isotopic signature indicating meteoric influence, draining the high pressure Front Page

system (Hilgers et al., 2006a). The faults nucleated as en-échelon vein sets or along the preexisting veins in the 090º and 130º strike direction. This means that these faults cannot be simply used to infer the principle stress directions, because of the anisotropy. A detailed geological map and profile of the SE-part of the area is shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The uncemented joints exposed in plane and profile views all strike into the directions of the first vein group perpendicular to the bedding (Figures 2i and 8). The uncemented joints generally

Figure 6: The bedding-perpendicular veins (d1) are cut and offset by layer-parallel veins. The latter are heavily cemented with bright calcite (pocket knife for scale; outcrop in Wadi Nakhr).


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Figure 8: Orthogonal joint set of only two strike directions. Photo width approximately 10 meters.

Figure 7: Interpreted cliff exposure of the fault zones exposed at the western wall of Wadi Nakhr. The vertical exposure is 500 m and spans several formations. The fault system has straight segments where the thick stack of the Shu’aiba and Kharaib formations are offset against each other and splays towards the contact to the upper Nahr Umr Formation, which deforms more like a monocline.

have higher densities and locally much higher densities. In some cases, beds with open joints are on top of beds with cemented hairline fractures with the same orientation. This indicates that some open joints have formed as a result of dissolution and weathering. Another explanation could be that the joints were formed as relaxation fractures at exhumation, which would explain their ubiquitous presence. In the latter case, the denser spacing could reflect a change of the elastic properties of the rock as an effect of its P/T path. The influence of the neotectonic movements is a possible contributor to the joints as well. Fractures in cemented terraces inside Wadi Nakhr indicate recent tectonic movement that presumably guided erosion of the Wadi Nakhr canyon in the Pleistocene (Rodgers and Gunatilaka, 2003; Kusky et al., 2005). Front Page

Figure 9: Synthetic perspective view of the QuickBird satellite image warped on to a low-resolution ASTER DEM. The zoomed excerpt shows the mapping area with the distribution of mapping units. The white Line shows the location of the profile shown in Figure 10

Figure 10: Profile through the Western part of the mapping area. Black lines are faults. Dashed black lines are faults inferred in depth. Recorded offset ranges from less than a meter to several hundred meters (northern fault).


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The high-pressure cell of Jabal Shams proves to be a natural example of thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical processes (Bradley, 1975; Zoback, 1978; Noorishad et al., 1984; Bradley, 1994;

Noorishad et al., 1996; Tsang, 1999; Olsson and Barton, 2001). The high fluid pressures and the repeated cementation of the fracture system led to the formation of a complex fracture network. Its

transport properties, as well as the mechanical strength of the system, were constantly changing as the calcite cement sealed the fractures.

Acknowledgements

We thank Jean-Michel Larroque, Joachim Amthor, Jan Schreurs, Pascal Richard, Jean Paul Breton, Muhammad al-Wardi, and Manuela Gutberlet for support at various stages of this project, for providing data, scientific discussions and help with organizing the various field campaigns.

References (just a few ; Searle, 2007).

Glennie, K.W., M.G.A. Boeuf, M.W. Hughes-Clarke, M. Moody-Stuart, W.F.H. Pilaar and B.M. Reinhardt 1974. Geology of the Oman Mountains (Parts 1, 2 and 3). The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, Verhandelingen Koninklijk Nederlands Geologie en Mijnbouw Genootschap, v. 31. Beurrier, M., F. Bechennec, G. Hutin and D. Rabu 1986. Rustaq, Geological Map Oman, Scale 1:100,000,Sheet NF40-3D. Ministry of Petroleum and Minerals, Sultanate of Oman. Breton, J.-P., F. Béchennec, J. Le Métour, L. Moen-Maurel and P. Razin 2004. Eoalpine (Cretaceous) evolution of the Oman Tethyan continental margin: Insights from a structural field study in Jabal Akdhar (Oman Mountains). GeoArabia, v. 9, no. 2, p. 1-18. Holland, M., N. Saxena and J.L. Urai (in press). Evolution of fractures in a highly dynamic thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical system (II) – Interpretation of remote sensing data of Jabal Shams, Oman Mountains. GeoArabia (in press). Holland, M. and J. Urai (in prep.). The faults and fractures in the Mesozoic carbonates of Jabal Shams, Oman Mountains (II) fracture analysis based on satellite image interpretation. Hilgers, C., D.L. Kirschner, J.-P. Breton and J.L. Urai 2006a. Fracture sealing in a regional, high-pressure cell in Jabal Akhdar, Oman mountains first results. Geofluids, v. 6, no. 2, p. 168-184. Hilgers, C., S. Nollet, J. Schoenherr and J.L. Urai 2006b. Paleo-overpressure formation and dissipation in reservoir rocks. Oil Gas European Magazine 2, p. 68-73. Loosveld, R.J.H., A. Bell and J.J.M. Terken 1996. The tectonic evolution of interior Oman. GeoArabia, v. 1, no. 1, p. 28-51. Glennie, K.W. 2005. The Geology of the Oman Mountains - An outline of their origin. Scientific Press Ltd. Al-Wardi, M. 2006. Structural evolution of the Jebel Akhdar culmination and its implications for exhumation processes in the northern Oman Mountains. University of Leeds. Al-Wardi, M. and R.W.H. Butler 2006. Constrictional extensional tectonics in the northern Oman Mountains, its role in culmination development and the exhumation of the subducted Arabian margin. In, A.C. Ries, R.W.H. Butler and R.H. Graham (Eds.), Deformation of the Continental Crust: The Legacy of Mike Coward. Geological Society of London, 272, p. 187-202. Rodgers, D.W. and A. Gunatilaka 2003. Bajada formation by monsoonal erosion of a subaerial forebulge, Sultanate of Oman. Sedimentary Geology, v. 154, nos. 3-4, 127. Kusky, T., C. Robinson and F. El-Baz 2005. Tertiary-Quaternary faulting and uplift in the northern Oman Hajar Mountains. Journal of the Geological Society, v. 162, no. 5, p. 871-888. Bradley, J.S. 1994. Pressure compartments in sedimentary basins; a review. In, D.E. Powley (Ed.), American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 61. Zoback, M.D. and D.D. Pollard. Hydraulic fracture propagation and the interpretation of pressuretime records for in situ stress determinations. 19th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Mackay School of Mines, University of Nevada, 1, p. 14-22. Noorishad, J., C.-F. Tsang and P.A. Witherspoon 1984. Coupled thermal-hydraulic-mechanical phenomena in saturated fractured porous rocks: Numerical approach. Journal of Geophysical Resources, v. 89, issue B12, p. 10,365-10,373. Tsang, C.-F. 1999. Linking thermal, hydrological, and mechanical processes in fractured rocks. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 27, no. 1, p. 359-384. Olsson, R. and N. Barton 2001. An improved model for hydromechanical coupling during shearing of rock joints. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, v. 38, p. 3, 317 p.

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Structural Evolution of Salakh Arch Mohammed Al-Kindi, PDO

Having a strike-length of about 75km, Salakh Arch is the southern gate for the North Oman Mountains, (Figure 1). If you drive from south to north Oman, the first high-flying feature is Jebel Salakh, standing 1063m above sea level. Indeed, everybody can feel their domal (turtleback) structures. That is what caused Sir Wilfred Thesiger (so known in Arabia as Mubarak Bin London) to write in his classic book “Arabian Sands” describing Jebels Madmar and Salakh in 1940s: “both of them were dome-shaped, and I thought regretfully that their formation was of the sort that geologists associate with oil”, read more in the newspaper article, (Figure 2), provided by Alan Heward. The Salakh Arch is concave towards the North. It occurs in the central part of Oman, south of Hawasina nappes and NE of the

Maradi Strike-Slip Fault, to form what is known as the Adam foothills. The Arch is approximately 40 km from the hydrocarbon-producing Natih and Fahud fields and developed along the eastern edge of Fahud Salt Basin in a chain of anticlines that are from E to W: Madmar, Hinaydil, Salakh, Nihaydah and Qusaibah. The Salakh structure is divided to two parts: Salakh-E and Salakh-W. These two parts differ significantly in their geometries and they are separated by a distinct gap. The area was explored for hydrocarbon accumulation: Qusaibah-1 and Madmar-1 wells were drilled in the Arch in 1969 and in the late 1980s respectively. The drilling tests were disappointing. Nonetheless, the area has remained an attraction for the hydrocarbon industry as it forms a good stratigraphical and structural analogue to the

hydrocarbon fields in the foreland region, and recently, there has been more interest to re-explore the area for hydrocarbon accumulations. The surface curvature of the fold structures in Salakh Arch shows box-fold geometry (i.e. two hinges); apart from Jebel Madmar which has a gentle wide hinge. Surface mapping of faults and fractures indicate various trends and intensity of deformation (Figure 3). Overall the maximum shorting is roughly oriented N-S. Normal faults and extensional fractures that trend roughly perpendicular to the fold structures occur mainly in Nihaydah, the western part of Jebel Salakh-

