Perspectives of phytoremediation using water ...

Journal of Environmental Management 163 (2015) 125e133

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Journal of Environmental Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review

Perspectives of phytoremediation using water hyacinth for removal of heavy metals, organic and inorganic pollutants in wastewater Shahabaldin Rezania a, b, Mohanadoss Ponraj c, *, Amirreza Talaiekhozani a, e, Shaza Eva Mohamad d, **, Mohd Fadhil Md Din a, b, Shazwin Mat Taib b, Farzaneh Sabbagh f, Fadzlin Md Sairan a, b a Centre for Environmental Sustainability and Water Security (IPASA), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia b Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor, Malaysia c Construction Research Center (CRC), Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovation Construction (ISIIC), Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia d Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology, UTM, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e Department of Civil Engineering, Jami Institute of Technology, Isfahan, Iran f Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Johor Bahru, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 5 May 2015 Received in revised form 13 August 2015 Accepted 14 August 2015 Available online xxx

The development of eco-friendly and efficient technologies for treating wastewater is one of the attractive research area. Phytoremediation is considered to be a possible method for the removal of pollutants present in wastewater and recognized as a better green remediation technology. Nowadays the focus is to look for a sustainable approach in developing wastewater treatment capability. Water hyacinth is one of the ancient technology that has been still used in the modern era. Although, many papers in relation to wastewater treatment using water hyacinth have been published, recently removal of organic, inorganic and heavy metal have not been reviewed extensively. The main objective of this paper is to review the possibility of using water hyacinth for the removal of pollutants present in different types of wastewater. Water hyacinth is although reported to be as one of the most problematic plants worldwide due to its uncontrollable growth in water bodies but its quest for nutrient absorption has provided way for its usage in phytoremediation, along with the combination of herbicidal control, integratated biological control and watershed management controlling nutrient supply to control its growth. Moreover as a part of solving wastewater treatment problems in urban or industrial areas using this plant, a large number of useful byproducts can be developed like animal and fish feed, power plant energy (briquette), ethanol, biogas, composting and fiber board making. In focus to the future aspects of phytoremediation, the utilization of invasive plants in pollution abatement phytotechnologies can certainly assist for their sustainable management in treating waste water. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Water hyacinth Wastewater treatment Pollutant removal Pytotechnology

Contents 1. 2. 3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Water hyacinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1. Morphology and habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Application of aquatic plants in wastewater treatment for the removal of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3.1. Removal of heavy metals using water hyacinth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.2. Removal of inorganic and organic compound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

* Corresponding author. ** Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.E. Mohamad). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.08.018 0301-4797/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

(M.

Ponraj),

[email protected]

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4. 5. 6.

S. Rezania et al. / Journal of Environmental Management 163 (2015) 125e133

Control of water hyacinth growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Future perspectives of phytotechnology/phytoremediation in pollution control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1. Introduction Eichhornia crassipes also known as water hyacinth has gained significant attention as aquatic plant which has the ability to absorb pollutants from aquatic environments with rapid proliferation. As attempts for controlling it has not been completely successful, the best management strategy is to find some usage for them (Patel, 2012). The most possible usage of water hyacinth includes making of animal fodder/fish feed (Aboud et al., 2005), biosorbent for the removal of toxic metals (Malik, 2007), production of biogas and bioethanol (Mshandete et al., 2004), compost (Szczeck, 1999), paper manufacturing (De Groote et al., 2003), also as phytoremediation agent (Sajn-Slak et al., 2005). In addition, Indian scientists have suggested many formulation of medicines using water hyacinth for treating diseases (Oudhia, 1999). Moreover, after the removal of pollutants from waste water, water hyacinth can be used for recovering some of the toxic and non-degradable materials like heavy metals (Isarankura-NaAyudhya et al., 2007). The abilities of water hyacinth such as higher growth rate, pollutant absorption efficiency, low operation cost and renewability shows that using this plant it can be considered as a suitable technology for the treatment of wastewater. Malik (2007) reported that naturally water hyacinth create serious challenges in the filed of navigation, irrigation, and power generation. Therefore, inorder to avoid these problems using of phytoremediation technology must be carried out along with the controlling of water hyacinth. Mahamadi (2011) found that some of the aquatic plants like water hyacinth can also be used for the production of biofuels. This technology to produce biofuels can overcome both environmental pollution and the depletion of energy sources worldwide. Rezania et al. (2015) have reported that dried water hyacinth can used for manufacturing briquette, which is used for co-firing in coal power plant. The main reason for releasing huge amount of wastewater into the environment is because of increase in population, urbanization and industrialization, which mainly constitutes organic matters and heavy metals (Lalevic et al., 2012). That is why a reliable technology is needed to treat wastewater before it is being released into the water bodies (Talaie et al., 2011a). Although, wastewater treatment technologies are often costly, they are not always environmental friendly (Dixit et al., 2011; Talaie et al., 2011b). Therefore, environmental friendly technologies have been gaining attention among the researchers worldwide. Many researchers have reported the application of phytoremediation techniques for treating different types of wastewater. Water hyacinth, water lettuce and vetiver grass are plants that have been used for the removal of wide range of pollutants, which includes biochemical oxygen demand, heavy metals, total suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, dissolved solids, nitrogen and phosphorous removal (Gupta et al., 2012). The different applications of water hyacinth have been illustrated in (Fig. 1). Recently, only few review papers related to wastewater treatment using water hyacinth have been published (Mahamadi, 2011; Patel, 2012; Gupta et al., 2012; Rezania et al., 2015). Mostly this review emphasize the most recent studies during the past five

