Environ Monit Assess (2009) 153:391–403 DOI 10.1007/s10661-008-0366-7
Monitoring the changing position of coastlines using aerial and satellite image data: an example from the eastern coast of Trabzon, Turkey Faik Ahmet Sesli · Fevzi Karsli · Ismail Colkesen · Nihat Akyol
Received: 21 February 2007 / Accepted: 5 May 2008 / Published online: 17 June 2008 © Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Coastline mapping and coastline change detection are critical issues for safe navigation, coastal resource management, coastal environmental protection, and sustainable coastal development and planning. Changes in the shape of coastline may fundamentally affect the environment of the coastal zone. This may be caused by natural processes and/or human activities. Over the past 30 years, the coastal sites in Turkey have been under an intensive restraint associated with a population press due to the internal and external touristic demand. In addition, urbanization on the filled up areas, settlements, and the highways constructed to overcome the traffic problems and the other applications in the coastal region clearly confirm an intensive restraint. Aerial photos with medium spatial resolution and high resolution satellite imagery are ideal data sources for mapping coastal land use and monitoring their changes
for a large area. This study introduces an efficient method to monitor coastline and coastal land use changes using time series aerial photos (1973 and 2002) and satellite imagery (2005) covering the same geographical area. Results show the effectiveness of the use of digital photogrammetry and remote sensing data on monitoring large area of coastal land use status. This study also showed that over 161 ha areas were filled up in the research area and along the coastal land 12.2 ha of coastal erosion is determined for the period of 1973 to 2005. Consequently, monitoring of coastal land use is thus necessary for coastal area planning in order to protecting the coastal areas from climate changes and other coastal processes. Keywords Photogrammetry · Environment · Coastal management · Remote sensing · Coastal area · Coastal land use
Introduction F. A. Sesli (B) Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Ondokuz Mayıs University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey e-mail:
[email protected] F. Karsli · I. Colkesen · N. Akyol Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey
Coastal areas are unique environments in which atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere come into contact with each other. They are vital and highly dynamic environments whose multiple geophysical parameters are worth monitoring. Coastline extraction operations are made through visual interpretation of high resolution aerial photos.
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Monitoring changes in the coastline is an important task in some applications such as cartography and the environmental management of the entire coastal zone (Dellepiane 2004; Alesheikh et al. 2004). Understanding the coastal land use changes is essential for sustainable coastal zone planning and management as it allows decision makers to take a broader view of ecosystem and its components (Doygun and Alphan 2006). Coastlines are recognized as unique features on the Earth. They have valuable properties for a diverse user community. They are one of the 27 global “Geo-Indicators” referred to by the International Union of Geological Science (Lockwood 1997; Li et al. 2001, 2003). The coastal line is defined as the line of contact between land and a body of water (Pajak and Leatherman 2002; Alesheikh et al. 2004). It is easy to define but difficult to capture, since the water level always changes (Li et al. 2001; Di et al. 2003; Ingham 1992). In recent years, coastal zones, probably more than any other parts of the Earth, have been exposed to pressure and processes of change. Among these changes urbanization and new infrastructure, exploitation for recreation and tourism, acute nature and environmental problems, retreat of coastal occupations, reorganization of freight traffic between land and sea and changed functional demands and working conditions for harbors can be listed (Anker et al. 2004). Coastal areas are important natural habitats, which must be conserved (Williams 1990). Human activities in these areas may be fairly related to alternations of coastal lands (Ringrose et al. 1988; Jensen et al. 1995; Gerakis and Kalburtji 1998; Chopra et al. 2001; Wang et al. 2006). Natural processes and human activities can cause coastline changes. Natural processes include phenomena such as waves, currents and storms. On the other hand, the human activities involve changes in the environment, sometimes expressed as modification at landscape levels, including land reclamation, recreation, land use practices and construction. The magnitude of these activities and their effects are related to urban growth, and therefore urban development must be seen as a part of the ecological system (Bailly and Nowell 1996; Bedford 1999;