Figure 1: A Geological map of the study area (Salakh Arch). The inset illustrates the location of the Oman Mountains (Al-Kindi, 2006)

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Figure 2: Newspaper article recording the drilling of Madmar structure in 1989 (Courtesy of Alan Heward )

Figure 3: A summary of the orientations of fractures (rose diagrams) in the various Jebels. The figure also highlights the areas (red arrows) with arc parallel or oblique extension. The black arrows show the orientation of the maximum compression in various parts of the Arch as suggested by the fold-axis orientations and/or the paleostress analyses of σ-1 (red dots in the stereonets) from the kinematics of strike-slip faults. The numbers of measurements is shown next to each rose diagram. The green lines show the hinge areas in various Jebels in Salakh Arch as illlustrated below. Apart from Madmar, all Jebels in Salakh Arch have two hinges, illustrating box-fold geometry (Al-Kindi, 2006)

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Figure 4: Overthrusting of Natih-E on top of Barzman on this major bounding reverse fault in southern flank of Madmar indicates Late Tertiary or Early Quaternary formation of Salakh Arch.

Figure 5: A fault-propagation fold in the northern flank of Madmar. Note that the fold develops on the bend of the reverse fault. The fault is steeply dipping in the competent (more stiff) beds compared to the incompetent ones; all is Natih-B lithology.

Figure 6: A map-view restoration of the Salakh Arch using the shortening values (in km) measured directly from seismic sections or estimated from surface cross sections (yellow line is the present limit of the Arch and the blue is the restored original position). The yellow arrow shows the regional orientation of Tertiary compression, whereas the red arrows show the orientation of maximum horizontal stresses at different areas in Salakh Arch. In the frontal ramp areas, the strain is mainly compressional (pure shear), whereas in oblique ramp areas the hanging wall materials get deflected and result in transpressional (reverse and strike slip deformation), Al-Kindi, 2006.

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West and in Madmar. Reverse faults form striking features and mostly underwent more or less pure compressional movement (vertical slickensides). They mainly occur in the flanks of the Jebels. The most important of them is the one in south Madmar, where Natih-E (deposited in Late Cretaceous) is overthrust on Barzman Formation (Late Tertiary) (Figure 4), which indicates that Salakh Arch was most likely formed during Late Tertiary or Early Quaternary. A number of fault-propagation folds can be seen also, particularly in the northern flanks of Jebel Madmar, (Figure 5). These reverse faults are largely splays of the major blind reverse faults that bound the Jebels or they could also be reactivated Late Cretaceous NW-SE normal faults. Strike slip faults occur mainly in the areas of oblique or lateral ramps. Pre-existing faults have contributed in the segmentation of Salakh Arch folds. The gap between Madmar and Hinaydil, as well as the gap between Hinaydil and Salakh are controlled by pre-existing Late Cretaceous faults as designated by seismic data . Seismic has not been acquired across the jebels themselves, but the seismic lines that were shot in the gaps between the Jebels are very useful. Seismic interpretation is highly uncertain particularly in the core of fold structures. Unfortunately, the fold cores are usually the most important areas to deduce the style of deformation. Various tests, restoration and balancing were done on the available seismic sections to understand the continuity and sense of movement on the bounding faults. These show that the most likely scenario is a thin-skinned deformation with a sole thrust along the Ara Salt (Figure 7). The oblique ramp of Nihaydah underwent significant strike-slip deformation as manifested Al Hajar 16th edition Feb 2010

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Figure 7: Seismic line from Salakh Arch interpreted as thin-skinned structures with sole detachment along the salt, Location is shown above Al-Kindi, 2006.

by the surface strike-slip faults that trend parallel to the fold axis and by the steep geometry of the subsurface bounding faults (usually indicative of transpressional deformation). In summary, regional data and detailed evaluation of Salakh Arch evolution and hence the compression of the Late Tertiary system in Oman indicates a combination of both overthrust (thin-skinned) and upthrust (thick-skinned) tectonism. Many of the detaching thrusts are plausibly linked or breached from northern basement faults. In general five factors were identified as controls on the geometry and position of the Salakh Arch. These are: the thickness of deformed sediment, the variation of salt thickness along the Arch, pre-existing basement faults, allochthonous units (namely the Hawasina nappes) and the margin slope.

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Figure 8: Group photos taken in the Geological Excursion to Salakh Arch, led by Mohammed Al-Kindi, Heiko Hillgartner and Redha Al-Lawati (thanks for Flora Kiss for taking the photo).


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Fault Geometries in North Oman Pascal Richard, PDO

Faults are important elements affecting most of the oil and gas fields of Oman. They tamage zones. On these outcrops, geoscientists can observe the detailed fault geometries and elaborate geometrical rules that helpi in the building of static models and interpreting faults on seismic. The outcrops help to understand which simplifications are acceptable in sub-surface modelling. In this paper, we illustrate some of the best examples of faults and discuss the concept of fault segmentation. We also compare the natural examples to analogue models and seismic examples.

Introduction

The southern flank and the foothills of the Oman Mountains offers fantastic outcrops which, in PDO (Petroleum Development Oman) we have been using to train for decades our petroleum engineers. One of the important subjects of these training sessions is about fault geometries and associated damage zones at different scales. The key geometrical elements which can be investigated are the

fault length (or height), the vertical and lateral continuity as well as the impact of mechanical stratigraphy on the fault segmentation. The outcrops (Figure 1) described in this paper are on the southern flank of Jebel Shams, north of Tanuf and to the South-West of Sinaw in Jebel Madar. These outcrops can be visited in 2 days.

Fault throw profile and relay ramp example

Along the track from Tanuf up Jebel Shams excellent views are afforded to the South over the Natih dip-slope and across to the ophiolites in the distance (e.g. from UTM 543103 2553456). A 4 km fault scarp can be observed in the Natih formation The fault is composed of approximately four segments now linked at bends in the fault trace. The fault trends WNW-ESE and is amongst the largest in the family of faults exposed on the dip-slope. The fault is a result of progressive growth and coalescence of originally smaller

Figure 1. Location of the outcrops discussed in the paper.

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fault segments (see Filbrandt et al 2007 for more detailed reading and more references on the subject). The actual fault trace geometry is used to infer the original fault segments. An earlier stage of evolution of the similar fault growth and coalescence process is also visible to the south of the large fault (e.g. UTM 541477-2552034). At this locality, one can look southeastwards towards a relay ramp between two smaller faults. These faults are linear, about 2 km long with vertical offset in the region of 30 to 40 m. With further deformation they would coalesce and form a single fault. The recognition of these relay ramp structures is important for exploration and production alike. For example, assuming a sealing fault plane, one might consider drilling a well in a large fault dip closure if the fault mapped as a single plane. However, in reality there is no closure since the relay ramp is a location where hydrocarbons would leak.

Vertical

fault


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Figure 2. Fault escarpment on the structural slope of Jebel Shams. The lines are used as guide to mark the bedding surfaces.

Figure 3. Relay ramp between 2 segments of normal faults.

Figure 4. Satellite picture and digital elevation model illustrating the fault geometries. Vertical fault segmentation.

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segmentation

The fault segmentation observed in map view exists as well in a vertical sense (Figure. 5). Steeply dipping faults cut through the Salil and Rayda formations (Jurassic – Cretaceous) and can be observed in a cliff some 100m high (UTM 521292564145). The same fault zone can be followed across the entire cliff when standing at the top of the eastern edge of the wadi (Holland et al, 2009). Several fault segments can be traced (the major ones are indicated with dashed line on Figure 2.). A dense zone of calcite veins occurs in the relay between the 2 major fault segments. The development of the brecciated and cemented zone corresponds a squeezed block created in a compressional fault overlap (see to Zee et al 2005 for more background reading and references). The observed geometries can be used to highlight the short coming and simplification interpreters are facing since seismic resolution can not capture such detailed geometries; hence simplification is required. However, it is critical to keep in Al Hajar 16th edition Feb 2010

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Figure 5. Segmented fault zone (left) and close up on compressional overlap structure (right). The yellow represent typical seismic wavelets with 25 m spacing and illustrates the lines limited seismic resolution. Note the car for scale.