years for the uptake and removal of organic, inorganic and heavy metal present in waster water using water hyacinth to make it as a suitable, inexpensive, effective and environmental friendly technology for treating wastewater. The main focus of this review is to compare how water hyacinth is effective in the removal of pollutants from waste water in comparision to other aquatic plants and to provide insight for the development and new emerging technologies of phytoremediation. 2. Water hyacinth For many centuries water hyacinth has been applied as an ornamental crop due to its attractive appearance by humans. Water hyacinth was also introduced as the invasive and free-floating aquatic macrophyte by many botanists (Gopal, 1987). It is a member of the family Pontederiaceae which is indigenous to Brazil, the Amazon basin and Ecuador region (Tellez et al., 2008). The growth of this plant on the surface of water can reduce the penetration of sunlight into the water. Sunlight is vital for many photosynthetic organisms, reducing sunlight means reducing the grow rate of photosynthetic organisms and at the same time disturbing the ecological balance (Tiwari et al., 2007). More studies are found related to water hyacinth in the tropical and subtropical regions because of its abundance in these regions. The ecology, living conditions and the applications of water hyacinth is described by (Klumpp et al., 2002). Water hyacinth has long roots which are generally suspended in water. The root structure of aquatic plants in particular water hyacinth can present suitable environment for the aerobic microorganisms to function in the sewage system. Aerobic microorganisms use the organic matter and nutrient present in the wastewater and convert them into inorganic compounds, which can be utilized by the plants (Gopal, 1987). This plant is reported to be as one of the most productive plants worldwide (Gopal, 1987). Usually, the growth of water hyacinth growth is rapid due to the absence of natural enemies or competitor in non-indigenous countries, where water hyacinth has been recently transferred (Malik, 2007). Usually, two million water hyacinths exist per each hectare of water, which is approximately equal of 270e400 tons (Kunatsa et al., 2013). Water hyacinth is frequently mentioned in literature as one of the most problematic plants in the world due to its uncontrollable growth in water bodies such as irrigation systems or open ponds. Water hyacinth can rapidly grow over 60 kg per each m2 of water surface by which it can cause critical effects on sustainable development of economy (Ganguly et al., 2012). 2.1. Morphology and habitat The mature water hyacinth comprises of stolon's, leaves, fruit clusters, long pendant roots, leaves and rhizome. The average height of water hyacinth is 40 cm. However, sometimes it can grow up to 1 m height. Water hyacinth has 6 to 10 lily-like flowers, diameter of each one is 4e7 cm. Different parts of water hyacinth such as the stems and leaves are made from air-filled tissues which allows the plant to float on water (Fig. 2).


127

Fig. 1. Different applications of water hyacinth.

