Predicting Behavior of Coal Ignition in Oxy-fuel ... - Science Direct

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Energy Procedia 37 (2013) 1423 – 1434

GHGT-11

Predicting behavior of coal ignition in oxy-fuel combustion Cahyadi, Adi Surjosatyo, Yulianto S. Nugroho Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Indonesia Depok 16424 Indonesia

Abstract In oxy-fuel combustion technology, the coal is burned in a mixture of pure oxygen and recycled flue gas with high content of CO2 gas. Burning the coal in oxy-fuel combustion with O2 and CO2 environment will affect the combustion performance compare with air (O2/N / 2) environment. Based on previous researches indicated that oxygen concentration is required to be increased, so that the combustion behaviour similar as in air environment. This paper describes the characteristics of coal ignition and combustion in oxy-fuel combustion applying the nonisothermal thermogravimetric analysis. Experimental results find out the activation energy of three different coal ranks in O2/N / 2 and O2/CO2 environment. Temperature of coal sample and inert reference material can simultaneously measured in TG-DTA. Based on activation energy and TG-DTA data, predicted coal particle ignition temperature can be calculated and then validated. The result is successfully applied both in air and O2/CO2 environment. In comparison to the conventional combustion, thermogravimetric curves of coal combustion in O 2/CO2 tend towards higher temperature zone. The species in flue gas during burning test in TGA were determined and analyzed using the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Compared with pulverized coal combustion in O 2/N2 environment, much more CO is produced in O2/CO2 coal combustion process. Refer to two film model, the delay in oxy-fuel combustion may be caused by the incoming O2 unbalance with much CO gas, and this can be solved with increasing O2 concentration in O2/CO2 environment. © Authors.Published Publishedby byElsevier ElsevierLtd. Ltd. © 2013 2013 The Authors. Selection peer-reviewunder underresponsibility responsibility GHGT Selection and/or peer-review ofof GHGT

Keywords: oxy-fuel combustion; coal combustion; coal ignition, kinetics; activation energy

1. Introduction Oxy-fuel combustion is one of promising clean coal technologies with capturing CO2 emission from power plant. In oxy-fuel combustion technology, the coal is burned in a mixture of pure oxygen and

1876-6102 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of GHGT doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2013.06.018

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Nomenclature conversion fraction heating rate in TGA A

pre-exponential factor

E

activation energy, kJ/mol

R

gas constants, 8.31 J/mole.K

Tin, Tb, Tmax

temperature of initial, burnt out, and peak combustion rate, oC

Ts, Tg, Tgi

temperature of particle, gas, gas at particle ignition, oC

thermal conductivity of gas, J/m2sec K/m d

diameter of coal particle, m

hc

heat of reaction, J/kg

ko

reaction frequency factor, kg/sec m2

po

ambient surface oxygen concentration (partial pressure)

recycled flue gas with high content of CO2 gas. Recycled flue gas is required for replacing volume of N2 missing and controlling the flame temperature. Oxy-fuel combustion technology in coal fired power plant has been discussed and reviewed by some references [1,2,3]. Fig. 1 shows the general flow sheet for oxyfuel combustion in coal power generation. Combustion characteristics, pollutant emission performance, and heat transfer behavior in oxy-fuel combustion are all considerably different from those in conventional combustion because of the differences of gas atmosphere. N2 Air Supply Coal Supply

O2 gas

Air Separation Unit

Boiler Coal Pulverizer & Supply

Condenser

Wet FGR

Gas Clean-up

CO2 Gas To Storage

Dry FGR

Sec. air Pri. air Fig. 1. General flow sheet for oxy-fuel combustion in coal power generation

Coal particle ignition is an initial stage for combustion process. Coal particle ignition in air environment has been discussed by previous researchers and mechanism of ignition of coal particles has classified ignition into three types [4,5,6,7,8]: (1) homogeneous ignition, or the ignition of the volatile matter released from coal; (2) heterogeneous ignition, or the ignition of the coal particle surface; and (3) hetero-homogeneous ignition, which results from simultaneous ignition of the coal particle surface. The coal quality increases from lignite through bituminous coal to anthracite, ignition type changes from the homogeneous through the hetero-homogeneous to heterogeneous ignition.