Figure 6. Vertical fault segmentation across the across the Nahr Umr formation.

mind the difference between the modelled faults and the geological reality in order to take the right decisions when it comes to drilling and field development. Another important example for Oman exploration and production is the example of vertical fault segmentation that can be observed in Jebel Madar (Figure 6). There, the outcrops offer spectacular examples of the impact of mechanical stratigraphy on fault propagation. The outcrops are made of competent massive carbonate of the Shuaiba and Natih formations separated by a less competent unit, the Nahr Umr Formation. It is possible to follow faults in the carbonates and observed whether or not the faults are continuous and visible in the Nahr Umr. The faults are in fact systematically interrupted in the Nahr Umr where it is not possible to trace them. This observation is critical for many seismic interpretations in Oman, where faults are developed in the Natih and the Shuaiba formation and they can easily be wrongly interpreted to cut the Nahr Umr in a similar way.

Analogue models and seismic application Figure 7. Analogue model (A) and seismic (B) cross section of a vertically segmented fault. The blue and black lines on the seismic section represent two alternative ways of modelling the fault in a subsurface model.

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Analogue models have been used since the early 1800’s to


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help understand the development of geological structure. Analogue models are, in short, miniatures of geological reality and are scaled down for the mechanical properties, deformation mechanism and time (Hubbert, 1937). Fault segmentation has been intensively investigated using this technique. In the example shown, the model was constructed using horizontal layers of two distinct materials, a ductile Nahr Umr analogue (an oil water emulsion OWE on Figure 7) and a brittle Carbonate analogue (dry sand), overlying a basement fault dipping at 45 degrees. Movement on the pre-existing basement fault creates normal faulting in the multilayered sedimentary overburden

and the geometry of the faults in the overburden can be observed (see Zee et al, 2003 for more details). Note the difference between the faults below the OWE layer (Nahr Umr equivalent) and the sand layers above. The concept of fault segmentation can be used to interpret fault on seismic sections while the resolution does not reveal individual segments (Figure 5, Figure 7). Depending on the level of detail of the sub-surface model, as well as the importance of the faults for the field development, one might decide to simplify the fault to a single plane (blue line on Figure 7B) or to interpret the fault as a number of segments (black lines on Figure 7B).

Conclusions.

Hopefully, these few lines on faults in North Oman will have triggered an irresistible desire to go and visit these outcrops. If so, please do so and enjoy Oman geology. Every wadi and every jebel contain hidden geological jewels which are waiting to be discovered. Remember, however, to behave safely in respect of the environment & weather forecast and leave behind a detailed journey management plan.

References Filbrandt, J.B., S. Al-Dhahab, A. Al-Habsy, K. Harris, J. Keating, S. Al-Mahruqi, S.I. Ozkaya, P.D. Richard and T. Robertson 2006. Kinematics interpretation and structural evolution of North Oman, Block 6, since the Late Cretaceous and implications for timing of hydrocarbon migration into Cretaceous reservoirs. GeoArabia v. 11, no. 1, p. 97-140. Filbrandt, J.B., Franssen, R.C. and Richard, P.D., 2007. Fault growth and coalescence: insights from numerical modelling and sandbox experiments. GeoArabia, Vol. 12, No. 1, p 17-32. Holland, M. Urai, J.L., Muchez, P. and Willemse, M. 2009. Evolution of fractures in a highly dynamic thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical system – (I) Field observations in Mesozoic Carbonates, Jabal Shams, Oman Mountains. GeoArabia, v. 14, no. 1, 2009, p. 57-110. Hubbert, M.K.. Theory of scale models as applied to the study of geologic structures, Geol. Soc. America Bull., 48, (1937) 1459-152O. Zee, vd W., Urai, J.L. and Richard, P.D., 2003. Lateral clay injection into normal faults. GeoArabia, Vol. 8, No. 3, p. 499-520.

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Scaling of Faults and Fractures by Clay Sediment on Jebel Hafeet - Field Observations and Modeling Heijn van Gent(1), *Erik Wanningen (1), and Marc Holland(1#), Janos L. Urai(1) (1) RWTH Aachen, , Germany and GUtech Muscat ([email protected]) (*) Now at Statoil-Hydro, Norway (#) Now at Geomechanics International

Introduction

Faulting of brittle cohesive materials (such as carbonate reservoirs) often leads to the formation of open fault sections. The flow of formation water and hydrocarbons is strongly influenced by these cavities (Holland et al., 2006). This project, funded by Shell International, and run in cooperation with RWTH Aachen and GUtech Muscat, was aimed at improving the understanding of fluid flow properties of faults and fractures in carbonates.

Carbonate reservoirs contain a large part of the world’s hydrocarbon reserves and there is a lot of interest in improving understanding of fractures in carbonate reservoirs. However, good quality outcrops of massively dilatant fault zones in carbonates are rare. Outcrops in Tertiary carbonates on Jebel Hafeet, on the border between the United Arab Emirates and Oman, expose some examples in carbonates deformed at shallow depths. Jebel Hafeet is one of a series of foreland anticlines of the

Oman Mountains (Noweir, 2000, see also Figure 1).The young back-thrustrelated anticline shows abundant normal fault systems parallel to the fold axis, which are interpreted to be related to outer-arc extension and uplift (Figure 2). These normal fault zones in the area can be massively dilatant. Apertures of several decimetres are common, predominantly filled with carbonate veins, crushed wall rock or clay sediment (Figure 2a and b). These sediments differ from the wall rock and often show a clear

Figure 2: (a) Normal fault zone in a competent carbonate (Ca), with approximately 3 m offset, showing strongly variable internal structure, width of the fault cavities and clasitc infill. Material from a mechanically weaker, slightly more clayey carbonate layer (Cl) is included in the fault zone both between the up- and downthrown parts of the clastic deposits (a), as well as in cavities further down dip (b). Also note the empty cavity in the bottom of the picture (c). b) Opening mode fracture showing layered clastic infill. On the wall rock (A) a rim of precipitated calcite (B) covers the fracture walls. The centre of the fracture (C) is filled with stratified unconsolidated sediments. Stars indicate decimetre size clasts. c,d.) Tensile open mode fissures parallel to the fold crest of Jebel Hafeet. Within the massive fissures blocks of wall rock are rotated. (All images taken at Jebel Hafeet, U.A.E.) Figure 1: a) 0.7 m resolution Quickbird image of the Jebel Hafeet anticline. Faults are interpreted in red, fractures in the field in blue, yellow and green. Interpretation done in ArcGis

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in carbonates is observed in the field (Figure 2b). Sedimentation of clay from elsewhere in the sequence into open fractures is a process completely different from previously recognized mechanisms of clayenrichment in fault zones. The mechanical background of open fault formation can be studied in analogue models using cohesive materials (Holland et al., 2006). Here we will briefly discuss the results of van Gent et al. (in press).

Analogue experiments

Figure 3: Analogue model results. Observed structures include: 1) tensile fractures, 2) dilational faults, 3) antithetic faults, 4) cavities, 5) dip changes, 6) dilational jogs, 7) non-dilatant shear faults, 8)

Hemihydrate powder (CaSO4 · ½ H2O), a cohesive, fine grained powder was used for normal faulting experiments.

transitions from tensile fractures to dilational faults, 9) cliffs at the surface.

stratification. This suggests episodic sedimentation within the fault zones by either gravitational or hydraulic transport. Wide surface fissures are common on the mountain crest. These open structures strike parallel to the fold axis of the anticline (Figure 2c and d), have opening magnitudes of more than a meter, and show angular blocks of carbonate, dislodged and rotated between the parallel walls (Figure 2c), but their depth is difficult to assess due both the material infill and the outcrop conditions. The dilatant structures of the fault zones must have a strong effect on hydraulic circulation, suggesting that the caves of the Jebel Hafeet region are fault-related. The development of clay smear has a pronounced effect on the sealing capacity of faults (Fulljames et al., 1997). The inclusion of even minor amounts of clay-rich material in the dilatant fault segments (Figure 2a), will decrease permeability of the fault zone. An additional, powerful process of resealing faults Front Page

Figure 4: a) Rotating block formation (a1 and a2) and the disintegration of this block (a3) with increasing deformation. Fragments move down the fracture, forming a fault breccia, while at the surface a rubble zone and cliff are formed. b) Dilational jogs form on mechanical heterogeneities (black layers are a bit stonger) (b1 and b2). Also shown is the gravitational collapse of the roof of the jog in b3.