Water hyacinth has the ability to tolerate drought condition and can survive in the moist sediments for months (Center et al., 2002). Four our species of water hyacinth including E. azurea, E. crassipes, E. diversifolia and E. paniculata have been discovered so far (Verma et al., 2003). Among these it is found that E. crassipes has widely invaded to Europe, Africa, Asia and North America (Fig. 3) (Shanab et al., 2010). Lake Victoria, located in Africa is one of the largest lakes in the word that is being covered with thick layer of water hyacinth (Kateregga and Sterner, 2007). The other countries to be threatened by this weed include Spain and Portugal (DellaGreca et al., 2009), along with the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh (Biswas et al., 2007). Over growth of this plant in India has caused severe siltation in the wetlands of the Kaziranga National Park and Deepor Beel lake. Jimeonez and Balandra (2007) reported that nearly 40,000 ha of water bodies are threatened by this notorious weed in Mexico. According to Chu et al. (2006) in China, invasion of water hyacinth has become a serious environmental issue. Several ecological impacts in SacramentoeSan Joaquin River Delta located in California has been reported by Khanna et al. (2011). One of the problems to eradicate water hyacinth is because of its seed, which is known to survive up to 20 years (Patel, 2012). Although, sufficient research and efforts have been made to eradicate water hyacinth, this notorious weed continues to propagate worldwide successfully. Current geographical distribution of water hyacinth in the world is shown in (Fig. 3).

Nutrient enriched waters are most favorable for the growth of water hyacinth and at the same time it can also tolerate low concentration of nutrients. The growth of water hyacinth in sea water is limited because of salinity, that is the main reason why this plant cannot be found in the coastal areas (Jafari, 2010). The growth conditions of water hyacinth are summarized in Table 1. 3. Application of aquatic plants in wastewater treatment for the removal of pollutants Wastewater is a mixture of pure water with large number of chemicals (including organic and inorganic) and heavy metals which can be produced from domestic, industrial and commercial activities, in addition to storm water, surface water and ground water (Dixit et al., 2011). Due to the danger of the entry of chemicals into wastewater it must be treated before the final disposal. Many physical, chemical and biological methods have been developed for the treatment of wastewater. It is reported that biological methods are more interesting for wastewater treatment and one of the branches of biological method for wastewater treatment is phytoremediation (Roongtanakiat et al., 2007). The concept of this method is based on the using of plants and microorganisms in the same process as to remove the pollutants from environment (Lu, 2009). Among phytoremediation techniques, artificial wetlands (AW) is known to be as the most effective technology to treat wastewater. The AWs can promote biodiversity via preparation of a

128


Fig. 2. Different parts of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). a) Leaves b) Baby plant c) Rhizome d) Flower.

Fig. 3. Current geographical distribution of water hyacinth in the world.

large habitat for a wide number of wildlife such as the reptiles, rodents, fishes and birds (Dixon et al., 2003). AWs also helps to improve air quality and prevention of climate changes by lesser production of carbon dioxide, hydrological functions and biomethylation (Azaizeh et al., 2003). Generally, AWs are described to be as environment friendly, simple, economic, effective and ecologically sound technology (Roongtanakiat et al., 2007) which require lesser land space (Lu, 2009).

It should be noted that the selection of suitable species of plants is important for the implementation of phytoremediation (De Stefani et al., 2011). The selected species must contain the following features: (1) high ability to uptake both organic and inorganic pollutants; (2) high ability to grow faster in wastewater; and (3) should be easy to control (Roongtanakiat et al., 2007). It should be also noted that the ability of pollutant removal varies from species to species, plant to plant within a genus (Singh et al.,


129

Table 1 Water hyacinth growth conditions. Factors

Range

References

Growth rate on the basis of dry weight Growth rate on the basis of surface Growth rate on the basis of plan number Water pH Water salinity Water temperature

0.04e0.08 kg dry weight/m2/day 1.012e1.077 m2/day 1610 plants can be produced from only 10 plants during 10 months 6e8 C Less than 5 mg/L 10e40 C (optimum temperature 25e27.5 C)

Gopal, 1987 Gopal, 1987 Sooknah and Wilkie, 2004 Gopal, 1987 De Casabianca et al., 1995 Wilson et al., 2000