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Ji et al. 2001; Jackson et al. 2001; Ruiz-Luna and Berlanga-Robles 2003). Coastline changes can produce both a positive and negative impact. For instance, coastline accretion may create more usable land for recreation or other purposes, which can be regarded as a positive effect. However, a resort which used to be close to the beach may become out of the view of the new beach after accretion and thus it can be unattractive to tourists, which is a negative result. As a result, it is stated that changes in the shape of the coastline may fundamentally affect the environment of the coastal zone (Li et al. 1998; Wang et al. 2006). Coastal areas are easily accessible and, as a result, are commonly centers of human activities. Industrialization and urbanization are recent phenomena resulting from economic development, which leads to serious degradation of ecosystems, especially, pollution and habitat encroachment along the coast of Trabzon. Population increments with rural and urban activities directly affect the availability and quality of natural resources, and also induce secondary effects that must be evaluated from a regional view (Sekhar 2005; Ayad 2005). Substantial changes are taking place in the coastal landscape as a result of rapid urbanization. A series of environmental and resource problems have emerged owing to rapid urban development, including encroachment of agricultural land, land reclamation, silt deposition in rivers, and severe flooding (Kaya and Curran 2006). These problems have had a significant impact on sustainable development in Trabzon the largest city of northeastern Turkey. Currently, there are some serious threats, including unreliable and unplanned construction, lack of transportation, water pollution, garbage dumping into the Black Sea, traffic, air pollution, lack of commonly used land and recreation areas in the region. Trabzon is one of the cities in which rapid and unplanned coastal degradation has occurred. In order to solve transportation problems large extents of coastal zones have been recently filled. The use of satellite-based remotely sensed images was found to be a cost-effective approach to determine the changes over large geographic
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regions. However, recent research results (Lunetta et al. 2002a, b, 2004; Zhan et al. 2002) indicate that no uniform combination of data type and analytical method can be applied with equal success across broadly variable ecosystem conditions. Recent development of geospatial technologies, such as remote sensing (RS) and geographic information systems (GIS), can play an important role in such tasks of coastal management (Mumby et al. 1995). Modern remote sensing approaches have advantages over conventional field survey techniques, which can be regarded as labor intensive and expensive. Time series remotely sensed images with a medium spatial resolution are ideal data sources for mapping coastal land uses and monitoring their changes for a large area (Shi et al. 2002). Photogrammetry has the advantage of acquiring information about large areas efficiently and cost effectively. Especially for inaccessible areas, photogrammetry is far more superior to traditional ground survey method. In recent years, inexpensive computers and advances in computer technologies contributed to rapid development of digital photogrammetry (Dowman et al. 1992; Heipke 1995). Successful implementations of digital photogrammetric workstation in mapping have been found in various disciplines (Chen et al. 1998; Skalet et al. 1992). Similar to the shoreline, shoreline mapping techniques are also changing in a manner of generating better solutions. At present, photogrammetric techniques are employed to map the tide-coordinated shoreline from the aerial photographs that are taken when the water level reaches the desired level as remote sensing does. In this research, aerial photographs from 1973 and 2002, with remotely sensed image data taken in 2005 were used to analyze the coastal changes. The digital photogrammetry technique was applied to collect graphical data such as coastline, buildings, roads, and other topographic features of the study area. The objective of this research was to apply the combinations of digital photogrammetry and remote sensing to monitor the coastal areas of Trabzon so as to provide valuable information for coastal line and environment changes and coastal land management.
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Overview of coastal regions in Turkey and related legislation In the present day, the population in coastal areas in the world is equal to the entire global population in the 1950s. Most of the world’s largest cities are located in coastal areas. Various estimates suggest that the populations of the world’s coastal zones represent approximately 60% of the total world population (Sorensen 1993). Turkey has a long coastal zone surrounded by the Mediterranean, Aegean and the Black Sea, which are 1707, 3484, 1701 km, respectively. Littoral of the land of Turkey is 8333 km in total with the islands (Burak et al. 2004). There are totally 28 cities and about 220 municipalities in only coastal areas of Turkey. Of the Turkish population, 20% live in coastal cities and towns located wholly in coastal regions. The population of the cities in coastal areas has rapidly increased due to new policies and encouragements of tourism after 1985 (Ongan 1997). Environmental conditions such as the climate, topography, and the characteristics of habitation vary in the coastal regions of Turkey. Therefore, several problems appear in the applications related to coastal planning (Sesli and Aydinoglu 2003). According to the Turkish Coastal Law; coastal line is a natural line changing due to some meteorological events on the sea, lakes and rivers. Coast is an area between coast line and shore border line. Shore line (shore buffer zone) is an area of at least 100 m with horizontally from the shore border line of sea, lakes and rivers to earth. Detecting the shore border line is necessary to make plans and practice on the shore lines. Figure 1 represents the use of coastal areas in Turkey with respect to related Acts. In accordance with the Constitution Law of Turkish Republic, the coasts are at the disposal of the government. In the utilization of the sea, lake and river shorelines first thing that should be taken care off is all of the public’s benefit. On the other hand, according to the Turkish Civil Law, places with no property and goods in the benefit of the public are in no one’s ownership and can never be a subject of a private land ownership.