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Scaled model experiments

Before the models can be properly scaled the model material has to be carefully characterized. Focusing on extensional experiments with pure Hemihydrate and a buried master graben faults with a dip of 60°, several structures are observed (Figure 3). In the top 7 cm of the 20 cm model tensile fractures are observed, that grade into dilatant shear faults with asperities and dilational jogs. These also show block rotation & gravity collapse. At the surface we observe the formation of cliffs, canyons and rubble zones with progressive deformation (Figure 4). In the bottom 7cm of the model, pure shear faults are observed. The transitions from the tensile domain

to the dilational shear domain and from the dilational shear to the pure shear domain correspond well with the material properties and inferred stress states. Further observed structures include cliffs, rotating blocks and canyons at the surface, dip changes in faults, fault linkage and the formation of overstepping fault arrays and antithetic faults. Different models were created, and documented with high resolution digital cameras. These images were used to make movies (see www.ged. rwth-aachen.de) and allowed analysis using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) software (Adam et al., 2005; Holland et al., 2006, van Gent et al., in press). This high resolution, optical correlation technique allows

the calculation of displacement- and strain-fields in the experiments.

Discussion and conclusions

Our field work on Jebel Hafeet has shown how massively dilatant faults with large fractures can be re-sealed by deposition of clay and calcite cement by moving formation fluids. The follow-up model experiments have shown how such dilatant fault zones form and how the 2D and 3D geometry of these fracture networks evolves. Further work will concentrate on 4D study, using CT-scanning of experiments in combination with further field study.

References Adam, J., Urai, J. L., Wieneke, B., Oncken, O., Pfeiffer, K., Kukowski, N., Lohrmann, J., Hoth, S., van der Zee, W., Schmatz, J.; 2005: Shear localization and strain distribution during tectonic faulting--new insights from granular-flow experiments and high-resolution optical image correlation techniques. Journal of Structural Geology 27(2), 283-301. Fulljames, J.R., Zijerveld, L.J.J., Franssen, R.C.M.W.; 1997: Fault seal processes: Systematic analysis of fault seals over geological and production time scales. In: Moeller-Pedersen & Koester, A.G. (Eds.), Hydrocarbon Seals, NPF special publication 7, 51-59. Holland, M., Urai, J. L., Martel, S.; 2006: The internal structure of fault zones in basaltic sequences. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 248(1-2), 286-300. Noweir, M.A.; 2000: Back-thrust origin of the Hafit structure, northern Oman Mountain Front, United Arab Emirates. GeoArabia Manama 5, 215 - 228. van Gent, H. W., Holland, M., Urai, J. L., Loosveld, R.; in press. Evolution of fault zones in carbonates with mechanical stratigraphy - insights from scale models using layered cohesive powder. Journal of Structural Geology: Special publication. doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2009.05.006

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Neogene Compressional Structures in the Muscat Area: New 3D Models Ru Smith, PDO

Paleogene carbonates and clastics in the Muscat area are deformed into a set of open folds with axes orientated N-S to NNWSSE, at a very high angle to the major obduction/exhumation fault (Wadi Kabir Fault of Searle et al. 2004 and its curved extension westward) that bounds them to the South. Smallerscale folds (some with tighter interlimb angles) together with thrust, normal and strike-slip faults are associated with the major folds. Capture of both the structural and sedimentological architectures of this area in quantitative 3D models has recently been initiated, following the

principles of multiscale 3D modelling developed for subsurface applications (see summary in Smith & Ecclestone 2006) and recently applied to the Khuff Formation in Oman (see Kohrer, Aigner & Poppelreiter in Al Hajar issue 15). The resultant suite of models is used by the Middle East Learning and Development Hub (Shell/PDO) to teach geoscience and multiscale approaches to interpretation and description of subsurface geology. This small area contains an outstandingly rich set of analogues for subsurface reservoirs deposited in Aeolian, fluvial, coastal and shallow marine carbonate environments, as

recently demonstrated on the GSO field excursion of December 10th 2009. The major open folds in the Darsayt to Qurum area are here named the Darsayt Syncline and Mina Al Fahal Anticline. Further west, in the Rusayl Embayment, the Paleogene is folded into the Ghala Anticline and Misfah Syncline. The dominant fold axis trend is North-South (not parallel with major folds in the Saih Hatat culmination to the South as has been suggested in the literature). However, local fold limb steepening occurs in the Ras Al Hamra area in association with a change in orientation of fold axes

Figure 1. 3D view (from N) of the larger (19 km wide) region of interest, stretching from Ghala in the West to Muttrah in the East, and showing the nested local (4 km wide) region of interest around Ras Al Hamra and Mina Al Fahal. Higher resolution sedimentary architecture and effective property models are constructed within the local volume.

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Fig.2. 3D view of the Ras Al Hamra Anticline-Darsayt-Syncline showing the restored base-sediment surface where it projects above the present land surface. The Ophiolite core of the S-plunging anticline has been preferentially eroded to yield the present day bay. W-E field of view is approximately 4 km and there is no vertical exaggeration. Shorter-wavelength folds, with tighter interlimb angles occur locally in the western limb of the Ras Al Hamra Anticline.

Figure 2. 3D view (from N) showing the main tectonic elements in the region of interest.

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towards NNW-SSE and development of typical fault-propagation fold geometry (Figure 2). Given evidence for Late Cretaceous-Early Paleogene extensional faulting in the area (e.g. Fournier et al. 2006) a tempting explanation for this geometry is that an early normal fault was reactivated as a reverse fault during Neogene compressional deformation, forcing a fold in the cover (e.g. Smith 1987). The implied orientation of such an early extensional fault is consistent with the average Late CretaceousEarly Paleogene extension direction (N72oE) computed by Fournier et al. (2006). Small-displacement faults are common in association with the larger

folds, including normal and strike-slip faults (commonly NE-SW, but locally N-S) and bed-scale thrusts. Although the timing of compression corresponds with Zagros continent-continent collision (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene) the WSW-ENE to E-W compression direction implied by the observed folds does not correspond with the convergence vector between the Arabian and Eurasian plates and interaction between the Arabian and Indian plates has been postulated (Fournier et al. 2006). Approximately N-S compression is recorded at the southern front of the Oman Mountains and in late structures (Pliocene)

further north. The approach of mapping outcrop geology by fitting surfaces through the intersections between important geological surfaces and the present day land surface forces internally consistent interpretations and is far less forgiving than traditional techniques of geological map making. Geological observations at different scales can be recorded in a common 3D context, a property of this approach that has yielded strong economic benefits when applied to the subsurface (see Smith & Ecclestone 2006).

References Fournier, M., Lepvrier C., Razin, P. & Jolivet, L. 2006. Late Cretaceous to Paleogene post-obduction extension and subsequent Neogene compression in the Oman Mountains. GeoArabia, Vol. 11, 17-40. Searle, M.P., Warren, C.J., Waters, D.J. & Parrish, R.R. 2004. Structural evolution, metamorphism and restoration of the Arabian continental margin, Saih Hatat region, Oman Mountains. Journal of Structural Geology, 26, 451-473. Smith, R.D.A. 1987a. Structure and deformation history of the Central Wales Synclinorium, NE Dyfed: evidence for a long-lived basement structure. Geological Journal, 22, 183-198. Smith, R.D.A. & Ecclestone, M. 2006. Multiscale 3D Interpretation and modelling for exploration and on down the lifecycle stream. GCSSEPM, Houston. Reservoir Characterization: Integrating Technology and Business Practices. pp. 875-892.

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From Snowball Earth to Hothouse

A Journey into Oman’s Distant Past-7th January 2010 John Aitken,PDO

Excursion Leader : Joachim E. Amthor (PDO)

The fourth field trip ever organised by GSO, in February 2003, was led by Joachim Amthor and visited the Precambrian section, particularly focusing on the glacigenic deposits of the Fiq Formation and overlying cap carbonate (Hadash formation), in Wadi Bani Kharus and Wadi Hajir. The trip was run again in January 2004 and, after Joachim had returned to Oman, again on 7th January 2010, with an updated field guide. The trip began with a stop at the abandoned chromite mine near Nakhal. With the back drop of the mountains, Joachim described the stratigraphy of Oman and

briefly discussed the formation of the Al Hajar mountains including the emplacement of the Semail Ophiolite. All this was done over the constant rumble of lorries on the nearby track leading to the new opencast site. Then into Wadi Bani Kharus and through to Wadi Hajir all the time traveling back in time to about 650 Million years ago and the massive diamictites interbedded with sandstones that outcrop near the village of Halhal. The diamictites were deposited in a marine setting by rain-out of material from floating ice and probably also by remobilization processes (debris flows) whilst the

sandstones are interpreted to be the result of sediment gravity flows. Joachim described the overall depositional setting, expounded on the ‘Snowball Earth’ hypothesis that these and similar deposits on all the continents have been attributed to. Joachim also explained and described geochronological dating techniques that allow us to assign ages to such old rocks. Lunch was held in a more secluded side wadi, some way from the village, but still surrounded by the Fiq glaciation diamictites. After lunch a short climb up the Wadi wall to see a granite boulder of 1-2m diameter within the Fiq diamictites.

