Published in the UK by: University of Central Lancashire, Preston. (SSTO Publications: in association with the Centre for Research Informed Teaching)
Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies Volume 4, Issue 1, December 2010 National Curriculum Physical Education: healthy lifestyles and lifelong participation in physical activity
ISSN: ISBN: JQRSS Article No:
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Wesley Johnrose (University of Central Lancashire)
b
Anthony Maher (University of Central Lancashire)
1754-2375 978-0-9566270-1-8 2/7-4-1-2010-UG1[3]-041
To cite this article: Johnrose, W. and Maher, A.J. (2010) National Curriculum Physical Education: healthy lifestyles and lifelong participation in physical activity. Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies, 4, 1, 15-22.
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Johnrose, W. and Maher, A.J. (2010) National Curriculum Physical Education: healthy lifestyles and lifelong participation in physical activity. Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies, 4, 1, 15-22
National Curriculum Physical Education: healthy lifestyles and lifelong participation in physical activity Wesley Johnrose and Anthony John Maher (University of Central Lancashire)
Abstract This paper examines the increasing use of physical education (PE) and school sport generally and the new National Curriculum Physical Education (NCPE) introduced in 2008 (QCA, 2007) in particular, as a vehicle for promoting a healthy lifestyle and lifelong participation in physical activity. The use of PE as a vehicle to promote good heath gained particular support amongst PE teachers and policy makers around the start of the 1970s. This inference is based largely upon the apparent increase during the 1970s and 1980s in socalled ‘lifestyles diseases’, which focused the government’s attention towards the potential role that PE could play in the prevention of health-related diseases. Against this backdrop, the NCPE 2008 aims to, amongst other things, enable young people to make informed choices about adopting a healthy, active lifestyle by providing more PE and school sport through a wider choice of activities. For those young people who are no longer in formal education, community providers in partnership with local authorities are expected to lay on affordable opportunities for post school physical activities which may help to ensure that more young people continue participating in physical activity once they leave school. The paper concludes by suggesting that the NCPE 2008 may be revised before enough time has been given to attempt to measure its albeit vague, idealistic and somewhat dogmatic intended outcomes (Sellers and Palmer, 2008). After all, the new coalition government will want to stamp their own mark on education and health, which are both at the forefront of their political agenda and, at present, PE and health remain a juxtaposed ‘political football’ that can be kicked back and forth at the whims of government.
Introduction There are possibly few beliefs which are as widely and as matter-of-factly accepted as that linking PE with the promotion of good health (Waddington, 2000). In fact, it is often assumed that PE not only can but should play a pivotal role in the promotion of health amongst young people (Green, 2008). The revised editions of the National Curriculum Physical Education (NCPE), for example, suggest that PE can make a holistic contribution to health (DfE, 1995; DfEE/QCA, 1999; QCA, 2007), whilst government documents on sport such as Sport: Raising the Game (DNH, 1995), A 15
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Sporting Future for All (DCMS, 2000) and Game Plan (DCMS, 2002) all champion the potential role that PE can play in promoting healthy lifestyles amongst young people, a view which is also shared by some academics. Harris (2005:89), for example, claims that ‘there should be a clear emphasis [in PE] on the beneficial short and long-term effects of exercise [on health]’. In short, it seems that the ideology linking PE and health has been maintained and often perpetuated by policy makers and academics. In trying to gain an understanding of this relationship, the paper will examine the development of PE as a vehicle for promoting health. Physical Education and health promotion By the start of the 1970s there began a gradual shift in PE practice from the promotion of health related fitness (HRF), which largely entailed improving fitness to enhance performance in competitive sport, towards a focus on health related exercise (HRE) in PE lessons. This mirrored changes in opinion about health and physical activity occurring in the medical profession. A growing concern in the 1960s and 1970s with the supposed dramatic rise in ‘lifestyle diseases’ (chronic heart disease (CHD), for example) focused government interest towards the potential preventive role that PE could play in the ‘fight’ against health-related diseases (Colquhoun, 1991; Green, 2003). In short, many policy makers viewed PE as a ready-made vehicle that could be used to help fulfil their health objectives. In turn, many PE teachers, conscious perhaps of the relatively low status of their subject in comparison to other academic subjects such as English and Mathematics, drew upon the prestige associated with the medical profession as a way of providing a higher status position for their subject (Green, 2003; Waddington, 2000). The first NCPE in 1992 identified PE as one of the 10 compulsory subjects to be taken by all pupils, addressed HRE as a component of the cross-curricular theme of ‘health education’ (National Curriculum Council, 1990). However, according to Green (2003) the position and mode of delivery of HRE was unclear, leading some PE teachers to fear that HRE would be placed at the periphery of the new programme of study because it was not afforded the status of a distinct unit (Cale, 1996) in what was a congested PE curriculum. With Maths, English and Science expected to occupy a large percentage of teaching time, less time was available for other subjects. Thus, little emphasis was placed upon improving young people’s health or their general attitude towards maintaining an interest in physical activity, partly because competitive sport continued to dominate the NCPE, both ideologically (Maher, 2010) and in terms of the time assigned to PE (Green, 2008; Fairclough, et al., 2002; Penney and Evans, 1999; Penney and Harris, 1997). A subsequent revision of the NCPE in 1995 provided a stronger position for healthrelated issues by explicitly constraining teachers to address the area when planning 16