2003). The rate of photosynthetic activity and plant growth have a key role during the implementation of phytoremediation technology for the removal of low to moderate amount of pollutants (Xia and Ma, 2006; Jamuna et al., 2009). In addition to water hyacinth, plants like Water Lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), Duckweed (Water lemna), Bulrush (Typha), Vetiver Grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides), Common Reed (Phragmites australis) have been successfully implemented for the treatment of wastewater containing different types of pollutant (Lu et al., 2010; Dipu et al., 2011; Girija et al., 2011). Water hyacinth, the most exceedingly problematic aquatic weed was discovered to be exceptionally difficult to control and eradicate the plant from the water bodies, however its ability to uptake nutreint supplements has given a conceivable route for its use in phytoremediation. In the most recent years the exploration of water hyacinth as the bioindicator for heavy metal removal present in the aquatic ecosystems have been demonstrated (Priya and Selvan, 2014). More research is expected to accomplish a more prominent productivity in the removal of contaminants or different treatment strategies of the plant and its parts which can be focused in near future. According to (Koutika and Rainey, 2015) apart from the impacts shown by Salvinia molesta and E. crassipes towards the environment and human health, water hyacinth has more advantageous impacts in terms of phytoremediation capacity, biogas generation, production of animal feed and compost. 3.1. Removal of heavy metals using water hyacinth Nowadays, human health is being threatened with the release of polluted wastewater in presence of heavy metals into the environment. Lasat (2002) has shown that plants are successful in removing the heavy metals. The use of plants as biosorbents for the removal of heavy metals is considered to be inexpensive, effective and eco-friendly technology. Phytoremediation can be considered advantageous if the plant is considered to be as solardriven pump which can concentrate and extract particular type of elements present in the polluted wastewater (Tripathy and Upadhyay, 2003). The root of the plant helps to absorb the pollutants existing in the wastewater, particularly the heavy metals and will help in improving the quality of water (Sooknah and Wilkie, 2004). Four aquatic plants namely water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), water lettuce (P. stratiotes), zebra surge (Scirpus tabernaemontani) and taro (Colocasia esculenta) were evaluated for their effectiveness in the removal of mercury from wastewater. It was found that for all the plants, root seemed to play a major role for the uptake of mercury from wastewater (Skinner et al., 2007). According to Park et al. (2019) biosorbents used for the removal of metal ions from wastewater can be divided into seven categories: (1) bacteria, (2) fungi, (3) algae, (4) industrial wastes, (5) agricultural wastes, (6) natural residues and (7) other biomaterials. Suzuki et al. (2005) have reported the use of seaweeds as the most inexpensive and accessible material that has gained a lot of attention as biosorbent. Klumpp et al. (2002) demonstrated that aquatic macrophytes with

higher growth rate such as water hyacinth can be potentially applied to remove heavy metals from wastewater. This plant recently gained attention as a possible absorbent for the treatment of wastewater polluted with heavy metals (Mahamadi and Nharingo, 2007, 2010a, 2010b). Aquatic macrophytes have greater potential to accumulate heavy metals present inside their plant bodies where, (Priya and Selvan, 2014) have mentioned water hyacinth to be as a huge potential for the removal of wide range of pollutants from wastewater. Liao and Cheng (2004) ranked the heavy metal removal rate based on the ability of water hyacinth to remove (Cu > Zn > Ni > Pb > Cd) and showed that higher and lower removal efficiency belonged to Cu and Cd, respectively. Xiaomei et al. (2004) used water hyacinth for the removal of Zn and Cd from wastewater and also measured the concentration of Cd and Zn absorbed in different parts of water hyacinth (stem, leaves, roots, flowers). It was observed for the presence of 2040 mg/kg of Cd and 9650 mg/kg of Zn accumulated in the roots of water hyacinth. According to Shaban et al. (2005) to treat one liter of wastewater contaminated with 1500 mg/L arsenic requires 30 g of dried water hyacinth root for a period of 24 h Emerhi (2011) estimated chromium (III) removal from the aqueous solution and found the removal rate to be 87.52% with 10 mg Cr/1 solution. Gupta and Balomajumder (2015) found that water hyacinth can uptake more than 99% of phenol in a single and twofold solution of Cr and Phenol (at 10 mg/ L), in 14 and 11 days individually. Padmapriya and Murugesan (2012), during their study for the removal of heavy metals in aqueous solution using water hyacinth found Langmuir and Freundlich models fitted well for the biosorption of all the metal ions. Jadia and Fulekar (2009) reported that heavy metals are uptaken by the roots of the plant, translocated to the shoots and other plant tissues, where they are concentrated and harvesting the plant can permanently remove these contaminants. Moreover valuable heavy metals can be recovered from the plants by burning and extracting the metals from the ash. The most recent studies being carried out for the removal of heavy metals using water hyacinth is listed in Table 2. 3.2. Removal of inorganic and organic compound Water hyacinth has been widely studied in the laboratory at pilot and large scale for the removal of organic matter present in the waster water in comparison to other aquatic plants (Costa et al., 2000). Although water hyacinth is known to be a persistent plant all over the world, it is being widely used as a main resource for waste management and agricultural process (Malik, 2007). Both the field and laboratory studies have shown that water hyacinth is capable of removing large number of pollutants present in the swine wastewater (Valero et al., 2007). Duckweed and water hyacinth is being considered for the treatment of dairy and pig manure based wastewater (Sooknah and Wilkie, 2004). The treated wastewater in the presence of water hyacinth for the duration of 25 days resulted in the reduction (37, 47, 54 and 33%) of solids, calcium, magnesium