The majority of the participants

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The Hadash Formation (‘cap carbonate’) directly overlying a diamictite of the Fiq Formation

Next a short drive around the corner and up a short access road, followed by a short climb to stand above our lunch spot and on the top of the Fiq Formation (Abu Mahara Group) at the base of the Nafun Group. Here the Hadash Formation, a dolomitic carbonate moderately depleted in 13C, directly overlies diamictite and is known as a ‘cap carbonate’, bcause, globally, such carbonates overlie (cap) Neoproterozoic glacial deposits. This implies that carbonate sedimentation occurred worldwide at the onset of transgressions related to the melting of large volumes of ice. The Hadash Formation is one of the most prominent, from a global perspective, of these cap carbonates. The origin of these cap carbonates is still heatedly debated and Joachim Front Page

described their characteristics and their possible implications for ‘Snowball Earth’. Discussion was held regarding ‘Snowball Earth’ vs. ‘Slushball Earth’ vs. standard style glaciation with extent being related to the distribution of the continents in one single landmass. No conclusion was drawn!! Back into Wadi Bani Kharus with the sun beginning to sink and casting the deep wadi into shade, bringing the temperature down to almost glacial levels and a wellknown Omani outcrop where the steeply dipping Precambrian carbonates of the Buah Formation (Kharus Formation in the outcrop), c.550 million years old, are unconformably overlain by the slightly dipping Permian carbonates of the

Khuff Formation (Saiq Formation in the outcrop), c.250 million years old. This gives a marked angular unconformity with about 300 million years of stratigraphy missing. Around the corner of the wadi the Buah Formation can be inspected in detail and its constituent stromatolites and thrombolites seen. On the way back to Muscat, one final stop was made near the new road across the mountains to Fanja. Here pillow lavas of the semail ophiolite and a nearby outcrop of the Permian ‘Oman Exotics’ were briefly examined with some discussion on the origin of the ‘Oman Exotics’ and the different models for their existence. For me this was a field trip down memory lane, as the first Al Hajar 16th edition Feb 2010

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350Ma of missing stratigraphy at the angular unconformity between the Buah (Kharus) Formation and the Khuff (Saiq) Formation.

outcrops I visited in Oman were in Wadi Bani Kharus and Wadi Hajir, including some of the ones visited on this trip. It was better,

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however, to go with someone who knew the outcrops and the stories behind them. Thanks is extended to Joachim for running this trip for the

third time for GSO. It was greatly appreciated and enjoyed by all who participated.


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International News Kindly supplied by

INDIA

IRAN

Gas flowed at the rate of 5.4 MMcf/d, with 7.5 bc/d, at an onshore wildcat drilled by ONGC in the Krishna Godavari Basin. The Pennugonda 1A well on the Block 1B PEL was tested on a 6mm choke in the Cretaceous Raghavapuram Formation sandstones perforated at 3,062-3,071.5m, 3,080-3,086m and 3,092-3,099m intervals (Object I). In addition, the well yielded 500 Mcf/d through a 6mm choke from intervals in the Object II at 3,253-3,261m, 3,271-3,276m and 3,278-3,280m. Spudded in November 2007, the well was drilled to a total depth of 5,259m. ONGC is also reporting it has made an oil discovery on the Sibsagar District (Assam Shelf) PEL. Few details have been released on the onshore Geleki North 1 well, which reached a total depth of 3,545m in September 2009. ONGC has made a gas discovery in the Kutch Basin offshore northwestern India. The GK-28-1 (GK28-A) exploration well within the Kutch Offshore Block 1 Extension shallow water concession flowed 4.5 MMcf/d through a 12mm choke. The closure has been interpreted as a fault influenced structure. The well was spudded in October 2009 by the Transocean’s “F. G McClintock” J/U and drilled to a total depth of 1,550m. The original prognosed total depth was 3,500m.

Perhaps mindful of the global interest currently being shown towards its neighbor Iraq, and holding the world’s second largest gas reserves after Russia, Iran has reminded it seeks US$ 85 billion in investments within a decade to bolster gas exports. According to Reza Kasaizadeh, managing director of the National Iranian Gas Exports Company, the oil ministry plans to attract the money from both foreign and private sector investors. The development of Iran’s gas sector is hampered by a lack of productive investment and the growth of domestic consumption such that Iranians have faced gas shortages due to high consumption, especially in winter. The high demand has led Iran to cut gas supply to Turkey several times in the past. Having signed agreements with China and Malaysia, the Islamic republic has been seeking to compensate for the absence of Western companies in its energy sector.

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IRAQ Gulf Keystone has published an independent evaluation of its Shaikan 1 new field wildcat in the Shaikan Block, which has confirmed the well as the largest industry discovery of 2009. Reviewing the data from the Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic formations, the range of oil in-place for the Shaikan structure

has been increased to a gross 1.9 (P90) to 7.4 (P10) billion barrels of oil, with a mean of 4.2 billion barrels. Previous estimates were 1.0 (P90) and 5.0 (P10) billion barrels. There are also prospective resources below 2,950m (lower Triassic and Permian) for which the evaluation has assigned potential reserves of 1 to 5 billion barrels and 6 to 14 Tcf gas. The report concludes that Shaikan 1 has discovered a significant resource of oil and gas in the Cretaceous Sarmord, Jurassic Barsarin, Sargelu, Alan, Mus, Butmah, Baluti and Triassic Kurre Chine formations. Targeting prospective intervals in the Cretaceous and the Jurassic, Kalegran, a subsidiary of MOL, has spudded Bijeel 1, its first well in the Akri Bijeel block that will be drilled to a total depth of 4,300m. Kalegran holds an 80% interest in the permit, the remaining 20% is held by Gulf Keystone and the latter’s success with the Shaikan 1 well in adjoining acreage has de-risked this and a number of other prospects nearby. Located in the Kurdistan region of northern Iraq, the 889 sq km onshore Akre-Bijeel Block was awarded in November 2007 for an initial exploration period of three years. The work obligation includes the acquisition of approximately 200km of 2D seismic data, with an option to drill one exploration well within the first exploration phase. Under the PSC, the Kurdistan Regional Government has the right to a participation interest Al Hajar 16th edition Feb 2010

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of between 20% and 25%, and it has retained the right to assign third party participation interests of between 15% and 25% to qualified Iraqi and international companies. PAKISTAN Pakistan Petroleum Ltd (PPL) has been awarded two onshore exploration licenses in the Lower Indus Basin that were offered in the 2009 Licensing Round. Gambat South 2568-18 EL comprises 2,435.95 sq km in the Sindh province. Five dry holes have been drilled on the tract, including most recently Tullow’s Shahpur Chakar 1 which was abandoned at a total depth of 3,392. PPL was declared the successful bidder after the closing of the licensing round on 30 September 2009. Rival bids were submitted by PEL, OGDC, Hycarbex and NHEPL. In addition, PPL was awarded the Jungshahi 2467-12 EL. Also located in the Sindh province, it encompasses 2,459.26 sq km. It also includes five dry holes, the most recent of which was drilled -- again by Tullow -- in 1995. OGDC made a rival bid for this block. The 2009 Licensing Round was launched shortly after the approval of new Petroleum Exploration & Production Policy 2009 and Model Petroleum Concession Agreement (PCA)/ Pakistan Petroleum (Exploration & Production) Rules. SAUDI ARABIA Speaking in Bangalore, Saudi Aramco chief executive officer Khalid al-Falih said output from Manifa, a supergiant field, will begin in 2013 with full development completed in 2015, but that costs have risen US$ 7 billion and now stand at nearly US$ 16 billion. With a capacity to produce 900,000 b/d of heavy crude, 65,000 Front Page