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Fig. 1 Definitions in accordance with the Turkish Coastal Law
In the Coastal Law, it is stated that the detection of the shore border line is required to be able to make plans and the implementation of these plans on the coast and shore line. Unfortunately, usage without considering the public benefit has been seen because of defects in planning and detection of shore border line.
Study area and data sources Trabzon, the major city in the centre of Eastern Black Sea, has a history of approximately 5000 years. The city is selected as a study area within its typical coastal area, and used as a case study to analyze coastal changes and their influences on the environment. Trabzon lies along the eastern coast of Turkey, at an average altitude of 300 m covering about 200000 ha. The study area is a part of rapidly developing eastern coastal zone of Turkey, a strip of land that averages about 15 km in depth from the Black Sea shoreline and in some places exceeds 30 km. It is located between longitudes 29˚23 E and 29˚33 E and between latitudes 30˚49 N and 30˚58 N. The study area extends about 8 km
westward and 10 km eastward along the shoreline with a width that ranges from 1.5 to 2 km inland. The width of the study area was selected based on an area bounded by the shoreline from the north and the contour line of 20 m above sea level from the south, which represents the highest point on the first rocky ridge. The eastern coastal zone of Turkey, where the study area is located, may be divided into two main physiographic parts: an eastern part between Yalıncak and Trabzon (about 10 km east of Trabzon) and a western part between Trabzon and Yıldızlı (about 8 km west of Trabzon) (Fig. 2). The study area is heavily rainy and foggy in winter. The rainy season is between November to May. The topography is marked by ridged hills and mountains with heights of up to 800 m above the sea level. It is important to note that the study area is part of a larger region that is exposed to heavy exploitation and other economic activities such as agriculture, industry and expanding urbanization. A series of aerial photographs from 1973 and 2002, including the study area, was provided from Trabzon Regional Directorate of Forestry and General Directorate of Forestry (GDF). These
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395
Fig. 2 Location of study area
photographs were produced for different purposes during the 1973–2002 periods. The series of photographs are of varying quality and scale (Table 1) providing a good indication of change detection in the study areas. Quickbird high resolution image were used as secondary data. A Quickbird image of the study area was acquired in May 2005 with a spatial resolution of 0.61 m. Topographical maps with the scale of 1:1000 were also available, creating the reference situation in previous studies. Time independent features such as control points on topographical maps were used to register the aerial and satellite images. Using the control points, the transformation between image space and ground space were carried out
Table 1 Technical specifications of images
with 0.5 m (for aerial photographs) and 1 m (for satellite image) precision, respectively. Technical specifications of the aerial and satellite images used in this study are shown in Table 2. The coverage area of these photographs is from west side of Trabzon, Yıldızlı District, by following the highway till the Yalıncak, east side of Trabzon, covers 18 km area of the coastal zone (Fig. 2). The hardware and software used in this study includes digital photogrammetric workstation (Z/I Imaging) for photogrammetric evaluation, MicroStation, Arc/Info, Arc View GIS, and NetCAD (CAD tool) for analyzing data and vectorization. In order to obtain high quality mapping products,
Aerial images Date
Scale
Type
Source
1973 2002
1/23000 1/15000
Panchromatic Color infrared
Trabzon Regional Directorate of Forestry General Directorate of Forestry
396 Table 2 Satellite imagery of filling areas
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 153:391–403 Imagery Image
Date
Spatial resolution (m)
Number of bands
Radiometric resolution
Quickbird
2005
0.61
4
11 bit
standard photogrammetric procedure was followed to acquire aerial images and to process the related data. The information data such as human settlements, roads, and the coastal line were collected by map vectorisation using photogrammetric system and Microstation software. The same process was applied to satellite imagery using Arc Info and Arc View GIS software packages.