130


Table 2 Recent studies on the removal of heavy metals using water hyacinth. Type of waste water

Uptake of heavy metals

Findings/Highlights

References

Wastewater from simulated wetland

(Cr), (Cu)

Lissy et al., 2011

Synthetic waste water

(Cu)

Agricultural drain, river and mixed industrial drain.

(Zn), (Cu), (Ni)

Simulated radio contaminated aqueous solution

(Cs) (Co)

Artificial lake water

(Zn), (Cu), (Pb), (Cd)

Composting wastewater

(Cd), (Zn), (Fe), (Mn), (Pb), (Ni), (Cr), (Cu)

Industrial wastewater

(Zn), (Cu), (Cd) (Cr)

Diluting stock solution in drinking water

As (V), As (III)

Hydroponic medium

(Hg)

Artificial waste water (Cd (NO3)2$4H2O in deionized water)

(Cd)

Artificial waste water (NiCl2_6H2O) was added to obtain concentrations of 1, 2, 3 and 4 mg L1

(Ni)

Almost 65% removal of heavy metals was achieved using water hyacinth. Concentration of Cu decreased as mentioned below: 5.5e2.1 mg/L ¼ (61.6% removal) 2.5 to 0.11 mg/L ¼ (95.6% removal) 1.5 to 0.04 mg/L ¼ (97.3% removal) The order of trace metal accumulation in the root tissue was found to be as Zn > Cu > Ni. The bio concentration factor for Cu, Ni and Zn present in the water hyacinth root was found to be 1344.6, 1250.0, 22,758.6 respectively. Higher removal rate of60Co (100%) in presence of60Co in waste solution obtained, where highest 137 Cs uptake value from the waste solution, near to 80% was observed with the exposure to sunlight along with the presence of60Co. Initial concentration of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd in water (500, 250, 250 and 50 lg/L) was found to decreased in the order of nPb > Cu > Cd > Zn during first day. After 8 days the removal efficiency was 8% and 24% (Cu), 11% and 26% (Pb), 24% and 50% (Cd), 18% and 57% (Zn) at pH 8 and pH 6. Total metal concentration was found to increase during the process of composting. Water soluble Cd, Pb, Ni and DTPA extractable Pb and Cd were not detected, but all of the metal concentration was observed in the TCLP test during composting. Appreciable amount of heavy metal occurred during a 15 day experiment. Maximum removal efficiency of metal was recorded during the 10th day and the leaves of water hyacinth was found to be as least accumulator in comparison to the roots. A prototype filter made from water hyacinth (20 g) was capable of removing 80% and 84% of arsenic from drinking water with the concentration of 250 and 1000 mg/L. Accumulation of mercury ion was 1.99, 1.74 and 1.39 mg/g dry weight in the root, leaf, and petiole tissues. Use of biochar pyrolyzed from water hyacinth resulted in the removal of nearly 100% Cd from the aqueous solution within 1 h at initial Cd 50 mg L1. Ni adsorption was found to be qucik during first 24 h. Higher Ni accumulation was observed in roots in comparision to aerial parts.