bc/d and 105 MMcf/d of associated sour gas to be processed at the Khursaniyah gas plant, the project is the last of a series of large oil field development projects scheduled by the company that in 2009 took its total capacity to 12.5 MMb/d. Saudi Aramco slowed work on the project as it looked to cut costs on oil service contracts at the field and across its energy industry while simultaneously, a slump in global energy demand made further oil field development less urgent. Manifa has six reservoirs containing heavy, sour oil that is being developed to compensate for declining capacity at other fields rather than to add to total capacity. It was brought onstream in February 1966 from the Manifa Zone and produced an average of 60,000 bo/d during the year. The Lower Ratawi reservoir started producing in 1974 and by 1990 there were 12 flowing wells. Further development of Manifa was planned in May 1990, but the project was deferred. In his address, Khalid al-Falih also let it be known that his company plans to further explore for oil and gas in the deep waters of the Red Sea off its eastern coast and will launch an extensive 3D seismic survey. It was implied that further emphasis would be given to nonconventional oil and gas resources given advances in technology. He had earlier commented that Aramco planned to drill in deeper offshore frontiers in 2012. SYRIA The Syrian Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (MOPMR) and General Petroleum Company are inviting successfully qualified international petroleum companies to participate in an International Bid Round. The round involves the exploration, development and

production of seven oil areas in Syria under the basis of Production Sharing Contracts (PSCs). The seven oil areas have been divided into two groups; Group I comprises the Turaib West, Halimeh and Al Dahl oil field areas and Group II comprises the Jaideen, Tel Asfar, Zinati and El Halul oil field areas. All of the fields are currently located in the ‘Central’ block in the Palmyra Zone and operated by Syrian Petroleum Company. All companies wishing to qualify for the round are expected to submit qualification documents to MOPMR no later than 18 February 2010. The international bid round will close at 14:00 on 19 May 2010. Gulfsands Petroleum has received confirmation from Syria’s General Petroleum Corporation that it has been granted a 25-year production license to develop the Yousefieh oil field in Block 26 North East Syria, which it operates with a 50% interest. The license may be extended for a further 10 years. The Yousefieh field was assessed at the end of 2008 as containing gross proved plus probable reserves of 11 MMbo and first oil is anticipated early in April 2010. Production will commence from two wells, Yousefieh 1 and Yousefieh 3, at an expected initial combined rate of up to 1,000 bo/d. The current expectation is that the Yousefieh field has lower reservoir energy than the nearby Khurbet East field and planning is underway to install permanent down-hole artificial lift equipment in both Yousefieh wells later in the year. In addition, a further development well on Yousefieh is planned for 2010. It is anticipated that production from the Yousefieh field will reach a rate of approximately 6,000 bo/d by 2012.


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TURKEY Issuing a joint statement, ExxonMobil is joining Black Sea exploration acreage covering over 30,000 sq km that is currently held by TPAO and Petrobras. Subject to regulatory approval, the deal covers the Sinop, Ayancik and Carsamba sub-blocks of Block 3922. New equities will be TPAO (operator, 50%), ExxonMobil (25%) and Petrobras (25%). In March 2009, Petrobras contracted the Ocean Rig “Leiv Eiriksson” S/S for a seven-well, threeyear period of drilling in the Black Sea in a deal valued at US$ 630 million.

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TPAO has stated that it hopes to find a minimum of 5 billion barrels of oil in the Black Sea region jointly held with Petrobras. The rig is now in Turkish waters and is expected to spud the Sinop 1 well for Petrobras in February 2010. Petrobras’ International Director, Jorge Zelada, had previously stated the company was planning to invest US$ 300 million to drill two exploration wells in the Black Sea in 2010. Block 3922 has an average water depth of 2,200m and is undrilled. Note that since June 2008, ExxonMobil has had a 50% interest in the Samsun sub-block of 3922 and the eastern part of Block 3921. ExxonMobil will become the operator during the initial

exploration phase and will earn 50% interest in the 8,500 sq km Samsun Block and the eastern part of Block 3921 (21,000 sq km). ExxonMobil and TPAO will invest between US$ 400 to US$ 450 million in this first stage of exploration. With thanks to IHS Energy For further information please contact Ken White or Stuart Lewis e-mail : [email protected] e-mail : [email protected] web site : www.ihs.com


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AGM Report - GSO grows to grab larger projects Kaushalendra S Singh, Oman Observer

The following article is taken from the Oman Observer, reporting on the GSO Annual General Meeting. MUSCAT - The Geological Survey of Oman (GSO) honoured members and non-members for their active participation in geological activities of Oman at its annual meeting held at Crowne Plaza Hotel on Sunday. The meeting was held under the auspices of Nasser bin Khamis al Jashmi, Under-Secretary of Ministry of Oil and Gas. The guest speaker on the occasion was Dr Fu’ad Jafer Sajwani, Chairman of Economic Council at Shura Council and former vice-president of Central Bank of Oman. Addressing the gathering, Dr Mahmood Saif al Mahrooqi, GSO President, termed year 2009 as a very good year for the GSO. “We stepped out of GSO’s normal activities of talks and field trips into projects that have a significant impact on awareness of Oman’s geology.” “On the membership front, the GSO members have risen steadily reflecting the increasing interest in GSO and the geology of Oman. The budget of the GSO also saw an increase that made possible for us to accommodate larger projects and activities.” The chief guest distributed certificates and gifts among the

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selected people under different categories. The honours were given in the categories of ‘Active role in making of Oman Geology Documentary’, ‘Active role in GSO-Al Watan news group’ and ‘Supporting GSO and facilitating link at SQU Geo-group’. Those who got trophies and shields included, Ali al Jardani for Financial Support and personal commitment for GSO cause, Juma al Balushi for participation in the making of the geology documentary, Mohammed al Kindy for continuous contribution to the GSO and also for his participation in the making of the geology documentary. Yousuf al Sinani was honoured for improving the GSO website and Ken Glennie for providing valuable contribution to the Oman Geology documentary. The highlight of the meeting was the honour extended to Dr Jan Schreurs for his interest and commitment in the Omani geology. Dr Jan arrived in Oman in 2001 to take up the position of Head Geological Services in the exploration Directorate of Petroleum Development Oman (PDO). Jan’s passion for field geology is second to none and weather permitting, most weekends he gets into his Land Rover

Defender and drives off to wander over some piece of outcrop, his recent work on the Fara outcrops of Wadi Bani Awf. The chief speaker Dr Fu’ad spoke at length and covered areas like international and domestic economy and their overall impact on Omani economy. He also touched topics like Omani employment and expatriates remittances.


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Sultanate of Oman Geoscience

Publications 2009

John F. Aitken,PDO

A list of peer reviewed, geoscience publications, concerning the Sultanate of Oman, issued in 2009, is provided below. As with previous listings it covers geology, palaeontology, petrology, geophysics, hydrogeology, geomorphology and archaeology (that includes a geoscience component). Papers dealing with neighbouring countries that have relevance to Oman, particularly the extension of the Oman Mountains into the UAE, have also been included. As usual, omitted are annual reviews, papers dealing with the entire Arabian Peninsula, or large parts thereof, regional summaries and items from trade publications, except one that is specifically technical. Also excluded are conference abstracts and papers that have not undergone peer review, although these may contain significant contributions to the understanding of the Sultanate’s geosciences. These references have been compiled through the use of internet search engines, browsing publisher’s websites and from browsing the Journals available to the compiler. It is as complete as possible within these limitations. In this respect, additional 2007 and 2008 publications on the geology of Oman have been encountered since the publication of the listings for these years in the 12th and 14th editions of Al Hajar, respectively. These additional references are included here ¬(below the 2009 publications). If any reader notices any omissions, please contact the editor ([email protected]) or compiler and these will be published in a future edition of Al Hajar, with an acknowledgment.