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Coal particle ignition in a mixture of O2 and recycled flue gas become interested topic, because limited research has been done in this area. Wang et al. [9] indicated that coal combustion in the mixture of 30% O2/70% CO2 displays no difference with in air environment using TG/DTG. Liu et al. [10] reported that simply replacing N2 with CO2 would result in a significant decrease of combustion gas temperature. However, coal combustion in 30% O2/70% CO2 can produce matching gas temperature profiles to those of coal combustion in air based on study in 20 kW down fired combustor. Qiao et al [11] observed that average particle temperature increases when combustion air is replaced by a mixture of O2/CO2 in a wire mesh reactor. Li et al. [12] also indicated that coal combustion process in the O2/CO2 mixture is obviously different from that in O2/N2 mixture at the same oxygen concentration during non-isothermal thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) experiments. In O2/CO2 mixture, the mass loss rate of coal sample is always lower than that in O2/N2 environments which implicate the change of coal combustion characteristics due to the presence of high concentration CO2. Selcuk and Yuzbasi [13] found out that combustion in O2/CO2 mixture is delayed to a small extent compared with in air environment. Kiga et al. [14] observed that the flame propagation speed in O2/CO2 atmosphere was markedly low compared with those in both O2/N2 and O2/Ar, and combustion characteristics could be improved by increasing the O 2 concentration. Khatami et al. [15] using DTF reported ignition time delay with three different coal ranks in O2/CO2 environment and observed visually the ignition time delay by high speed camera. Rathnam et al. [16] argued that the TGA experiments in O2/N2 and O2/CO2 showed no difference in reactivity at the oxygen concentration above 5%. Meanwhile, the char under oxy-fuel environments revealed higher reactivity at high temperature and low O2 concentration. Non-isothermal thermo-gravimetric analyses (TGA) together with differential thermal analysis (DTA) or differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) technique is a rapid method and inexpensive method that have been widely used in studying the pyrolysis and combustion characteristic of coal by analysing the burning profile [9,12,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Many investigators on TG-DTA/DSC analysis of lignite, bituminous and anthracite coals performed under different experimental conditions. Results show that the thermal behaviour of coals depends on experimental conditions such as particle size, sample amount, heating rate and gas flow rate. Kok [19] carried out coal combustion experiments in air atmosphere up to 600°C at a heating rate of 10°C/min by using DSC and calculated the kinetic parameters beneficiation from Arrhenius and Coats Redfern plots. Elbeyli et al. [17] investigated pyrolysis, combustion and kinetics parameters of Turkish lignite under non-isothermal condition by using TG-DCS methods. Chen et al. [20] investigated the ignition mechanisms of lignite, bituminous and anthracite coal by TG-DTA. Predicting behavior of O2/CO2 environment on the coal particle ignition and burnout is important for developing a retrofit technology applicable to existing boilers switching from air environment to O2/CO2 environment. To observe these issues, some fundamental works were conducted to study the effects of the presence of high concentration CO2 and enhanced O2 levels on the ignition, burnout and gaseous product emission of pulverized coal with thermo-gravimetric and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy coupled technology (TG-FTIR). 2. Experimental 2.1. Materials Three different coal samples of lignite SP coal, sub-bituminous AR coal and bituminous IM coal were used in this research. The raw coal sample was crushed and pulverized firstly using a bench-scale mill in the laboratory and then sieved on the screen vibrator. The coal is sieved become 44-74 —m, 74-149 —m and 149-250 —m. The proximate and ultimate analyses of sample are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Properties of the coal samples.

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Proximate Analysis (adb) in % Coal

IM coal AR coal

C

H

N

S

O

50.46 61.18 53.17

3.91 4.41 4.03

0.18 1.07 1.24

0.32 0.81 0.12

18.42 14.91 18.55

Proximate Analysis (adb) in % Fixed Carbon 33.6 44.10 34.0

Volatile Matter 39.5 38.29 43.1

Hv (adb)