Photogrammetric evaluation Photogrammetry is a technique for measuring objects (2D or 3D) from photographs. The goal of photogrammetry is to derive geometrical parameters of remote objects from photographs. The imaging process is mathematically formulated by a perspective transformation which gives the relation between the position of a point in the photograph (described by image coordinates) and its objects coordinates (X, Y, Z). The results of a photogrammetric process can be coordinates of the required object-points, topographical and thematic maps, or rectified photographs (orthophoto) (Kraus 1993; Atasoy et al. 2006). The orientation process, a prerequisite in photogrammetry, includes three steps, that is, interior orientation, relative and absolute orientation. Interior orientation reconstructs the bundle of light rays so that they are geometrically identical to those entered the camera lens at the time of exposure. Relative orientation reproduces the same perspective conditions between a pair of images so that the corresponding light rays in these two photographs intercept in space and a stereo model is formed. Following the relative orientation, the process of absolute orientation involves using control points with known horizontal and/or vertical positions to make the stereo model conform in scale and position with respect to the reference plane of the map sheet. At the completion of
absolute orientation, the position of any point in the stereo model can be measured at the intersection of two corresponding light rays. The orientation process was completed using the mensuration software (ISDM) module provided by Intergraph ImageStation. After completing the orientation process, the original imageries were resampled to generate epipolar images, which were used to form the stereo model. The images were viewed in stereo on the monitor using the CrystalEyes stereo viewing system. While viewing the images in stereo, topographic features of interest such as roads, buildings, and coastal line were collected. Together with other reference data, the images and collected topographic features were analyzed and special features were digitized. In this study, Z/I Imaging Digital Photogrammetric system for photogrammetric evaluation and Microstation V.8 by Bentley Inc. were used as a CAD tool. Photogrammetric processes were conducted by Stereo Softcopy Kits (SSK) provided by Z/I Imaging. Stereo photogrammetric evaluation was performed with Digital Photogrammetric Workstation Zeiss SSK, and aerial photographs of study area in Trabzon were used to digitize coastal line and other features such as buildings, roads, etc. Pre-defined reference points such as corners of schools, buildings, and mosques were used to get the best result for the references. The coordinates of these points selected as ground control points were measured from the maps with 1/1000 scale covering the same area. To establish the relationship between object space and image space, the ground control points were selected in the model area to conduct all measurements in National Coordinate System and then, interior, relative, and absolute orientations were performed, respectively. As a result of the absolute orientation, the accuracy was obtained as 70 cm in planimetry (x, y), 50 cm in height (z). The panchromatic
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397
Fig. 3 An overview of the images of coastal zone of Yıldızlı district
and infrared aerial images taken between 1973 (1:23000) and 2002 (1:15000) were used. The vector maps were produced from the images by using the existing roads, coastal line, and the other important features. The data was evaluated using ArcInfo and ArcView. The Quickbird image was geo-referenced using control points selected on 1: 1000 scale topographic maps. These control points are well distributed in study area. The accuracy of georeferencing was obtained with 1 meter and the coastal line and other features were digitized from the high resolution Quickbird image.
Change detection for coastline and coastal zone Using the aerial photographs, we aimed to examine the changes in coastal zone and the coastal line
in this part of work. For this objective the aerial photographs, 1:23000 scale and panchromatic (B/W) taken in 1973, from the Trabzon Regional Directorate of Forestry, and high resolution satellite imagery is also added the dataset. In addition to these images it is also obtained images taken in 2002, color infrared and 1:15000 scale, from General Directorate of Forestry with the aim of examining the changes for the last 30 years period. The images which are panchromatic were scanned at 800 dpi and colored ones were scanned at 1200 dpi. To monitor the changes between 2002–2005 periods, high resolution Quickbird image and aerial photos taken in 2002 were used (Figs. 3 and 4). In the photogrammetric system, priority operations were performed to evaluate digital images. The first step involved arranging the images using
Fig. 4 Detail view of the images of coastal zone of Trabzon City center
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a
b
Fig. 5 An example of defining of filled area (a) 1973–2002 period, (b) 2002–2005 period
the Many-Files-Converter module and the image pyramid was composed. After this step, the orientation process was carried out.
Following the orientation process, a digitizing process for 3D model using the Crystal Glasses for each model was performed. Thus, the desired
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399
a
b
Fig. 6 An example of defining of coastal erosion (a) 1973–2002 period, (b) 2002–2005 period
features were determined as lines in the model area. 7 models were obtained from the images dated 1973 and 11 models from the images dated
2002. In digitization process, three layers were created; namely, coastal line, road and building layers. The drawings were made in ISDM module
400 Table 3 Coastal changes detected in study area
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1973–2002 period (ha)
2002–2005 period (ha)
Total (ha)
Filling area Coastal erosion
101 11.5
60 0.7
161 12.2
and transformed the Microstation software. Features including coastal line, road and buildings were also extracted from the satellite images through digitization. The features boundary layers were transferred to CAD software with using the.dxf (data exchange format) file format. The corrections in drawings, which were converted to.dxf file, were corrected using NETCAD software. It was imposed the layers that belong to different dates and examined the changes in coastal zones and coastal lines using NETCAD software. In the study area, after having evaluated the images dated 1973 and 2002 using digital photogrammetric methods, coastal line, highway, and buildings layers were digitized separately on 3D model and related maps were obtained. The changes in the coastal line because of the filled area, coastal erosion and sand taken from sea etc. were examined from these maps. The changes between 2002 and 2005 were detected using aerial and satellite images. In addition to these, overlapping layers for 1973–2002 and 2002–2005 periods have been calculated. Some samples of the calculation of the areas gained by filling and erosion processes are given in Figs. 5 and 6.