2009 Adams, E.W., Bellian, J.A. & Reyes, R. 2009. Digital outcrop models reduce uncertainty and improve reservoir characterization. World Oil, September 2009. Alagarsamy, R. 2009. Geochemical variability of copper and iron in Oman Margin sediments. Microchemical Journal 91, 111-117. Al-Barram, I. 2009. Carboniferous-Permian spore assemblages from Oman. PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield. Ali, M.Y., Sirat, M. & Small, J. 2009. Integrated gravity and seismic investigation over the Jabel Hafit structure: implications for basement configuration of the frontal fold-and-thrust belt of the northern Oman Mountains. Journal of Petroleum Geology 32, 21-38. Anan, H.S. 2009. Paleontology and stratigraphic distribution of suborder Lagenina (benthic foraminifera) from the Middle-Late Eocene Mazyad Member of the Dammam Formation in Jabal Hafit, Al Ain area, United Arab Emirates, Northern Oman Mountains. Revue de Paléobiologie, Genève 29, 1-18. Basile, C. & Chauvet, F. 2009. Hydromagmatic eruption during the buildup of a Triassic carbonate platform (Oman Exotics): Eruptive style and associated deformations. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 183, 84-96. Blechschmidt, I., Matter, A., Preusser, F. & Rieke-Zapp, D. 2009. Monsoon triggered formation of Quaternary alluvial megafans in the interior of Oman. Geomorphology 110, 128-139. Böning, P. & Bard, E. 2009. Millenial/centennial-scale thermocilne ventilation changes in the Indian Ocean as reflected by aragonite preservation and geochemical variations in Arabian Sea sediments. Geochimica & Cosmochimica Acta 73, 6771-6788. Bowring, S.A., Grotzinger, J.P., Condon, D.J., Ramezani, J. & Newall, M.J. 2009. Reply to comment: Oman Chronostratigraphy: (Reply to comment by Erwan Le Guerroué, Ruben Rieu and Andrea Cozzi on “Geochronologic Constraints on the Chronostratigraphic Framework of the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup, Sultanate of Oman”, American Journal of Science 307, 1097-1145). American Journal of Science 309, 91-96. Breesch, L., Swennen, R. & Vincent, B. 2009. Fluid flow reconstruction in hanging and footwall carbonates: compartmentalization by Cenozoic reverse faulting in the Northern Oman Mountains (UAE). Marine and Petroleum Geology 26, 113-128. Chauvet, F., Dumont, T. & Basile, C. 2009. Structures and timing of Permian rifting in the central Oman Mountains (Saih Hatat). Tectonophysics 475, 563574. Cheng, H., Fleitmann, D., Edwards, R.L., Wang, X., Cruz, F.W. Auler, A.S., Mangini, A., Wang, Y., Kong, X., Burns, S.J. & Matter, A. 2009. Timing and structure of the 8.2 kyr B.P. event inferred from δ18O records of stalagmites from China, Oman, and Brazil. Geology 37, 1007-1010. Coogan, L.A. 2009. Altered oceanic crust as an inorganic record of paleoseawater Sr concentration. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems G3 10. Online Journal (http://g-cubed.org/).

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Dare, S.A.S., Pearce, J.A., McDonald, I. & Styles, M.T. 2009. Tectonic discrimination of peridotites using ƒO2-Cr# and Ga-Ti-FeIII systematics in chromespinel. Chemical Geology 261, 199-216. Dilek, Y. & Furnes, H. 2009. Structure and geochemistry of Tethyan ophiolites and their petrogenesis in subduction rollback systems. Lithos 113, 1-20. Donato, S.V., Reinhardt, E.G., Boyce, J.I. Pilarczyk, J.E. & Jupp, B.P. 2009. Particle-size distribution of inferred tsunami deposits in Sur Lagoon, Sultanate of Oman. Marine Geology 257, 54-64. Fleitmann, D. & Matter, A. 2009. The speleothem record of climate variability in Southern Arabia. Comptes Rendu Geoscience 341, 633-642. Fookes, P.G. & Lee, M. 2009. Desert environments of inland Oman. Geology Today 25, 226-231. France, L., Ildefonse, B. & Koepke, J. 2009. Interactions between magma and hydrothermal system in Oman ophiolite and in IODP Hole 1256D: Fossilization of a dynamic melt lens at fast spreading ridges. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 10. Online Journal (http://g-cubed.org). Giraud, J. 2009. The evolution of settlement patterns in the eastern Oman from the Neolithic to the early Bronze Age (600-2000 BC). Comptes Rendus Geosciences 341, 739-749. Grégoire, M., Langlade, J.A., Delpech, G., Dantas, C. & Ceuleneer, G. 2009. Nature and evolution of the lithospheric mantle beneath the passive margin of East Oman: evidence from mantle xenoliths sampled by Cenozoic alkaline lavas. Lithos 112, 203-216. Grosjean, E., Love, G.D., Stalvies, C., Fike, D.A. & Summons, R.E. 2009. Origin of petroleum in the Neoproterozoic-Cambrian South Oman Salt Basin. Organic Geochemistry 40, 87-110. Holland, M., Saxena, N. & Urai, J.L. 2009. Evolution of fractures in a highly dynamic thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical system – (II) remote sensing fracture analysis, Jabal Shams, Oman Mountains. GeoArabia 14(3), 163-194. Holland, M., Urai, J.L., Muchez, P. & Willemse, E.J.M. 2009. Evolution of fractures in a highly dynamic thermal, hydraulic, and mechanical system – (I) field observations in Mesozoic carbonates, Jabal Shams, Oman Mountains. GeoArabia 14(1), 57-110. Immenhauser, A. 2009. Phreatic cave calcites: archives of two realms. Geology Today 25, 29-33. Kacimov, A.R., Sherif, M.M., Perret, J.S. & Al-Mushikhi, A. 2009. Control of sea-water intrusion by salt-water pumping: coast of Oman. Hydrogeology Journal 17, 541-558. Kowalewski, I., Carpentier, B., Huc, A.-Y., Adam, P., Hanin, S., Albrecht, P., Wojciak, P., Frewin, N. & Al-Ruwehy, N. 2009. An unconventional Neoproterozoicearly Cambrian source rock interval in southern Oman: implications for oil and gas generation. GeoArabia 14(4), 53-86. Knaust, D. 2009. Complex behavioural pattern as an aid to identify the producer of Zoophycos from the Middle Permian of Oman. Lethaia 42, 146-154. Le Guerroué, E., Rieu, R. & Cozzi, A. 2009. Comment: Oman Chronostratigraphy: (Comment on “Geochronologic constraints on the chronostratigraphic framework of the Neoproterozoic Huqf Supergroup, Sultanate of Oman” by Samuel A. Bowring, John P. Grotzinger, Daniel J. Condon, Jahandar Ramezani, Mark J. Newall and Philip A. Allen, American Journal of Science 307, 1097–1145.). American Journal of Science 309, 85-90. Lézine, A.-M. 2009. Timing of vegetation changes at the end of the Holocene Humid Period in desert areas at the northern edge of the Atlantic and Indian monsoon systems. Comptes Rendu Geoscience 341, 750-759. Lorand, J.-P., Alard, O. & Godard, M. 2009. Platinum-group element signature of the primitive mantle rejuvenated by melt-rock reactions: evidence from Sumail peridotites (Oman Ophiolite). Terra Nova 21, 35-40. Love, G.D., Grosjean, E., Stalvies, C., Fike, D.A., Grotzinger, J.P., Bradley, A.S., Kelly, A.E., Bhatia, M., Meredith, W., Snape, C.E., Bowring, S.A., Condon, D.J. & Summons, R.E. 2009. Fossil steroids record the appearance of Demospongiae during the Cryogenian period. Nature 457, 718-721. Lucazeau, F., Leroy, S., Autin, J., Bonneville, A., Goutorbe, B., Watremez, L., d’Acremont, E., Düsünur, D., Rolandone, F., Huchon, P., Bellahsen, N. & Tuchais, P. 2009. Post-rift volcanism and high heat-flow at the ocean-continent transition of the eastern Gulf of Aden. Terra Nova 21, 285-292. Maurer, F., Martini, R., Rettori, R., Hillgärtner, H. & Cirilli, S. 2009. The geology of Khuff outcrop analogues in the Musandam Peninsula, United Arab Emirates and Oman. GeoArabia 14(3), 125-158. Mohapatra, R.K., Schwenzer, S.P., Herrmann, S., Murty, S.V.S., Ott, U. & Gilmour, J.D. 2009. Noble gases and nitrogen in Martian meteorites Dar al Gani 476, Sayh al Uhaymir 005 and Lewis Cliff 88516: EFA and extra neon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73, 1505–1522. Musson, R.M.W. 2009. Subduction in the Western Makran: the historian’s contribution. Journal of the Geological Society 166, 387-391. Nicolas, A., Boudier, F. & France, L. 2009. Subsidence in magma chamber and the development of magmatic foliation in Oman ophiolite gabbros. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 284, 76-87. Preusser, F. 2009. Chronology of the impact of Quaternary climate change on continental environments in the Arabian Peninsula. Comptes Rendu Geoscience 341, 621-632. Rajmohan, N., Al-Futaisi, A. & Al-Touqi, S. 2009. Geochemical process regulating groundwater quality in a coastal region with complex contamination sources: Barka, Sultanate of Oman. Environmental Earth Sciences 59, 385-389. Remeysen, K. & Swennen, R. 2009. Application of microfocus computed tomography in carbonate reservoir characterization: possibilities and limitations.