Ash

Moisture

MJ/kg

16.8 5.8 2.13

10.1 11.8 20.7

20,545 26,110 21,872

2.2. Apparatus and procedure The TG-DTG method has been done by previous research for investigating coal pyrolysis and combustion [9,12,13,17,18]. In the present work, a thermo-gravimetric analyzer (TGA) was used to determine the combustion profiles of pulverized coal The thermal analyzer (Shimadzu DTG-60H) capable of simultaneous determination of TG, DTG and DTA profiles was used to perform loss weight and thermal analyses. Experimental conditions have been constrained to permit direct comparisons of different samples and to ensure repeatability. During the burning tests, approximately 15 mg of pulverized coal sample was heated at a heating rate of 20 °C/min from room temperature to 1000 °C in air environment and 21%O2/79%CO2 environment for combustion tests. The gas flow rate was kept at 50 ml/min. In order to verify the influence of heating rate and particle size, the non-isothermal tests runs proceeded at heating rates of 10, 20 and 30 °C/min. The TG-FTIR method has been done by previous research for investigating coal pyrolisis and combustion [2, 3]. In the present work, a thermo-gravimetric analyzer (TGA) was used to determine the combustion profiles of pulverized coal, which was coupled with a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer for the analysis of evolved gases. The TGA-FTIR system is schematically shown in Fig. 1. Evolved gas Sample heater controller & Computer Flow indicator d l Gas to gas cylinder TGA-DTA Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the TGA-DTA coupled with FTIR system.

2.3 The Mathematical Model of Coal Ignition Cassel and Liebman [23], Essenhigh [6] develop a mathematical model of ignition is based on a variant of the Semenov analysis. Ignition model involves heat generation and heat loss. Heat generation is mainly as a function of kinetic reaction of coal particle and heat loss as function of thermal conductivity of gas surrounding the coal particle and particle size. Ignition occurs when heat generation increases higher than heat loss or QG,L curves on the QT plane are tangent to each other.

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QG = kopo"hc exp(-E/RT) QL = 2( /d) (Ts- Tg)

(1) (2)

Detailed formulation can be seen in the reference, and at the last, the ignition temperature can be calculated from knowing E and measuring Tgi with equation as follows: i

= RTi/E = [1 - (1 - 4RT g,i/E)1/2]/2

Ti must lie between limits: Tg,i

Ti

(3)

2Tg i; and for large E, the difference (Ti

Tg,i ) ~ (RTgi~e/E).

2.4. Kinetic analysis method In this study, kinetic analysis using TG-DTG is used to predict ignition temperature. Non-isothermal kinetic study for coal combustion is quite complex and involves a series of chemical and physical processes. Kinetic analysis of TG-DTG data based on Arrhernius theory was used in this study. Differential method and integral method are two main methods to determine the apparent activation energy and pre-exponential factor. Coats Redfern integral method is used widely to analyze the kinetic parameters of the non-isothermal combustion process was adopted in the present investigation. In Arrhenius method, since the measured rate of mass loss accounts for gross changes in the system, the reaction model assumes that the rate of mass loss of the total sample is dependent only on the rate constant, the mass of sample remaining and the temperature [9,17,18,22]. d dt

ko e

. f ( ). f ( PO 2 )

(4)

)n

(5)

E /( RT )

f ( ) (1

where f(PO2) is the function related to the partial pressure of oxygen, and assumed to be constant during burning in TG-DTA. 4) can be changed becomes: d f( )

A

.e

E /( RT )

(6)

dT

where A is the apparent pre-exponential factor.

Coats and Redfern equation can be derived from Eq.(5) become the final form of the equation, which is used for the analysis as follows [9,18, 22]: ln

1 (1 )1 n T 2 (1 n)

ln

2 RT AR 1 aE E

E RT

(7)

if n=1, ln

ln(1 T2

)

vs

1 T

(8)