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and implementing the new PE curriculum (Fox and Harris, 2003). Hitherto, health considerations existed only implicitly in the PE curriculum, often regarded as a ‘byproduct’ of participation in PE rather than being specifically planned for (Kirk, 1986:167). A general requirement of the 1995 NCPE was that teachers should promote physical activity and healthy lifestyles (DfE, 1995). Moreover, an attainment target for each of the key stages (one to four) related to the ability of pupils to recognise the role that physical activity and exercise has in achieving a healthy lifestyle (DfE, 1995). A change in political opinion in 1997 saw Tony Blair’s Labour government gain power and in 2000 they released their first policy document on sport, which was entitled: A Sporting Future for All (DCMS, 2000). The government focus of ‘sport for all’ was evident from the document title and was reinforced in the policy statement: ‘our aims are clear, we want to see more people of all ages and all social groups taking part in sport, and more success for our top teams in international competition’ (DCMS, 2000: 5). In reality, however, a dual emphasis on school sport for the identification of future elite athletes and the promotion of health amongst young people remained intact from the previous Conservative Government. The special emphasis on school sport was justified through the following statement ‘for most of us, school is where we first get the chance to play sport and catch the sporting habit. Taking part in school sport helps make young people healthier, teaches them self-discipline and teamwork skills, develops leadership potential and introduces them to activities they may enjoy’ (DCMS, 2000: 11 emphasis added). Within a period of two years A Sporting Future for All was replaced by Game Plan (DCMS/Strategy Unit, 2002), which was stimulated in part through the growing concern of government ministers and those from the health lobby that the British population, particularly its children, were getting fatter as a result of physical inactivity – a claim which some academics have explicitly rejected (see, for example, Kirk, 2006). Game Plan claimed that the burden of physical inactivity had become an increasing problem in society, costing the British economy an estimated £1.89 billion and 8 million days lost from work each year (DCMS/Strategy Unit, 2002), whilst the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that well over 60 per cent of the world’s population was not active enough to benefit their health (Pushka, 2004). In England, it has been suggested that physical inactivity has contributed to around 22% of men and 23% of women now being obese (a figure that has trebled since the 1980s) and 70% of men and 63% of women – or, 24 million adults – being either overweight or obese (Department of Health, 2004). In regard to children and young people, the Department of Health (2004) suggested that around 16% of 2 to 15 year olds are obese.
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To tackle the obesity ‘epidemic’, the aim of Game Plan was ‘to develop a sport and physical activity culture to produce a fitter, more active population... [in order to] realise the significant health benefits’ (DCMS/Strategy Unit, 2002: 90). Game Plan reinforced the view that PE could be used as a vehicle to enhance the health of the nation’s young people. To accompany Game Plan, the government also launched the Physical Education, School Sport and Club Links (PESSCL) strategy in the same year. The PESSCL strategy attempted to address an ambitious Public Service Agreement (PSA) target shared by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) and the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (now the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF)) to increase the percentage of school children (aged 5-16) who spend a minimum of two hours each week on PE within and beyond the curriculum from 25% in 2002 to 75% by 2006 (DCMS/DfES, 2002), a target which was extended to 85% by 2008. This strategy was based on the assumption that if more young people participate in more sport and physical activity at school they will, firstly, achieve health-related benefits in the short term and, secondly, achieve health-related benefits in the long term through lifelong participation in physical activity (if the habit of being physically active is kept up throughout life). NCPE 2008, health promotion and lifelong participation The ostensible benefits of partaking in physical activity are well documented. For young people in particular, it has been suggested that physical activity during the school years can help to improve concentration, commitment and raise self-esteem (Donnellan, 2006). It is widely believed that young people who exercise regularly are more likely to continue the trend into adult life, whilst inactive young people are more likely to become inactive adults, which can result in long-term health implications for those individuals. A study by Sport Council and Health Education Authority (1992) suggests that there is a significant drop – known as the ‘Wolfenden gap’ – in the number of young people who continue to participate in physical activity beyond secondary education. It is perhaps unsurprising, therefore, that a variety of publications over the course of the last decade or so have explicitly supported and justified the use of PE to promote lifelong participation in physical activity. Sports professional Kelly Holmes gives a number of reasons for the trend, which shows that females are more likely to lose interest in sport than males. She suggests that fewer young females participate in sport because many have negative body-images of themselves and low self-esteem (Holmes and Fursland, 2007). It may be noteworthy, that females with low self-esteem are more likely to be overweight, smoke and consume more alcohol (Irons, 2007), thus potentially exacerbating the health implications of an inactive lifestyle.