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Marine and Petroleum Geology 25, 486-499. Reuning, L., Schoenherr, J., Heimann, A., Urai, J.L., Littke, R., Kukla, P.A. & Rawahi, Z. 2009. Constraints on the diagenesis, stratigraphy and internal dynamics of the surface-piercing salt domes in the Ghaba Salt Basin (Oman): a comparison to the Ara Group in the South Oman Salt Basin. GeoArabia 14(3), 83-120. Rollinson, H. 2009. New models for the genesis of plagiogranites in the Oman Ophiolite. Lithos 112, 603-614. Rowan, C.J., Roberts, A.P. & Broadbent, T. 2009. Reductive diagenesis, magnetite dissolution, greigite growth and paleomagnetic smoothing in marine sediments: a new view. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 277, 223-235. Roy, R., Launeau, P., Carrere, V., Pinet, P., Ceuleneer, G., Clenet, H., Daydou, Y., Giradeau, J. & Amri, I. 2009. Geological mapping strategy using visible nearinfrared-shortwave infrared hyperspectral remote sensing: application to the Oman ophiolite (Sumail Massif). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems G3 10. Online Journal (http://g-cubed.org/). Sansom, I.J., Miller, C.G., Heward, A., Davies, N.S., Booth, G.A., Fortey, R.A. & Paris, F. 2009. Ordovician fish from the Arabian Peninsula. Palaeontology 52, 337-342. Schneider, C. 2009. Facies, Sequence Stratigraphy and 3D modelling of the Sudair Formation Saiq Plateau, Jebel Akhdar, Oman Mountains. MSc. Thesis, Universität Tübingen. Schoenherr, J., Schléder, Z., Urai, J.L., Littke, R. & Kukla, P.A. 2009. Deformation mechanisms of deeply buried and surface-piercing Late Pre-Cambrian to Early Cambrian Ara Salt from interior Oman. International Journal of Earth Sciences (Geologisches Rundschau). Online First, Springer Berlin. Schoenherr, J., Reuning, L., Kukla, P.A., Littke, R., Urai, J., Siemann, M. & Rawahi, Z. 2009. Halite cementation and carbonate diagenesis of intra-salt reservoirs from the Late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian Ara Group (South Oman Salt Basin). Sedimentology 56, 567-589. Searle, M.P. & Ali, M.Y. 2009. Structural and tectonic evolution of the Jabal Sumeini – Al Ain-Buraimi region, northern Oman and eastern United Arab Emirates. GeoArabia 14(1), 115-142. Thiele, S., Heinson, G., Gray, D.R. & Gregory, R.T. 2009. Ophiolite emplacement in NE Oman: constraints from magnetotelluric sounding. Geophysical Journal International 176, 753-766. Urban, B. & Buerkert, A. 2009. Palaeoecological analysis of a Late Quaternary sediment profile in northern Oman. Journal of Arid Environments 73, 296305. Urban, B. & Buerkert, A. 2009. Corrigendum to ‘‘Palaeoecological analysis of a Late Quaternary sediment profile in northern Oman’’ [Journal of Arid Environments 73 (2009) 296–305]. Journal of Arid Environments 73, 694. van der Neut, J. & Bakulin, A. 2009. Estimating and correcting the amplitude radiation pattern of a virtual source. Geophysics 74, S127-S136. Vizán, H., Turner, P., Millson, J.A. & Ixer, R.A. 2009. Palaeomagnetism of the Mahatta Humaid Group (Cambrian-Early Ordovician, Oman), including a reinterpretation of previous Neoproterozoic palaeomagnetic data. GeoArabia 14(2), 71-96. Webster, G.D., Angiolini, L. & Tintori, A. 2009. Permian crinoids from the Saiwan and Khuff Formations, southeastern Oman. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 115, 27-48. Wetzel, A., Uchman, A., Blechschmidt, I & Matter, A. 2009. Omanichnus and Vitichnus – two new Graphoglyptid ichnogenera from Upper Triassic deep-sea fan deposits in Oman. Ichnos 16, 179-185. Yoshitake, N., Arai, S., Ishida, Y. & Tamura, A. 2009. Geochemical characteristics of chloritization of mafic crust from the northern Oman ophiolite: implications for estimating the chemical budget of hydrothermal alteration of the oceanic lithosphere. Journal of Mineralogical and Petrological Sciences 104, 156-163.

2008 Cheng, H., Fleitmann, D., Edwards, R.L., Burns, S.J. & Matter, A. 2008. Timing of the 8.2-kyr event in a stalagmite from Northern Oman. PAGES News 16, 29-30. Love, G.D., Stalvies, C., Grosjean, E., Meredith, E. & Snape, E. 2008. Analysis of molecular biomarkers covalently bound within Neoproterozoic sedimentary kerogen. In: Kelley, P.H & Bambach, R.K. (eds.) From evolution to geobiology: research questions driving paleontology at the start of a new century, Paleontological Society Short Course, October 4, 2008. Paleontological Society Papers 14. pp.67-83.

2007 Agematsu, S., Orchard, M.J. & Sashida, K. 2008. Reconstruction of an apparatus of Neostrachanognathus tahoensis from Oritate, Japan and species of Nesotrachanognathus from Oman. Palaeontology 51, 1201-1211. Demidova, S., Nazarov, M., Lorenz, C., Kurat, G., Brandstätter, F. & Ntaflos, Th. 2007. Chemical composition of lunar meteorites and the lunar crust.

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Petrology 15, 386-407. Fike, D.A. 2007. Carbon and Sulfur Isotopic Constraints on Ediacaran Biogeochemical Processes, Huqf, Supergroup, Sultanate of Oman. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Harzhauser, M., 2007. Oligocene and Aquitanian gastropod faunas from the Sultanate of Oman and their biogeographic implications for the early western Indo-Pacific. Palaeontographica 280, 75-121. Homewood, P., Vahrenkamp, V., Mettraux, M., Mattner, J., Vlaswinkel, B., Droste, H. & Kwarteng, A. 2007. Bar Al Hikman: a modern carbonate and outcrop analogue in Oman for Middle East Cretaceous fields. First Break 25, 55-61. Naidu, P.D. 2007. Influence of monsoon upwelling on the planktonic foraminifera off Oman during Late Quaternary. Indian Journal of Marine Science 36, 322-331. Schoenherr, J., Schléder, Z., Urai, J.L., Fokker, P.A. & Schulze, O. 2007. Deformation mechanisms and rheology of Pre-cambrian rocksalt from the South Oman Salt Basin. In: Wallner, M., Lux, K., Minkley, W. & Hardy, H. (eds.) The Mechanical Behavior of Salt – Understanding of THMC Processes in Salt: Proceedings of the 6th Conference (SaltMech6), Hanover, Germany, 22-25 May 2007. Taylor & Francis, Abingdon. pp.167-173. Webster, G.D. & Sevastopulo, G.D. 2007. Paleogeographic significance of Early Permian crinoids and blastoids from Oman. Palæontologische Zeitschrift 81, 399-405.

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Upcoming Events

.

Talks 13 March tbc April

Measuring Climate Change in the Arctic Val Brock

Enhanced Oil Recovery in Oman

Bert-Rik DeZwart

Field Trips 4 March

Fara Formation of Wadi Bani Awf Carlos Fonseca & Jan Schreurs

Disclaimer The information contained in this Newsletter is not, nor is it held out to be, a solicitation of any person to take any form of investment decision. The content of the GSO Newsletter does not constitute advice or a recommendation by GSO and should not be relied upon in making (or refraining from making) any decision relating to investments or any other matters. Although the GSO does not intend to publish or circulate any article, advetisment or leaflet containing inaccurate or misleading information, the Society cannot accept responsibility for information contained in the Newsletter or any accompanying leaflets that are published and distributed in good faith by the GSO. Items contained in this Newsletter are contributed by individuals and organisations and do not necessarily express the opinions of the GSO, unless explicitly indicated.The GSO does not accept responsibility for items, articles or any information contained in or distributed with the Newsletter. Under no circumstances shall GSO be liable for any damages whatsoever, including, without limitation, direct, special, indirect, consequential, or incidental damages, or damages for lost profits, loss of revenue, or loss of use, arising out of or related to the Newsletter or the information contained in it, whether such damages arise in contract, negligence, tort, under statute, in equity, at law or otherwise. The Editors reserve the right to reject, revise and change text editorially. © 2008 The Geological Society of Oman All rights reserved. No reproduction, copying or transmission of this publication may be made by any means possible, current or future, without written permission of the President, Geological Society of Oman. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted unless with written permission or in accordance with international copyright law or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by alegitimate Copyright Licensing Agency. All effort has been made to trace copyright holders of material in this publication, if any rights have been omitted the Geological Society of Oman offers its apologies.

Geological Society of Oman Post Box 993, Ruwi 112, Sultanate of Oman E-Mail - [email protected] www.gso.org.om

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issue16 | feb2010 - RWTH Aachen University

issue16 | feb2010 - RWTH Aachen University

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