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Kinetic parameters can be obtained by first-order reaction assumption, using the Coats Redfern equation above to calculate the apparent activation energy E and pre-exponential factor A. Thus a plot of E/R for the first-order ln|ln(1-a)/T2| versus 1/T kinetics. Therefore the data in Coats Redfern kinetic analysis were obtained by taking the reaction order as unity. 3. Results and discussions 3.1. Behaviour coal combustion in air environment and 21%O2/79%CO2 environment using TG-DTA method. In Fig. 3 show TGA and DTA curve for four different combustion environments in air; 21O 2/79CO2 ; 30O2/70%CO2 and 40O2/60%CO2 environment. The burning process of pulverized coal in O2/CO2 environment was relative similar until burning the volatile matter and then combustion was delayed in burning the char compared with that in O2/N2 environment at the same oxygen concentration. In case of increasing the oxygen concentration in coal combustion, the DTA curve indicated significantly increase, combustion rate was also increases and then burnout time was shortened. It means that the coal combustibility was improved by elevated oxygen contents to reach that in air combustion. TG and DTA curves move towards to low temperature zone considerably as the oxygen concentration increase from 21% to 40%. The increase of oxygen concentration can significantly improve on the coal particle combustion. This result is consistent with other previous research [9,10,11,12,13]. Table 2 show the characteristic parameter of AR coal in different environments. At the same oxygen concentration, the burnout temperature Tb and peak temperature Tmax in oxy-fuel combustion increase significantly, with ignition temperature Tin only increasing slightly. Experimental results also indicate that the peak reaction rate (dm/dt)max, average combustion rate (dm/dt)mean, and heat release per coal sample in O2/CO2 are all less than those in O2/N2. In comparison to conventional combustion, oxy-fuel combustion may lower both gas and coal particle temperatures, mainly resulting from the higher specific heat of CO 2 than that of N2. Consequently, the reduced coal particle temperature would lead to increased combustion time in O2/CO2 environments [17,18]. The diffusivity of O2 in CO2 is lower than that in N2, which relatively worsens the transport of O2 from the bulk gas mixture to the coal particle surface. It may also reduce the coal combustion rate in oxy-fuel environments. Table 2. TG analysis of sub-bituminous AR coal in different environments Parameter

21%O2/79%CO2

21%O2/79%N2

30%O2/70%CO2

40%O2/60%CO2

dm/dt (max)

3.816

4.761

5.370

12.021

dm/dt (mean)

0.116

0.044

0.102

0.236

Tin

270.7

268.5

275.4

273.5

T burnt out

948.1

754.1

663.4

638.9

T max

395.1

401.4

408.8

401.4

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Fig. 3. (a) TGA curve of sub-bit AR coal in three different combustion environments; (b) DTA curves of three different combustion environments.

3.2. Pulverized coal ignition temperature determined by TG-DTA method TG-DTA uses two different temperature sensors for reference material and coal sample. Difference temperature is shown as in uV. Reference material using Al2O3 as inert material and can be referred as hot air temperature in furnace. Coal sample temperature can monitored with uV curve. The sensor is

Fig 4. (a) Coal particle ignition and gas temperature of lignite SP coal and (b) sub-bit AR coal

Fig. 4 (c) Coal particle ignition and gas temperature of bituminous IM coal

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thermocouple of platinum plus 10% platinum/rhodium. Fig. 4 shows three different size of each coal rank. Three sizes of coal sample in this study were 44-74 um, 74-149 um, 149-250 um. The increase of coal particle size indicates the decrease coal particle ignition temperature. Previous research [4,23,24] reported the same phenomenon using drop tube furnace and [17,18] in TGA. Ignition temperature of lignite coal was lower than other sub-bituminous and bituminous coal. Based on Chen et al. [20], who have identified coal ignition mechanism using TG-DTA, lignite SP coal can be classified as homogeneous ignition and sub-bituminous AR coal and bituminous IM coal were as hetero-homogeneous ignition. This ignition mechanism was not change in O2/CO2 environment.

3.3 Kinetic analysis result Decomposing fraction ( ) at any time in combustion was determined based on TG and DTA curve then used in calculation of kinetic parameters. Kinetic calculations for combustion were evaluated for earlier stage in combustion. The main temperature range of 300-400°C was always taken into account in the calculations, and a correlation coefficient (R2) was obtained. The non-isothermal kinetic study of mass loss during combustion was performed by using TG data. The calculation of kinetic data is based on Coats Redfern method [9,18,22]. In the calculation, Eq. (8), the value of n was 1, and to get a straight line with a highest correlation coefficient. The values of E and A were then calculated from the slope and the intercept of the line, respectively. Regression analysis was performed in the estimation of n, E and A. Table 3 shows the result of activation energy in air and O2/CO2 environment. The activation energy of Indonesian coal is reasonable compare with other researcher [19, 25]. Table 3. The result of activation energy calculation Process Lignite SP coal Subbit AR coal Bit. IM coal Lignite SP coal Subbit AR coal Bit. IM coal