and total hardness. Wastewater from duck farm was treated by water hyacinth and resulted in 64%, 23% and 21% removal of COD, TP and TN (Jianbo et al., 2008). In combination of water hyacinth and duckweed for treating dairy wastewater it could remove 79% of total nitrogen and 69% of total phosphorus (Tripathy and Upadhyay, 2003). Chen et al. (2010) demonstrated that 36% of nitrogen and phosphorus could be removed from swine wastewater using water hyacinth. Also reported among the different forms of nitrogen, ammonical nitrogen (NH3eN) was found to be removed to a greater extend when compared to other forms of nitrogen. Ismail et al. (2015) showed the efficiency of water hyacinth and water lettuce for the uptake of nitrate, ortho-phosphate, nitrite and ammoniacal nitrogen. It was found that water hyacinth exhibited better performance for reducing nitrate in comparison to orthophosphate. Valipour et al. (2015) in their latest study showed that the roots of water hyacinth are primarily involved in the transportation, where the shoots resulted in the accumulation of considerable amount of nutrients (N & P) in comparison to the root area. The recent studies for the removal of pollutants using water hyacinth are summarized in Table 3. 4. Control of water hyacinth growth Many studies have shown that mechanical, chemical and biological methods can be applied to eradicate water hyacinth but all these methods are only partially successful (Shabana and Mohamed, 2005; Zhang et al., 2005). Biological control of

Mokhtar et al., 2011

Hammad, 2011

Saleh, 2012

Smolyakov, 2012

Singh and Kalamdhad, 2013

Yapoga et al., 2013

Brima and Haris, 2014

Malar et al., 2015 Zhang et al., 2015

Gonzalez et al., 2015

E. crassipes has been conducted in many parts of the world and the ways of controlling the growth of water hyacinth has been addressed by several researchers (Koutika and Rainey, 2015). Water hyacinth, the worst aquatic weed was found to be nearly impossible to eradicate from the water bodies, though its quest for nutrients has given a possible way for its use in phytoremediation. Center et al. (1999) showed that sustained herbivory of E. crassipes reduced proportionately the biomass and floral structures. A series novel self-spreading phenoxy carboxylic acid derivatives were design and synthesized, which can float on the water surface and showed excellent herbicidal activities against the water hyacinth (Zheng et al., 2015). Improved and large scale utilization of the water hyacinth species can serve as a positive approach to control, especially in the developing countries. The controlling mechanisms have had an ~a important impact in controlling the spread of E. crassipes (Güeren et al., 2015). Malik (2007), showed a remarkable approach towards the controlling and eradication of water hyacinth growth along with the combination of herbicidal control, integrated biological control and watershed management controlling nutrient supply. In-spite of these approaches still there is an extensive instability in their monetary due to the aspects of underdeveloped extraction and handling innovations. Overall, when considering the social and environmental benefits, the frameworks can possibly provided ~ a et al., 2015). Therefore, if better socio-economic returns (Güeren eradication of this notorious weed is not possible so easily, then the feasibility of using this plant as a energy resource (bioethanol,


131

Table 3 Recent studies for the removal of organic and inorganic using water hyacinth. Type of waste water

Removal of organic and inorganic

Findings/Highlights

References

Dye wastewater

Nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, (BOD), pH, hardness, (TDS), (DO), conductivity, (COD), nitrate

Shah et al., 2010

Eutrophic lake

Transparency, (TN), (NH4), (NO3), (TP), (PO4), (COD)

Metallurgical, textile and pharmaceutical waste water

(BOD), (DO), nitrate

Domestic waste water

(COD), (TN), (TP)

Polluted river water

(TDS), total hardness, sulfate, phosphate, (EC), pH, (NO2), (NO3), (TN)

Municipal waste water

(BOD), (COD), (NO3eN) (TKN), (PO3 4 eP)