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The NCPE 2008 (QCA, 2007) was introduced to ensure that all young people had access to high quality PE and school sport. To achieve this objective, the new PE curriculum aims to deliver the ‘five hour offer’ (Sport England/ YST, 2009). This represents the minimum period of time that young people aged 5 to 16 should spent doing physical activity each week. In a similar vein, young people aged 16 to 19 should take part in physical activity for a minimum of 3 hours per week. Achieving these targets depends to a large extent on organisational partnership. The DCSF and DCMS, for example, work alongside Sport England and the Youth Sport Trust (YST) in order to identify how the government can best help local partners offer young people the support needed to actively partake in physical activity. A more long-term aim of the government is to create a world-class system for PE and school sport. Although it is duly noted that not all young people are capable of developing into world-class athletes, it is argued that all young people should be able to work towards a level of physical activity that will benefit their health. By encouraging schools to provide more challenging, inspiring and flexible approaches to PE, young people may be able to develop skills and an interest in sport, thus enabling them to make informed choices about adopting a healthy, active lifestyle for life. The NCPE 2008 works towards preparing young people for lifelong participation in physical activity by endeavouring to provide a more accessible, attractive, varied and appropriate PE curriculum, due perhaps to an ostensible mismatch between the dominant sport-based PE programmes and the [low] participation tendencies of adults (McPhail et al., 2003). Some secondary schools are aiming to develop a new PE culture by incorporating activities such as hiking and walking, which may increase the number of young people continuing their physical activity participation into adulthood. Activities such as kickboxing and martial arts, which combine skill, strength, self-defence and help to channel aggression, have also been introduced by some schools (Holmes and Fursland, 2007). In an attempt to involve more girls in physical activity, the YST and Norwich Union have set up ‘Girls Active’ schemes (YST, 2010), which allow teachers to invite external agents into their school to teach a variety of activities; for example, spinning and stress-reduction techniques such as Yoga. In addition, some schools have used the Sports Education Model (Siedentop, Hastie and Van Der Mars, 2004). Here, the lesson is planned and delivered by the young people themselves, who take up the role of coach, player, referee, scorekeeper and reporter. It is claimed that this approach improves attainment and attitudes, and increases participation, engagement, accountability, ownership and enjoyment (National Teacher Research Panel, 2006). Many schools are also involved in the ‘Step into Sport’ project (YST, 2010), which gives young people the opportunity to study sport leadership courses, volunteering projects, coaching and refereeing. Pupils are able to gain practical experience and recognised qualifications and awards, which may help to improve their confidence and self-esteem. The 19
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NCPE 2008 has set challenging targets. By the end of the 2010-2011 academic year it is hoped that 40% of young people aged 16 to 19 and 80% of 16 year olds will take part in PE or sport for a period of five hours each week. For 5-16 year olds, it is hoped that schools will provide 3-5 hours of physical activity; 2 through high quality PE within the curriculum and at least 1 hour beyond the curriculum. These figures are expected to rise gradually in subsequent years. By educating young people through actual participation in physical activity, the NCPE 2008 aims to create a new way of thinking; continued physical activity participation for life in order to improve the health of the nation. Conclusion Against this backdrop, it is perhaps unsurprising that the NCPE 2008 aims to, amongst other things, enable young people to make informed choices about adopting a healthy, active lifestyle by providing more PE and school sport in a wider range of activities. Campaigns such as ‘free swim for all’ by 2012, for which £130m was promised in order to make Britain healthier (The Times, 2008), is perhaps evidence that the government intended to promote its vision of a healthier population. However, in light of the recent change in government, it has become increasingly difficult to foresee future policy directions. It will be interesting to see whether a political revision of PE provides a more balanced educative experience or, conversely, a more generalised menu of exercise opportunities – only time will tell. References Cale, L. (1996) Health-related exercise in schools – PE has much to be proud of! British Journal of Physical Education, 27, 4, 8-13. Colquhoun, D. (1991) Health based physical education: the ideology of healthism and victim blaming. Physical Education Review, 14, 1, 5-13. Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) (2000) A sporting future for all: the government’s plan for sport. DCMS, London. Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) / Department for Education and Skills (DfES) (2002) Learning through PE and sport. DCMS/DfES, London. Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) / Strategy Unit (2002) Game plan: A strategy for delivering the government’s sport and physical activity objectives. DCMS/Strategy Unit, London. Department for Education (DfE) (1995) Physical Education in the National Curriculum, HMSO, London. Department for Education and Employment / Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (DfEE/QCA) (1999) Physical Education: The National Curriculum for England. DfEE/QCA, London.