Environment 21O2/79 N2 21O2/79 N2 21O2/79 N2 21O2/79 CO2 21O2/79 CO2 21O2/79 CO2

Activation energy, kJ/mol 48.8 79.7 98.9 49.5 81.0 100.1

R2 coefficient 0.9966 0.9936 0.9930 0.9950 0.9936 0.9940

Based on activation energy and temperature gas ignition, coal particle ignition temperature can be calculated with eq.3. Fig. 5 (a), (b) and (c) shows prediction coal particle ignition temperature for all three coal ranks and three coal sizes on each rank. The result of prediction ignition temperature was validated with coal sample temperature measurement in TG-DTA. Based on this study, TG-DTA can be useful for determining activation energy in order to calculate coal particle ignition temperature in air and O2/CO2 environment. Predicted ignition temperature in all three coal ranks indicated higher about 30oC compare with measurement result of coal sample temperature.

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Fig. 5 (a) Prediction coal particle ignition temperature for lignite SP coal and (b) sub-bit AR coal

Fig. 5 (c) Prediction coal particle ignition temperature for bit IM coal

3.4. FTIR analysis of evolved gas during coal combustion in O2/CO2 environment TG-FTIR coupled is used for the analysis of various inorganic or organic compounds from the pyrolysis and combustion of pulverized coal. Three different combustion atmospheres in air (21%O2/79%N2) environment, 21O2/79CO2 environment and 40O2/60%CO2 environment was studied. The gaseous species evolved from sub-bituminous AR coal in O2/CO2 atmospheres was similar and dominating with CO2 gas.

21%O2/79%N2

21%O2/79%N2

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21%O2/79%CO2

40%O2/60%CO2

21%O2/79%CO2

40%O2/60%CO2

Fig. 6. FTIR spectra of gaseous combustion compounds at Ti and Tb temperatures of sub-bituminous AR coal in various combustion conditions.

The coal decomposition at the temperature of 300oC, the major gaseous compounds evolved were H2O (3728 and 1595.0 cm 1) and CO2 (2380 and 678 cm 1), and CO (2000 2250 cm 1) absorbed by coal samples. When temperature increases from ignition point of the coal to burnout temperature, evolved gas of CO, CO2 and H2O will sharp releases for the devolatilization and burning of volatile matter and char particles. Small amounts of SO2 (1361.0 cm 1) and NO (1875.9 cm 1) was also detected. Based on FTIR spectra comparison in Fig. 6, the evolved gas from the pulverized coal combustion in O2/CO2 environment are quite different from those in O2/N2 environment. Much more CO is produced in O2/CO2 coal combustion process due to gasification of the char by CO 2 compare with those released in O2/N2 environment. This result is also consistent with references [12,13]. Based on two film model [26], a flame sheet lies at some distance from the surface, where the CO produced from carbon and CO 2 gas reaction at the surface reacts with incoming O2. Ignition delay in O2/CO2 environment may caused by the insufficient O2 gas react with much CO gas especially at ignition phase in O2/CO2 environment. In this study, increasing O2 concentration until 30% has made much CO gas and incoming O2 reaction in balance at the flame sheet reaction, so that the coal combustion performance was similar within O2/N2 environment.

4. Conclusion Three different coal ranks of Indonesian coal were determined by TG-DTA-FTIR thermal analysis methods and kinetic analysis of thermo-gravimetric (TG) data was carried out by using Coats Redfern kinetic model at non-isothermal conditions. This paper describes the characteristics of coal ignition and combustion in oxy-fuel combustion applying the non-isothermal thermogravimetric analysis. Experimental results found out the activation energy of three different coal ranks in O2/N2 and O2/CO2 environment. Temperature of coal sample and inert reference material can simultaneously measured in TG-DTA. Based on activation energy and TGDTA data, predicted coal particle ignition temperature can be calculated and then validated. The result is successfully applied both in air and O2/CO2 environment. Predicted ignition temperature in all three coal ranks indicated higher about 30oC compare with measurement result of coal sample temperature. In comparison to the conventional combustion, thermogravimetric curves of coal combustion in O2/CO2 tend towards higher temperature zone. The increase of O2 concentration until 30%O2/70%CO2 can make the combustion performance similar with in air environment.