pH, (COD), (PO43 ), (NO3), (NH3), (TOC), biomass growth rate

The experiment was carried using 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of waste water. A significant decrease in all of the parameters was noticed. Water hyacinth showed better efficiency with 25%e50% of waste water. Water quality improved surrounding the water hyacinth mats, also in most of the parameters the concentration was found to be decreased. Average for (BOD) ¼ 54.80%, as metallurgical > textile > pharmaceutical wastewater (DO) ¼ 62.64% as metallurgical > pharmaceutical > textile wastewater Nitrate-nitrogen ¼ 48.57% as textile > metallurgical > pharmaceutical wastewater. 80% of (COD), 75% of (TN) and 75% of (TP) reduction happened during the first week of experiment. It was found that 20% or 15 L of water reduction occurred weekly and 40% increase in the plant biomass was observed after 14 days. Significant reduction of electrical conductivity (25% decrease), total dissolved solids (TDS) (26%), sulphate (45%), phosphate (33%) and total hardness (37%) between the sample points SR1 and SR3 were obtained. Removal of parameters for mixed culture of Eichhornia crassipes and Salvinia natans: 84.5% of (BOD) 83.2% of (COD) 26.6% of (NO3eN) 53.0% of (TKN) 56.6% of (PO3 4 eP). Optimum removal rate for all the parameters was found to be between 12 and 15 days using WH. Optimum growth rate was found in 18 days with removal rate of (COD) 95%, TOC 45%, (PO43 ) 45%, (NH3) 85%. Comparison of Water hyacinth and Water morning glory showed: 37.8%e53.3% for TSS; 44.4%e53.4% for COD; 56.7% e61.4% for PO3 4 - and 26.8%e32.6% for NH4þ. Lower values belong to Water morning glory and higher values belong to water hyacinth. Water hyacinth þ papaya stem resulted in the removal rate: (67%) reduction in ammonia, (74%) nitrate removal and (71%) phosphate COD reduction: (79%), BOD removal: (86%), TN: (76.61%), TP: (44.84%), TSS: (73.02%), PO4eP: (38.69%), NH3eN: (72.48%) at HRT of 14 h was achieved.


3 (TSS), (COD), (NHþ 4 ), (PO4 )

Domestic sewage water

Ammonia, Nitrate, phosphate


(COD), (BOD), (TN), (TP), (TSS), (PO4eP), (NH3eN)

biogas, briquette) should be aimed by the researchers.

5. Future perspectives of phytotechnology/phytoremediation in pollution control Phytoremediation is a moderately late innovation and is seen as practical, proficient, novel, eco-friendly technology, still in its initial improvement stages and full scale applications are still constrained. Numerous plants like Eichhornia crassipes have been reported to be as a particulate contamination phytoremediator (Rai and Panda, 2014). In this manner, the usage of intrusive plants in pollutant reduction phytotechnologies may help with their practical application (Rai, 2015). Also, the utilization of water hyacinth in wastewater treatment frameworks has been progressively reported and treatment regimens are created as a consequence of the lasted development in relation to the approach towards phytoremediation (Priya and Selvan, 2014). The presence of arsenic in drinking water is a noteworthy wellbeing concern in numerous nations worldwide with a huge number of individuals already being affected. Although various aquatic plants have been indicated for the arsenic uptake and recommended for arsenic phytoremediation, the administration, transfer and disposal of these phytoremediating aquatic macrophytes is a noteworthy concern towards the effective usage of phytoremediation innovation as there is an urgent requirement for creating cheaper systems taking

Wang et al., 2012

Ajayi and Ogunbayio, 2012

Rezania et al., 2013

Moyo et al., 2013

Kumari and Tripathi, 2014

Rezania et al., 2014

Loan et al., 2014

Anandha Varun and Kalpana, 2015 Valipour et al., 2015

into account the accessible materials, for the removal of Arsenic from drinking water (Raju et al., 2015). Meanwhile it is imperative that clear vision about this innovation needs to be considered and the precise data obtained should be made accessible to all the public as to improve its adequacy as a worldwide manageable innovative technology. In addition, phytoremediation has been considered to be an eco-friendly “green” and low-tech distinct option for more dynamic and remedial techniques (Jadia and Fulekar, 2009). As described by Ali et al. (2013) this innovative technology additionally needs lower energy resources, moreover its a natural one and does not require power or other kind of vitality. Disregarding the numerous difficulties, phytoremediation is seen as a green remediation technology with a greater potential. The execution of more research and innovation is needed for this technology to advance and promote in the developing countries due to its lower cost and feasibility.