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Department of Health (DoH) (2004) Choosing health? Choosing physical activity: A consultation on increasing physical activity. DoH, London. Department of National Heritage (DNH) (1995) Sport: raising the game. DNH, London. Donnellan, C. (2006) Women, men and equality, Independence, Cambridge. Fairclough, S., Stratton, G. and Baldwin, G. (2002) The contribution of secondary school physical education to lifetime physical activity. European Physical Education Review, 8, 1, 69-84. Fox, K. and Harris, J. (2003) Promoting physical activity through schools (pp. 181-201). In, McKenna, J. and Riddoch, C. (Eds.) Perspectives on health and exercise. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. Green, K. (2003) Physical education teachers on physical education. Chester Academic Press, Chester. Green, K. (2008) Understanding physical education. Sage, London. Harris, J. (2005) Health-related exercise and physical education (pp. 78-98). In. Green, K. And Hardman, K. (Eds.) Physical education: essential issues. Sage, London. Holmes, K. and Fursland, E. (2007) Get your kids fit: the parent’s guide to healthy, happy, active kids, Virgin Books Ltd., London. Irons, D. (2007) Best kept diet secrets, CPI Bookmarque, London. Kirk, D. (1986) Health related fitness as an innovation in physical education curriculum (pp. 167-182). In, Evans, J. (Ed.) Physical education, sport and schooling. The Falmer Press, London. Kirk, D. (2006) The obesity crisis and school physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 11, 2, 121-133. Maher, A. J. (2010) The inclusion of pupils with special educational needs: A study of the formulation and implementation of the National Curriculum Physical Education in Britain. Sport Science Review, XIX (1-2), 87-117. McPhail, A., Kirk, D. and Eley, D. (2003) Listening to young people’s voices: youth sports leaders’ advice on facilitating participation in sport. European Physical Education Review, 9, 1, 57-73. National Curriculum Council (1990) Curriculum Guidance 5: Health Education, HMSO, London. National Research Teacher Panel (2006) Sport Education: A vehicle for the inclusion and Performance of your under achieving and disaffected pupils [online]. Available at http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/ntrp/lib/pdf/holland.pdf (Accessed 24th September 2010). Penney, D. and Harris, J. (1997) Extra-curricular physical education: more of the same for the more able? Sport, Education and Society, 2, 1, 41-54. Puska, P. (2004) Foreword (pp. 17-19). In, Oja, P. and Borms, J. (Eds.) Health enhancing physical activity. Meyer and Meyer, Aachen.
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Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (2007) Physical education programme of study for Key Stage 3 and attainment targets. QCA, London. Sellers, V. and Palmer, C. (2008) Aims and dreams: a sideways look at the physical education programme of study for Key Stage 3 and attainment targets, QCA National Curriculum document (2007). Journal of Qualitative Research in Sports Studies, 2, 1, 191216. Siedentop, D., Hastie, P.A. and Van Der Mars, H. (2004) Complete guide to sport education. Human Kinetics, Champaign, Il. USA. Sports Council and Health Education Authority (1992) Allied Dunbar national fitness survey. Sports Council and Health Education Authority, London. Sport England and Youth Sports Trust (YST) (2009) The PE and sport strategy for young people. Sport England/YST. London. The Times (2008) Free swimming for all by 2012 in £130m campaign for a healthier Britain [online]. Available at: http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/olympics/london_2012/article4076337.ece (Accessed 19th September 2010). Waddington, I. (2000) Sport, health and drugs: A critical sociological perspective. E & FN Spon, London. Youth Sport Trust (YST) (2010) Girls Active’ [online]. Available at: http://www.youthsporttrust.org/page/kelly-diary-girls-active/index.html (Accessed, 24th September 2010). Youth Sport Trust (YST) (2010) Step into sport [online]. Available at: http://www.youthsporttrust.org/page/step-into-sport/index.html (Accessed, 24th September 2010).
JQRSS: Acknowledgement Footnote
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Authors Reflective Comment: I would like to thank Anthony Maher for sharing his knowledge and expertise in formulating this paper. This has had a positive impact on my confidence to read and research around Physical Education. It has given me a better understanding of the academic standards sough after when producing my work. This experience will stand me in good stead throughout my degree and beyond. Once again, thank you.
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Author Profile: At the time of writing the essay Wesley Johnrose was a first year BA Sports Coaching student. Sports have always been important to Wesley, in particular, Football and Cricket. Wesley intends to do a PGCE in Physical Education or study to become a Sports Nutritionist.
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Dear reader, if this article has stimulated your thoughts and you wish to find out more about this topic the authors can be contacted on: Wesley Johnrose:
[email protected] and Anthony Maher:
[email protected].