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The species in flue gas during burning test in TGA were determined and analyzed using the Fouriertransform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Compared with pulverized coal combustion in O 2/N2 environment, much more CO is produced in O2/CO2 coal combustion process. Refer to two film model, the delay in oxy-fuel combustion may be caused by the incoming O2 unbalance with much CO gas, and this can be solved with increasing O2 concentration in O2/CO2 environment. Acknowledgements This research was fully supported by the facility of Fossil Fuel Laboratory in Energy Technology Center, Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, Kawasan Puspiptek, Indonesia. References [1] Buhre B., Elliott LK., Sheng, R.P. Gupta, Wall T.F. Oxy-fuel combustion technology for coal-fired power generation; Progress in Energy and Combustion Science; Vol.31 2005; p.283 307. [2] Wall T, Liu Y, Spero C, Elliott L, Khare S, Rathnam R.. An overview on oxy-fuel coal combustion state of the art research and technology development; Chem Eng Res. 2009, 87(8):1003 16. [3] Toftegaard MB, Brix J, Jensen PA, Glarborg P, Jensen AD. Oxy-fuel combustion of solid fuels; Prog Energy Combust Sci 2010;36(5):581 625. [4] Essenhigh R.H., Misra M.K, Shaw, D.W. Ignition of Coal Particle: A Review; Journal of Combustion and Flame. Vol. 77. 1989 p 3-30. [5] Gururajan, N., Wall, T.F., Gupta, R.P, Truelove J.S., Mechanisms for the Ignition of Pulverized Coal Particles; Journal of Combustion and Flame, Vo. 81, 1990. p119-132. [6] Annamalai K, Durbetaki P, A theory on transition of ignition phase of coal particle; Combustion and flame Vol.29, 1977, p. 193-208 [7] Bandyopadhyay S, Bhaduri D, Prediction of ignition temperature of a single coal particle; Combustion and flame,Vol. 18,p.411-415. [8] Zhang D k, Wall TF, Ignition of coal particles: influence of experimental technique; Fuel. Vol. 73, 1994, p.1114-1119. [9] Wang C., Zhang X., Liu Y., Che D. Pyrolysis and combustion characteristics of coals in oxy-fuel combustion; Applied Energy, Elsevier, 2012. [10] Liu H, Zailani R., Gibbs B.M . Comparisons of pulverized coal combustion in air and in mixtures of O2/CO2; Fuel Vo.84, 2005, p.833-840. [11] Qiao Y., Zhang L., Binner E., Xu M., Zhu-li C.. An investigation of the difference in coal particle ignition temperature between combustion in air and in O2/CO2; Fuel Vol. 89, 2010; p.3381-3387. [12] Li Q., Zhao C. Comparison of pulverized coal combustion in air and O2/CO2 mixture by themo-gravimetric analysis; Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. Vol. 85. 2009; p 521-528. [13] Selcuk N, Yuzbasi N.S., Combustion behavior of Turkish lignite in O2/N2 and O2/CO2 mixture by using TGA-FTIR; Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis. Vol. 90. 2011. p133-139. [14] Kiga T, Takano S, Kimura N, Omata K, Okawa M, Mori T, et al. Characteristics of pulverized-coal combustion in the system of oxygen/recycled flue gas combustion; Energy Conversion Management 1997;38(Suppl. 1):129 34. [15] Khatami R, Stivers C, Levendis Y, Ignition characteristics of single coal particles from three different ranks in O2/N2 and O2/CO2 atmospheres; Combustion and Flame, 2012. [16] Rantham R.K., Elliot L.K., Wall T.F., Liu Y., Mogtaderi B., Fuel Processing Technology Vol.90, 2009, p. 797-802. [17] Elbeyli I.Y., Piskin S. Combustion and pyrolysis characteristics of Tuncbilek lignite; Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Vol.83, 2006. p.721 726 [18] Kok M.V. An investigation into the thermal behaviour of coals; Energy Sources 2002;24(10):899 906.

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