6. conclusion This paper has shown the different possibilities of using water hyacinth for the removal of pollutants present in waste water. Water hyacinth is found to be suitable for controlling the urban and different types of waste water coming from the industry. It is also demonstrated that among the aquatic plants, water hyacinth is a decent and viable possibility for nutrient uptake and improving the

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water quality. Water hyacinth can cause economic, environmental disaster and is difficult to control. However, with the innovative use of phtotechnology, it can be a viable tool for numerous purposes like power generation, food security and for the environmental remediation The comparison of the current phytotechnology frameworks and phyto-remediation utilizing water hyacinth, it can be recommended that utilizing water hyacinth as a part of waste water treatment systems has more noteworthy and exceptional effect on the environment by up-taking CO2 from the atmosphere, at the same time gathering supplement for the plant. Likewise as in terms of expense, it is less expensive than different advanced technologies which needs more cost to work for the evacuation of pollutants from the wastewater. This methodology will positively help for going towards the advancement of a few new phytotechnologies for using water hyacinth to treat waste water in future. Acknowledgment The authors would like to acknowledge the support received from the JSPS Asian core program (ACP) governance group, Flagship Grant (Q.Ji30000.2517.10H25), GUP Grant (Q.ji30000.2409.02G41), COE Flagship Grant (Q.J130000.2422.02G75) received support from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The authors also would like to thank Prof. Kenzo Iwao, National Institute of Technology (NIT), Japan for his valuable comments to improve the manuscript. References Aboud, A.A.O., Kidunda, R.S., Osarya, J., 2005. Potential of water hyacinth (Eicchornia crassipes) in ruminant nutrition in Tanzania. Livest. Res. Rural. Dev. 17. Online at: http://www.lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd17/8/abou17096.htm. Ajayi, T.O., Ogunbayio, A.O., 2012. Achieving environmental sustainability in wastewater treatment by phytoremediation with water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). J. Sust. Develop. 5, 80e90. Akinbile, C.O., Yusoff, M.S., 2012. Assessing water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassopes) and lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) effectiveness in aquaculture waste water treatment. Int. J. Phytorem. 14, 201e211. Ali, H., Khan, E., Sajad, M.A., 2013. Phytoremediation of heavy metals-concepts and applications. Chemosphere 91, 869e881. Anandha Varun, R., Kalpana, S., 2015. Performance analysis of nutrient removal in pond water using water Hyacinth and Azolla with papaya stem. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 2, 444e448. Azaizeh, H., Salhani, N., Sebesvari, Z., Emons, H., 2003. The potential of rhizosphere microbes isolated from a constructed wetland to biomethylate selenium. J. Environ. Qual. 32, 55e62. Biswas, S.R., Choudhury, J.K., Nishat, A., Rahman, M.M., 2007. Do invasive plants threaten the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh? For. Ecol. Manag. 245, 1e9. Brima, E.I., Haris, P.I., 2014. Arsenic removal from drinking water using different biomaterials and evaluation of a phytotechnology based filter. Int. Res. J. Environ. Sci. 3, 39e44. Center, T.D., Dray Jr., F.A., Jubinsky, G.P., Grodowitz, M.J., 1999. Biological control of water hyacinth under conditions of maintenance management: can herbicides and insects be integrated? Environ. Manage 23, 241e256. Center, T.D., Hill, M.P., Cordo, H., Julien, M.H., 2002. Water hyacinth. In: Van Driesche, R., et al. (Eds.), Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, 4. USDA Forest Service Publication FHTET, Washington, DC, pp. 41e64. Chen, X., Chen, X., Wan, X., Weng, B., Huang, Q., 2010. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) waste as an adsorbent for phosphorus removal from swine wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 101, 9025e9030. Chu, J.J., Ding, Y., Zhuang, Q.J., 2006. Invasion and control of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in China. J. Zhejiang. Univ. Sci. B 7, 623e626. Costa, R.H.R., Bavaresco, A.S.L., Medri, W., Philippi, L.S., 2000. Tertiary treatment of piggery wastes in water hyacinth ponds. Water Sci. Technol. 4, 211e214. De Casabianca, M., Laugier, T., Posada, F., 1995. Petroliferous wastewaters treatment with water hyacinths (Raffinerie de Provence, France): experimental statement. Waste. Manage 15, 651e655. De Groote, H., Ajuonu, O., Attignon, S., Djessou, R., Neuenschwander, P., 2003. Economic impact of biological control of water hyacinth in Southern Benin. Ecol. Econ. 45, 105e117. DellaGreca, M., Previtera, L., Zarrelli, A., 2009. Structures of new phenylphenalenerelated compounds from Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth). Tetrahedron 65, 8206e8208. De Stefani, G., Tocchetto, D., Salvato, M., Borin, M., 2011. Performance of a floating treatment wetland for in-stream water amelioration in NE Italy. Hydrobiologia

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