Results and discussion Nearly 18 km length of the study area was examined and some results were obtained: the filling areas have been detected in 16 different places, and in 19 different places, coastal erosions were occurred. Changes were determined for each location. In addition, the number of the buildings was calculated separately for the time periods of 1973–2002 and 2002–2005. After the evaluation of the aerial images, dated 1973–2002, the results were obtained and used to generate map layers of coastal line, highways, buildings depicting current situation. The same
evaluation procedure was applied for the period 2002–2005. It is observed that 101 ha areas turned into land by filling the sea between 1973 and 2002. Also, 11.5 ha of coastal erosion were detected in study area between 1973 and 2002. For 2002–2005 periods, 60 ha filling areas were determined in the coastal areas. Also, 0.7 ha of coastal erosion were detected in study area between 2002 and 2005. Details are shown in Table 3. When the aerial and satellite images were examined, it was realized that these areas were mostly utilized for constructing highways, green areas, parks, and harbors. Recently, the social effects created by the university and the highway constructions have generated a huge demand on coastal areas. Filling in sea areas helped to protect against the distortion of the highway because of the sea and created new areas for the coastal needs with increased public areas. In the east Black Sea region, the dominant winds blow from north to west, causing wave movement in the same direction. Along the coastal area, substance movement is from west to east, however a construction project which is planned for coasts, affects the substance movement, so the west part of the project area gets accumulation of substance and the other parts are dogged out. As a result of this, the hydrodynamic balance is influenced and coastal erosion occurs (Yüksel and Yüksek 2003). The highway construction has been paralleled to the coast because of the fillings. The examination of the coastal line not only helped to detect coastal erosion and filling areas but also helped to see the changes in the highways by digital photogrammetry and remote sensing. According to this, it was shown that the width of the highway was 10–15 m in 1973 but extended to of 30–35 m in 2002. In 2005, some roads were stable, whereas the rest were changed or extended due to the sea-filling process (Fig. 7).
Environ Monit Assess (2009) 153:391–403 Fig. 7 The highways in 1973, 2002, and 2005
401
a
b
The aerial images dated 1973–2002 were evaluated with the digital photogrammetric technique and 3D models were obtained, transferred to
Arc/info software and built topology in this program. The number of the buildings was detected on the built topology for 1973 and 2002.
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Results show that there had been 989 buildings in 1973 and 2763 buildings in 2002 in the study area. Because there were no considerable changes on the buildings in the coastal areas for 2002–2005 periods, an evaluation has not been carried out in this context. Due to low resolution of images, the adjacent buildings were detected as a one geometric object in the phase of digitizing. When the buildings were overlapped, which are obtained from different dated images (1973 and 2002), it is realized that there is a difference in buildings about 1.5–3.0 m because of the scale difference and the different digitizing style. The reasons for this could be interpreted that the images used in this study were in different date and scale, and the errors estimated in photogrammetric evaluation and digitizing. It should be noted that the aerial images acquired in 2002 give more accurate results because of the quality of the camera and their scales.
Conclusions In this study, digital photogrammetric and remote sensing techniques have been utilized for monitoring the changes in coastal areas. Results show the effectiveness of these methods for monitoring coastal changes and producing coastal area maps. It is beneficial that the higher scale images (e.g. 1:4000 and 1:5000) should be used to produce higher accuracy and lower price results in monitoring coastal land use change and shoreline detection in the future. Today, the planning in coastal areas, slowly lost, is crucially important. Before making plans in these areas, it is important to define parameters, such as physical structure, geology and the situation of available usage of these environmentally important areas. These parameters can be easily and quickly determined using photogrammetry and remote sensing techniques. After all, digital photogrammetry and remote sensing should be used in order to determine and monitor coastal land use changes and to archive these changes. From the analysis of the accuracies presented above, the shoreline from the aerial photos and satellite imagery has the highest accuracy, so they were used as baseline for the difference analysis. The analysis was per-
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formed in raster format because it can be done more efficiently. As a result, it can be concluded that the main changes in coastal area are caused by the land filling for constructing highways.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to General Command of Mapping and General Directorate of Forestry for providing aerial images. We would like to thank Photogrammetry Lab and GisLab of Karadeniz Technical University for their support to this study. We would also like to thank Ozgur Merih Araz from Arizona State University, for his helpful comments on the manuscript and contributions.
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